Apollo Onboard Navigation

Techniques
 Objectives
j

• Review basic navigation concepts

• Describe coordinate systems
• Identify attitude determination techniques
– Prime: PGNCS IMU Management
– Backup:
p CSM SCS/LM AGS Attitude Management
g
• Identify state vector determination techniques
– Prime: PGNCS Coasting
g Flight
g Navigation
g
– Prime: PGNCS Powered Flight Navigation
– Backup: LM AGS Navigation
 Review of Basic Navigation
g Concepts
p

• Navigation: “Where am I?”

?
 Review of Basic Navigation
g Concepts
p

• Navigation: “Where am I?”

• Vehicle maintains internal
representation of where it is
with respect to some external
reference (coordinate system)
– State vector (position and
velocity vectors)
 Review of Basic Navigation
g Concepts
p

• Navigation: “Where am I?”

• Vehicle maintains internal
representation of where it is
with respect to some external
reference (coordinate system)
– State vector (position and
velocity vectors)
– Attitude
 Review of Basic Navigation
g Concepts
p

• Navigation: “Where am I?”

• Vehicle maintains internal
representation of where it is
with respect to some external
reference (coordinate system)
– State vector (position and
velocity vectors)
– Attitude
• To maintain accuracy, this
internal representation must be
updated periodically using
some source
so rce of e
external
ternal “tr
“truth
th
data” (sensor measurements)
 Coordinate Systems
y

Planet-Fixed Coordinates

Moon Fixed Coordinates

Moon-Fixed Earth Fixed Coordinates
Earth-Fixed
Lunar ephemeris Earth rotation

Basic Reference Coordinates

REFSMMAT

Stable Member Coordinates

IMU gimbal angles

Navigation Base Coordinates

Nav base location

Vehicle Coordinates
c.m. location

Bodyy Coordinates

Vehicle-Fixed Coordinates
 Basic Reference Coordinate System
y

• Inertial coordinate system

– All nav stars and lunar/solar ephemerides
were referenced to this system
– All vehicle state vectors referenced to this
system except during Lunar Module (LM)
powered flight
• Epoch at nearest beginning of year
– Simplified inertial-to-Earth-fixed computations
 Basic Reference Coordinate System
y

• Origin at center of Earth

or center
t off moon
 Basic Reference Coordinate System
y

• Origin at center of Earth

or center
t off moon
– Command and Service
Module (CSM) navigation Lunar Sphere of Influence
(r=64373.76 km,
automatically transformed 34759 05 nmi)
34759.05 i)
between Earth and moon
centered when crossing the
moon’s Sphere of Influence
(SOI)
 Basic Reference Coordinate System
y

• Origin at center of Earth

or center
t off moon
– Command and Service Ecliptic Plane
Module (CSM) navigation Lunar Sphere of Influence
(r=64373.76 km)
automatically transformed
between Earth and moon
centered when crossing the
moon’s Sphere of Influence
(SOI)
• Axes: Equatorial Plane
– X-axis pointed to First Point X
of Aries
 Basic Reference Coordinate System
y

• Origin at center of Earth Z

or center
t off moon
– Command and Service Ecliptic Plane
Module (CSM) navigation Lunar Sphere of Influence
(r=64373.76 km)
automatically transforms
between Earth and moon
centered when crossing the
moon’s Sphere of Influence
(SOI)
• Axes: Equatorial Plane
– X-axis pointed to First Point X
of Aries
– Z axis parallel to Earth
mean north pole
 Basic Reference Coordinate System
y

• Origin at center of Earth Z

or center
t off moon
– Command and Service Ecliptic Plane
Module (CSM) navigation Lunar Sphere of Influence
(r=64373.76 km)
automatically transforms
between Earth and moon
centered when crossing the Y
moon’s Sphere of Influence
(SOI)
• Axes: Equatorial Plane
– X-axis pointed to First Point X
of Aries
– Z axis parallel to Earth
mean north pole
– Y axis completed right-
handed system
 IMU Stable Member Coordinate System
y
Stable Member
+X-AXIS

• Inertial coordinate
system
Stable Member
• Defined relative to +Z-AXIS

BRCS b by REF
REFerence
to Stable Member STABLE

MATrix (REFSMMAT) MEMBER

• Many possible
alignments during a IMU CASE
(CUTAWAY)
Stable Member
+Y-AXIS

mission (discussed
later)
 CSM Vehicle Coordinate System
y

• Rotating coordinate Egress Hatch (-Z)

system,
t fixed
fi d tto CSM
body
• Origin along vehicle
centerline,
t li 25
25.44 m (1000
in) behind Command
Module (CM) heat shield
Optics (+Z)
• Axes:
– +X “forward” along
longitudinal axis
25 4 m (1000”)
25.4 (1000 )

+X
 CSM Vehicle Coordinate System
y

• Rotating coordinate Egress Hatch (-Z)

system,
t fixed
fi d tto CSM
body
• Origin along vehicle
centerline,
t li 25
25.44 m (1000
in) behind Command
Module (CM) heat shield
Optics (+Z)
• Axes:
– +X “forward” along
+Z
longitudinal axis
– +Z “down”
down along crew
crew’s
s 25 4 m (1000”)
25.4 (1000 )
feet when in couches
+X

+Z
 CSM Vehicle Coordinate System
y

• Rotating coordinate Egress Hatch (-Z)

system,
t fixed
fi d tto CSM
body
• Origin along vehicle +Y
Y
centerline,
t li 25
25.44 m (1000
in) behind Command
Module (CM) heat shield
Optics (+Z)
• Axes:
– +X “forward” along
+Z
longitudinal axis
– +Z “down”
down along crew
crew’s
s 25 4 m (1000”)
25.4 (1000 )
feet when in couches
– +Y “starboard” completed +X

right-handed system
+Z
 LM Vehicle Coordinate System
y

• Rotatingg coordinate
system, fixed to LM body
• Origin along vehicle
centerline,
t li 5
5.08
08 m (200
in) below LM ascent
stage base
• Axes:
– +X “up” through top hatch

+X
5.08 m (200”)
 LM Vehicle Coordinate System
y

• Rotatingg coordinate
system, fixed to LM body
• Origin along vehicle
centerline,
t li 5
5.08
08 m (200
in) below LM ascent
stage base
• Axes:
– +X “up” through top hatch
– +Z “forward” through
egress hatch +X
5.08 m (200”)

+Z “out of screen”
 LM Vehicle Coordinate System
y

• Rotatingg coordinate
system, fixed to LM body
• Origin along vehicle
centerline,
t li 5
5.08
08 m (200
in) below LM ascent
stage base
• Axes:
– +X “up” through top hatch
– +Z “forward” through
egress hatch +X
5.08 m (200”)
– +Y “starboard” completed
+Y
right handed system
right-handed +Z “out of screen”
 CSM/LM
/ Body
y Coordinate Systems
y

• Axes parallel to vehicle coordinate system

• Origin at vehicle center of mass

+X

+Y +Y

+X
+Z
 Navigation
g Base Coordinate System
y
+XNB

• Rotating
g coordinate
system, fixed to +ZNB

navigation base
– IMU gimbal angles define
the transformation between
stable member coordinates
and nav base coordinates
+XNB
• Origin at center of IMU
Outer
LM
+X Axis
Gimbal
navigation base
• Axes parallel to vehicle LM
+Z Axis
IMU
body axes Middle
Gimbal +ZNB

IMU
Inner
Gimbal +YNB
 Earth--fixed Coordinate System
Earth y

• Rotating coordinate +Z

system,
t fixed
fi d tto Earth
E th Greenwich
Meridian
– All Earth landmarks,
+X
including launch site
vector referenced to this
vector,
system Equator

• Origin at center of Earth

• Axes:
– +Z along true north pole
 Earth--fixed Coordinate System
Earth y

• Rotating coordinate +Z

system,
t fixed
fi d tto Earth
E th Greenwich
Meridian
– All Earth landmarks,
+X
including launch site
vector referenced to this
vector,
system Equator

• Origin at center of Earth

• Axes:
– +Z along true north pole
– +X along true Greenwich
meridian at equator
 Earth--fixed Coordinate System
Earth y

• Rotating coordinate +Z

system,
t fixed
fi d tto Earth
E th Greenwich
Meridian
– All Earth landmarks,
+X
including launch site
vector referenced to this
vector, +Y
Y

system Equator

• Origin at center of Earth

• Axes:
– +Z along true north pole
– +X along true Greenwich
meridian at equator
– +Y in equatorial plane,
completed right-handed
system
 Moon--fixed Coordinate System
Moon y

• Rotating coordinate +Z

system,
t fixed
fi d tto moon
– All lunar landmarks,
including landing site
vector referenced to this
vector,
system
• Origin at center of moon
• Axes:
– +Z along true north pole

Moon as viewed from Earth

 Moon--fixed Coordinate System
Moon y

• Rotating coordinate +Z

system,
t fixed
fi d tto moon
– All lunar landmarks,
including landing site
vector referenced to this
vector,
system
• Origin at center of moon
• Axes: +X “out of screen”

– +Z along true north pole

– +X along zero longitude at
equator (center of moon
visible
i ibl di
disc))

Moon as viewed from Earth

 Moon--fixed Coordinate System
Moon y

• Rotating coordinate +Z

system,
t fixed
fi d tto moon
– All lunar landmarks,
including landing site
vector referenced to this
vector,
system
+Y
• Origin at center of moon
• Axes: +X “out of screen”

– +Z along true north pole

– +X along zero longitude at
equator (center of moon
visible
i ibl di
disc))
– +Y completed right-handed
system (“trailing” moon in
its orbit around the Earth)) Moon as viewed from Earth
 Objectives
j

• Review basic navigation concepts

• Describe coordinate systems
• Identify attitude determination techniques
– Prime: PGNCS IMU Management
– Backup:
p CSM SCS/LM AGS Attitude Management
g
• Identify state vector determination techniques
– Prime: PGNCS Coasting
g Flight
g Navigation
g
– Prime: PGNCS Powered Flight Navigation
– Backup: LM AGS Navigation
 PGNCS IMU Management
g

• Apollo used three-gimbal IMU

– Lighter and less complex than four
four-
gimbal IMU, but vulnerable to gimbal
lock when all three gimbals in same
plane
– Spacecraft attitudes operationally
constrained to avoid g
gimbal lock
• Apollo Flight Director Attitude Indicator
(FDAI) driven directly by IMU gimbal
angles rather than computer
– Allowed IMU to operate independently Gimbal Lock
of computer Region
– Allowed gimbal lock region to be
graphically depicted as red circles on
FDAI ball
• Periodic IMU aligns to different
REFSMMATs required to:
– Accommodate variety of mission
attitudes while avoiding gimbal lock
– Provide meaningful FDAI attitude
display to crew
 Common REFSMMATs

• Preferred
• Nominal (LVLH)
• L
Launch hP
Pad
d (CSM only)
l )
• Landing Site
• Liftoff
• Passive Thermal Control (PTC)
• Entry (CM only)
 Preferred REFSMMAT

• Used for major burns

• +X aligned with ΔV vector +X
ΔV

at Time of Ignition (TIG)

R
 Preferred REFSMMAT

• Used for major burns

• +X aligned with ΔV vector +X
ΔV

at Time of Ignition (TIG)

• +Y pperpendicular
p to both
ΔV vector and position
vector at TIG
– Direction could be defined
to provide either “heads
heads-
up” or “heads-down” burn
attitude R

+Y into screen (“heads-up”)

out of screen (“heads-down”)
( heads-down )
 Preferred REFSMMAT

• Used for major burns

• +X aligned with ΔV vector +X
ΔV

at Time of Ignition (TIG) +Z (“heads-down”)

• +Y pperpendicular
p to both
ΔV vector and position
vector at TIG +Z (“heads-up”)

– Direction could be defined

to provide either “heads
heads-
up” or “heads-down” burn
attitude R

• +Z completed
p right
g
handed system
• FDAI read 0,0,0 when in
burn attitude at TIG +Y into screen (“heads-up”)
out of screen (“heads-down”)
( heads-down )
 Nominal REFSMMAT

• Aligned with Local Vertical/Local

Horizontal (LVLH) coordinates at time
of alignment
• Used for coasting orbital flight V
• +Z aligned with radius vector (+Rbar)
at time of align

+Z

R
 Nominal REFSMMAT

• Aligned with Local Vertical/Local

Horizontal (LVLH) coordinates at time
of alignment
• Used for coasting orbital flight V
• +Z aligned with radius vector (+Rbar)
at time of align
• +Y aligned with negative orbital
momentum vector (-Hbar) at time of
align +Y “out of screen”
+Z

R
 Nominal REFSMMAT

• Aligned with Local Vertical/Local

Horizontal (LVLH) coordinates at time
of alignment
• Used for coasting orbital flight V
• +Z aligned with radius vector (+Rbar)
at time of align
• +Y aligned with negative orbital +X
momentum vector (-Hbar) at time of
align +Y “out of screen”
+Z
• +X in orbit plane in direction of velocity
(+Vbar)
• FDAI read 0,0,0 when in “airplane
attitude” at time of align R
• Note that this was an inertial
orientation aligned with LVLH only at
one point
i t iin titime
– Inertial pitch angle diverged from LVLH
pitch angle at orbital rate
– Crew used Orbital Rate Display – Earth
and Lunar (ORDEAL) to bias FDAI
pitch angle to display LVLH attitude
 Launch Pad REFSMMAT
North

• CSM onlyy
• +Z aligned with radius
vector (+Rbar) at liftoff
titime
East

View of launch pad +Z

from above
 Launch Pad REFSMMAT
Launch Azimuth
(typ. 72° at window open)
North

• CSM onlyy
• +Z aligned with radius
vector (+Rbar) at liftoff
+X
X
ti
time
East
• +X aligned with flight
azimuth at liftoff time View of launch pad +Z
from above
 Launch Pad REFSMMAT
Launch Azimuth
(typ. 72° at window open)
North

• CSM onlyy
• +Z aligned with radius
vector (+Rbar) at liftoff
+X
X
ti
time
East
• +X aligned with flight +Y

azimuth at liftoff time View of launch pad +Z

from above
• +Y completed right- FDAI roll 162°

handed system
• At liftoff, FDAI read pitch
90, yaw 0, roll 90 plus
flight azimuth
 Landing
g Site and Liftoff REFSMMATs

• +X aligned with position

vector
t att planned
l d landing
l di
time

+X

R
 Landing
g Site and Liftoff REFSMMATs

• +X aligned with position

vector
t att planned
l d landing
l di
time
• +Z pointed “forward”
(
(parallel
ll l tto CSM orbit
bit
plane) +X

+Z

R
 Landing
g Site and Liftoff REFSMMATs

• +X aligned with position

vector
t att planned
l d landing
l di
time
• +Z pointed “forward”
(
(parallel
ll l tto CSM orbit
bit
plane) +X

• +Y completed right- +Z
+Y “out
out of screen
screen”
handed system
• LM FDAI read 0,0,0 at R

landing
• Liftoff
Lift ff REFSMMAT
identical except defined
at planned lunar liftoff
time
 PTC REFSMMAT

• Used for passive thermal

controll (“b
(“barbecue
b roll”)
ll”) d
during
i
translunar/transearth coast
• +X in ecliptic plane
perpendicular to Earth-moon
Earth moon
line
+X
 PTC REFSMMAT

• Used for passive thermal

controll (“b
(“barbecue
b roll”)
ll”) d
during
i
translunar/transearth coast
• +X in ecliptic plane
perpendicular to Earth-moon
Earth moon
line
+X
• +Z perpendicular to ecliptic
+Z
plane directed south
p
 PTC REFSMMAT

• Used for passive thermal

controll (“b
(“barbecue
b roll”)
ll”) d
during
i
translunar/transearth coast
• +X in ecliptic plane
perpendicular to Earth-moon
Earth moon
line
+X
• +Z perpendicular to ecliptic +Y
+Z
plane directed south
p
• +Y completed right-handed
system
 PTC REFSMMAT

• Used for passive thermal

controll (“b
(“barbecue
b roll”)
ll”) d
during
i
translunar/transearth coast
• +X in ecliptic plane
perpendicular to Earth-moon
Earth moon
line
+X
• +Z perpendicular to ecliptic +Y
+Z
plane directed south
p
• +Y completed right-handed
system
• PTC roll initiated from 90 deg g
pitch attitude to place CSM/LM
stack perpendicular to ecliptic
(and hence, line of sight to
sun)
 Entry
y REFSMMAT

• Aligned
g with LVLH at
predicted time of Entry
Interface (EI), 122 km
((400 kft)) altitude
• FDAI read pitch 180, 0, 0 +X
in heads-down heat-
shield forward attitude at
EI +Y “into screen”

+Z
• Note that nominal EI
attitude pitched 20
degrees above local
horizontal
 IMU Alignment
g Techniques
q

• Two vectors required

q
to uniquely define
orientation of one
frame with respect to
another
– First vector fixes a line
of sight (LOS) but
leaves one degree of
freedom (rotation
(
about LOS)
 IMU Alignment
g Techniques
q

• Two vectors required

q
to uniquely define
orientation of one
frame with respect to
another
– First vector fixes a line
of sight (LOS) but
leaves one degree of
freedom (rotation
(
about LOS)
– Second vector fixes
rotation about LOS
 CSM IMU Alignment
g
SCT SXT

• Crew marked on two stars (or other

known celestial bodies) using the
sextant (SXT) or scanning telescope
(SCT)
• Auto optics modes allowed SXT/SCT
shaft and trunnion to be pointed
directly at stars selected by the
computer
• Manual optics modes allowed
tweaking of SXT/SCT shaft/trunnion
using optics controller
• Minimum Impulse Controller (MIC)
could be used to tweak CSM attitude
• Crewman Optical Alignment Sight
(COAS) could be used as backup
alignment device if optics failed
– Not attached to navigation base –
calibration required prior to use

O ti
Optics Minimum
Mi i Impulse
I l MARK andd
Controller Controller (MIC) MARK REJECT
pushbuttons
 LM Docked IMU Alignment
g

• Initial coarse alignment used

CM gimbal
i b l angles
l
• Docking mechanism did not
tightly constrain relative roll
– Crew recorded docking angle
(Rc) from index marks on
tunnel during initial LM
activation
• Required LM gimbal angles
computed manually from CM
gimbal angles as follows:
OGALM = 300
300° + Rc - OGACM
IGALM = 180° + IGACM
MGALM = 360° - MGACM
 LM Orbital IMU Alignment
g

• Crew marked on two stars (or

other known celestial bodies)
using the alignment optical
telescope (AOT)
• AOT had six detent positions;
however only forward position
however,
could be used while docked to
CSM
• Rendezvous Radar (RR) antenna
required
q to be p
positioned out of
AOT field-of-view
• Crew entered detent position code
and star code manually into
computer
• COAS could be used as backup
(same calibration restrictions as
CSM)
 LM AOT Usage
g

• X-line and Y-line on AOT

reticle
ti l used
d ffor iin-flight
fli ht
alignment
• Crew allowed star to drift
across AOT field-of-view
fi ld f i X line

Y line
 LM AOT Usage
g

• X-line and Y-line on AOT

reticle
ti l used
d ffor iin-flight
fli ht
alignment
• Crew allowed star to drift
across AOT field-of-view
fi ld f i
• Crew pressed [MARK Y]
when star crossed Y-line

Press
[MARK Y]
 LM AOT Usage
g

• X-line and Y-line on AOT

reticle
ti l usedd ffor iin-flight
fli ht
alignment
• Crew allowed star to drift
across AOT field-of-view
fi ld f i
• Crew pressed [MARK Y]
when star crossed Y-line
• Crew
C pressed [MARK X]
when star crossed X-line
• Marks could be taken in Press
either
ith order
d [MARK X]

• Crew pressed [MARK

REJECT] if bad mark
 LM Lunar Surface IMU Alignment
g

• Not always possible to sight on

two stars while on surface
 LM Lunar Surface IMU Alignment
g

• Not always possible to sight on

two stars while on surface
• For first surface alignment,
local gravity vector (as
measured by IMU
accelerometers)
l t ) could ld b
be g

substituted for one of the star

sightings
 LM Lunar Surface IMU Alignment
g

• Not always possible to sight on

two stars while on surface
• For first surface alignment,
local gravity vector (as
measured by IMU
accelerometers)
l t ) could ld b
be
substituted for one of the star +Z
sightings
• Present orientation of LM Y
and Z axes stored in moon-
fixed coordinates at conclusion
of each alignment
 LM Lunar Surface IMU Alignment
g

• Not always possible to sight on

two stars while on surface
• For first surface alignment,
local gravity vector (as
measured by IMU
accelerometers)
l t ) could ld b
be
substituted for one of the star
sightings
• Present orientation of LM Y
and Z axes stored in moon-
fixed coordinates at conclusion
of each alignment
• For second and subsequent +Z

alignments, could use either

gravity vector and present Z
axis, or present Y and Z axes
 LM AOT Surface Usage
g

• Stars may never cross AOT X

or Y lines while on surface
– LM in fixed attitude
– Moon rotates very slowly
– Different marking g technique
q
required Cursor
• AOT reticle had two additional
markings
– Radial “cursor”
cursor
– Archimedean “spiral” (radius
increases linearly with angle)
• AOT reticle rotated to allow
cursor or spiral to be Archimedean
Spiral
superimposed on star
– Reticle angle displayed on
counter, manually entered via
DSKY
 LM AOT Surface Usage
g

• Stars may never cross AOT X Shaft angle (AS)

or Y lines while on surface
– LM in fixed attitude
– Moon rotates very slowly
– Different marking g technique
q
required
• AOT reticle had two additional
markings
– Radial “cursor”
cursor
– Archimedean “spiral” (radius
increases linearly with angle)
• AOT reticle rotated to allow
cursor or spiral to be
superimposed on star
– Reticle angle displayed on
counter, manually entered via
DSKY
 LM AOT Surface Usage
g

• Stars may never cross AOT X

or Y lines while on surface
– LM in fixed attitude
– Moon rotates very slowly
– Different marking g technique
q
required
• AOT reticle had two additional
markings
– Radial “cursor”
cursor
– Archimedean “spiral” (radius
increases linearly with angle)
• AOT reticle rotated to allow
cursor or spiral to be
superimposed on star
– Angle displayed on counter,
manually entered via DSKY Reticle angle (AR)
 CSM SCS Attitude Management
g

• Stabilization and Control System (SCS) served as

b k control
backup t l system
t ffor the
th Primary
Pi G
Guidance,
id
Navigation, and Control System (PGNCS)
• Attitude reference provided by two Gyro Assemblies
(GA ) each
(GAs), h off which
hi h contained
t i d th
three B
Body
d M Mounted
t d
Attitude Gyros (BMAGs)
• GA2 BMAGs measure attitude rate
• GA1
G BMAGs G nominally measure attitude change fromf
reference attitude but could be configured to measure
rates as backup to GA2
 CSM SCS Attitude Management
g

• Gyro
y Display
p y Coupler
p
(GDC) combined GA1
attitude difference with
reference attitude to
produce total attitude for
display to crew
• Reference attitude set to
current IMU attitude on
Attitude Set Control Panel
(ASCP) then GDC
(ASCP),
aligned to reference
• BMAGs were more
drifty than IMU
“drifty”
 LM AGS Attitude Management
g

• Abort Sensor Assemblyy (ASA)

( ) was strapdown
p
inertial navigation system for the Abort Guidance
System (AGS)
• AGS had
h d access to PGNS downlist
d li d
data via
i
telemetry link
• Crew had capability to command AGS to align
ASA to IMU
GS could
• AGS cou d aalso
so ca
calibrate
b ate ASA
S
gyro/accelerometer biases using IMU as
reference
 Objectives
j

• Review basic navigation

g concepts
p
• Describe coordinate systems
• Identifyy attitude determination techniques
q
– Prime: PGNCS IMU Management
– Backup: CSM SCS/LM AGS Attitude Management
• Id
Identify
tif state
t t vector
t determination
d t i ti
techniques
– Prime: PGNCS Coasting Flight Navigation
– Prime: PGNCS Powered Flight Navigation
– Backup: LM AGS Navigation
 Coasting
g Integration
g

• Encke’s Method
– Use current state vector
and gravity of primary body
to compute
p a reference
conic
 Coasting
g Integration
g

• Encke’s Method
– Use current state vector
and gravity of primary body
to compute
p a reference
conic
– Sum all other accelerations
to p
propagate
p g a
position/velocity deviance
from the reference conic
 Coasting
g Integration
g

• Encke’s Method
– Use current state vector
and gravity of primary body
to compute
p a reference
conic
– Sum all other accelerations
to p
propagate
p g a
position/velocity deviance
from the reference conic
– When deviances exceed
threshold, compute new
reference conic and zero
the deviations (rectification)
 Coasting
g Integration
g

• Compare to Cowell’s Method

( h l )
(shuttle):
– Sum all accelerations on
vehicle (including primary
body gravity) and propagate
directly to advance the state
vector
• Cowell’s advantage: simpler,
brute force algorithm
brute-force
• Encke’s advantages:
– Maintains more precision at
larger stepsizes
– More suitable for slow
computers with limited
precision (i.e. Apollo Guidance
Computer)
 Perturbing
g Accelerations

• Depended on phase of mission

• Earth or lunar orbit: non-spherical gravity
of primary body (up to fourth order terms)
• Translunar/transearth coast: Earth, lunar,
andd solar
l gravity
it ((spherical
h i l tterms only)
l )
• No drag
• No IMU acceleration
 Measurement Incorporation
p

• Several different Program CSM LM Prime

programs available,
not all on both
vehicles
Rendezvous √ √ Onboard

• MCC prime for most

forms of navigation;
Orbital √ MCC

onboard capability
intended as loss
loss-of-
of
Cislunar-
midcourse √ MCC

comm backup
Lunar Surface √ MCC
 LM Rendezvous Navigation
g
Navigated

Actual
P
Passive
i Vehicle
V hi l Orbit
O bit A ti Vehicle
Active V hi l O
Orbit
bit

r + r +
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ ⎣v ⎦
Coasting Coasting
IIntegration
t ti IIntegration
t ti

• The state vectors for both vehicles are

propagated to the current time
 LM Rendezvous Navigation
g
Navigated

Actual
P
Passive
i Vehicle
V hi l Orbit
O bit A ti Vehicle
Active V hi l O
Orbit
bit

r + r +
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ ⎣v ⎦
Coasting Coasting
IIntegration
t ti IIntegration
t ti

RR Tracking
Q
Measurement

• The LM RR takes a measurement (range, range

rate, shaft, or trunnion angle) of the CSM
 LM Rendezvous Navigation
g
Navigated

Actual
P
Passive
i Vehicle
V hi l Orbit
O bit A ti Vehicle
Active V hi l O
Orbit
bit

r + r +
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ ⎣v ⎦
Coasting Coasting
IIntegration
t ti IIntegration
t ti

r
Measurement b
Geometry
Vector
Q̂
RR Measurement -
Estimate Residual
δQ

Q +
RR Tracking
Measurement

• The navigation software computes an estimate of the RR measurement

based on the current state vectors, and a measurement geometry vector
• The navigation software
f computes the difference
ff (residual)
( ) between the
actual RR measurement and the estimated measurement
 LM Rendezvous Navigation
g
Navigated

Actual
P
Passive
i Vehicle
V hi l Orbit
O bit A ti Vehicle
Active V hi l O
Orbit
bit

r + r +
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ ⎣v ⎦
Coasting Coasting
IIntegration
t ti IIntegration
t ti

r
Measurement b
Weighting
Geometry
r2 Vector
Vector α Computation
Q̂
RR Measurement r
- Residual ω
Estimate
δQ

Q + Measurement
RR Tracking
Measurement Incorporation

• The navigation software computes a weighting vector

based on the current states,
states the measurement geometry
vector, and predefined sensor variances
 LM Rendezvous Navigation
g
Navigated

Actual
P
Passive
i Vehicle
V hi l Orbit
O bit A ti Vehicle
Active V hi l O
Orbit
bit

r + r +
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ ⎣v ⎦
Coasting Coasting
IIntegration
t ti IIntegration
t ti

r
Measurement b
Weighting r
Geometry ⎡ δr ⎤
r2 Vector
δx = ⎢⎢ δv ⎥⎥
Vector α r r
Computation r
Q̂
RR Measurement -
r
ω ⎣⎢δb ias ⎥⎦
Estimate Residual
δQ r SV Update
ω δQ
Q + Measurement
RR Tracking
Measurement Incorporation

• The navigation software computes an update to the state

vector and the estimated RR biases using the weighting
vector and the measurement residual
 LM Rendezvous Navigation
g
Navigated

Actual
P
Passive
i Vehicle
V hi l Orbit
O bit A ti Vehicle
Active V hi l O
Orbit
bit

r + r +
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ ⎣v ⎦
Coasting Coasting
IIntegration
t ti IIntegration
t ti
r
δr
r r
b δv
Measurement r
Weighting
Geometry ⎡ δr ⎤
r2 Vector
δx = ⎢⎢ δv ⎥⎥
Vector α r r
Computation r
Q̂ Pass
RR Measurement -
r
ω ⎣⎢δb ias ⎥⎦ Accept
Estimate Residual
r δQ r SV Update State Vector Crew
δb ias ω δQ Alarm Test Action
Fail Reject
Q + Measurement
RR Tracking
Incorporation Accept
Measurement Pass

• The state vector update is tested against a predefined threshold

• If the test passes, the state vector and RR biases are updated
• Otherwise, alarm annunciated and crew either accepts or rejects the update
 LM Rendezvous Navigation
g
Navigated
Update
Mode
Actual

ΔV

ΔV
+ +

Maneuver Δ

Maneuver Δ
P
Passive
i Vehicle
V hi l Orbit
O bit A ti Vehicle
Active V hi l O
Orbit
bit

+ +
r + r +
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ ⎣v ⎦
Coasting Coasting
IIntegration
t ti IIntegration
t ti
r
δr
r r
b δv
Measurement r
Weighting
Geometry ⎡ δr ⎤
r2 Vector
δx = ⎢⎢ δv ⎥⎥
Vector α r r
Computation r
Q̂ Pass
RR Measurement -
r
ω ⎣⎢δb ias ⎥⎦ Accept
Estimate Residual
r δQ r SV Update State Vector Crew
δb ias ω δQ Alarm Test Action
Fail Reject
Q + Measurement
RR Tracking
Incorporation Accept
Measurement Pass

• State vector update can be applied to either vehicle (usually the active vehicle, LM)
• If CSM performs maneuver, maneuver ΔV should be externally applied to CSM vector
in the LM to prevent excessive RR updates and improve state vector convergence
 If it q
quacks like one…

• Apollo navigation software initial development by Battin

was concurrentt with
ith (and
( d iindependent
d d t of)
f) K
Kalman’s
l ’ workk
on recursive estimators (later named Kalman filters)
– Early Apollo documents didn’t use Kalman’s nomenclature
– Battin
B tti di
discovered
dKKalman’s
l ’ work kd
during
i d development
l t
• Apollo navigation software contained several
simplifications/differences from “orthodox” Kalman filter
– W-matrix
W matrix instead of error covariance matrix
• Square root of covariance: [E] = [W][W]T
• Eliminating negative numbers from matrix improved convergence
– One measurement incorporation
p at a time
• Reduced a lot of matrix-vector math to vector-scalar math
– Measurement edit test used state vector update rather than ratio
• Ratio test incorporates covariance, becomes more stringent as state
vector converges
 CSM Rendezvous Navigation
g
Update
Mode

ΔV

ΔV
+ +

Maneuver Δ

Maneuver Δ
P
Passive
i Vehicle
V hi l Orbit
O bit A ti Vehicle
Active V hi l O
Orbit
bit
+ +
r + r +
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ ⎣v ⎦
Coasting Coasting
IIntegration
t ti IIntegration
t ti
r
δr
r r
b δv
Measurement
Weighting
Geometry r
Vector
r2
α
Vector r ⎡δr ⎤
Computation δx = ⎢ r ⎥
VHF/SXT Q̂
r ⎣δv ⎦ Pass
Measurement Accept
- ω
Estimate
δQ r State Vector Crew
ω δQ Alarm Test Action
Fail Reject
Q + Measurement
VHF/SXT
Measurement Incorporation

• CSM rendezvous measurements are performed using

VHF (range) and SXT (shaft and trunnion angles)
• Sensor biases are not propagated
 LM Lunar Surface Navigation
g

+
CSM V
Vehicle
hi l OOrbit
bit LM V
Vehicle
hi l St
State
t

r + r
r ⎡r ⎤ r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦ Planetary ⎣v ⎦
Coasting
Inertial
IIntegration
t ti
Orientation
r
δr
r r
b δv
Measurement
Weighting
Geometry r
Vector
r2
α
Vector r ⎡δr ⎤
Computation δx = ⎢ r ⎥
Q̂
r ⎣δv ⎦ Pass
RR Measurement Accept
- ω
Estimate
δQ r State Vector Crew
ω δQ Alarm Test Action
Fail Reject
Q + Measurement
RR Tracking
Measurement Incorporation

• The LM vehicle state is stored in Moon-Fixed Coordinates and updated by transforming to inertial
coordinates
• The CSM state vector is updated using LM RR data
• Only RR range and range rate are incorporated, not angles
• RR biases are not propagated
 CSM Orbital Navigation
g

CSM V
Vehicle
hi l OOrbit
bit +

r +
r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥
⎣v ⎦
Coasting
Landmark
IIntegration
t ti
Position
r r
rl δr
r r
b δv
Measurement r
Weighting
Geometry ⎡δr ⎤
r2 Vector
δx = ⎢⎢δv ⎥⎥
Vector α r r
Computation Accept
Q̂ r (known
SCT Measurement r ⎢⎣δrl ⎥⎦
- ω landmark)
Estimate
δQ r Crew
r ω δQ
δrl Action Reject
Q + Measurement
SCT Landmark Accept
Measurement Incorporation (unknown
landmark)

• Only the CSM state vector is propagated

• Measurements are SCT shaft and trunnion angles on a landmark on the Earth or lunar surface
• All updates must be accepted or rejected by the crew
• Landmark may be known (update CSM state vector) or unknown (update landmark position)
• Sensor biases are not propagated
 CSM Cislunar-
Cislunar-Midcourse Navigation
g

CSM V
Vehicle
hi l OOrbit
bit +
SXT
landmark
r +
SXT line of sight
r ⎡r ⎤
x = ⎢ r⎥ star (LLOS)
Star Direction, ⎣v ⎦ line of sight
Coasting
Landmark (SLOS)
IIntegration
t ti
Position
r
δr
r r
b δv
Measurement
Weighting
Geometry
r2 Vector
Vector α Computation
Q̂ r
SXT Measurement r r ⎡δr ⎤ Accept
- ω δx = ⎢ r ⎥
Estimate
δQ ⎣δv ⎦
r Crew
SXT ω δQ Action
Reject
Star-Landmark/ Q + Measurement
Horizon Incorporation
Measurement
View through
SXT reticle
• Only the CSM state vector is propagated
• Measurements are SXT marks on a star and either a landmark or Earth/moon horizon
• All updates
d t mustt b
be accepted
t d or rejected
j t db by th
the crew
• Sensor biases are not propagated
 Powered Flight
g Navigation
g

• Both CSM and LM used Average-G algorithm for state vector propagation
during powered flight
– Used IMU accumulated ΔV over one guidance cycle (2 seconds)
– Used average gravitational acceleration over one cycle, primary body only
• Earth gravity model: spherical and J2 (equatorial bulge) terms only
• Lunar gravity model: spherical term only
– Estimated vehicle mass updated based on IMU sensed ΔV
• No measurement incorporation for CSM
• LM Average-G incorporated Landing Radar (LR) measurements only
– Slant range data available starting at 12.2
12 2 km (40 kft) altitude
– Velocity data available starting at 10.6 km (35 kft) altitude
– Both range and velocity subjected to simple independent reasonableness checks
– All data inhibited at 15.2 m (50 ft) altitude
• LM state vector propagated in Stable Member coordinates (rather than
Basic Reference coordinates) during powered descent, ascent, and aborts
– Since IMU aligned to landing/liftoff REFSMMAT, sometimes referred to as
landing site coordinates
– Average
Average-GG output transformed back to BRCS for downlink
 LM AGS Navigation
g

• AGS state vectors initialized from PGNS telemetry link

upon crew command d
• AGS state vectors could also be initialized via manual
keyboard entries of vectors voiced up from MCC
• AGS propagated CSM/LM state vectors from last
initialized data using acceleration data from ASA
• If LM under PGNS control, AGS acquired rendezvous
radar (RR)
( ) data (range,
( range rate, and angles))
automatically from PGNS
• If LM under AGS control, AGS acquired rendezvous
radar
d d data
t via
i manuall DEDA entries
ti
– Range and range rate only
– Crew manually pointed LM +Z axis at CSM to zero RR angles
 Summary
y

• Review of Basic Navigation Concepts

• Coordinate Systems
• Attitude Determination
– Prime: PGNCS IMU Management
– Backup:
p CSM SCS/LM AGS Attitude Management
g
• State Vector Determination
– Prime: PGNCS Coasting
g Flight
g Navigation
g
– Prime: PGNCS Powered Flight Navigation
– Backup: LM AGS Navigation
 References

• Apollo Operations Handbook, Block II Spacecraft, Volume I: Spacecraft Description. SM2A-03-

( ), 15 Januaryy 1970.
Block II-(1),
• Apollo Operations Handbook, Lunar Module, LM 10 and Subsequent, Volume I: Subsystems
Data. LMA790-3-LM 10, 1 April 1971.
• Guidance System Operations Plan for Manned LM Earth Orbital and Lunar Missions using
Program Luminary 1C (LM131 rev. 1), Section 5: Guidance Equations (rev. 8). MIT Charles Stark
Draper Laboratory R-567, April 1970.
• Guidance System Operations Plan for Manned CM Earth Orbital and Lunar Missions using
Program Colossus 3, Section 5: Guidance Equations (rev. 14). MIT Charles Stark Draper
Laboratory R-577, March 1971.
• Space Navigation Guidance and Control, Volume 1 of 2. MIT Instrumentation Laboratory R-500,
June 1965.
• A ll 15 P
Apollo Program D Description.
i ti D l El
Delco Electronics,
t i 1971.
1971
• Project Apollo Coordinate System Standards. NASA SE 008-001-1, June 1965.
• Apollo Training: Guidance and Control Systems - Block II S/C 101, 15 September 1967.
• Apollo Experience Report – Guidance and Control Systems. NASA TN D-8249, June 1976.
• Apollo
p Experience
p Report
p – Onboard Navigational
g and Alignment
g Software. NASA TN D-6741,,
March 1972.
• Apollo Experience Report: Very-High-Frequency Ranging System. NASA TN D-6851, June 1972.
• Apollo Experience Report – Guidance and Control Systems: Orbital-Rate Drive Electronics for the
Apollo Command Module and Lunar Module. NASA TN D-7784, September 1974.
• Apollo
p Guidance Computerp History
y Project,
j , Interview with R. Battin,, MIT,, 30 September
p 2002
(http://authors.library.caltech.edu/5456/01/hrst.mit.edu/hrs/apollo/public/interviews/battin.htm).