Components 2 Introduction review of the fundamentals of basic electrical components and discrete circuit analysis techniques important in understanding and designing all elements in a mechatronic system 2 3 Voltage and Current Voltage (electromotive force, emf) measure of the electric field's potential imposing an electrical field that imparts energy by making electrons move production of electrical current "across" variable between two points in the electric field in order to measure a voltage 4 Voltage and Current Current time rate of flow of positive charge ampere (A), coulombs (C) "through" variable that moves through the field direct current (DC) when voltage and current in a circuit are constant alternating current (AC) when they vary with time, usually sinusoidally 3 5 Electrical Circuit closed loop consisting of several conductors connecting electrical components voltage source: provides energy to the circuit, e.g. power supply, battery, generator load: a network of elements that may dissipate or store electrical energy ground: reference point in the circuit where the voltage is assumed to be zero 6 Basic Electrical Elements three basic passive electrical components passive elements require no additional power supply defined by the voltage-current relationship two types of ideal energy sources the ideal sources contain no internal resistance, inductance, capacitance 4 7 Resistor dissipative element that converts electrical energy into heat Ohm's law (V = I R) defines the voltage-current characteristic of an ideal resistor real resistors: nonlinear due to temperature effects; failure due to the limitation in the power dissipation 8 Resistor wire resistance r : resistivity, specific resistance of the material 5 9 Resistor resistors packaged in various forms DIP and SIP: multiple resistors in a package axial-lead resistor's value and tolerance 10 Resistor Example: resistance color codes Red-Red-Orange-Gold Yellow-Violet-Brown-Gold 6 11 Resistor Variable resistor resistance values controlled by a mechanical screw, knob, or linear slide potentiometer (pot): the most common type trim pot: a pot in a circuit to adjust the resistance in the circuit A typical single-turn potentiometer axial-lead resistors, trim pot & rotary pot, DIP 12 Capacitor passive element that stores energy in the form of an electric field the field is the result of a separation of electric charge dielectric material: insulator that increases capacitance as a result of permanent or induced electric dipoles in the material DC does not flow through a capacitor charges are displaced from one side to the other side thru the conducting plate, establishing the electric field 7 13 Capacitor ceramic capacitors (pF range) mylar capacitors electrolytic capacitors (polarized) 14 Capacitor voltage-current relationship voltage across a capacitor is proportional to the integral of the displacement current C: capacitance measured in farads (F) capacitance: property of the dielectric material and the plate geometry and separation, typically 1 pF ~ 1000 mF In case of parallel plate model, C = eA/d (e: permittivity) capacitor's value: the first two digits are the value and the third is the power of 10 multiplied times pF e.g. 102: 10 10 2 pF 8 15 Capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously used for timing purposes in electrical circuits, e.g. RC circuit 16 Inductor passive energy storage element that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field characteristics based on Faraday's law of induction: V(t) = dl/dt l : total magnetic flux thru the coil windings due to the current ideal inductor: l = L I L : inductance measured in henry (H = Wb/A) inductance: typically from 1 mH to 100 mH 9 17 Inductor voltage-current relationship voltage across an inductor is proportional to the rate of change of the current thru the inductor the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously important to consider in motors, relays, solenoids, some power supplies, and high- frequency circuits e.g. large inductance of electric motor 18 Kirchhoff's Laws essential for the analysis of circuits KVL sum of voltages around a closed loop is 0 How to apply KVL to a circuit 1. assume a current direction on each branch of the circuit 2. assign the appropriate polarity to the voltage across each passive element (assumed voltage drops must be consistent with the assumed current directions) 3. starting at any point in the circuit, form the sum of the voltages across each element 10 19 Kirchhoff's Laws Example of KVL find the current in the circuit 1. assume the current direction 2. assign the voltage drop polarity 3. starting at A, form 20 Kirchhoff's Laws KCL sum of the currents flowing into a closed surface or node is 0 currents leaving a node or surface are assigned a negative value What if the calculated result for a current or voltage is negative? 11 21 Kirchhoff's Laws Series resistance circuit the current through each of the components is the same resistors in series add to the equivalent resistance check! Applying KVL - V S + V R1 + V R2 = 0 I = V S / (R 1 + R 2 ) 22 Kirchhoff's Laws Voltage divider a circuit containing two resistors in series in general, for N resistors connected in series 12 23 Kirchhoff's Laws Parallel resistance circuit each resistor experiences the same voltage I 1 = V S / R 1 and I 2 = V S / R 2 Applying KCL I I 1 I 2 = 0 I = V S (1/R 1 + 1/R 2 ) 24 Kirchhoff's Laws Current divider a circuit containing two resistors in parallel 13 25 Kirchhoff's Laws Example find I out and V out 1. combine resistors 26 Kirchhoff's Laws Example find I out and V out 2. Apply KVL Note! 14 27 Sources and Meters Voltage source ideal voltage source has zero output resistance and can supply infinite current real voltage source model: ideal voltage source in series with output impedance V out V s output impedance is very small usually neglected for most applications output impedance can be important when driving a circuit with small resistance 28 Sources and Meters Current source ideal current source has infinite output resistance and can supply infinite voltage real current source model: ideal current source in parallel with an output impedance the output impedance is very large minimize the current division effect 15 29 Sources and Meters Meters ideal ammeter has zero input resistance and no voltage drop across it real ammeter model: ideal ammeter in series with an input impedance the input impedance is very small ideal voltmeter has infinite input resistance and draws no current real voltmeter model: ideal voltmeter in parallel with an output impedance the input impedance is very large, usually 1~10 MW 30 Sources and Meters Example effects of source and meter output and input impedance on making measurements in a circuit What if the source and meter were ideal? In reality 16 31 Sources and Meters Example effects of source and meter output and input impedance on making measurements in a circuit voltage measured by the actual meter V m = V s when Z in = and Z out = 0 32 Sources and Meters Example effects of source and meter output and input impedance on making measurements in a circuit e.g. If R 1 = R 2 = 1 kW If Z in = 1 MW and Z out = 50 W If V s = 10 V 17 33 AC Circuit Analysis When linear circuits are excited by alternating current (AC) signals of a given frequency, the current through and voltage across every element in the circuit are AC signals of the same frequency sinusoidal AC voltage V(t) w: radian frequency f: phase angle leading or lagging waveform 34 AC Circuit Analysis DC offset vertical shift of the signal from the reference sinusoid Example AC voltage V(t) = 5.00 sin(t + 1) V - amplitude = ? - radian frequency = ? - frequency = ? - phase angle = ? 18 35 AC Circuit Analysis Principal reasons for using AC power instead of DC power more efficient to transmit over long distances easy to generate with rotating machinery (e.g., an electric generator) easy to use to drive rotating machinery (e.g., an AC electric motor) provides a fixed frequency signal that can be used for timing purposes and synchronization 36 AC Circuit Analysis Phasor analysis phasor (vector): vector representation of the complex exponential using complex numbers to represent sinusodial signals based on Euler's formula for the voltage across and current through each element in the steady state - same frequency as input - constant amplitude - maybe different phase from the input Here V m is the amplitude and f is the phase angle of the signal 19 37 AC Circuit Analysis Phasor analysis math relations for manipulating phasors phasor magnitude phasor angle 38 AC Circuit Analysis extension of Ohm's law to the AC circuit analysis of resistor, capacitor, inductor Z : impedance voltage will lead the current by 90 for DC, w = 0 Z = ? for AC at very high frequency, Z = ? voltage will lag the current by 90 for DC, w = 0 Z = ? for AC at very high frequency, Z = ? 20 39 AC Circuit Analysis Example find the steady state current I through the capacitor phasor form of the voltage source V in = 5 <90> V = (0 + 5j) V phasor form of the capacitor impedance Z C = -j / wC = -1666.67j W = 1666.67 <-90> W phasor form of the inductor impedance Z L = jwL = 1500j W = 1500 <90> W combining all the impedances 40 AC Circuit Analysis Example find the steady state current I through the capacitor 21 41 Power in Electrical Circuits interpretation of power consumed or generated by an electric element infinitesimal work (dW) done when an infinitesimal charge (dq) moves through an electric field resulting in a change in potential represented by a voltage V power is the rate of work done P is negative if the element dissipates or stores energy, or positive if instantaneous power in a resistive circuit 42 Power in Electrical Circuits for AC signals, the power changes continuously over a period of the AC waveform average power over a period is a good measure q: difference between the voltage and current phase angles using the rms (root-mean-square) values of the voltage and current for AC networks including inductance and capacitance P avg = I rms V rms cos q = I 2 rms |Z| cos q = (V 2 rms / |Z|) cos q 22 43 Transformer device used to change the relative amplitudes of voltage and current in an AC circuit composed of primary and secondary windings whose magnetic fluxes are linked by a ferromagnetic core relationship between the primary and secondary voltages f: magnetic flux linked between the two coils step-up transformer, step-down transformer, isolation transformer power is equal if we neglect losses due to winding resistance and magnetic effects Note: only AC is transformed 44 Summary Electric circuits and components Basic electrical elements: resistor, capacitor, inductor Kirchhoff's laws Sources and meters AC circuit analysis Power in electrical circuits 23 45 Preview Semiconductor electronics Junction diode Transistor 46 Lab Lab 1 Power supply Multimeter Measuring the resistance of resistors Verification of Ohm's law Measuring for circuits with a serial or parallel connection of resistors 24 47 Question: Proper car jump start? 48 Grounding