CHANNEL
SIMULATION
CALM REFLECTIONS
INCLUSIVE GROWTH
MY TIME, MY WORLD
INCLUSIVE GROWTH Enlarged 2 ED
Co-authored
UNDERWATER CHANNEL SIMULATION
STEGANOGRAPHY USING VISUAL CRYPTOGRAPHY
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
25
CHAPTER 4
28
CHAPTER 5
41
REFERENCES
INDEX
43
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The need for underwater wireless communications exists in applications such as
remote control in off-shore oil industry, pollution monitoring in environmental systems,
collection of scientific data recorded at ocean-bottom stations, speech transmission
between divers, and mapping of the ocean floor for detection of objects, as well as for the
discovery of new resources. Wireless underwater communications can be established by
transmission of acoustic waves.
Underwater communications, which once were exclusively military, are extending into
commercial fields. The possibility to maintain signal transmission, but eliminate physical
connection of tethers, enables gathering of data from submerged instruments without
human intervention, and unobstructed operation of unmanned or autonomous underwater
vehicles (UUVs , AUVs).
Underwater communications in general mainly gets affected due to
Channel Variations
Channel variations are variations in: - Temperature - Salinity of water - pH of water Depth of water column or pressure and - Surface/bottom roughness.
Multipath Propagation The channel can be considered as a wave guide and due to the
reflections at surface and bottom we have the consequence of multipath propagation of
the signal.
Attenuation Acoustic energy is partly transformed into heat and lost due to sound
scattering by inhomogeneities.
Doppler Shift - Due to the movement of the water surface, the ray getting reflected from
surface can be seen as a ray actually getting transmitted from a moving transmitter, and
thereby, having Doppler shift in the received. When the receiver and transmitter are
moving with respect to each other, the emitted signal will either be compressed or
expanded at the receiver. Thereby, Doppler effect is observed.
Channel variations and multipath propagation keep a lot of hurdles for the achievement
of high data rates and robust communication links. Moreover, the increasing absorption
towards higher frequencies limits the usable bandwidth typically to only a few kHz at
large distances.
The channel has been modeled by considering multipath propagation, surface and bottom
reflection coefficients. In order to achieve high data rates it is natural to employ
bandwidth efficient modulation. In our case Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK,
which is equivalent to 4-QAM) modulation techniques have been used for transmitter and
receiver.
A random bit generator is employed as the bit source. The transmitter converts the bits
into QPSK symbols and the output from transmitter is fed into Underwater Acoustic
Channel. The receiver block takes the output from the channel, estimates timing and
phase offset, and demodulates the received QPSK symbols into information bits.
The QPSK modulation technique is extensively being used in several applications like
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) cellular service, wireless local loop, Iridium (a
voice/data satellite system) and DVB-S (Digital Video Broadcasting-Satellite). In our
case the idea of receiver design has been taken from these applications.
We have considered in depth the channel variations and multipath propagation as our
investigation. Thus we present a reliable simulation environment for underwater acoustic
communication applications (reducing the need of sea trails) that models the sound
channel by incorporating multipath propagation, surface and bottom reflection
coefficients,
attenuation,
spreading
and
scattering
losses
as
well
as
the
Keying (QPSK)
modulation techniques.
To express the quality of the simulation tool various simulation results for exemplary
scenes are presented. In the following, chapters 2 and 3 describe completely about
underwater acoustic channel, its variations and effects, the multipath propagation
phenomenon, the channel design, etc. Chapters 4 and 5 present a detailed description
about the QPSK modulation techniques used in this, and the complete communication
part of the system.
CHAPTER 2
THEORY AND FUNDAMENTALS
Sound velocity varies with temperature, salinity and depth. The impact of temperature
and pressure upon the sound velocity, c is shown in Fig. 2. This can be viewed in three
domains. In the first domain, temperature is the dominating factor upon the velocity of
sound. In the second domain or transition domain, both the temperature and depths are
dominating upon the velocity of sound. In the third domain, sound velocity purely
depends on depths. These three domains can be seen in Fig. 2, first domain is till depths
of 200 m, transition domain is from 200-400 m and the third domain is above 400 m.
Waveguide propagation can be observed in the interval depths of 0<z< zc . The depth z=0
and z=c are the boundaries of the USC. The channel traps all sound rays that leave a
source located on the USC axis at grazing angles:
(2.3)
where cm and c0 are the sound velocities at the axis and boundaries of the channel,
respectively. Hence, the greater the difference, c0 - cm the larger is the interval of angles
in which the rays are trapped, i.e. the waveguide is more effective, cf. [6].
Underwater Sound Channel of the second kind, c0 > ch
Here, the USC extends from the bottom up to the depth zc where the sound velocity
equals ch . Two limiting rays are shown in Fig. 5b for this case. Trapped rays do not
extend above the depth zc. Only the rays reflected from the bottom reach this zone.
The depth of the USC axis in deep ocean is usually 1000-1200 m. In the tropical areas it
can range down to 2000 m. The sound velocity ranges from, cf. [6]:
- 1450 m/s to 1485 m/s in the Pacific Ocean.
- 1450 m/s to 1500 m/s in the Atlantic Ocean.
2.3.2 Surface Sound Channel
This channel is formed when the axis is at the surface. A typical profile for this
case is shown in Fig. 6a. The sound velocity increases down to depth z = h and then
begins to decrease. Rays leaving the source at grazing angles
multiple reflections in the surface sound channel, cf. [6].
propagate with
Fig. 6: Surface sound channel. (a) profile c(z), (b) ray diagram
In the case of a rough ocean surface, the sound energy is partly scattered into angles
, at each interaction with the surface, i.e.
- rays leave the sound channel
- sound level decays in the surface sound channel and increases below the surface sound
channel.
Surface sound channels frequently occur
- in tropical and moderate zones of the ocean, where T and S are constant due to
mixing in the upper ocean layer. c increases due to hydrostatic pressure gradient.
-if the temperature on the surface decays due to seasonal changes, i.e. summer autumn
winter
-in Arctic and Antarctic regions, where a monotonically increasing sound velocity profile
from the surface to the bottom can be observed.
2.3.3 Antiwaveguide Propagation
Antiwaveguide propagation is observed when the sound velocity monotonically
decreases with depth (Fig. 7a). Such sound velocity profiles are often a result of intensive
heating by solar radiation of the upper ocean layer.
All rays refract downwards. The ray tangent to the surface is the limiting one. The shaded
area represents the geometrical shadow zone (Fig. 7b). The geometrical shadow zone is
not a region of zero sound intensity, cf. [6].
2.3.4 Sound Propagation in Shallow Water
This type of propagation corresponds to the case where each ray from the source,
when continued long enough is reflected at the bottom. A typical profile is shown in Fig.
8a. It is observed in shallow seas and the ocean shelf, especially during summer-autumn
period when the upper water layers get well heated, cf. [6].
Fig. 8: Sound propagation in a shallow sea. (a) profile c(z), (b) ray diagram
1. Spherical Spreading
In a homogenous and infinitely extended medium, the power generated by a point source
is radiated in all directions on the surface of a sphere. This is called spherical spreading.
Since intensity equals power per area, we obtain at ranges r0 and r, cf. [2]
(2.4)
(2.5)
Incase of spherical spreading, the intensity decreases by r2 . The spreading loss is given
by
(2.6)
2. Cylindrical Spreading
Cylindrical spreading exists when the medium is confined by two reflecting planes. The
distance between the planes is supposed to be 10 h >10 . Where, denotes the
wavelength of the sound wave. Since intensity equals power per area, we obtain at ranges
with r0 and r with (r>>h).cf.[2].
(2.7)
The loss due to cylindrical spreading is
(2.8)
The intensity decreases linearly with distance r. In logarithmic notation, for cylindrical
spreading, the spreading loss is
(2.9)
Taking n as the exponent, we can express the spreading loss for geometric spreading in
logarithmic notation
10
(2.10)
where exponent n = 1 for cylindrical spreading; n = 2 for spherical spreading.
2.4.2 Sound Attenuation in water
The acoustic energy of a sound wave propagating in the ocean is partly: absorbed, i.e. the energy is transformed into heat. - lost due to sound scattering by
inhomogeneities.
Remark: It is not possible to distinguish between absorption and scattering effects in real
ocean experiments. Both phenomena contribute to the sound attenuation in sea water.
On the basis of extensive laboratory and field experiments the following empirical
formulae for attenuation coefficient in sea water have been derived.
a) Thorp formula, valid frequency domain see Fig. 9a
(2.11)
where, f is frequency [kHz]
b.) Schulkin and Marsh, valid frequency domain see Fig. 9b
(2.12)
where
A=2.34x10-6 , B =3.38x10-6 ,
S is the salinity in [ppt],
P is the hydrostatic pressure [kg/cm2 ]
F is the frequency [kHz], and
fT = 21.9x106-1520/(T+273) [kHz],
is the relaxation frequency with T the temperature in [o C]. While the temperature range
from 0 to 30 o C, fT varies approximately from 59 to 210 kHz.
c.) Francois and Garrison, valid frequency domain see Fig. 9c
(2.13)
The first term in equatio (2.14) corresponds to:
B(OH)3
(2.14)
11
(2.15)
The sound speed is approximately given by
(2.16)
(2.17)
with f in [kHz], T in [o C], S in [ppt]. And where zmax , pH and c denote the depth in [m],
the pH-value and the sound speed in [m/s] respectively.
General diagram showing the variation of with the three regions of Boric acid,
Magnesium Sulphate and Pure water is depicted in Fig. 10.
12
Fig. 10: General Diagram indicating the three regions of B(OH)3 , Mg(SO4 ) and (H2 O).
From Fig. 10, it can be observed that for the Boric acid region, Attenuation is
proportional to f2 . And for the regions Magnesium sulphate and pure water also
Attenuation is proportional to f2. In the transition domains it is proportional to f .
Attenuation increases with increasing salinity and temperature, Fig. 11. Attenuation
increases with increasing frequency.
(a)
13
(b)
Fig.11: Attenuation for various salinities and temperature. a)20 o C b)30 o C
14
The following empirical formula is provided to find the sound attenuation in the
sediment depending on the bt.
(2.18)
where s is attenuation of sediment.
The following table provides the values for K and n for four sediment types.
Table 2
15
where k = 2 is the acoustic wave number and is the rms roughness.The rough
seasurface reflection coefficient for the coherent field is
(2.21)
The roughness of the ocean surface is due to wind induced waves. It can be calculated
from the spectral density of ocean displacements. It is often modeled by the NeumannPierson wave spectrum. The rms roughness or rms wave height of a fully developed
wind wavefield is then approximately
(2.22)
where, vw denotes the wind speed, [m/s].
For ocean bottom, is related to the particle size (particle refers to the material of the
sediment, further see section 2.4.3, Table 1) by,
(2.23)
Where
bt - represents the bottom type
(2.24)
Turbulence noise
(2.25)
16
The sea state noise can be determined as function of wind speed vw in [kn] and
frequency f in [kHz] by
(2.29)
Thermal noise
The thermal noise is due to molecular agitation (Brownian Motion). It can be
expressed as function of frequency f in [kHz] by
(2.30)
(2.31)
17
Fig. 13 shows a schematic representation of a wave from the boundaries of a layer, and the image sources
18
(2.32)
(2.33)
(2.34)
(2.35)
(2.36)
(2.37)
The remaining terms are obtained by successive imaging of these sources to yield the
ray expansion for the total field,
(2.38)
19
(2.39)
(2.40)
(2.41)
(2.42)
(2.43)
(2.44)
(2.45)
(2.46)
20
21
Fig. 20 and Fig. 21 show the delay of rays in 2 dimensional and 3 dimensional views. It
can be clearly observed the delay of sinc pulse from ray 1 till ray 8. Here, sinc pulse is
just taken as an example to show the concept of delay.
22
(2.47)
In the above equation the transmission loss is written only for ray 4, as an example. In
terms of Eq. (3.27), spreading loss is due to the terms
(as discussed in sec. 2.4.1). The attenuation or absorption is from the imaginary part of
the complex wave number k , as discussed in sec. 2.4.3, refer to Eq. (2.30). The Total
Reflection loss can be seen in this way. It is a sum of,
reflection loss, loss which is caused when a ray travels from medium1 to medium2
due to the refraction of the ray, due to the reflection of the ray.
scattering loss, loss which is caused by the roughness of the boundary. That is rays
get scattered in an un orderly fashion.
In Eq. (3.27), it is caused due to the terms
23
24
CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
A detailed description about the simulation of a continuous-time baseband system
is provided here.
The communication system considered is shown in Fig. 17. This is a typical set up which
can represent any kind of system using quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). This
QPSK system is used in our investigations. A brief overview of the system now follows.
At the transmitting side, the sequence of symbols d (n) is converted to a continuous-time
baseband signal Sbb(t) by a pulse amplitude modulator (PAM). Note that d (n) takes the
values from discrete set of complex-valued symbols. Up-conversion is performed by
multiplying with ej2ft resulting in a bandpass signal s (t ), being transmitted over the
channel (refer chapters 2 and 3). In order to remove the carrier, the received signal r (t
25
A simulation is often based on oversampled system, i.e. the sampling rate is higher than
the symbol rate. In general, a higher sampling rate will more accurately reflect the
original system. However, this comes at the cost of a longer simulation time since more
samples need to be processed. It is common to use an oversampling rate that is a multiple
of the symbol rate. The number of samples per symbols, here denoted by Q is then an
integer.
In order to arrive at the desired discrete time system, we will take the continuous-time
baseband equivalent system, introduce an ideal anti-alias filter at the output of the
matched filter and then oversample its output. This is depicted in Fig. 38, where also
down-sampling a factor Q is assumed to be chosen so large that the bandwidth of the
matched filter is smaller than the bandwidth Q 2T of the anti-alias filter. Consequently,
the anti-alias filter does not change the signal output from the matched filter. The signal
at the input of the detector is same as for the continuous-time system. Thus, this
oversampled system is equivalent to the original system.
3.1 Channel
The complete description of the channel can be understood from chapters. 1, 2
and 3. Nevertheless, a brief summary of it is again provided here. The main problems of
this channel are its multipath propagation, thereby a cause of interference. And next are
channel variations, variations in physical parameters of the ocean such as temperature,
pH, salinity, pressure or depth of water. All these are extensively discussed in the above
chapters mentioned. This report considers almost all the parameters into consideration
while modeling the channel. The simulation block diagram of the channel can be found in
Appendix of the report. Fig. 44 represents the Underwater acoustic channel model used in
26
this simulation h1(t), represents the direct path or first ray with zero delay (relative) and
hN(t) represents the Nth ray with a delay of N with respect to the direct path.
27
CHAPTER 4
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS
This chapter presents you with some exemplary simulation results along with
some interesting observations. First we look into the Underwater Acoustic Channel then
we cover the Communication part of the system.
As discussed in the above chapters 2 and 3, the major impact in an underwater acoustic
channel would be its multipath propagation. Always our desired goal is to achieve high
data rates at a decent geometry of the transmitter and receiver (low BER is implied). Here,
the term geometry means the physical positioning of a transmitter and receiver in an
underwater acoustic channel of depth D and infinite length. At shorter distances the
multipath reaches the receiver at a much longer time compared to the direct path. This
statement may appear some what contrasting to what we think. But, it certainly makes
sense when we look into it in a deeper view. Here, we are not speaking about the time
taken for each ray to reach the receiver. But, instead we are referring to the Relative
time of all the other rays comparing to direct path.
Fig.21 presents the simulation results for a particular environmental scenario varying the
receiver location. This figure explains the impact of distances, (indirectly its grazing
angles which play a major role) on time delays of multipath propagation for the following
environmental scenario. Here, the wind speed and bottom type are not included as we are
representing only the time delay concept without any transmission loss phenomenon
included.
28
Fig. 21: Simulation Results showing relative travel times for various receiver locations of a sinc pulse
without including any transmission loss phenomenon.
The relative times of all the 8 rays comparing to direct and the grazing angles for each
case are provided in the following.
29
There is a huge difference in relative travel times for very shorter distances of 10 m, case
(a), compared to a desirable range of 1000 m, case (d). This can be understood when we
observe the corresponding grazing angles for each case. In case (a), the grazing angles are
very high due to shorter distances where, as in case (d) you observe very low grazing
angles. Another observation is the same, relative travel times and grazing angles for rays
hitting surface or bottom, surface-bottom-surface or bottom-surface-bottom, etc. This is
due to the location of both transmitter and receiver at exactly half of channels depth.
Here, we did not show any impact of Reflection loss and Spreading loss, only the time
delay concept has been focused. From now on, we refer mainly to grazing angles to
explain the behaviour of the system as the distance or lengths of each ray are included
when you calculate the grazing angle. The following simulation results are exclusively
presented to show the impact of transmission loss (including time delays) on multipath
propagation at various vertical depths of transmitter and receiver along with various
horizontal distances. Changing the vertical depths means, placing the receiver not exactly
at the half of the water channel depths but instead placing it, either nearer to the bottom
or nearer to the surface to look what exactly is happening for the bottom and surface
reflection coefficients.
When the separation between them is 10-200 m you dont have that much impact of
multi-path propagation and thereby, receiver design complexity is much reduced. But,in
practical applications the distance between the transmitter and receiver is generally
desired beyond 500 m. So, all our simulation results are presented considering a 1000 m
separation between the transmitter and receiver. But, nevertheless, we do present some
simulation results when the receiver is at smaller distances from the transmitter. Another
criterion which is considered in the following simulation results is the change of
transmitter and receiver vertical depths. These are presented only to show the impact of
the distances between transmitter and receiver. For example, when we think of the water
channel depths to be 40 m and if the receiver is located at depths of 35 m, it signifies that
there would be certainly a more amount reflection of the signal from Surface compared to
Bottom. We always mean relative time delays with respect to the direct path when we
speak about time delays.
30
Fig. 22 presents, simulation results including the transmission loss phenomenon for two
transmitters and receivers at different locations. First we look into Fig. 49a and 49b. This
is for the case where the receiver is placed at a shorter distance of 200 m and vertical
depths of transmitter and receiver are swapped between 10 and 35 m. The complete
environmental scenario that has been chosen is given above. As said above, here, we
observe only the direct path and the multi-paths are completely suppressed. This is due to
the lower reflection coefficients at higher grazing angles and thereby, the transmission
loss of each ray becomes quite negligible. The transmission loss considers the number of
reflections (in turn reflection coefficients) when a ray hits the boundaries along with the
spreading loss (1/L ). So, the direct path will never have any reflection loss. Apart from
the direct path we observe the 3rd ray in both the cases (a) and (b), but not the 2nd ray.
This is due to zero reflection of the 2nd ray when it hits the surface.
R1 Surface reflection coefficient
R2 Bottom reflection coefficient
31
Fig. 22:Simulation results showing relative travel times for various transmitter and receiver locations of a
sinc-pulse including the transmission loss phenomenon.
Coming to Fig. 22c and 22d, we certainly see the impact of multipath growing to greater
extent as the separation between transmitter and receiver is more, i.e. 1000 m. In Fig. 22c,
the 4th ray hits the surface 2 times and then bottom one time, i.e. S-B-S and the 5th ray hits
the surface one time and 2 times the bottom, i.e. B-S-B. From the following results, it is
observed that the 4th ray grazes at an angle of 3.1481 and 5th ray with 5.9941. This leads
to lower reflection coefficients for 5th ray compared to 4th ray.
Similarly, in Fig. 22d, the 5th ray hits the surface one time and 2 times the bottom, i.e. BS-B and the 4th ray hits the surface 2 times and then bottom one time, i.e. S-B-S. From the
results provided in d), it is observed that the 5th ray grazes at an angle of 3.1481 and 4th
ray with 5.9941. This leads to lower reflection coefficients for 4th ray compared to
5th ray.
32
Here, we see another interesting observation, i.e. in Fig. 22c, the 4th ray has larger
amplitude compared to 5th ray and exactly the opposite is seen in Fig. 22d. This is due to
the swapping of the vertical placements of transmitter and receiver from 10 to 35 m.
The simulation results for grazing angles and reflection coefficients:
Fig.23 represents another simulation result to just show the impact of multi-path at a little
bit lower wind speed of 6 knots and with a bottom type value of 4.
33
Fig. 23: Simulation results showing relative time travels for two different vertical depths of transmitter and
receiver of a sinc pulse including the transmission
34
1.
Environmental Scenario
Fig. 24 represents the BER plot only for direct path. As one can imagine, when we
transmit only the direct path, there will not be any noise present only you have
attenuation of the signal strength. So, the BER of direct path is 0.
Fig. 24: BER plot direct-path for the above Environmental scenario 1.
35
In the following two cases of multi-path propagation have been considered. One is at a
mud bottom type and lower wind speeds and the other is a bit higher wind speed and sand
bottom type. In case 1, the BER is much higher compared to case 2 as expected.
This is due to more reflections at lower wind speeds and softer bottom types.
MULTI-PATH PROPAGATION
Case 1
1.
Environmental Scenario
36
(a)
(b)
Fig. 25: BER plots multi-path propagation for the above Environmental scenario 2, case 1 a) linear scale
b) log scale.
Case 2
37
1.
Environmental Scenario
(a)
38
(b)
Fig. 26: BER plots multi-path propagation for the above Environmental scenario 2, case 2 a) linear scal
b) log scale.
From Figs. 25 and 26 it can observed that when you have higher wind speeds and rough
bottom types, the strengths of all the rays constituting multi-path propagation is getting
minimized. In these type of situations the communication aspect would become easy
compared to the acoustic channel. But, in practical applications, lower wind speeds are
present and thereby, making the communications design more hard. So, we should
always keep the range of wind speeds between 0-20 knots for our desired underwater
acoustic applications and the communication system should be designed robust even at
lower wind speeds.
Constellation Diagrams
From the following constellation diagrams, you can see an error free propagation for
direct path, Fig. 27 and errors for multi-path, Fig. 28
39
40
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
Some underwater acoustic applications like simple status reports or transfer time
position coordinates require a bit rate of 100 bits/s. But in several other applications like
sea floor mapping and in some military applications bit rates of several k bits/s are
required due to the transfer of high size images. As an initial step to explore systems for
communication that have the potential of transferring data at rates of multiple k bits/sec
over distances of several kilometres underwater, we have developed this simulation tool.
This simulation tool is designed for communication using Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK) modulation techniques in an Underwater Acoustic Channel (UAC). It mainly
consists of a transmitter, UAC and a receiver. It provides a thorough insight into various
problems that are encountered by underwater sound channel and also explains the
degradation of bit error rate (BER) due to channel variations and presence of multipath
propagation.
All the oceanographic acoustic fundamentals have been considered in depth while
modelling the UAC. QPSK modulation techniques have been employed for the
transmitter and receiver. This tool works with a very low BER for the direct path even at
higher bit rates and is also robust for all channel variations. In short we can summarize
the following about what this simulation model provides:
a thorough insight into the complexity of an underwater acoustic channel.
the ability to design and analyse time invariant equalizers with sensitivity to equalizer
mismatch.
gives the flexibility to change the carrier frequency.
This tool shows the practical poor BER for multi path propagation and it produces
satisfactory results in the bandwidths ranging 1-2 Kbps. The robustness of the system for
multipath propagation drastically decreases when the channel variations are getting worse.
The simulation tool developed here was for fixed transmitter and receiver locations. As
explained in this report, the presence of multipath causes an intersymbol interference
(ISI) that destroys the message, due to different travel times for different rays. Depending
on the particular sound underwater channel in question, the ISI can involve, in tens or
even hundreds of symbols. A solution for this problem might be to employ an adaptive
equalizer in the simulation tool (here, adaptive is used as we refer to a moving transmitter
and receiver). An equalizer can be viewed as an inverse filter to the channel. But,
41
nevertheless, in practical situations even the employment of an equalizer would not solve
the problem of transferring high bit rates. This can pose us to think of employing
modulation techniques like Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). So,
our future outlook for the extension of this simulation tool would be:
Incorporation of moving transmitter and receiver.
Model validation with measurements.
Investigation of adaptive single input multiple output (SIMO) equalization.
Application of orthogonal frequency division multiplex (OFDM) communication.
42
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[27] M. Stojanovic, J.A. Catipovic and J.G. Proakis, Adaptive multichannel combining
and equalization for underwater acoustic communications, Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, vol. 94 (3), Pt. 1, pp.1621-1631, Sept. 1993.
44
INDEX
A
Absorption 1, 6, 11, 23
Academic 43
Acoustic 1, 2, 3, 11, 15, 16, 25, 26, 27,
28, 34, 39, 41, 43, 44
Acoustical 43, 44
Acoustics 3, 9, 43
Ambient 16, 18, 34
America 43, 44
Amplitude 24, 25, 33, 34
Analog 43
Angle 20, 21, 30, 32
Angles 7, 8, 20, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33
Antarctic 8
Anti-alias 26
Antiwaveguide 8
Applications 1, 2, 30, 39, 41
Arctic 8
Atlantic 7
Atlas 43
Atmosphere 16
AUVs 1
Axis 6, 7
B
B-S-B 32
Backscattered 15
Balakrishnan 44
Bandpass 25
Bandwidth 1, 26
Bandwidths 41
Baseband 25, 26
Battestin 43
Behavior 34
Behaviour 16, 30
Biological 17
Bottom-surface-bottom 30
Brekhovskikh 43
Bremen 43
Broadcasting-satellite 2
Brownian 17
C
California 44
Capacity 44
Caruthers 43
Catipovic 44
CDMA 2
Channel 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31,
32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,
42, 43, 44
Channels 8, 30, 44
Characteristic 3, 16
Clay 43
Coefficient 11, 15, 16, 21, 31
Coefficients 1, 2, 14, 20, 30, 31, 32,
33
Communication 1, 2, 25, 28, 39, 41,
42, 43, 44
Communications 1, 34, 39, 43, 44
Complex 23
Complex-valued 25
Continuous-time 25, 26
D
Data 1, 2, 28, 41
Degradation 24, 41
Delhi 43
Detection 1
Device 2
Diagram 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 26
Direct-path 35
Direction 15
Directions 10
Domain 4, 11, 12
Domains 4, 13, 18
Domingo 43
Donald 44
Doppler 1
Down-converter 25
Down-sampling 26
Duct 20
DVB-s 2
E
Elektronik 43
Elsevier 43
Empirical 11, 12, 15
Energy 1, 6, 8, 11, 15
Engineering 43
Environment 2
Environmental 1, 28, 31, 35, 36, 37,
38, 39
Equalization 42, 44
Equalizer 41, 42
Equalizers 41
Equation 23
Estimates 2, 25
F
Field 3, 11, 15, 16, 19
Fields 1, 18
Fluctuation 15
Fluctuations 3, 15
Formula 3, 11, 12, 15
Formulae 3, 11, 16
Francois 11
Free-field 18
Frequencies 1
Frequency 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 21, 41,
42
Function 17
Functional 21
Fundamentals 3, 41, 43
Gdansk 43
Geometric 10
Geometrical 9
Geometries 9
Geometry 28, 34
Godden 43
Gradient 8
H
Harvard 43
Haykin 43
Hayward 44
Horizontal 30
Hummeu 44
I
Idea 2
Ideal 26
IEEE 44
Image 18, 44
Images 41
Imaging 19
India 43
Industry 1
Inhomogeneities 1, 3, 11
Inhomogeneous 3
Integer 26
Interference 15, 26, 34, 41
Intersymbol 41
Investigation 2, 42
Investigations 25
Iridium 2
ISI 41
J
G
Garrison 11
James 44
Jensen 43
Jerald 43
John 43
Johnny 43
Johnson 43
Journal 43, 44
Multiplexing 42
Multiplying 25
N
K
Kaya 44
KBPS 41
KHZ 1, 11, 12, 17
Knots 33, 39
Kuperman 43
Laboratory 3, 11
Layer 8, 18
Layers 9
Logarithmic 10
Long-range 3
Luke 43
Lysanov 43
M
Magnesium 12, 13
Mapping 1, 41
Mari 43
Marine 16, 43
Marsh 11
McGraw-hill 43
Measurements 3, 42
Mechanism 15
Medwin 3, 43
Milica 44
Military 1, 41
Modulation 1, 2, 25, 41, 42
Modulator 25
Molecular 17
Monotonically 8, 9
Multi-path 30, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39
Multi-paths 31
Multichannel 44
Multipath 1, 2, 22, 23, 26, 28, 30, 32,
34, 41, 43
Multiple 2, 7, 26, 41, 42
Multiplex 42
Navigation 43
Networks 43, 44
Neumann 16
Newport 44
Noise 16, 17, 18, 34, 35
O
Observation 30, 33
Observations 28
Ocean 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 16,
26, 43
Ocean-bottom 1
Oceanic 3, 44
Oceanographic 41
Oceanography 43
OFDM 42, 44
Off-shore 1
Operation 1
Orthogonal 42
Output 2, 26, 42
Outputs 25
Oversample 26
Oversampled 26
Oversampling 26
Overview 25, 43
P
Pacific 7
Parameter 15
Parameters 26
Particle 16
Path 21, 27, 28, 30, 31, 34, 35, 39, 40,
41
Ph 1, 12, 26
Ph-value 12
Phase-shift 1, 2
Phenomena 11
Phenomenon 2, 23, 24, 28, 29, 31, 32
Pierson 16
Pollution 1
Prentice-hall 43
Proakis 43, 44
Proc 44
Propagation 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 18, 22,
23, 26, 28, 30, 34, 36, 37, 39, 41, 44
Pulse 22, 24, 25, 29, 34
Q
Qam 2, 25
QPSK 1, 2, 25, 40, 41
Quadrature 1, 2, 25, 41
Queensland 43
R
Radiation 8
Rayleigh 15
Rays 7, 8, 9, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 29, 30,
39, 41
Receiver 1, 2, 15, 21, 28, 29, 30, 31,
32, 33, 34, 41, 42
Receivers 31
Recombination 43
Reflection 1, 2, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 23,
30, 31, 32, 33
Reflections 1, 7, 31, 36
Reflectivity 15
Refract 9
Refraction 23
Reverberation 15
RMS 16
Robot 44
Robust 1, 39, 41
Robustness 41
Roughness 1, 15, 16, 23
S
Salinities 14
Salinity 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 13, 26
Salts 3
Sasaki 44
Satellite 2
SBB 25
Schematic 18
Schmidt 43
Schulkin 11
Scientific 1, 43
Seasonal 8, 17
Seasurface 16
Sediment 14, 15, 16
Shannon 43
Sigmobile 44
Signal 1, 9, 25, 26, 30, 34, 35, 43
Signals 25, 43
Simo 42
Simon 43
Simulate 25
Simulation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,
41, 42, 43, 44
Sinc-pulse 32
Singapore 43
SNR 34
Solution 18, 41
Sonar 15
Sonics 44
Sound 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 14, 15, 18, 21, 41, 43
Sound-speed 15
Spherical 10, 11
Springer 43
Srinivasan 44
Stojanovic 44
Submersible 44
Subsea 44
Sulphate 12, 13
Summer-autumn 9
Surface 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16,
20, 21, 30, 31, 32
Surface-bottom-surface 30
USC 6, 7
UUVS 1
UW 44
V
T
Table 14, 15, 16
Tangent 9
Technique 2
Techniques 2, 41, 42
Tectonic 16
Temperature 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, 14,
26
Theory 3, 43
Thermal 17
Thomas 44
Thorp 11
Transition 4, 13
Transmission 1, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31,
32, 34, 44
Transmitter 1, 2, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33,
34, 41, 42
Transmitters 31
Trapped 6, 7
Traps 7
Travel 21, 29, 30, 32, 41
Travels 23, 34
Tropical 7, 8
Turbulence 16
Validation 42
Value 3, 33
Values 14, 15, 25
Varies 4, 11, 14, 34
Velocities 7
Velocitometers 3
Velocity 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 21
Verlag 43
Vertical 6, 20, 30, 31, 33, 34
W
Washington 44
Water 1, 3, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13, 26, 30
Wavefield 16
Waveguide 7, 15
Wavelength 10, 15
Waves 1, 3, 16
Wiley 43
Williams 43
Wind 16, 17, 21, 28, 33, 34, 36, 39
Wireless 1, 2, 43
UAC 41
Ultrasonic 43
Ultrasonics 44
Underwater 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,
41, 42, 43, 44
University 43, 44
Unmanned 1
Up-conversion 25
Yang 44
Yauchi 44
Yu 43
Z
Zero 9, 27, 31