Microprocessor Interfacing

Microprocessor Interfacing - v1.
05 - J R Smith
1
MICROPROCESSOR INTERFACING
1 INTRODUCTION
2 BINARY LOGIC AND ELECTRONICS
2.1 From voltages to logic
2.2 TRI-STATE logic
2.3 Binary inputs and outputs
3 BINARY INPUT TRANSDUCERS
3.1 Mechanical switches.
3.2 Multiplexed inputs
3.3 Switch debouncing.
3.4 Some other switches
3.5 Non-mechanical switches.
3.6 Pseudo-binary inputs
4 BINARY OUTPUT TRANSDUCERS
4.1 Solenoids
4.2 Pseudo-binary outputs
5 ENCODING INFORMATION BY VARIATIONS WITH TIME
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Elapsed Time
5.3 Frequency Modulation (FM)
5.4 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
5.5 Bitstream Modulation (BSM)
5.6 Coding
5.7 Information coding in Biology (not required for exam)
6 BASIC ANALOGUE COMPONENTS
6.1 Amplifiers
6.2 Comparators
6.3 Using analogue transducers as binary transducers (not required for
exam)
7 DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERSION
7.1 How many bits?
7.2 Bitstream
7.3 Binary-weighted resistors
7.4 R-2R Ladder
8 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
8.1 Parallel or Flash
8.2 Successive Aproximation
8.3 Integrating
8.4 Delta - Sigma
Microprocessor Interfacing - v1.05 - J R Smith
2
9 TRANSDUCERS
9.1 TRANSDUCERS FOR TEMPERATURE
9.1.1 Thermocouple
9.1.2 Thermistor
9.1.3 Semiconductor junction
9.1.4 Temperature dependent oscillator
9.1.5 Resistor
9.1.6 Peltier (thermoelectric) module.
9.2 TRANSDUCERS FOR LIGHT
9.2.1 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
9.2.2 Photodiode
9.2.3 Phototransistor
9.2.4 Solar cell
9.2.5 Incandescent lamp (Light Emitting Resistor)
9.2.6 Light Emitting Diode
9.3 TRANSDUCERS FOR SOUND
9.3.1. Dynamic microphones
9.3.2. Elecret, capacitor and condensor microphones
9.3.3 Dynamic Speaker
9.3.5 Electrostatic Loudspeaker
9.3.6 Magnetostrictive transducer
9.4 TRANSDUCERS FOR CHEMICAL CONCENTRATIONS
10 INTERACTION SCHEMES
10.1 Programmed interaction or polling
10.2 Interrupts
10.3 Direct Memory Access (DMA)
11 SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
11.1 Types of memory
These notes are written with specific reference to the 'ATOM'
microcontroller. However
much of the information is also applicable to the 'BASIC STAMP'
microcontroller or other
microcomputers.
Copyright J R Smith 2003
3
1 INTRODUCTION
You should now be familiar with the BASIC MICRO 'ATOM'
microcontroller. It is based on
the 16F876 PICMicro MCU.
It has 8K of FLASH memory used for storing programs, 384 bytes of
RAM for storing the
variables used in programs and 256 bytes of EEPROM that can store
data when the power is
removed.
What can a device like this do?
It turns out that it can do almost anything. However it does have two
fundamental limitations
- speed and complexity.
The internal cycle time (200 ns) and the time taken to execute
instructions (of the order of 30
μs) both limit how rapidly the ATOM can respond to external events.
This limitation can be
overcome for short periods by using external circuitry with a faster
response. However for
continuous operation the speed is ultimately limited by the instruction
execution time.
Consequently the ATOM is simply too slow for some tasks (e.g. real
time, high fidelity, audio
processing).
The limited space available for program and variables also imposes an
eventual upper limit on
the complexity of tasks that the ATOM can reasonably handle.
However you are unlikely to
approach this limit. I have written large programs (>20 pages of code)
that still fit into the 8K
memory.
Physicists are interested in the behaviour of the real world, however
the parameters of interest
don't occur in the form of binary signals with voltage levels compatible
with the binary logic
of microcomputers. Consequently transducers are used to convert
various physical
parameters to and from suitable electrical signals.
These notes aim to provide an introduction to the
• interfacing computers to the real world
• some common transducers
• various techniques used to convert between analogue and digital
variables
• techniques for synchronising a microcomputer with real world events
Suitable circuits and programming examples will be presented
wherever possible. They will
often be specifically for the ATOM28, but the basic principles are
applicable to most
microcomputers or microcontrollers.
4
2 BINARY LOGIC AND ELECTRONICS
2.1 From voltages to logic
Although you have now been using an electronic implementation of
digital logic for several
weeks, until now you have not needed to concern yourself with what
voltages were used to
represent binary logic. However before you can interact with signals
from the real world you
need to which voltage levels correspond to a logical 0 (often called
LOW) and which belong
to a logical 1 (often called HIGH).
Currently there are 2 main families of electronic logic that you are
likely to meet.
The first is 'TTL' - short for Transistor Transistor Logic. They are almost
always powered
from a 5 V supply. Although there are many subspecies with slightly
different characteristics,
their logic levels are approximately
logical 0 corresponds to a voltage between 0 and 1.5 volts
logical 1 corresponds to a voltage between 1.5 and 5 volts
The second main family is CMOS. - Complementary Metal Oxide Silicon.
These are usually
powered with a voltage (VDD) in the range 3 to 18V - the particular
maximum value of VDD
depends upon the particular species. Their logic levels are
approximately
logical 0 corresponds to a voltage between 0 and VDD/2
logical 1 corresponds to a voltage between VDD/2 and VDD
There also exist species of CMOS that have inputs that are compatible
with TTL voltage
levels when VDD = 5V.
2.2 TRI-STATE logic
If you examine the data sheet for many microprocessors, you will find
that a given pin can
sometimes be an input, and sometimes be an output! To understand
how this is possible we
need to examine a slightly different form of electronic logic - TRI-STATE
logic.
This has the normal digital logic levels of LOW and HIGH plus an extra
output state where
the output is essentially disconnected from the internal logic circuitry.
An additional 'enable'
input determines whether the output behaves normally or is
disconnected.
Q
A
B
E
A B E Q
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1
x x 1 z
x = doesn't matter
z = high impedance
or 'disconnected'
Fig. 2.2.1 A 2-input AND gate with tri-state output. The ’enable’ input
is denoted by E.
Bus structures
TRI-STATE logic is very useful in bus structures where it enables
multiple outputs to be
connected together. This will not give rise to logical contradictions
providing only one output
is enabled at any given time.
5
Multiplexed inputs
Many devices designed for interfacing with microcomputers come with
TRI-STATE outputs.
The outputs of multiple devices can thus be connected to a common
set of inputs, and the
desired device selected via its enable input.
P3
P2
P1
P0
DEVICE A
D3 D2 D1 D0
DEVICE B
D3 D2 D1 D0
P6
P7
E
E
ATOM
Fig. 2.2.2 Schematic diagram showing how two devices with tri-state
outputs can be
multiplexed. The state of the outputs P6 and P7 will determine whether
the data (D3-D0)
from either device A or B will be present at the inputs P3-P0.
Bidirectional ports
These allow the transfer of data in either direction - consequently it is
possible for a given pin
to be either an input or an output at different times.
A E Q
0 0 0
1 0 1
x 1 z
x = doesn't matter
z = high impedance
or 'disconnected'
AQ
E
Fig. 2.2.3 A buffer with tri-state output.
direction
input/
output
input (direction = 1)
output (direction = 0)
Fig. 2.2.4 Schematic diagram of a circuit that allows a single
connection to be used as either
an input or an output according to the state of an input that specifies
the direction of data
transfer.
6
2.3 Binary inputs and outputs
The circuit shown below can be used to determine the range of input
voltages that correspond
to a logical ‘0’ and a logical ‘1’.
20k
+5V
V
P0
ATOM
Fig. 2.3.1 Circuit for measuring input characteristics of digital inputs.
The ATOM has 2 types of input.
Inputs 0 to 7 have conventional TTL levels.
Schmitt trigger inputs.
Sometimes the input characteristics are deliberately given a degree of
hysteresis - the logic
levels are different for increasing and decreasing voltages. This feature
gives the logic a
degree of immunity against 'noise' on the input signal - often very
useful when interfacing to
the real world.
Inputs 8-15 are Schmitt trigger inputs.
The 0->1 transition occurs around 3V, whereas the 1->0 transition
occurs around 1.5V
input voltage
012345
0
1
binary
output
input voltage
012345
0
1
binary
output
Fig. 2.3.2 The input characteristics for conventional TTL (left) and TTL
with Schmitt trigger
inputs (right).
7
3 BINARY INPUT TRANSDUCERS
Some input transducers or devices inherently have only two possible
states.
3.1 Mechanical switches.
These usually involve contact between two or more pieces of
conductive material - usually
metal. There are many possibilities and we will limit discussion to some
simple basic types.
The diagrams below indicate how they could be connected directly to a
digital input. The 10k
resistor connected between an input and +5V is often known as a 'pull-
up resistor' - it 'pulls'
the input up to +5V when nothing is connected to that input.
On the ATOM the command SETPULLUPS can be used to connect a set
of 10k internal pullup
resistors on inputs 1 to 7 if required.
P0
10k +5V
P0
+5V
10k
P0
+5V
SPST SPST SPDT
Single Pole, Single Throw Single Pole, Single Throw Single Pole, Double
Throw
switch open: P0 = 1 switch open: P0 = 0 switch up: P0 = 1
switch closed: P0 = 0 switch closed: P0 = 1 switch down: P0 = 0
Fig. 3.1.1 Circuits indicating how switches can be connected to a
digital input, in this case P0
of the ATOM.
SPDT switches are sometimes called 'changeover'.
All of the pins on the ATOM are inputs by default when a program
starts. A pin can be made
an input via the INPUT command, its value can be determined by
examining the variable In0.
Some switches only change their state momentarily, e.g. push buttons.
They are often
available as 'normally closed' (nc) or 'normally open' (no). They can be
wired using the same
circuitry as conventional switches. Often the transition between states
is important. The
following code repeatedly tests if the input = 1, and proceeds to the
next instruction once the
input = 0, i.e. the button has been pushed. It thus effectively detects
the 1-> 0 transition.
Loop1:
IF In0 = 1 THEN Loop1
'program reaches this point when In0 = 0
8
10k
P0
+5V
Fig 3.1.2 Circuit indicating how a push button can be connected to a
digital input.
3.2 Multiplexed inputs
The 16 switches on your BS2 development board are connected to the
ATOM via a 16 input
multiplexer. A 4 bit address determines which of the 16 inputs is
connected to the multiplexer
output which can then be connected to an ATOM input. Determining
the state of a switch is
slower with this technique because the address of the desired switch
must be supplied to the
multiplexer before reading. Multiplexing also means that you can only
determine the state of
a single switch at a time - without multiplexing the ATOM could
simultaneously determine
the state of 16 switches. However it has the great advantage of
needing only 5 input/output
pins rather than the 16 required if the switches were connected
directly.
Question: What is the maximum number of switches that your ATOM
could monitor with
suitable external multiplexing hardware?
3.3 Switch debouncing.
Mechanical switch contacts usually 'bounce' for a few milliseconds
after they make initial
contact. Consequently in the circuits given above for SPST switches
you will get a series of
multiple rapid transitions between 1 and 0 as the contacts close. In
most applications you will
need to ignore these initial bounces.
1
0
Idealised Real world
Fig. 3.3 Diagram illustrating the multiple transition between states
that occur when a switch
changes states.
The ATOM has a BUTTON instruction is designed to take care of switch
debouncing.
I can't get it to work!
9
3.4 Some other switches
Thermostats
These are switches that change state at a given temperature, usually
based on a bi-metallic
strip. Transition is either predefined or adjustable. Quite cheap (e.g.
JAYCAR ST-3821/3/5/6
= $4.45).
The bi-metallic strip is composed of two metals with different
coefficients of thermal
expansion. When heated the lower layer of metal expands more than
the upper layer, the strip
bends, and the circuit is is broken.
normal temperature high temperature
Thermal cutouts and thermal fuses
These are switches that go open circuit (usually permanently) above a
predefined temperature.
Cheap (e.g. JAYCAR ST-3800/4/8 = $2.80). Two springy wires are held
together by a waxlike
material. At a sufficiently high temperature the wax melts and the
wires spring apart.
normal temperature high temperature
Mercury switches
A small drop of mercury maintains electrical contact between two
wires when the switch is in
the upright position. If the switch is rotated, the mercury drop moves
and an open circuit
results. Useful for detecting when an object is moved from the vertical
position.
Compact and relatively cheap ( e.g. JAYCAR SM-1035 = $2.80)
2 wires
bead of
mercury
glass
container
Magnetic Reed Switch
Constructed from magnetic wire sealed inside an evacuated glass
enclosure. Contacts are
normally open, but close when a magnet is near. Can also get n.c. or
changeover contacts.
Compact and cheap (e.g. JAYCAR SM-1002 = $2.80). Widely used for
burglar alarms. Have
several advantages including:
(i) no mechanical contact required
(ii) metal contacts are in an isolated environment – no corrosion
Trembler switch
The end of a thin springy wire is surrounded by a ring of wire. Vibration
or motion will make
the springy wire vibrate and thus make momentary contact with the
wire ring. Useful for
detecting motion, or <TILT> on a pinball machine.
10
3.5 Non-mechanical switches
Switches can operate without moving mechanical parts. Some
examples use the strength of a
magnetic field (Hall Effect switches) or the presence or absence of light
(various optical
switches).
3.6 Pseudo-binary inputs
Many analogue transducers are often used in a pseudo-binary fashion.
This is because it is
often sufficient to know if an analogue parameter is greater or less
than a certain value. The
inputs 0 to 7 of the ATOM assume that Vin<1.5 V is a logical 0 and Vin
> 1.5 V is a logical 1.
The following code sets an output high or low depending upon the
input voltage.
LOOP:
IF In6 = 0 THEN
LOW P8
ELSE
HIGH P8
ENDIF
GOTO LOOP
A potential divider can be used to increase Vin above 1.5V. Similarly an
amplifier (see later)
can be used for Vin <1.5.
11
4. BINARY OUTPUT TRANSDUCERS
4.1 Solenoids
The most common bistable output transducers are variants of the
solenoid. These operate by
passing a current through a coil of wire. The resultant magnetic field
then attracts a
magnetizable material into the solenoid. The mechanics of the device
are usually designed to
ensure that the operation is bistable.
Solenoids are used to move mechanical components between two
positions. They are often
connected to a hydraulic valve to control water flow in domestic
appliances such as
dishwashers and washing machines. They can also be used to operate
levers.
Relays are a solenoid in which the mechanical action is connected to a
switch. It is then
possible for the small current from a microprocessor to switch much
larger currents. They
also provide electrical isolation between the microprocessor and the
controlled circuit.
Solenoids often require relatively large currents for operation. The
ATOM can only supply a
small current from its outputs, and so a single transistor, or even a
Darlington pair, will often
be used to amplify the current available from the outputs of the ATOM.
The value chosen for
R will depend upon the particular relay and transistor used. The
transistor effectively
amplifies the current by a factor known as β ; typically β = 100. The
function of the diode in
the following circuit is to 'short out' any transient high voltages that
can occur when the
current through the inductance of the solenoid is removed.
+V
R
solenoid
or relay
P0
4.2 Pseudo-binary outputs
Many analogue transducers are often used as pseudo-binary fashion.
Examples include LEDS,
heating elements, etc.
The intensity of light emitted by a LED depends upon the current
flowing through it, and this
depends upon the voltage across it.
R
LED
P0
The value of the resistor R can be changed to suit the particular LED.
The voltage across a
typical LED is about 2 V. Consequently the current I flowing through
the LED will be given
by I = (5 - 2) / R. If R = 220 ohms, then I = 14 mA.
12
5. ENCODING INFORMATION BY VARIATIONS WITH TIME
Up until now we have discussed simple binary operations - inputs and
outputs have only two
possible states. Surely a microprocessor can do more than this.
The answer is to consider the past history of binary operations
-information can be encoded
into the time variation of a binary signal. The encoding process is often
called 'modulation'.
We will look at a couple of possibilities.
5.1 Introduction
Elapsed Time
The information is encoded in the elapsed time between some events.
Frequency Modulation.
The frequency of the binary signal carries the information
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
The frequency is kept constant, but the width of the pulse carries the
information.
Bitstream
The running average value of a stream of pulses carries the
information. The frequency and
pulse widths will usually change to allow the desired waveform to be as
precisely as possible.
Digital Coding
Can use the presence or absence of pulses in a specific sequence to
carry the information.
Some electronic examples are RS232, USB, Firewire (IEEE1394), I2C,
etc. Some nonelectronic
examples include Morse code, semaphore, etc.
13
5. 2 Elapsed Time
One common technique involves measuring the time taken to charge
or discharge a capacitor
through a series resistor.
The ATOM has a useful instruction that allows it to measure the
resistance and/or capacitance
of an external element - the instruction RCTIME
RCTIME Pin, State, Variable
Pin - specifies the pin to be used
State - specifies the desired state for measurement. A counter is
started once RCTIME starts
to execute. Once Pin is not in State, the instruction terminates and the
value of the
counter is stored in Variable.
Variable - used to store the measurement of ELAPSED time. For your
ATOM each unit
stored in Variable corresponds to 1 μs. If Variable is a WORD, the
maximum time that
can be measured is 216 μs = 65.535 ms.
This instruction can be used to measure the time take to charge or
discharge an external
resistor / capacitor (RC) circuit. This can be very useful - the ATOM can
measure the setting
of potentiometer. It can also measure the output of many transducers
that change their
resistance or capacitance in response to changes in the parameter of
interest. It can be used to
measure the duration of short pulses. It can even be used to measure
voltages.
When RCTIME commences execution it starts an internal counter. This
counter is stopped
once the specified Pin is no longer has the value = State.
The time constant τ = RC can be calculated from the time taken for
the capacitor to charge or
discharge. Then R can be calculated from C, or C can be calculated
from R.
Before RCTIME is used, it is essential to use an OUT command to
charge or discharge the
capacitor to either 0 or 5 V. This level must be maintained until the
capacitor is effectively
charged or discharged - typically 4τ will be sufficient - see manual.
Charging circuit
V(t) = V [1 - exp(-t/τ )] charging
τ = - t / ln[(V-VFinal)/V] = - t / ln[(5-1.5)/5] = 2.8 t
For the circuit shown below, VFinal = 1.5V (the transition from 0->1
occurs around 1.5 V on
inputs 0-7 of the ATOM).
voltage
0
1.5
time
RCTIME
P0
+5V
R
C
Demonstration code for RC charging.
14
Temp var TIME
LOW 0 ; start to discharge capacitor
PAUSE 10 ; the length of the pause should be ! 4RC
; you should calculate it for your circuit
RCTIME 0,0,TIME ; now measure time to recharge
Discharging circuit
A more accurate approach is to measure the time it takes to discharge
a capacitor. This
because then VInitial = 5 V and VFinal = 1.5V, a difference of 3.5 V.
V(t) = V exp(-t/τ ) discharging
τ = - t / ln[VFinal/V] = - t / ln[1.5/5] = 0.83 t
voltage
0
1.5
time
RCTIME
P0
+5V
R
C
5
Demonstration code for RC discharging.
Temp var TIME
HIGH 1 ; start to discharge capacitor
; i.e. both plates at +5V
PAUSE 10 ; the length of the pause should be ! 4RC
; you should calculate it for your circuit
RCTIME 0,1,TIME ; now measure time to recharge
Measuring voltage
It's also possible to use the RCTIME command to measure an unknown
voltage by connecting
components with known values of R and C to the unknown voltage. The
process of charging
the capacitor from the voltage source can drain a significant current,
and so this approach is
only suitable for voltages with a low source impedance.
15
5.3 Frequency Modulation (FM)
The frequency of the binary signal carries the information. The
example below shows how
three different frequencies might be encoded.
low freq high freq medium freq
Its often convenient to keep the duty cycle constant and equal to 0.5.
Because random noise
and interference will generally affect only the amplitude of a signal, FM
is very tolerant of
noise and interference. For example, compare FM radio with AM
(amplitude modulated)
radio.
The ATOM has an instruction for measuring the frequency of an input
signal.
COUNT pin, period, variable
This instruction makes the selected pin an input, then counts the
number of complete cycles
(i.e a 0->1->0 or 1->0->1 sequence) during the defined period (in ms).
The count is stored in
‘variable’. It can measure square wave inputs with frequency < 125
kHz (the pulse width
must be ! 4 μs).
Sometimes the frequency itself of an input signal is important. One
example would be a guitar
tuning meter.
An analogue voltage can be measured by connecting it to a voltage-
controlled oscillator
(VCO). A VCO produces an output signal with a frequency that depends
upon the input
voltage. The ATOM can measure the VCO frequency, and thus
determine the analogue
voltage.
Voltage
controlled
oscillator
ATOM
(COUNT instruction)
unknown
voltage
There is no single instruction for producing a square wave output at a
defined frequency. You
will have to write your own if needed using PULSOUT or OUT. (The
instructions
DTMFOUT and FREQOUT generate pseudo-sine waves using a bit-
stream technique).
FM is sometimes used to send purely binary information in noisy
environments – for example
modems.
16
5.4 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
The frequency is kept constant, but width of the pulse (tH) carries the
information. The time
tH + tL is kept constant. The duty cycle is defined as tH / (tH + tL).
tH t L tH t L
duty cycle = 0.5 duty cycle = 0.75
tH t L
duty cycle = 0.25
The ATOM has no simple instruction for producing a ‘correct’ PWM
signal with constant
frequency. (The PWM instruction uses what we will call bitstream
modulation).
The interpreter is slow, each instruction takes a few ms for execution.
The following example can produce pulses of different width depending
upon the value of
'Num'. The frequency remains constant, but is hard to predict
accurately because extra time is
taken by the For loops and the BRANCH instruction.
Demonstration code
‘ Program to demonstrate PWM
Var VAR WORD
Num VAR WORD
Denom VAR WORD
Num = 2
Denom = 5
Loop:
For Var = 1 to Num
HIGH 0
NEXT
For Var = Num+1 to Denom
LOW 0
NEXT
BRANCH Loop
You will later use a sort of PWM signal to control the angle of
servomotors.
The average value of a PWM signal can also be used to carry
information. However it is not
particularly suitable for rapidly varying signals because it takes many
complete cycles for the
average value to change. A better approach involves allowing the
frequency to vary as well as
the pulse width - see bitstream modulation.
17
5.5 Bitstream Modulation (BSM)
The 'running average' value of a stream of pulses carries the
information. The frequency and
pulse widths will usually change to allow the desired waveform to be as
precisely as possible.
The example below shows roughly how a triangle wave could be
encoded.
The PWM instruction effectively performs BSM. The output string of
pulses can be filtered to
produce different analogue voltages. It thus can act as a Digital to
Analogue converter (DAC).
The component pulses are quite short (often approx. 4μs and so are
easier to filter out than
true PWM).
Demonstration code.
' Program to demonstrate BSM of LEDs
‘ Throbbing LEDs
Loop VAR WORD
LED VAR BYTE
FOR Loop = 0 TO 255
FOR LED = 0 TO 255
PWM 0, LED, 5 // gradually increase brightness
NEXT
FOR LED = 0 TO 255
PWM 0, 255-LED, 5 // gradually decrease brightness
NEXT
NEXT
END
The FREQOUT instruction uses BSM to produce an output containing
one or two pseudosinusoidal
signals.
FREQOUT Pin, Period, Freq1, Freq2
18
Sound generation
The stream of pulses produced by PWM or FREQOUT needs to be
filtered to remove the
high frequency components associated with the rapid 0->1 and 1-> 0
transitions. A simple RC
filter is usually OK (see manual). This instruction is very useful for
generating audio output
that is useful for:
• Warning ‘beeps’ or ‘pings’
• Provideing feedback on program status, - e.g. an indicator that
program has finished some
part of program
• Providing feedback (usually via frequency) about some measurement
that does not require
visual interaction.
• Fun !! (Why not program your ATOM to play ‘Stairway to Heaven’ ? )
390R
SPEAKER
P0
5.6 Coding
Can use the prescence or absence of pulses in a specific sequence to
carry the information.
Some examples are RS232, USB, Firewire (or IEE...).
The ATOM has some instructions designed to extract information from
pulse sequences.
SERIN – used to read in asynchronous serial data
SEROUT – used to send asynchronous serial data
SHIFTIN – used to read in synchronous serial data (i.e. when a clock is
involved)
SHIFTOUT – used to send synchronous serial data (i.e. when a clock is
involved)
5.7 Information coding in Biology (not required for exam)
Frequency modulation is used in the human nervous system. Nerve
impulses are binary pulses
that switch from approx - 60 mV to approx + 50 mV and back to - 60
mV in a few ms.
Information about external stimuli is generally carried by the rate at
which these nerve
impulses occur (usually the rate is approximately proportional to the
logarithm of the strength
of the stimulus - physiologists call this Fechner's law).
The biological equivalents of logic gates in the nervous system are
implemented by a cunning
temporary transition to analogue chemical transmission. Nerves
connect to each other at
specialised junctions called synapses. When the nerve impulse reaches
the end of an ‘input’
nerve, it releases small amounts of a chemical messenger into a small
region between the
nerves – the synaptic cleft. The rate at which nerve impulses occur at
the ‘output’ nerve is
determined by the concentration of chemical messengers in the
synaptic cleft. There are two
types of chemical messenger – agonists (these tend to increase the
firing rate) and antagonists
(these tend to decrease the firing rate). The binary signal produced by
the output nerve thus
depends upon the nett effect of the various agonists and antagonists
that are released by the
‘input’ nerves. Try PHYS2410 if you would like to know more about this
'Biologic'.
19
6 BASIC ANALOGUE COMPONENTS
6.1 Amplifiers
+
_
Vout
VA
VB
Vout = Gain (VA - VB)
This is a differential amplifier, i.e. it amplifies the difference between
the two inputs.
6.2 Comparators
Basically a high gain amplifier with analogue inputs and a digital
output, i.e. the output
voltage levels are compatible with standard logic.
Used to determine whether VA is greater or less than VB
+
_
Vout
VA
VB
If VA < VB Vout = 0 If VA > VB Vout = 1
6.3 Using analogue transducers as binary transducers
Often we just want to know if an analogue signal is greater or less than
a certain value. The
inputs 0-7 of the ATOM assume that Vin<1.5 V is a logical 0 and Vin >
1.5 V is a logical 1.
So by amplifying the input voltage Vin with a gain of G, and subtracting
a reference voltage
VREF it is possible for the 0"–>"1 transition at an ATOM input to
correspond to any desired
input voltage.
+
_ P0
+5V
+_
VREF
VIN
Comparator
Amplifier
gain = G
GVIN GVIN VREF _
20
7 DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERSION
We have already seen how an ATOM can output an analogue voltage
using PWM or
FREQOUT. However in many situations we require higher precision,
faster response and
multiple outputs. These will require extra components external to the
ATOM.
7.1 How many bits?
How many bits are required to produce a voltage with sufficient
precision?
n bits can encode 2^n possible states
n = 8 10 16 20 24
# of states 256 1024 65,536 ~10^6 ~16x10^6
precision ~0.5% 0.1% 16 ppm 1 ppm 0.06 ppm
ppm = parts per million
24 bit precision is incredibly precise. A plane journey from Sydney to
Rome is about 16,000
km and takes perhaps 20 hours flying time. 24 bit precision would
require knowing your
absolute position with respect to Sydney with an error of only 1 m, only
20% more than the
distance between seats in economy class.
7.2 Bitstream
Could use the PWM instruction to produce a desired DC voltage.
PWM Pin, Duty, Cycle
If output is smoothed with a suitable filter, Vout = (Duty / 255) x 5 V
For time varying output voltages, very sophisticated algorithms can be
used to produce the
closest match to the desired waveform, whilst minimising noise in the
output signal.
Bitstream can be very precise because there are essentially no
components that need to be
calibrated (see later). However very precise values require averaging a
large number of
pulses, so they are relatively slow. Some examples can reach 23 bit
precision with sample
rates below 100Hz.
21
7.3 Binary-weighted resistors
8 mA
4 mA
2 mA
1 mA
Load
R1 = 1.25k
R2 = 2.5k
R1 = 5k
R0 = 10k
S0
S1
S2
S3
Fig. 7.3 An idealized circuit in which the load resistance is assumed to
be small in
comparison with the resistors R0 to R3. A functional DAC would
generally use some
additional transistors or op-amps.
By closing the appropriate switches we can get any current from 0 to
15 mA.
If each switch were controlled by an appropriate bit, the current I could
be described by
I = value of 4-bit word in mA.
The current can easily be converted into a voltage if required.
The problem: for an n-bit DAC we need n resistors that cover a range
from R to 2nR, where R
is the value of the resistor with the lowest value, each resistor must
have a tolerance of at least
± R. For n > 10 this is very difficult to achieve. Even if discrete
resistors are initially
sufficiently precise, they will slowly experience different shifts in value
with temperature
variations and aging. Laser trimming of resistors on the same substrate
can achieve suitable
precision for n <= 16.
Another approach generates binary weighted currents by using digital
logic to produce pulse
sequences with different average values. In this situation there is
nothing to go out of
calibration.
22
7.4 R-2R Ladder
A cunning method of obtaining binary weighted currents that only
needs one or two values of
resistor.
i
i
i
2i
2i
2i
4i
4i
4i 2i
8i
8i
16i 8i R 4i 2R
2R 2R 2R 2R
RR
The resistors can be manufactured on the same substrate, and
consequently should have
similar variations with temperature and time.
23
8 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
Our ATOM now needs a method of measuring an analogue voltage
using of external
circuitry. We now discuss Analogue to Digital converters (ADC).
8.1 Parallel or Flash
This involves simultaneous comparison with multiple voltage
standards.
+
_
+
_
+
_
Vin
3V
2V
1V
Priority
encoder
D3
D2
D1
D0
A0
A1
+5V
The above circuit is a 2-bit flash converter.
The output of the priority encoder (A0,A1) is the binary address of the
highest asserted input
(D0-D3).
Advantages: very fast, only requires the time for a comparison plus
some digital logic.
Disadvantages: expensive - an n-bit converter requires 2n-1
comparators. Becomes prohibitive
for n>10.
They are usually used for low resolution, very high speed situations
(e.g. digitising video or
digital oscilloscopes). The oscilloscopes in the lab have 8 bit, 1 GHz
converters.
24
8.2 Successive Approximation
This involves a single comparator in sequential comparisons with a
voltage standard that is
adjusted according to prior comparisons.
+
_
Vin
Successive
approximation
register
Start
VDAC
DAC
n
end of conversion
EOC
The 'start' command initiates a binary search sequence controlled by
the Successive
Approximation Register (SAR)
(1) The most significant bit (msb) of the DAC = 1, all other bits = 0.
(2) the comparator output now indicates whether VDAC<Vin or
VDAC>Vin.
(3) if VDAC<Vin then msb = 0 or if VDAC>Vin msb = 1 for the rest of the
conversion
(4) now set the next significant bit = 1. Again the comparator output
will indicate if this bit
should remain set at 0 or 1.
(5) repeat for all the bits of the DAC.
(6) assert the EOC output (End Of Conversion)
(6) the digital approximation to Vin is then the final code sent to the
DAC.
Advantages; relatively cheap, only requires one comparator + DAC
Disadvantages: slower than flash because an n-bit conversion requires
n comparison steps.
Can operate at speeds approaching 10 MHz at 12 bits.
Slower versions (200 kHz) can have 16-bit precision.
25
8.3 Integrating
This measures the time taken for a known capacitor to charge using a
known current until its
voltage is equal to the unknown voltage.
+
_
Vin
Binary counter
start
stop
Start
C
I
VC
(1) Initially the counter is set to zero and the switch is closed, so VC =
0.
(2) The first step is to open the switch and start the counter.
(3) The capacitor then starts to charge up. The current I is constant, so
VC increases linearly
with time.
(4) Eventually VC = Vin. The comparator output then changes state and
stops the counter.
(5) The count will then be proportional to Vin.
Advantages: very cheap, capable of very high precision - 20 bits or
more, the integration
process can remove noise and interference.
Disadvantages: very slow, conversion rates are typically a few Hz.
26
8.4 Delta - Sigma
+
_
Vin +
_
Integrator Comparator
Differential
amplifier
1-bit DAC
bitstream
VDAC output
V1 V2 V3
The output of the differential amplifier , V1 = Vin - VDAC
The integrator output V2 = sum of V1 over many cycles.
V3 is the output of a comparator: if V2>=0 V3 = 1 else V3 = 0
VDAC = +1.00 if V3 = 1 or VDAC = -1.00 if V3 = 0
The circuit operates at a very fast clock rate. If the value in the
integrator is positive the DAC
output will be positive and this will be subtracted from Vin, reducing
the output of the
integrator. Similarly if V2 is negative, then VDAC will be negative and
the output of the
integrator will be increased.
Consequently a stream of pulses is produced whose average value
reflects the value of Vin.
This then undergoes sophisticated filtering via a decimation filter to
become the final serial
output.
Advantages: cheap, very precise (a one bit DAC has nothing to go out
of calibration), can
perform very sophisticated filtering to remove noise and interference.
Disadvantages: The clock rate must be very much higher than any
changes in Vin.
These ADC are increasingly used for digital audio (20 bit resolution at
96 kHz) and very low
frequency measurements (23 bits at 20 Hz).
27
9 TRANSDUCERS
Transducers are devices that convert one form of energy into another.
Usually we use them to
covert various physical parameters to and from electrical signals. This
is because a
microprocessor or microcontroller can conveniently measure electrical
signals via an ADC
and output electrical signals via a DAC.
9.1 TRANSDUCERS FOR TEMPERATURE
9.1.1 Thermocouple
A thermocouple is made when two dissimilar metals are placed in
contact. A voltage is
generated between them that varies with the temperature of the
junction.
The voltage is quite small <100 μV/oC, so amplification will often be
required. To reduce the
number of temperature dependent junctions between different metals,
the unknown
temperature is often measured with respect to another thermocouple
that is kept at a constant
reference temperature (usually at 0oC). A special integrated circuit can
also be used to
provide the correct reference voltage.
ATOM
ADC (ADCIN instruction)
+
_
Reference
Unknown
9.1.2 Thermistor
These use semiconductor materials or oxides with a resistance that
varies with temperature. It
is possible to get NTC (negative temperature coefficient) or PTC
(positive temperature
coefficient) devices. Their resistance is usually a non-linear function of
temperature. A typical
value might be 10 kΩ with a variation of - 1kΩ /oC.
!!!!!!ATOM
(RCTIME instruction)
+5V
Thermistor
C
!!!!!!ATOM
ADC (SHIFTIN instruction) R
+5V
Thermistor
28
9.1.3 Semiconductor junction
The voltage across a semiconductor junction varies with temperature.
(For a silicon pn
junction it is approx. 2.2 mV/oC). In theory one can use any diode, but
calibration is difficult.
Consequently it is easier to use specialised integrated circuits that
provide either a voltage or a
current that is linearly proportional to the temperature.
!!!!!!ATOM
ADC (SHIFTIN instruction) R
+5V
9.1.4 Temperature dependent oscillator
This transducer uses an oscillator that is sensitive to temperature
changes. Temperature is
measured by counting its output frequency.
Temperature
controlled
oscillator
!!!!!!ATOM
(COUNT instruction)
9.1.5 Resistor
When a current I passes through a resistor R, the Joule heating
produced is given by I2R.
When a voltage V is maintained across a resistor R, the Joule heating
produced is given by
V2/R. (Because the value of a resistor changes slightly with
temperature, they are also
sometimes used to measure very low temperatures).
9.1.6 Peltier (thermoelectric) module.
In these modules a flow of electric current provides the necessary
energy for a flow of heat
against its thermal gradient (i.e. heat is extracted from a cold surface
and passed to a hot
surface). These allow a computer to control the amount of cooling. If
the polarity of the
current is reversed, the direction of current flow is also reversed.
!!!!!!ATOM
(PWM instruction)
R
C
amplifier
load
The load in the above circuit could be a resistive heating element or a
thermoelectric module.
29
9.2 TRANSDUCERS FOR LIGHT
9.2.1 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
When a photon of light of a suitable wavelength falls on a
semiconductor, an electron can be
excited from the valence band into the conduction band. The
resistance of the material then
decreases. This leaves the absence of an electron in the valence band -
usually referred to a
positively charged 'hole'. Eventually an electron and a hole will meet
and recombine, and the
original resistance will be restored. There are some materials,
particularly CdS or CdSe,
where the decrease in resistance can be greatly amplified. An LDR
usually consists of a thin,
folded, strip of such material. Their response time is quite slow
(typically hundreds of
milliseconds). Typical values might be 1-10k in dim light and 100 ohms
in bright light. They
can be connected in the same fashion as a thermistor (see section
9.1.2)
9.2.2 Photodiode
These are made by placing p- and n- type semiconductor materials in
contact and so forming
a pn diode. The n-type has an excess of mobile negative carriers
(electrons) and the p-type an
excess of mobile positive carriers (holes - really the absence of
electrons). Electrons at the
edge of the n-region will be attracted to the holes at the edge of the p-
region, and vice versa.
They combine, and a high resistance 'depletion layer', with a very low
concentration of mobile
charge carriers is formed across the region of contact. A strong electric
field is produced
across this depletion layer because of the charge movement
associated with its formation.
When photons strike a depletion layer they can generate electron-hole
pairs. These would
normally quickly recombine, but the strong electric field across the
depletion layer rapidly
separates the electron-hole pairs so that they can't recombine. This
produces a shift in the
voltage-current characteristics of the diode, and can be used to
produce a current or a voltage
depending upon the external circuitry.
The current increases linearly with illumination, but generally requires
some amplification.
!!!!!!ATOM
ADC (SHIFTIN instruction)
R
+
_
9.2.3 Phototransistor
The current generated by the electron-hole pairs is now amplified via
normal bipolar
transistor action. Used mainly to detect the presence/absence of light.
9.2.4 Solar cell
These are p-n junctions that are designed to optimise power
production.
!!!!!!ATOM
ADC (SHIFTIN instruction)
Solar cell
30
9.2.5 Incandescent lamp (Light Emitting Resistor)
If a material is made sufficiently hot it will start to emit visible light.
Usually made from a
coiled piece of resistance wire in an evacuated bulb. (Air would allow
the hot wire to
oxidise).
Can be used in a similar fashion to resistive heating elements and
thermoelectric modules.
(see section 9.1.6). Because of thermal inertia they have a relatively
poor frequency response.
9.2.6 Light Emitting Diode
These are semiconductor diodes that emit approx. monochromatic
light when current flows
through them. The corresponding voltage across the diode is usually in
the range 1.5 to 2.5
volts. (Shorter wavelengths require higher voltages).
9.3 TRANSDUCERS FOR SOUND
9.3.1. Dynamic microphones
The sound pressure wave acts on a diaphragm that moves a coil of
wire in a magnetic field,
thus producing a voltage. The voltage is small (mV or less) and will
require amplification
before the ADC.
Diaphragm Voltage
Magnet
Coil of wire
9.3.2. Elecret, capacitor and condensor microphones
Sound pressure moves one plate of a very delicate charged capacitor.
Because the charge
remains constant, while the plate separation varies, the voltage across
the plates will change.
Elecret microphones use permanently charged plastic electrodes
(electrets). Capacitor and
condensor microphones usually require an external source of charge
(48V on standard audio
systems).
Voltage
+-
9.3.3 Dynamic Speaker
Current is sent through a coil of wire (the voice coil) that is placed in a
magnetic field. A
diaphragm is connected to the voice coil so that a varying current
causes motion of the
diaphragm that moves the surrounding air.
Voltage Speaker cone
Magnet
Speaker coil
31
9.3.4 Piezoelectric speaker
A voltage across a piece of piezoelectric material causes it to flex, and
thus set air in motion.
Speaker cone
voltage
piezo-electric
material
9.3.5 Electrostatic Loudspeaker
A high voltage is place between two conducting plates. Causes relative
motion of plates that
in turn set air in motion. basically a capacitor microphone in reverse.
9.3.6 Magnetostrictive transducer
Magnetostrictive materials contract in a magnetic field. One example is
the 'Soundbug'. A
rod of magnetostrictive material (Terfenol - made from terbium, iron
and dysprosium) is
surrounded by a wire coil. When a current flows through the coil, the
resulting magnetic field
causes the Terfenol to change shape. This in turn vibrates the object to
which it is attached
and that produces the sound.
Voltage
magnetostrictive
material
suction cap
9.4 TRANSDUCERS FOR CHEMICAL CONCENTRATION
9.4.1 pH electrode
The electrode tip is made from special glass that is permeable to
protons. A voltage is then
generated between the inside and outside that depends upon the
internal and external proton
concentrations. Their output impedance is very high, usually > 109
ohms.
proton permeable glass
+
_
unknown [H]
known [H]
high input
impedance
amplifier
32
10 INTERACTION SCHEMES
10.1 Programmed interaction or polling
In this approach the computer program continually monitors various
status flags that indicate
the state of real world variables.
Advantages: Simple to program, requires minimal hardware
Gives the fastest response to an external event, i.e. minimum latency.
Disadvantages:
Fastest response requires that the microprocessor continually monitor
the status flags leaving
no time for other tasks.
If a very fast response is not required, for example checking if a key
has been pressed on a
computer keyboard, then the microprocessor can do other tasks whilst
only checking the
status flags occasionally.
10.2 Interrupts
This involves the external hardware having access to the internal
workings of the
microprocessor via specific ‘interrupt’ logic lines.
When a specific condition occurs on one of these lines, the
microprocessor acts as if the next
instruction in your program was
Gosub address
This can be thought of as a ‘pseudo-instruction’. The subroutine that
you wish to be executed
(the interrupt handler) should be located at this address. When this
subroutine has finished
processing, the program continues operating from the line in your code
after the one it was
execution when the interrupt occurred.
Instruction are available that tell the microprocessor to either ignore or
to pay attention to
interrupts. Serious microprocessors also have methods of specifying
different priorities for
different interrupts.
Advantages:
Microprocessor can perform useful tasks whilst waiting for interrupt.
Disadvantages:
Requires special hardware
Increased latency
Harder to program
RESETS
All microprocessors have another type of interrupt - the RESET.
The microprocessor can then always start execution from a well-
defined state.
33
The ATOM has three types of RESET
Power on reset = ONPWR: This occurs when power is first applied to
the ATOM, or when
power is removed and restored
Brown out reset – ONBOR: This occurs when the power supply voltage
falls below 4.1V.
This can be useful for situations that derive their power from batteries.
A ‘LOW BATTERY’
warning can be initiated, and any important parameters saved in
EEPROM. Also useful for
detecting situations when the mains power fails.
Reset pin reset – ONMOR: This occurs when a 0->1 transition occurs at
the ATN/RES pin.
Often triggered by a ‘RESET’ button.
10.3 Direct Memory Access (DMA)
The device that wishes to perform DMA must first undergo an
arbitration process with the
microprocessor to become the ‘bus master’. When ready the
microprocessor can relinquish
control of the busses. The device can then take control of the busses
and rapidly transfer data.
Advantages:
The microprocessor is free to perform other tasks
Very fast data transfers, particularly when large blocks of data are
moved.
Disadvantages:
High latency can make it inefficient for transferring small amounts of
data.
Requires more complex hardware – the device must be smart enough
to become ‘bus
master’
Requires more complex programming.
The ATOM28 has no DMA capability (there are no external busses that
it can release to
another device).
34
11 SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
11.1 Types of memory
ROM = Read Only Memory: The desired truth table is permanently
programmed by the
manufacturer of the integrated circuit.
PROM = Programmable ROM: The desired truth table is programmed
by the user. This
involves using an externally applied current to melt small internal wire
links. Cannot be
reprogrammed.
EPROM = Erasable PROM: The desired truth table is programmed
electrically by the user as
the presence of charge on internal ‘capacitors’. The data can be erased
by exposure to
photons of sufficiently high energy, i.e. ultraviolet light. A quartz
window is provided for this
purpose.
EEPROM = Electrically EEPROM: The charge on the internal
‘capacitors’, and hence the
stored truth table can be altered by an applied voltage.
FLASH = a type of EEPROM that can be easily reprogrammed.
RAM = Random Access Memory: nowadays this refers to read/write
memory that ‘forgets’
when the power is removed.
There are two main species: Dynamic and Static.
SRAM = Static RAM: This memory is implemented using flip-flops.
DRAM = Dynamic RAM: This memory is implemented via charge on
tiny ‘capacitors’.
The charge on these capacitors leaks away quite rapidly – in a couple
of ms. Consequently
the memory is ‘refreshed’ by internal logic every ms or so.
Static vs Dynamic
Static memory requires more transistors per bit than dynamic, and so
is more expensive and
occupies more space. However it is significantly faster.
An ideal computer would use only SRAM, however this would be too
expensive for most
situations. The common approach is to use SRAM within the
microprocessor and DRAM for
the main memory. A copy of sections of the main memory is then kept
in caches built using
SRAM that can be accessed rapidly by the microprocessor.

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