Understanding the Complexities

of Designing Diaphragms in
Buildings for Earthquakes
Des K. Bull
Holmes Consulting Group Ltd
2
Function of Diaphragms
1. Relatively thin but stiff horizontal
structural systems which transmit in-
plane lateral forces to, or between,
vertical lateral force resisting elements.
2. The diaphragms tie the whole structure
together.
3
4
Forces in diaphragms under earthquakes
Inertia forces
Inertia at a particular floor
Transfer forces
Forces develop between primary lateral
force resisting structures
These forces are often very large.
Force distribution in a floor diaphragm =
Inertia + Transfer forces
5
Forces in diaphragm (cont.)
Inertia and transfer forces are
COUPLED in the analysis.
through stiffness and deformation
compatibility of the diaphragms and
vertical structural systems.
CANT determine distribution of
transfer forces or inertia in isolation.
6
Floor plan configuration issues
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Plan configurations
8
Plan configurations
9
Pretensioned, precast concrete floors with cast-
in-place topping
Are these more of a concern than cast-in-place
slabs ?
10
Pretensioned, precast concrete floors with cast-
in-place topping
11
Structural Behaviour of
Diaphragms
12
Beam Analogy
13
Openings in diaphragms and
Strut & Tie methods
Strut & Tie
Advantages over the simple Beam or
Tied Arch approach
14
Openings in diaphragms and
Strut & Tie methods
Diagonal compression fields
15
Openings in diaphragms and
Strut & Tie methods
Load paths in a section of floor: micro strut & tie solution
16
Openings in diaphragms and
Strut & Tie methods
Diagonal tension fields
17
Beam or Tied Arch or Strut & Tie ?
simple model
Provision of tie reinforcement
18
Drag Bars or Collectors
19
Strut & Tie with drag bars
A bit complex?
20
Drag Bars or Collectors
21
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
Floor plate
22
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
Inertia effects, distributed across the floor
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
23
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
Compression fan develops
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
24
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
C
C
C
Sketch in the centres of compression: struts of a truss
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
25
Note: the tie T is connected at the mid points of the beams
more later
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
C
C
C
T
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
26
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
C
C
C
T
Part of the floor (mauve) wants to fall out of the building
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
27
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
C
C
C
T
Must tie this part back in to the truss or arch (dotted red ties)
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
28
Alternatively: use secondary beams as ties/chords
and make smaller struts to collect on these ties
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
C
C
C
T
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
29
Or, combine the secondary beams with
the floor reinforcement acting as ties
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
C
C
C
T
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
30
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
C
C
C
More struts, closer to the fan compression field
Diaphragms: Force distribution and detailing
31
Diaphragms: Forces
EQ
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
C
C
C
T
Struts and ties
T is smaller
To get other ties, requires some cracking
and yielding within the floor: redistribution of actions
32
Issues for Diaphragms when
resisting Earthquakes
33
34
Deformation modes with beam elongation
(a) Beam plastic hinge rotates to allow for beam
elongation (10 50 mm)
B
e
a
m

e
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n
Beam elongation
L
o
s
s

o
f

s
u
p
p
o
r
t

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

o
v
e
r

t
h
i
s

r
e
g
i
o
n
Mode 1
35
Deformation modes with beam elongation
(b) Entire beam rotates to allow for beam
elongation (10 50 mm)
Beam elongation
B
e
a
m

e
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n
L
o
s
s

o
f

s
u
p
p
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r
t

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
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o
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t
h
i
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r
e
g
i
o
n
Mode 2
36
Delaminationof topping from
hollowcore units
South
North
Plan View
37
Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Column-Beam Node: Traditional view
Higher compressive stress - smaller contact surface
38
Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Column-Beam Node
Potentially large plasticity demands in Ties
39
Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Node locations (where the struts and ties
meet):
Mid-point of beams
these points are relatively undamaged by
ductile frame action
Keep TIE steel away from primary beams
because this steel can be included in the
tension flange (negative moment, typ.)
40
Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Floor-Beam Node
Distributed node - keeps compressive stresses down
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Diaphragms: Connections or Nodes of
the Struts and Ties
Floor-Beam Node
Distributed node - keeps compressive stresses down
42
NZS 3101:1995 requires:
Tension component
43
Alternative layout of reinforcement
for column tie
44
Detailing for integrity
45
Detailing for integrity
46
Determining forces in Diaphragms
resulting from Earthquakes
47
Diaphragms: Forces
Inertia & Transfer forces are COUPLED
These can not be treated in isolation.
Some analysis methods:
Equivalent Static Analysis (ESA)
You have equilibrium (magnitudes and directions
of the applied forces at the boundary of the
diaphragm).
If the TIES are connected correctly, this mitigates
the coarseness of ESA.
F
i
48
Diaphragms: Forces
F
i
Equivalent Static Analysis
(ESA)
Maxima Envelope of
Floor Accelerations
(DR 902 Parts)
F
i
Peak Ground Accn.
49
Diaphragms: Forces
Inertia & Transfer forces
Modal Analysis
WONT work
you DO NOT have equilibrium.
Or model the diaphragm in the analysis model ?
50
Diaphragms: Introduced Forces
At each floor:
Using an ESA (?) :
Determine the shear
force distribution for
walls, frames and
columns
F
2
V
base i
H
e
i
g
h
t
Shear in Wall i
Calculate the storey forces
F
i
for each structural sub-
system
It is these F
i
that make
up the boundary
conditions on each floor.
51
Diaphragms: Introduced Forces
Actions on the diaphragm: ESA
1500 kN
F
D
= 2000 kN
500 kN
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
250 250
250
250 250 250
Inertia = 165 kN
52
Diaphragms: Introduced Forces
1500 kN
F
D
= 2000 kN
500 kN
F
i
: floor, beams,
columns and cladding
250 250
250
250 250 250
500 kN 1500 kN
53
Diaphragms: Introduced Forces
54
Conclusions: Issues
Strut and Tie method is more versatile than the Beam or Tied
Arch approach.
Diaphragm will be damaged locally and may need some limited
redistribution of internal forces.
Detailing of the floors to ensure integrity of the floor is
essential:
Maintenance of load paths
Continued support of gravity
55
Conclusions: Issues
Estimating magnitudes of the inter-related inertia and
transfer forces requires further study:
A type of Equivalent Static Analysis that
generates the deformations of the structure
(induces transfer forces) while producing
reasonable magnitudes of inertia is highly
desirable for desk-top design.
56