Arkansas Tech University

MATH 2243: Business Calculus

Dr. Marcel B. Finan
6 The Natural Logarithm
An equation of the form a
x
= b can be solved graphically. That is, using a
calculator we graph the horizontal line y = b and the exponential function
y = a
x
and then nd the point of intersection.
In this section we discuss an algebraic way to solve equations of the form
a
x
= b where a and b are positive constants. For this, we introduce a function
that is found in todays calculators, namely, the function ln x.
y = ln x if and only if e
y
= x.
where e = 2.71828 We call ln x the natural logarithm of x.
Properties of Logarithms
(i) Since e
x
= e
x
we can write
ln e
x
= x
(ii) Since ln x = ln x we can write
e
ln x
= x
(iii) ln 1 = 0 since e
0
= 1.
(iv) ln e = 1 since e
1
= e.
(v) Suppose that m = ln a and n = ln b. Then a = e
m
and b = e
n
. Thus,
a b = e
m
e
n
= e
m+n
. Rewriting this using logs instead of exponents, we see
that
ln (a b) = m + n = ln a + ln b.
(vi) If, in (v), instead of multiplying we divide, that is
a
b
=
e
m
e
n
= e
mn
then
using logs again we nd
ln

a
b

= ln a ln b.
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(vii) It follows from (vi) that if a = b then ln a ln b = ln 1 = 0 that is
ln a = ln b.
(viii) Now, if n = ln b then b = e
n
. Taking both sides to the power k we nd
b
k
= (e
n
)
k
= e
nk
. Using logs instead of exponents we see that ln b
k
= nk =
k ln b that is
ln b
k
= k ln b.
Example 6.1
Solve the equation: 4(1.171)
x
= 7(1.088)
x
.
Solution.
Rewriting the equation into the form

1.171
1.088

x
=
7
4
and then using properties
(vii) and (viii) to obtain
x ln

1.171
1.088

= ln
7
4
.
Thus,
x =
ln
7
4
ln

1.171
1.088

7.612
Example 6.2
Solve the equation ln (2x + 1) + 3 = 0.
Solution.
Subtract 3 from both sides to obtain ln (2x + 1) = 3. Switch to exponential
form to get 2x + 1 = e
3
. Subtract 1 and then divide by 2 to obtain x =
e
3
1
2
0.4995
Remark 6.1
Keep in mind the following:
ln (a + b) = ln a + ln b. For example, ln 2 = ln 1 + ln 1 = 0.
ln (a b) = ln a ln b. For example, ln (2 1) = ln 1 = 0 whereas ln 2
ln 1 = ln 2 = 0.
ln (ab) = ln a ln b. For example, ln 1 = ln (2
1
2
) = 0 whereas ln 2 ln
1
2
=
ln
2
2 = 0.
ln

a
b

=
ln a
ln b
. For example, letting a = b = 2 we nd that ln
a
b
= ln 1 = 0
whereas
ln a
ln b
=
ln 2
ln 2
= 1.

ln a
ln b
= ln

1
a

=
1
ln a
. For example, ln
1
1
2
= ln 2 whereas
1
ln
1
2
=
1
ln 2
.
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Example 6.3
Sketch the graphs of the functions y = ln x and y = e
x
on the same axes.
Solution.
The graphs of y = ln x and y = e
x
are reections of one another across the
line y = x as shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15
Continuous Growth Rate and the Number e
When writing y = be
t
then we say that y is an exponential function with
base e. Suppose that Q(t) = ab
t
. Then b = e
k
where k = ln b. Thus,
Q(t) = a(e
k
)
t
= ae
kt
.
Note that if k > 0 then e
k
> 1 so that Q(t) represents an exponential growth
and if k < 0 then e
k
< 1 so that Q(t) is an exponential decay.
We call the constant k the continuous growth or decay rate.
Example 6.4
If f(t) = 3(1.072)
t
is rewritten as f(t) = 3e
kt
, nd k.
Solution.
By comparison of the two functions we nd e
k
= 1.072. Solving this equation
we nd k = ln 1.072 0.0695
Example 6.5
A population increases from its initial level of 7.3 million at the continuous
growth rate of 2.2% per year. Find a formula for the population P(t) as a
function of the year t. When does the population reach 10 million?
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Solution.
We are given the initial value 7.3 million and the continuous growth rate
k = 0.022. Therefore, P(t) = 7.3e
0.022t
. Next,we want to nd the time when
P(t) = 10. That is , 7.3e
0.022t
= 10. Divide both sides by 7.3 to obtain
e
0.022t
1.37. Solving this equation to obtain t =
ln 1.37
0.022
14.3
Next, in order to convert from Q(t) = be
kt
to Q(t) = ba
t
we let a = e
k
.
For example, to convert the formula Q(t) = 7e
0.3t
to the form Q(t) = ba
t
we
let b = 7 and a = e
0.3
1.35. Thus, Q(t) = 7(1.35)
t
.
Example 6.6
Find the annual percent rate and the continuous decay rate of Q(t) =
200(0.886)
t
.
Solution.
The annual percent rate of decrease is r = b 1 = 0.886 1 = 0.114 =
11.4%. To nd the continuous decay rate we let e
k
= 0.886 and solve for k
to obtain k = ln 0.886 0.121 = 12.1%
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