1

Contents
Contents...............................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................2
What is Criminal Law?....................................................................................................2
The Creation of Criminal Law.........................................................................................3
Statutor Inter!retation...................................................................................................."
Limits of the Criminal Law # $e%eralism........................................................................&
The 'arm (rin)i!le* The Charter +s. Statutor Inter!retation........................................&
The Charter an% the Rule Law* ,a-ueness. O+er/rea%th. 0r/itrariness. an%
Dis!ro!ortionalit............................................................................................................1
Intro%u)tion to the Criminal (ro)ess.............................................................................12
The Criminal (ro)ess ste!3/3ste!................................................................................12
The (resum!tion of Inno)en)e......................................................................................12
(roof 4eon% a Reasona/le Dou/t................................................................................11
5ustifia/le Re+erse Onuses?...........................................................................................12
0CTUS R6US* T'6 CONDUCT 6L676NT.................................................................13
Intro%u)tion* The tra%itional a!!roa)h to the -eneral !art of )riminal law...................13
Con%u)t..........................................................................................................................13
What is an a)t?...............................................................................................................13
Omissions an% the Dut to 0)t......................................................................................18
,oluntariness.................................................................................................................19
Cir)umstan)es* The role of )onsent...............................................................................21
De 7inimus Non Curat Le:..........................................................................................2"
Conse;uen)es* Causation...............................................................................................2"
76NS R60* T'6 76NT0L 6L676NT........................................................................2<
Intro%u)tion....................................................................................................................2<
Stri)t lia/ilit an% the )onstitutionalisation of mens rea................................................2<
Su/=e)ti+e mens rea.......................................................................................................21
7oti+e............................................................................................................................29
Intention.........................................................................................................................32
Re)>lessness or wilful /lin%ness...................................................................................31
O/=e)ti+e $ault...............................................................................................................32
Criminal Ne-li-en)e* the =u%i)ial e+olution of the stan%ar%.........................................32
Crimes /ase% on !re%i)ate offen)es...............................................................................3"
76NS R60 ? 7IST0@6S..............................................................................................3&
7ista>es of $a)t.............................................................................................................3&
7ista>e of Law.............................................................................................................."2
S6L6CT6D 6ACUL(0TORB D6$6NC6S...................................................................."2
0ir of Realit for Defen)es............................................................................................"2
Self3Defen)e.................................................................................................................."2
Defen)e of (ro!ert CDwellin-D.....................................................................................""
Ne)essit........................................................................................................................"8
2
INTRODUCTION
What is Criminal Law?
3 What is a )rime?
o 0 wron- a-ainst the state. Crimes are what the law states as )rime.
o 0 moral wron-.
o Somethin- that harms another !erson.
o 0n a)t a-ainst so)ietEs )olle)ti+e. normati+e +alues.
o What the law sas is a )rime is a )rime?
o 0 /rea)h of human ri-hts?
o $ear or so)ial +olatilit in%u)in- )on%u)t?
o 4eha+iour )ausin- harm? 0n harm? Causin- offen)e? 0n offen)e?
o 0 moral wron-? 0n wron-?
3 Flan+ille Williams* an a)t that is )a!a/le of /ein- followe% / )riminal
!ro)ee%in-s.
3 7an le-al sstems %istin-uish /etween )riminal an% )i+il wron-s.
3 In !ri+ate law. it is for the in=ure% !art to /rin- the )ase forwar%. The )ase
/elon-s to the +i)tim.
3 The )riminal law is !u/li) law. So)iet C!oli)e. the CrownD in+esti-ates an%
!rose)utes.
3 The out)omes are %ifferent. In )i+il )ases. the )ase is %e)i%e% /etween the
!laintiff an% the %efen%ant. In )riminal )ases. the %e)ision is /etween -uilt or
inno)en)e.
Criminal vs. Civil Wrongs
1. Ci+il wron-s are t!i)all treate% as G!ri+ateE matters. while )riminal wron-s are
treate% as G!u/li)E matters.
2. The )i+il an% )riminal !ro)esses t!i)all ha+e %ifferent out)omes* )om!ensation
for harm +s. a);uittalH)on+i)tionH!unishment for )ul!a/le /eha+iour. The )i+il
law is for the satisfa)tion of the !laintiff. whereas )riminal law is on /ehalf of the
entire !olit.
3. (unishments im!ose% for )rimes %iffer from the %ama-es im!ose% as a result of a
)i+il suit Coften in >in%. /ut also in meanin-D.
Crimes as public/shared wrongs
ICrime an% !unishment shoul% /e un%erstoo% in terms of the wron-%oerEs relationshi! to
the )ommunit as well as to the in%i+i%ual +i)tim.J 3 0nton Duff ? San%ra 7arshall
3 Criminal law is an essential !art of the !u/li) law.
3 (u/li) law is )on)erne% with so)ietEs )olle)ti+e +alues
3 Other /ran)hes of !u/li) law are )onstitutional law an% a%ministrati+e law
3
Administrative law
3 Le-islatures !ass statutes that )reate /o%ies. tri/unals. /oar%s. an% su)h that assist
the -o+ernment in )arrin- out their man%ate
3 Su)h /o%ies ha+e a s!e)ifi) man%ate.
3 0%ministrati+e law re-ulates the or-ans of -o+ernment. It is !rimaril )on)erne%
with ensurin- that su)h or-ans %o not o+erste! their man%ates.
The Criminal Code
3 Criminal law sets out in )lear terms what /eha+iours we as a so)iet see as wron-.
3 The )ourts a%% to the Co%e to fill in -a!s
3 It was written in 1192. an% )ontinues to /e re+ise% u! to this !oint
The Creation of Criminal Law
Sources of Criminal aw in Canada!
3 0t Confe%eration # 11&< # Criminal Law in the Dominion of Cana%a )onsiste% of
that re)ei+e% from 4ritain. in the form of 6n-lish statutes an% the )ommon law.
0s well as le-islation ena)te% / the lo)al le-islatures.
3 The /ul> of 6n-lish )riminal law was )ommon law.
What is "the common law#!
3 In !assin- on whether the in%i+i%ual /efore the )ourt was -uilt or inno)ent of a
)rime. =u%-es woul% ne)essaril sa a -reat %eal in their %e)ision a/out the t!e of
)on%u)t that )onsi%ere% )riminal. In this wa =u%-es %e)isions woul% ser+e /oth
to )larif an% further %e+elo! the )ommon law.
R v Sedley, 1727
3 Crime at )ommon law. I4rea)h of the @in-Es (ea)eJ
3 When the Criminal law is not )o%ifie%. it is not )lear. ex ante facto. what is a
)rime.
3 It is im!ortant to -i+e !eo!le fair notice. Without whi)h. ou )annot /rin- the
a!!aratus of the state to /ear a-ainst an in%i+i%ual.
3 Ex ante certaint$. or ex ante clarit$. is a !illar of the rule of law.
Frey v Fedoruk, 1950
3 $re was in%i)te% of the )ommon law )rime of /ein- a G!ee!in- TomE
3 To%a the )riminal )o%e !enalises !ee!in-
3 There are no )rimes at )ommon law. $re )oul% not /e !unishe%.
3 There are no )rimes at )ommon law /e)ause of the !rin)i!le of fair noti)e.
%
3 Cannot /e )on+i)te% of a )rime for )on%u)t that is not re)o-nise% / statute or the
authorit of !re+iousl re)or%e% )ases
3 (eo!le nee% fair noti)e of whether an a)t is a )rime. otherwise the are %enie% an
o!!ortunit for )hoi)e to %ire)t their a)tion a))or%in- to the law. Inullem crimen,
nulla poena, sine legeJ
3 The )ourts shoul% not )ontinue to e:!an% the list of )ommon law offen)es. The
)reation of new )rimes is /est left to (arliament.
R v Henry, 2005
3 Not all o/iter of the Su!reme Court is /in%in-
Ss. 8 and 9 of the r!"!nal ode
3 Re!la)es all 6n-lish Common Law )rimes with the Criminal Co%e
3 Common law %efen)es )ontinues to hol%. e:)e!t in instan)es where re!la)e% /
the Criminal Co%e
&.C3D 6+er rule an% !rin)i!le of the )ommon law that ren%ers an )ir)umstan)e a
=ustifi)ation or e:)use for an a)t or a %efen)e to a )har-e )ontinues in for)e an% a!!lies in
res!e)t of !ro)ee%in-s for an offen)e un%er this 0)t or an other 0)t of (arliament
e:)e!t in so far as the are altere% / or are in)onsistent with this 0)t or an other 0)t of
(arliament.
'. Notwithstan%in- anthin- in this 0)t or an other 0)t. no !erson shall /e )on+i)te%
or %is)har-e% un%er se)tion <32
CaD of an offen)e at )ommon law.
CbD of an offen)e un%er an 0)t of the (arliament of 6n-lan%. or of Freat 4ritain. or of
the Unite% @in-%om of Freat 4ritain an% Irelan%. or
CcD of an offen)e un%er an 0)t or or%inan)e in for)e in an !ro+in)e. territor or !la)e
/efore that !ro+in)e. territor or !la)e /e)ame a !ro+in)e of Cana%a.
/ut nothin- in this se)tion affe)ts the !ower. =uris%i)tion or authorit that a )ourt. =u%-e.
=usti)e or !ro+in)ial )ourt =u%-e ha%. imme%iatel /efore 0!ril 1. 1988. to im!ose
!unishment for )ontem!t of )ourt.
Statutory Interpretation
Strict Construction # assume the inter!retation that most fa+ours the a))use%
3 The %o)trine of stri)t )onstru)tion was initiall intro%u)e% to soften the /low for
)riminals.
(
3 0s !enalties ha+e softene% o+er time. the nee% for stri)t )onstru)tion has /e)ome
less a)ute.
3 To%a. we still ha+e the %o)trine of stri)t )onstru)tion.
3 Un%er stri)t )onstru)tion. in )ases of -enuine am/i-uit the am/i-uit must /e
resol+e% in a manner that fa+ours in%i+i%ual li/ert.
3 When inter!retin- le-islation. the =u%-e must inter!ret the intent of Parliament.
o Rea% the wor%s in the ordinary sense
o Loo> at sour)es aroun% the le-islation C'ansar%. )ommittee %e/atesD
o Rea% the !ream/le
o Loo> at the 0)tEs %efinitions
R v #ar$, 1987 S
Charge* $irst3%e-ree mur%er un%er now s. 231C8DC/D.
)atio* Stri)t )onstru)tion is ;ualifie% / the !ur!ose an% aims of the statute.
)easons* The mur%er was tem!orall an% )ausall )onne)te% to the offen)e. an% was
!art of a )ontinuous se;uen)e of e+ents.
Inter!retation test*
1. 6:amine the -rammati)al stru)ture
2. Statutor s)heme
3. (ur!ose of the le-islationH(arliamentar intent 3 the un%erlin- !hiloso!h of the
se)tion )an -i+e insi-ht into (arliamentEs intent.
R. v %a&, 2001 'ntar!o ourt of ())eal
*ecision* The Court of 0!!eal hel% to stri)t )onstru)tion. an% a-ree% with the a!!ellant
that the wor% Ia%a!te%J must mean Ialtere% so as to /e suita/le forJ. an% )oul% not mean.
as the trial =u%-e sai% it )oul%. Isuita/le forJ.
+otes* In a later a!!eal. the Su!reme Court o+erturne% the a!!eal on the -roun%s that
resortin- to stri)t )onstru)tion is a))e!ta/le when there is real am/i-uit. /ut there was
no am/i-uit in the $ren)h +ersion of the Criminal Code.
The !rin)i!al of stri)t )onstru)tion is =ustifie% on two -roun%s*
1D (ersons are entitle% to fair noti)e of the )on%u)t whi)h will su/=e)t them to
)riminal !ro)ee%in-s. an% am/i-uous lan-ua-e is not fair noti)e.
2D Cana%ian so)iet has a /ias towar% in%i+i%ual li/ert. an% an am/i-uit
in the lan-ua-e of the Co%e must /e resol+e% in fa+our of in%i+i%ual
li/ert.
R. v lark, 2005 S
C7astur/ate% in win%owD
Charge* 'e was )har-e% with in%e)ent a)t in a !u/li) !la)e un%er s. 1<3C1DCaD.
,
-ssue* Was the %efen%ant )ommittin- an in%e)ent a)t in a I!u/li) !la)eJ. as is re;uire%
/ the a/o+ementione% se)tion?
)atio* The !rin)i!le of stri)t )onstru)tion must here /e a!!lie%. S. 1<"C1DC/D ma>es it
)lear that the s. 182 %efinition of I!u/li) !la)eJ %oes not in)lu%e the %efen%antEs li+in-
room.
7o%ifi)ation of stri)t )onstru)tion. It is a )onte:tual analsis*
1. Frammati)al )onstru)tion of the lan-ua-e
2. 'ow a)t fits with the le-islati+e s)heme. Ejusdem Generis.
3. If there is onl one inter!retation. there is no nee% for stri)t )onstru)tion
". If there are multi!le reasona/le inter!retations. a!!l stri)t )onstru)tion an% fa+our
the inter!retation that -i+es -reater li/ert.
Limits of the Criminal Law Federalism
Ss. 91 and 92, Constitution ct, 1!"#
3 The fe%eral -o+ernment has e:)lusi+e =uris%i)tion o+er the Criminal Law.
!enitentiaries. an% Criminal !ro)e%ure Cs. 91C2<DDK
3 The !ro+in)ial -o+ernments ha+e =uris%i)tion o+er !risons. the a%ministration of
=usti)e. !ro!ert an% )i+il ri-hts. an% the enfor)ement of !ro+in)ial laws. Cs.
92C1"DD
Le-al )he)>s on (arliamentEs a/ilit to ma>e )riminal laws*
3 Di+ision of !owers
3 6le)tions
3 The Charter CSs. < an% 12D
Re F!rear"s (&t *anada+
)atio* 4e)ause the !ith an% su/stan)e of the $irearms ct is a !u/li) safet measure. it
falls un%er the fe%eral -o+ernmentEs =uris%i)tion to le-islate in the area of Criminal Law
Test for Chara)ter of law*
1. (ur!ose of the law
2. 6ffe)t of the law
Test for )lassifi)ation*
1. 0 )riminal law !ur!ose
2. 4a)>e% / a !rohi/ition
3. 0n% a !enalt
The Harm Principle: The Charter s! Statutory Interpretation
aw )eform Commission )eport and .uimet )eport
/
3 Criminal law is a /lunt an% )ostl instrument an% as su)h shoul% /e an instrument
of last resort
3 Onl thin-s thou-ht to /e seriousl wron- shoul% /e ma%e )rimes
The Charter
3 The Charter is a sour)e of su/stanti+e )riminal law.
3 The CharterEs im!a)t has /een -reatest on !ro)e%ural law /e)ause it enshrines
!ro)e%ural ri-hts.
3 The Courts are to -i+e the Charter a !ur!osi+e inter!retation
R. v %al"o,-ev!ne, 200. S
Is the 'arm (rin)i!le a (rin)i!le of $un%amental 5usti)e?
$or a rule or !rin)i!le to )onstitute a !rin)i!le of fun%amental =usti)e.
1. It must /e a le-al !rin)i!le
2. There must /e si-nifi)ant so)ietal )onsensus that it is fun%amental to the wa in
whi)h the le-al sstem ou-ht to fairl o!erate
3. It must /e i%entifie% with suffi)ient !re)ision to iel% a mana-ea/le stan%ar%
a-ainst whi)h to measure %e!ri+ations of life. li/ert or se)urit of !erson.
The 'arm (rin)i!le is not a (rin)i!le of $un%amental 5usti)e
3 There is no suffi)ient )onsensus that the 'arm (rin)i!le is +ital our so)ietal
notions of Criminal 5usti)e
o It is an im!ortant =ustifi)ation. /ut not the onl one
o (arliament ma also le-islate /ase% on stan%ar%s of !ro!riet roote% in
moralit
3 The 'arm (rin)i!le is not a mana-ea/le stan%ar% a-ainst whi)h to measure
%e!ri+ation of Life. Li/ert. or Se)urit of the (erson
o 6+erone )laims IharmJ. The %e/ate )entres aroun% what t!e of harm.
how mu)h. an% how it )om!ares to other harms.
R. v -a/aye and R. v 0our!, 2005 S
Charge* @ee!in- a /aw%3house. s. 212C1D.
Rule* In%e)ent )riminal )on%u)t will /e esta/lishe% / the followin- two sta-e o/=e)ti+e
test. This o/=e)ti+e test re!la)es the )ommunit stan%ar% of toleran)e test*
1D The )on%u)t must )ause harm or !resent ris> of harm to in%i+i%uals or so)ietK
an%
2D The harm or ris> of harm is of a %e-ree that is in)om!ati/le with the !ro!er
fun)tionin- of so)iet.
This test aims to satisf the re;uirements of the )riminal law. It -i+es fair noti)e an% )lear
enfor)ement stan%ar%s.
&
CLe/el. 5. $or the minoritD
)easons* The new test esta/lishe% / the ma=orit is neither %esira/le nor wor>a/le. It
)onstitutes an% unwarrante% /rea> with the most im!ortant !rin)i!les of !ast %e)isions
re-ar%in- in%e)en). The new a!!roa)h stri!s of all rele+an)e the so)ial +alues that the
Cana%ian )ommunit as a whole /elie+es shoul% /e !rote)te%.
The 0arm 1rinciple
3 There ma /e a thir% wa in the %e/ate /etween !u/li) moralit an% the harm
!rin)i!le* somethin- li>e li/eral !aternalism.
The Charter and the "ule Law: #a$ueness% &er'readth%
(r'itrariness% and )isproportionality
Ss. 1, #, Canadian C%arter of &ig%ts and $reedoms
1. The Canadian C%arter of &ig%ts and $reedoms -uarantees the ri-hts an% free%oms set
out in it su/=e)t onl to su)h reasona/le limits !res)ri/e% / law as )an /e %emonstra/l
=ustifie% in a free an% %emo)rati) so)iet.
<. 6+erone has the ri-ht to life. li/ert an% se)urit of the !erson an% the ri-ht not to /e
%e!ri+e% thereof e:)e!t in a))or%an)e with the !rin)i!les of fun%amental =usti)e.
Hunter v Southa", 1981 S
3 The )ourts shoul% use a purposi'e approac% in inter!retin- the Charter
3 The Constitution an% Charter shoul% /e -i+en a lar-e an% li/eral inter!retation. as
!er Ed(ards Cli+in- treeD
2agueness
3 The law ma not /e +a-ue. to /e so woul% /e a +iolation of a !rin)i!le of
fun%amental =usti)e Cse)tion < of the CharterD. It woul% +iolate fair noti)e.
3 The rule of +a-ueness is %esi-ne% to !rote)t a-ainst ar/itrar an% %is)riminator
a!!li)ation of the law
Test of +a-ueness* 0 law is +a-ue when
1. Not enou-h room for le-al %e/ate
2. Does not %elineate an area of ris>
3. Is not intelli-i/le
3 0 !ro+ision that is too +a-ue at s. < ma /e =ustifie% un%er s. 1 / means of the
Oa>es Test
Oa>es Test
1. (res)ri/e% / law # the ri-hts infrin-ement must /e I!res)ri/e% / lawJK Cif
somethin- is too +a-ue. it is not lawD
'
2. (ressin- an% su/stantial !ur!ose # The infrin-ement must ha+e a !ressin- an%
su/stantial !ur!ose Cin the )onte:t of a free an% %emo)rati) so)ietDK
3. Rational )onne)tion # There must /e a rational )onne)tion /etween the means
)hosen to a)hie+e the !ur!ose. an% the !ressin- an% su/stantial !ur!ose Cnot
ar/itrar or /ase% on irrational )onsi%erationsDK
". 7inimal im!airment # Rationall )onne)te% means shoul% im!air Gas little as
!ossi/leE the ri-ht in ;uestionK
8. (ro!ortionalit # There must /e !ro!ortionalit /etween the effe)ts of the
measures whi)h are res!onsi/le limitin- the Charter ri-ht. an% the o/=e)ti+e whi)h
has /een i%entifie% as /ein- of suffi)ient im!ortan)e.
3 Fenerall s!ea>in-. a !ro+ision that is too +a-ue for s. < will not /e sa+e% / s. 1.
The SCC has sai% that su)h !ro+isions woul% li>el onl sur+i+e in times of war
or emer-en).
anad!an Foundat!on for h!ldren, 2outh 3 the -a4 v anada *(ttorney 5eneral+, 2001
)atio* S. "3 sets real /oun%aries an% %elineates a ris> Lone for )riminal san)tion. is not
un)onstitutionall +a-ue.
.ver3breadth
3 It is a !rin)i!le of fun%amental =usti)e
3 O+er3/rea%th is a la)> of suffi)ient !re)ision / a le-islature
3 In the )ase of o+er3/rea%th the means are too swee!in- in relation to the
o/=e)ti+e. The effe)t of o+er3/rea%th is that in some a!!li)ations the law is
ar/itrar or %is!ro!ortionate
Test* 0 statute is o+erl /roa% when it a!!lies*
1. Without !rior noti)e
2. To too man !la)es
3. To too man !eo!le
". $or an in%efinite !erio% of time
8. With no !ossi/ilit for re+iew
R. v Hey4ood, 1991 S
C(ae%o!hile loiterin- an% !hoto-ra!hin- -irls in a s)hool !la-roun%.D
-ssue* Does the ol% s. 1<9C1DC/D of the Criminal Co%e +iolate the Charter ri-ht to li/ert
un%er s. <?
)atio* CCor. 5. $or the ma=oritD It +iolates the s. < Charter ri-ht to li/ert /e)ause it is
o+erl /roa%. an% is not sa+e% / s.1 !ro+isions.
)easons* The !ro+isions of s. 1<9C1DC/D are o+erl /roa% /e)ause the are too /roa% in*
1D their -eo-ra!hi)al s)o!e
2D their tem!oral as!e)t. sin)e it is for life with no )han)e for re+iew
3D The num/er of !eo!le the en)om!ass.
14
The !ro+isions of s. 1<9C1DC/D of the Criminal Co%e %o not meet the minimal im!airment
as!e)t of the )a*es +est for =ustifi)ation un%er s. 1 of the Charter of Ri-hts an%
$ree%oms.
CFonthier. 5. $or the minoritD
3 The )on)erns a/out o+er3/rea%th )an /e resol+e% / inter!retin- s. 1<9C1DC/D to
!rohi/it lin-erin- Ifor a male+olent or ulterior !ur!ose.J
Arbitrariness
3 The community standards of tolerance test is ar/itrar Cma=orit in ,abaye and
-ouriD
*isproportionalit$
3 The use of the wor% G-rossE shows that the )ourts will onl o+erturn a law for
%is!ro!ortionalit in e:treme )ases
3 Dis!ro!ortionalit is !rohi/ite% un%er s. 12 of the Charter C)ruel an% unusual
!unishementD # .almo/,e'ine
0 )riminal !rohi/ition ma also run afoul of s. < if it !rohi/its )on%u)t that is entirel
insi-nifi)ant or tri+ial 0Cribbin 1 dealing (it% t%e minimum standard of causation2. Similarl.
if the effe)ts of the !rohi/ition are -rossl %is!ro!ortionate to the harm that the law see>s to
!rote)t a-ainst C.almo/,e'ine. Clay2. if the !rohi/ition is o+erl ar/itrar. +a-ue C3o'a Scotia
P%armaceutical4 Span*ing2. or o+er/roa% 05ey(oodD, s. < ma also /e +iolate%.
Introduction to the Criminal Process
The Criminal Process step*'y*step
Three t!es of offen)es un%er the Criminal Co%e*
3 Summar Offen)es
3 In%i)ta/le Offen)es
3 '/ri% Cor Crown o!tionD # the Crown has an o!tion whether to !ro)ee%
summaril or / in%i)tment.
The Presumption of Innocence
6ool"!n7ton v 8.#.#., 19.5 H-
3 In 6n-lish Criminal Law. !rior to this )ase. the onus was on the Crown to !ro+e
that a !erson ha% /een >ille% at the han% of another.
3 On)e the a/o+e ha% /een esta/lishe%. the onus was on the >iller to %emonstrate
e:)ul!ator e:)uses. su)h as a))i%ent. ne)essit. or infirmit.
3 ,is)ount San>e L.5. rule% that this !ra)ti)e -oes a-ainst the fun%amental
!rin)i!le of !resum!tion of inno)en)e. an% is wron-.
11
3 The %efen%ant is entitle% to an %ou/t that arises from the )ase. There is no
/ur%en on the a))use% to !ro+e their inno)en)e.
3 The /ur%en is on the Crown to !ro+e -uilt /eon% a reasona/le %ou/t
3 Un%er s. 11C%D. the !resum!tion of inno)en)e is !art of the Cana%ian Charter
3 ,is)ount San>e # Throu-hout the we/ of 6n-lish Criminal Law one -ol%en
threa% is alwas to /e seen. that is the %ut of the !rose)ution to !ro+e the
!risonerEs -uilt
11. 0n !erson )har-e% with an offen)e has the ri-ht CdD to /e !resume% inno)ent until
!ro+en -uilt a))or%in- to law in a fair an% !u/li) hearin- / an in%e!en%ent an%
im!artial tri/unalK CCanadian C%arter of &ig%ts and $reedomsD
Proof +eyond a "easona'le )ou't
R. v -!f&hus, 1997 . SR .20
)atio* The wor%s Greasona/le %ou/tE must /e un%erstoo% in li-ht of the !resum!tion of
inno)en)e.
)easons* 3 The a))use% is inno)ent until !ro+en -uilt.
3 The /ur%en of !roof ne+er lies on the a))use%.
3 Reasona/le %ou/t is not a/solutel )ertaintK it is not !roof /eon% any %ou/t.
3 The Crown %oes not ha+e to !ro+e -uilt /eon% an a/solute %ou/t C&. ' CinousD
3 The wor%s /eon% a reasona/le %ou/t ha+e an e+er%a meanin-. /ut the also
ha+e a s!e)ifi) meanin- in the le-al )onte:t.
I%eal )har-e to a =ur on the )on)e!t of reasona/le %ou/t CCor 5D*
1. The stan%ar% of !roof Creasona/le %ou/tD is tie% to the !resum!tion of inno)en)e
2. The /ur%en is on the !rose)ution
3. 0 reasona/le %ou/t is not /ase% on sm!ath
". 4ase% on reasonin- an% )ommon sense
8. Lo-i)all )onne)te% to the e+i%en)e or its a/sen)e
&. Does not re;uire !roof of a/solute )ertaint
<. I(ro/a/lJ -uilt is not enou-h # )i+il stan%ar% %oes not a!!l.
Air of )ealit$ Test
IThe test is whether there is e+i%en)e on the re)or% u!on whi)h a !ro!erl instru)te% =ur
a)tin- reasona/l )oul% a);uit.J
3 There must /e some real fa)tual /asis for the %efen)e in the e+i%en)e at trial. in
the sense that there must /e some e+i%en)e /efore the )ourt )a!a/le of su!!ortin-
the !arti)ular %efen)e.
3 Does the 0ir of Realit Test infrin-e the (resum!tion of Inno)en)e?
3 The SCC sas that it %oes not +iolate the !resum!tion of inno)en)e.
12
3 In )solyn. the SCC %raws a %istin)tion /etween a le-al /ur%en an% an e+i%entiar
/ur%en. Thou-h the a))use% must la e+i%en)e on the ta/le. the /ur%en of !roof
/eon% a reasona/le %ou/t still las with the Crown. The le-al /ur%en ne+er
shifts.
,ustifia'le "eerse &nuses?
R v 'akes, 9198:; 1 SR 10.
)atio* 0 re+erse onus !ro+ision offen%s the !resum!tion of inno)en)e !ro+ision of the
Charter.
)easons* Un%er a re+erse onus. the %efen%ant is re;uire% to !ro+e that an a))usation is
not true. instea% of the Crown /ein- re;uire% to !ro+e that it is true. This )oul% )ause
someone to -o to =ail without their )rime /ein- !ro+e% /eon% a reasona/le %ou/t. an% it
stri>es at not =ust s. 11C%D. /ut also the s. < ri-ht to li/ert.
Oa>es Test*
1. The o/=e)ti+e must /e of suffi)ient im!ortan)e C!ressin- an% su/stantialD
2. The means )hosen must /e reasona/le an% %emonstra/l =ustifie%
aD Rationall )onne)te% to the o/=e)ti+e CRational Conne)tionD
/D 7ust infrin-e ri-hts as little as !ossi/le C7inimal Im!airmentD
)D There must /e !ro!ortionalit /etween the %eleterious an% salutar effe)ts
3 In see>in- to =ustif a Charter +iolation un%er the Oa>es Test. the /ur%en of !roof
that the infrin-ement )an /e sa+e% is on the !art see>in- to u!hol% the
infrin-ement
3 It is a /alan)e of !ro/a/ilities test C/ut a Ghi-hE )i+il stan%ar% testD
R. v 8o4ney, 91992; 2 SR 10
CThe re/utta/le !resum!tionHre+erse onus of s. 212C3D of the Criminal CodeD
-ssue* Does s. 212C3D of the Criminal Code +iolate s. 11C%D of the Charter?
)atio* S. 212C3D of the Criminal Code +iolates s. 11C%D of the Charter. /ut is sa+e% un%er
s. 1.
Notes* The !resum!tion of inno)en)e is infrin-e% whene+er the a))use% is lia/le to /e
)on+i)te% %es!ite the e:isten)e of a reasona/le %ou/t.
0 re+erse onus +iolates s. 11C%D of the Charter. /ut ma /e =ustifie% un%er s. 1.
)everse .nuses 5pheld
3 In some )ases. re+erse onus has /een u!hel%. The %efen)e of mental %isor%er is a
re+erse onus that has /een u!hel% C& ' C%al*D
3 0utomatism C%isasso)iate% stateD has /een u!hel% as a re+erse onus
3 In offen)es of stri)t lia/ilit. the %efen)e of %ue %ili-en)e has a re+erse onus
13
ACTUS REUS: THE CONDUCT ELEMENT
actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea
Introduction: The traditional approach to the $eneral part of
criminal law
Criminal law re;uires all elements of the )rime*
3 0)tus Reus* a -uilt a)t. The a))use% must ha+e 'oluntarily %one an a)t of
/rou-ht a/out a result that is !rohi/ite% / law.
3 7ens Rea* a -uilt state of min%. The a))use% must ha+e %one the a)t or /rou-ht
a/out the !rohi/ite% result while simultaneously !ossessin- a )ul!a/le
C/lameworthD state of min%.
3 0/sen)e of le-all a))e!te% %efen)e.
The actus reus of a !arti)ular offen)e will %e!en% u!on the s!e)ifi) statutor lan-ua-e
use% in the ena)tment of the )rime.
Conduct
What is an act?
R v -ohnes, 91992; 1 SR 1:7
CRunnin- en-ines in his ar%D
Charge* (u/li) %istur/an)e un%er s. 1<8C1DCaD of the Criminal Code.
)atio* 0 %istur/an)e un%er s. 1<8C1DCaD of the Criminal Code means an e:ternall
manifeste% %istur/an)e in or near a !u/li) !la)e. )onsistin- either in the a)t itself or in a
se)on%ar %istur/an)e. whi)h interferes with the or%inar an% )ustomar use / the
!u/li) in ;uestion.
)easons*
(oli)* 0 %efinition of %istur/an)e that was too /roa% woul% offen% fun%amental =usti)e
an% the in%i+i%ualEs ri-ht to >now in a%+an)e if their )on%u)t is ille-al.
0 narrow )onstru)tion of G!u/li) %istur/an)eE allows the )ourts to measure %e-ree an%
intensit of the a)t a-ainst the %e-ree an% nature of the !ea)e whi)h )an /e e:!e)te% to
!re+ail in a -i+en !la)e an% time. CStri>in- a /alan)e /etween +alues.D
0)tus Reus*
1. Commission of one of the enumerate% a)ts
2. Causin- a %istur/an)e in a !u/li) !la)e
33
2icarious responsibilit$ # automati)all /ein- hel% lia/le for the wron-%oin- of
another.
There is a tra%itional relu)tan)e to )reate offen)es of +i)arious res!onsi/ilit in
)riminal law
1%
R v <urt, 91985;
C(ur!ose Test. a)tus reus. +i)arious res!onsi/ilit. S. 283 of Sas>. ,ehi)les 0)tD
)atio* The a/sen)e of actus reus ren%ers this !ro+ision of the le-islation in+ali% un%er
s.< of the Charter.
)easons* The actus reus must /e !resent in or%er to )onstitute a )rime. This instan)e is
not +ali%l e:)use% as an e:am!le of +i)arious lia/ilit. It offen%s fun%amental =usti)e to
!unish someone in the a/sen)e of a wron-ful a)t. There must /e a minimum of )ontrol
o+er the a)t that is attri/uta/le to the a))use%.
When em!loin- the !ur!ose test. it )an /e seen that the !ur!ose of s. 283 is to fa)ilitate
the enfor)ement of the a)t / )om!ellin- +ehi)le owners to %i+ul-e who was o!eratin-
their +ehi)le when a +iolation o))urre%. This !ur!ose is not )om!ellin- enou-h to =ustif
the le-islation un%er s. 1 of the Charter.
33
1ossession 3 (ossession is. in a sense. an a)t
%arshall v R, 19:9
CDro+e from Cal-ar to ,an)ou+er an% /a)>. 7ari=uana in the )ar. /ut he %i% not
)onsent to it /ein- there.D
Charge* (ossession +ia s. "C3DC/D of the Criminal Code.
)atio* 0s !er 6ea'er ' &. to )onstitute !ossession there must /e >nowle%-e an% some a)t
of )ontrol. The a))use% ha% >nowle%-e of the mari=uana /ut %i% not )ontrol it.
0)tus Reus* The a)tus reus re;uires )onsent. an% the a))use% %i% not )onsent.
R v =erren&e, 9198.; 1 SR .57
CChar-e% with !ossession after ri%in- in a stolen )ar he %i% not >now was stolenD
Charge* (ossession +ia s. "C3DC/D of the Criminal Code.
)atio* If it )annot /e shown that the a))use% ha% some measure of control o+er the )ar it
)annot /e sai% that he was in !ossession of the )ar for the !ur!oses of s. "C3DC/D.
)easons* In the Criminal Code %efinition of !ossession. >nowle%-e an% )onsent must )o3
e:ist with some measure of )ontrol o+er the su/=e)t matter.
R. v #ha", 92005; 'nt (
CDru-s in the /athroom. seiLe% while she was awaD
)atio* The a!!ellant was in )onstru)ti+e !ossession of the %ru-s.
)easons* Three t!es of !ossession*
iD (ersonal (ossession
iiD Constru)ti+e (ossession Cattri/ute% !ossessionD. This re;uires >nowle%-e
an% )ontrol.
iiiD 5oint (ossession. Re;uires >nowle%-e. )onsent. an% )ontrol.
1(
@nowle%-e ma /e inferre% from )ir)umstantial e+i%en)e. The /ur%en to !ro+e
!ossession lies on the Crown. This )an /e %emonstrate% with %ire)t e+i%en)e. or inferre%
from )ir)umstantial e+i%en)e.
R v halk, 2007
CInno)ent (ossession. Chil% !orno-ra!h on his )om!uterD
)atio* The %efen%ant ha% )ontrol o+er the !orno-ra!h /e)ause he use% his )om!uter
numerous times o+er man months.
-nnocent possession arises from the a/sen)e of an intention to e:er)ise )ontrol /eon%
that nee%e% to %estro the )ontra/an% or otherwise !ut it !ermanentl /eon% oneEs
)ontrol. In all )ases of inno)ent !ossession there is an a/sen)e of a /lameworth state of
min% or /lameworth )on%u)t. Inno)ent !ossession must /e a /rief e!iso%e. (ossession
must /e Iin)i%ental to an inno)ent !ur!ose.J
&missions and the )uty to (ct
Criminal res!onsi/ilit is limite% to )ases where there is a le-al an% not merel a moral
%ut to a)t. The (riest an% the Le+ite were not lia/le at law C<u&h v ("ory %ort7a7e
o, 1898 >HSD. These !eo!le ma /e morall -uilt. /ut there are not lia/le in
%ama-es.
7a)aula. %raftsman of the In%ian (enal Co%e. was o!!ose% to im!osin- )riminal
lia/ilit for omissions. Our Criminal Co%e was influen)e% / his +iews.
Some le-islation )an ma>e omission an offen)e*
3 The No+a S)otia an% Ontario C%ild0ren2 and $amily Ser'ices cts ma>e it a
)riminal offen)e to fail to re!ort )hil% a/use
3 The Mue/e) C%arter of 5uman &ig%ts and $reedoms sas that Ie+er !erson
must )ome to the ai% of anone whose life is in !erilJ.
3 The $renc% Penal Code also )riminalises offen)es of omission.
'olmes an% the Common law
- 0 man has a !erfe)t ri-ht to stan% / an% see his nei-h/ourEs !ro!ert %estroe%
or wat)h his nei-h/our !erish for want of hel!.
- Bet if he interme%%les he has no lon-er the same free%om. 'e )annot with%raw at
will.
It is easier to fo)us on a)ts. /e)ause we )an see the a)ts. There is )lear e+i%en)e of a
)hoi)e on the !art of an a)tor. Omissions are not as )lear. It is more %iffi)ult to
re)o-nise a )hoi)e on /ehalf of someone else.
Fa7an v o""!ss!oner of %etro)ol!tan #ol!&e, 19:8
C0))i%entall ran o+er (CEs foot. then swore at the (C an% refuse% to mo+e the )ar when
he foun% out that the )ar was )rushin- his foot.D
1,
)atio* It is not ne)essar that mens rea shoul% /e !resent at the in)e!tion of the actus
reusK it )an /e su!erim!ose% u!on an e:istin- a)t. COn the other han%. the su/se;uent
in)e!tion of mens rea )annot )on+ert an a)t whi)h has /een )om!lete% without mens rea
into an assault.D
)easons* 0 )om!lete% a)t is one in whi)h the threat of further infli)tion of harm no
lon-er e:istsK a )ontinuin- a)t is one in whi)h the threat of further infli)tion of harm is
still e:tant.
3 The %efen)e /uilt its )ase on the !rin)i!le of )orres!on%en)e. The nee% for the
actus reus an% the mens rea to o+erla! was ne+er met.
3 The )ourt a))e!te% a continuing act ar-ument.
Culpable omissions relating to specific activities
Some Criminal Code !ro+isions )reate le-al %uties. The failure to )arr out those %uties
will ma>e on )riminall lia/le. 6:am!les in)lu%e*
N $ailin- to re!ort treason 3 s. 82C1DC/D
N $ailin- to %is!erse after riot !ro+isions ha+e /een rea% 3 s. &1
N $ailure to e:er)ise reasona/le )are in use of e:!losi+es 3ss. <9312
N $ailin- to o/e a )ourt or%er 3 s. 12<
N $ailin- to assist a !oli)e offi)er. after reasona/le noti)e 3 s. 129C/D
N Infanti)i%e / omission 3 s. 233
N $ailin- to sto! at the s)ene of an a))i%ent 3s 282
N Dut to safe-uar% o!enin- in i)e or e:)a+ation on lan% # s. 2&3
R. v %!ller, 198. H-
CDrun>en arsonistD
-ssue* Is a %efen%ant )ul!a/le when the un>nowin-l start an a)tion that lea%s to a
)rime an% then. u!on %is)o+erin- what the ha+e %one. ta>e no a)tions to !re+ent or
miti-ate the effe)ts of their )rime?
)atio* In su)h )ases. a %efen%ant is a)tin- re)>lessl an% is in /rea)h of his res!onsi/ilit
un%er the law.
)easons* Omissions )an /e offen)es when the a))use% is res!onsi/le for a )hain of
e+ents whi)h are li>el to )ause harm. an% he >nows this an% %oes nothin- to sto! it.
+otes* This )ase %efines a )ommon law %ut to a)t. *ut$ theor$ # ou ha+e a %ut to a)t
if ou are res!onsi/le for a )hain of e+ents.
#eo)le v <eardsley, 1907
6acts* The %efen%ant /rou-ht his mistress o+er for two %as while his wife was awa.
The mistress too> some mor!hine while she was in his house. an% later %ie% from it. The
1/
%efen%ant %i% nothin- to se)ure me%i)al assistan)e for her. e+en thou-h he >new that she
ha% ta>en the !ills. 'e was )har-e% with manslau-hter an% a!!eale%.
)atio* 0 man %oes not owe a %ut at law arisin- sim!l out of moral o/li-ation. an% the
relationshi! of a man an% his !aramour is not in the same )lass as that of a man an% his
wife.
)easons* The %ut arises when someone assumes the role of !rote)tor Cassumes )har-eD.
3 0 similar %ut e:ists in statute in Cana%a in s. 218 CI!ro+i%e ne)essaries of life to
a !erson un%er his )har-eJD. We ha+e this %ut in statute in Cana%a. so we %o not
nee% re)ourse to the )ommon law.
R. v <ro4ne, 1997 'nt (
CCriminal ne-li-en)e. un%erta>in-D
6acts* 0))use% %i% not ta>e )are of the %e)ease% in the hours !rior to her %eath. e+en
thou-h he >new she ha% swallowe% an% faile% to +omit u! a /a- of )ra)> )o)aine.
Charge* Criminal Ne-li-en)e un%er s. 219C1D. %ut owe% un%er s. 21<.
-ssue* When %oes a %ut of )are e:ist un%er s. 21< of the Criminal Co%e?
)atio* 0 %ut of )are e:ists un%er s. 21< when one !art +oluntaril underta*es a %ut
of )are to the other.
)easons* In the im!osition of )riminal ne-li-en)e. as o!!ose% to )i+il ne-li-en)e. the
threshol% %efinition must /e suffi)ientl hi-h to =ustif !enal san)tions. 0n un%erta>in-
must ha+e /een )learl ma%e with /in%in- intentK it must /e more than =ust wor%s. In this
)ase. the a))use% %i% not meet this hi-h threshol% to %emonstrate that there was an
un%erta>in-. whi)h is a !rere;uisite to a %ut un%er s. 21<.
There %oes not nee% to /e a relations%ip to -i+e rise to a %ut un%er s. 218 when. un%er s.
21<. an underta*ing will -i+e rise to a %ut.
R. v #o)en, 91981; '.?. >o. 921
Cterri/l a/use% infant. No !roof that the father >new of the a/use.D
)atio* 0 reasona/le =ur !ro!erl instru)te% )annot fin% someone -uilt of a )rime of
omission in the a/sen)e of s!e)ifi) e+i%en)e. 'owe+er. the =ur ma infer >nowle%-e
from the )ir)umstantial e+i%en)e.
+otes* The )ourt also foun% that it woul% ha+e /een o!en to a =ur to fin% that the
a!!ellant was )riminall ne-li-ent in )arrin- out his !u/li) %ut C)ommon law %utD to
his )hil% C)riminall ne-li-ent manslau-hterD un%er s. 219 of the Criminal Code. an%
or%ere% a new trial.
R. v #eterson, 2005 'nt (
C0-e% 0rnol% (eterson. li+e% in sonEs /asement. son faile% to ta>e )are of himD
1&
Charge* $ailure to !ro+i%e ne)essaries of life where un%er a %ut to %o so. s. 218.
-ssue* What %oes it mean to /e Iun%er his )har-eJ as !er s. 218C1DC)D of the Criminal
Co%e?
)atio* In inter!retin- s. 218 as a whole. Iun%er his )har-eJ means the e:er)ise of an
element of )ontrol / one !erson an% a %e!en%en) on the !art of another. One must also
)onsi%er the e:isten)e of a relationshi! of trust an% the relati+e )a!a/ilities of the two
!arties.
)easons* Su/se)tion 218C2D im!oses lia/ilit on an o/=e)ti+e /asis. The se)tion
in%i)ates that a %ut to !ro+i%e ne)essaries also in)lu%es a %ut to a)t in an on3-oin-
relationshi! o+er time.
$or a %ut to arise un%er s. 218*
1. One !erson must /e un%er the otherEs )har-e
2. (erson must /e una/le to with%raw from that )har-e
3. (erson must /e una/le to !ro+i%e self with ne)essities of life.
Criteria for Iun%er his )har-eJ*
- De!en%en)* 6lement of trust must /e !resent
- 0wareness* !erson ta>in- )are must /e aware the !erson is %e!en%ant
- Control* )ontrol o+er the otherEs li+in- )on%itions
- Cons)iousness of !arties* if the !erson un%er oneEs )har-e will not )oo!erate the
!erson ta>in- )are must o/tain hel! from a )ommunit a-en).
- Res!onsi/ilit* if the !erson ta>es le-al or !u/li) res!onsi/ilit for the %e!en%ant
!erson
Test for /rea)h of a s. 218 %ut* Was there )on%u)t showin- a mar7ed %e!arture from
the /eha+iour of the reasona/le !erson? C0 hi-her stan%ar% than the )i+il stan%ar%. whi)h
is =ust the %e!arture from reasona/le /eha+iour.D
(otential %efen)es* $inan)ial ina/ilit C%iffi)ult to maintain in the fa)e of the num/er of
)ommunit a-en)ies a+aila/le.D
Contri/utor Ne-li-en)e )an onl /e in+o>e% if the in=uries are entirel attri/uta/le to the
+i)tim.
=hornton v R, 9199.; 2 SR 115
6acts* The a!!ellant %onate% )ontaminate% /loo% to the Re% Cross.
-ssue* Does the a))use% ha+e a le-al %ut un%er s. 112 Cnuisan)esD of the Criminal
Code?
)atio* The a))use% has a le-al %ut un%er s. 21& of the Criminal Code. /e)ause he was
!art of a me%i)al !ro)e%ure.
1'
+otes* There was no statute that ma%e %onatin- infe)te% /loo% a )rime. so the Crown
ha% to -o after him on Ss. 112 an% 21&. The )ourt mo+e% awa from s. 112 /e)ause s.
112C2D is e:tremel /roa% an% )oul% /low )riminal law wi%e o!en.
Criminal ne-li-en)e offen)es are not stan%3alone offen)es. Ss. 2223222 re;uire some sort
of )onse;uent harm /efore the /e)ome an offen)e. In this )ase. the tainte% /loo% was
s)reene% out. so no one was ultimatel harme%. so the Crown )oul% not )har-e him un%er
these se)tions.
#oluntariness
,oluntariness is a re;uirement of actus reus. There )an /e no lia/ilit unless the
a))use%Es a)t was I+oluntar.J This means that an a))use%Es )on%u)t. in)lu%in- the
failure to a)t where an omission is )har-e%. must /e I+oluntarJ. IIn+oluntarJ a)tion
)annot -roun% )riminal lia/ilit.
Cons)ious in+oluntariness
3 (hsi)al )om!ulsion of one !erson / another # 0 -ra/s 4Es han% an% uses it to
stri>e C
3 7us)ular )ontrol im!aire% / %isease # e.-. (ar>insonEs
3 Refle: mus)ular )ontra)tion # 0 is stun- / /ees while %ri+in-. an% swer+es off
the roa%
Un)ons)ious in+oluntariness
3 Slee!wal>in-
3 Drun>en stu!or # 0 rolls on to! of her slee!in- )hil% an% suffo)ates her.
3 Loss of )ons)iousness )ause% / %isease or illness
3 0utomatism or a/normal state of )ons)iousness
R v 0!n7 919:2;. R v #arks 91992;. R v Stone 91999;* ,oluntariness is a !art of the actus
reus )om!onent. There )an /e no actus reus without +oluntariness. ,oluntariness is
%istin)t from )ons)iousness.
Ra/ey v R 91980;* The a/sen)e of +olition is res!e)t to the a)t is alwas a %efen)e to a
)rime.
0. . A. 0art8 (&ts of 6!ll and Res)ons!/!l!ty
If an a)t is Iin+oluntarJ it is not reall Ihis a)tJ at all. 0))or%in-l. if it is not the
in%i+i%ualEs a)t. how )an he /e )ul!a/le for it? This a!!lies to in+oluntar a)ts an%
in+oluntar omissions C/oth )ons)ious an% un)ons)iousD.
R v -u&k!, *1955+ Sask
)atio* 0 !erson who / an in+oluntar a)t for whi)h he is not to /lame -ets on the
wron- si%e of the roa% is not -uilt un%er s. 128C9D of the Sas>at)hewan 7e%icles ct.
24
R v 6olfe, *1975+ 'nt (
C(un)he% while tal>in- on !hone in @in-ston 'otel. 'it his assailant in refle: a)tion.D
0olding* Refle:i+e a)tion. not a +oluntar a)tion. therefore no a)tus reus.
+otes* a/soluteHstri)t lia/ilit offen)es. mens rea is not re;uire%. This is !art of the
reason wh in+oluntariness is su/sume% un%er actus reus # it -i+es a %efen)e to a/solute
lia/ilit offen)es.
R v S4a/y, 2001
3 S. 91C3D of the Criminal Code ma>es it an offen)e to /e in a +ehi)le with a
restri)te% wea!on if ou >now that the restri)te% wea!on is there. The a))use%
onl learne% of the !resen)e of the wea!on while the +ehi)le was in motion. The
a))use% was a);uitte% /e)ause he )oul% not remo+e himself from the +ehi)le as
soon as he learne% of the -un. so his +iolation of s. 91C3D was in+oluntar.
3 The a/o+e se)tion was amen%e% !ost3S(aby to a))ommo%ate !eo!le who trie% to
lea+e the +ehi)le on learnin- of the !resen)e of a restri)te% wea!on Cs. 9"C3D was
a%%e%D.
3 The elements of the actus reus in this situation were*
o O))u!in- a motor +ehi)leK
o (resen)e of a restri)te% wea!onK an%
o No o))u!ant of the +ehi)le hel% a !ermit to lawfull !ossess that wea!on.
3 The elements of the mens rea*
o @nowle%-e of the !resen)e of the restri)te% wea!on in the +ehi)leK an%
o 0/sen)e of a reason to /elie+e that some o))u!ant of the motor +ehi)le
hel% a !ermit to !ossess that wea!on.
3 Court sas* There must /e )oin)i%en)e /etween o))u!an) of the +ehi)le an%
>nowle%-e of the !resen)e of the wea!on in the +ehi)le.
3 Court* +oluntar )on%u)t is a ne)essar element of a )rimeK alwas a ne)essar
element of the actus reus.
3 The )oin)i%en)e of actus reus an% mens rea is not enou-h # what is im!ortant is
the a))use%Es )on%u)t after the )oin)i%en)e. If the %ri+er a)ts with enou-h
%is!at)h to remo+e either himself or the wea!on from the +ehi)le. then that is
-oo% enou-h.
0!l/r!de v -ake, 919:2; >@-R 590 *S+
CWarrant of fitness on )arD
)atio* 4e)ause the omission whi)h le% to the )rime was not )arrie% out within the
a!!ellantEs )on%u)t. >nowle%-e. or )ontrol it )annot /e sai% that he )ommitte% the actus
reus. the !rohi/ite% e+ent. person cannot be made criminally responsible for an act or
omission unless it (as done or omitted in circumstances (%ere t%ere (as some ot%er
course open to %im.
21
33
To ma>e u! for some %efe)ts in the law. the )ourts ha+e at time use% a loose %efinition of
+oluntariness. for e:am!le in S(aby an% -ilbride ' ,a*e.
R v Ryan *19:7+, 10 (-?R 188 *(us H+
Chero in a /oo>. ro//in- a )on+enien)e store. shot-un a))i%entall went off. 0))use%
!lea%e% in+oluntariness.D
)atio* The %i)tionar %efinition of in+oluntar as a su%%en start or mo+ement of the /o%
is not what is meant / the le-al term Iin+oluntarJ. The le-al term in'oluntary means*
3 0n a)t %one un%er %uress. Thou-h an a)t of the will. it is )onsi%ere% in+oluntar
/e)ause it was )om!elle%.
3 0n a)t %one in the )ourse of a )on+ulsion or e!ile!ti) seiLure
3 0n a)t )ommitte% / a slee!wal>er or automaton.
+otes* I(ro/a/le an% foreseea/leJ is a test that %oes not reall fit with +oluntariness. /ut
the )ourts are aware of o!enin- the floo%-ates to a host of a);uittals on firearms offen)es.
3 In Cana%a. this offen)e woul% ha+e /een %ealt with un%er s. 232.
Circumstances: The role of consent
Ss. 2"8/2"", Criminal Code
0ssault
2,(. C1D 0 !erson )ommits an assault when
CaD without the )onsent of another !erson. he a!!lies for)e intentionall to that other
!erson. %ire)tl or in%ire)tlK
CbD he attem!ts or threatens. / an a)t or a -esture. to a!!l for)e to another !erson. if
he has. or )auses that other !erson to /elie+e on reasona/le -roun%s that he has.
!resent a/ilit to effe)t his !ur!oseK or
CcD while o!enl wearin- or )arrin- a wea!on or an imitation thereof. he a))osts or
im!e%es another !erson or /e-s.
0!!li)ation
C2D This se)tion a!!lies to all forms of assault. in)lu%in- se:ual assault. se:ual assault
with a wea!on. threats to a thir% !art or )ausin- /o%il harm an% a--ra+ate% se:ual
assault.
Consent
C3D $or the !ur!oses of this se)tion. no )onsent is o/taine% where the )om!lainant
su/mits or %oes not resist / reason of
22
CaD the a!!li)ation of for)e to the )om!lainant or to a !erson other than the
)om!lainantK
CbD threats or fear of the a!!li)ation of for)e to the )om!lainant or to a !erson other
than the )om!lainantK
CcD frau%K or
CdD the e:er)ise of authorit.
0))use%Es /elief as to )onsent
C"D Where an a))use% alle-es that he /elie+e% that the )om!lainant )onsente% to the
)on%u)t that is the su/=e)t3matter of the )har-e. a =u%-e. if satisfie% that there is suffi)ient
e+i%en)e an% that. if /elie+e% / the =ur. the e+i%en)e woul% )onstitute a %efen)e. shall
instru)t the =ur. when re+iewin- all the e+i%en)e relatin- to the %etermination of the
honest of the a))use%Es /elief. to )onsi%er the !resen)e or a/sen)e of reasona/le
-roun%s for that /elief.
0ssault
2,,. 6+er one who )ommits an assault is -uilt of
CaD an in%i)ta/le offen)e an% is lia/le to im!risonment for a term not e:)ee%in- fi+e
earsK or
CbD an offen)e !unisha/le on summar )on+i)tion.
33
The a/sen)e of )onsent is a statutoril !ros)ri/e% element for all offen)es of assault. Bou
)annot /e )har-e% with assault if the other !erson has )onsente%. Se)tion 2&8C1DCaD
a!!lies to all offen)es of assault.
Consent )an /e +itiate% Cs. 2&8C3DD*
1. When o/taine% / frau%
2. When o/taine% / threats or fear
3. When o/taine% / the e:er)ise of authorit
". $or !oli) reasons
R. v. ?o/!don, 91991; 2 SR 711
C/ar !ar>in- lot fistfi-ht. a))use% >no)>s %e)ease% un)ons)ious. su/se;uent /lowCsD >ill
himD
Charge* Unlawful a)t manslau-hter. s. 222C8DCaD.
23
)atio* CFonthier 5. ma=oritD The )ommon law +itiates )onsent in this situationK ou
)annot )onsent to /ein- assaulte% to %eath.
CSo!in>a 5. )on)urrin-D 0s !er the rele+ant statute. the a/sen)e of )onsent is essential for
a )rime. an% the )ommon law )annot rea% out )onsent from the statute. In this )ase. the
+i)tim %i% not )onsent to )ontinue% !ummellin- after /ein- ren%ere% un)ons)ious. an%
the )on+i)tion shoul% stan%.
)easons* CFonthier 5. ma=oritD The )ommon law )ontinues to animate the Criminal
Code. S. 1C3D )ontinues to allow )ommon law %efen)es. an% )onsent is seen as a %efen)e
in 6n-lan% an% Cana%a. Therefore. the )ommon law a!!roa)h to )onsent in assault )an
/e use%.
There are im!ortant !oli) reasons to limit )onsent in assault. There is no so)ial utilit to
/arroom fi-hts.
Test* In the )ase of a fistfi-ht or a /rawl /etween a%ults. one )annot )onsent to )ausin-
hurt or serious /o%il harm. as %efine% in the Criminal Code Cs. 2D. C6+en /ruises.
s)ra!es. an% !s)holo-i)al harm are )a!ture% / the s. 2 %efinition of /o%il harm.D
There is an e:)e!tion for s!ortin- e+ents when it is within the )ustomar rules of the
-ame. /e)ause there is a so)ial +alue to s!orts.
CSo!in>a 5. )on)urrin-D The )onsent of a +i)tim )annot transform a )rime into lawful
)on%u)t. /ut it is a +ital element in %eterminin- what )onstitutes a )rime.
One )annot use the )ommon law to rea% out )onsent from the statute. /e)ause that woul%
+iolate s. 1C3D of the Co%e. Consent. !ro!erl un%erstoo%. is a !art of the actus reus. not
a %efen)e.
R. v uerr!er, 91998; 2 SR .71
C7an 'I,3!ositi+e. infe)ts two !artners. se:ual )on-ressD
Charge* 0--ra+ate% assault. s. 2&1C1D. with )onsent +itiate% / frau%. s. 2&8C3DC)D.
)atio* There )an /e no true )onsent without the %is)losure of 'I, status. 0 )onsent not
/ase% u!on >nowle%-e of the rele+ant si-nifi)ant fa)tors )annot /e a +ali% )onsent. 0n
'I,3!ositi+e !erson has a !ositi+e %ut to %is)lose. +%e greater t%e ris* of depri'ation,
t%e %ig%er t%e duty of disclosure.
)easons* CCor 5. ma=oritD The e:isten)e of frau% %oes not +itiate )onsent unless there
is a si-nifi)ant ris> of serious %arm.
1D Non3%is)losure )an )onstitute frau%. where it woul% /e +iewe% as %ishonest / a
reasona/le !erson
2D Dishonest Ceither %eli/erate falsehoo%s or non3%is)losureD an% %e!ri+ation are
re;uire% for frau%
2%
3D $ailure to %is)lose 'I,3!ositi+e status to a se:ual !artner ma /e foun% to fulfil
the re;uirements of %ishonest an% %e!ri+ation
CLE'eureu:3Du/O 5. )on)urrin-D 0n inter!retation of frau% shoul% not /e limite% to =ust
the se:ual assault )onte:t where there is a si-nifi)ant ris> of /o%il harm.
C7)La)hlin 5. )on)urrin-D $rau% %oes not +itiate )onsent to assault unless the mista>e
-oes to the nature of the a)t or the i%entit of the !artner.
R v 6!ll!a"s, 9200.; 2 SR 1.1
CContinue% to ha+e )on-ress with his -irlfrien% after learnin- that he was 'I,3!ositi+eD
Charge* 0--ra+ate% assault. s. 2&1C1D. an% attem!te% a--ra+ate% assault.
)atio* In or%er to !ro+e the actus reus of this s!e)ifi) offen)e. it must /e esta/lishe% that
the a)t was )a!a/le of )ausin- the harm s!o>en of in s. 2&1.
)eason* The Crown faile% to show /eon% a reasona/le %ou/t that the )on%u)t after the
a))use% learne% of his infe)tion )ause% the harm ne)essar for a s. 2&1 )on+i)tion.
It )annot /e !ro+e% that the a))use% ha% the )orres!on%in- >nowle%-e that satisfies the
mens rea that -oes with the en%an-erment re;uire% for the offen)e. CItEs ;uite reasona/le
to /elie+e that the a))use% infe)te% his -irlfrien% /efore he >new he was infe)te% #
reasona/le %ou/t that the mens rea an% a)tus reus e+er )oin)i%e%.D
)e -inimus .on Curat Le/
The law %oes not )on)ern itself with trifles. R. v 0u/assek was %e)i%e% on this !rin)i!le
at trial. /ut it was )onsi%ere% to /e more serious than a trifle on a!!eal. an% the a))use%
was )on+i)te%. It is not e+en )ertain that de minimus is !art of Cana%ian law.
Conse0uences: Causation
Causation in criminal law
1D O!erati+e Causes or Causes in $a)t. The me%i)al. me)hani)al. or !hsi)al )ause
of some state of affairs.
2D Causal Conne)tion . 0 lin> /etween an in%i+i%ualEs a)t or omission an% a
!arti)ular )onse;uen)e. 0!!roa)he% / a!!li)ation of the 4ut $or Test* Woul%
the result ha+e o))urre% /ut for the a)t or omission of the a))use%?
3D Le-al Causation Cim!uta/le )ausationD. It is onl )onsi%ere% on)e I/ut forJ
)ausation is esta/lishe%. Its fo)us is on whether or not the )onne)tion /etween the
a))use%Es a)t an% the result is suffi)ientl stron- that the a))use% )an fairl /e
/lame% for it. CSmit%ers. 5arbottle. an% 3etteD
S"!thers v R, 91978; 1 SR 50:
C7i%-et ho)>e. Cawthra 0rena. malfun)tionin- e!i-lottisD
Charge* Unlawful a)t manslau-hter CSs. 23" an% 222C8DCaDD.
2(
Test of Le-al Causation* The ille-al a)t %oes not ha+e to /e the sole )ause of the %eath in
or%er to esta/lish manslau-hter. it sim!l nee%s to /e a )ontri/utin- )ause outsi%e the de
minimus ran-e .
The thin s>ull rule a!!lies # an atta)>er ta>es his +i)tim as he fin%s him. So it was the
a))use% who >ille% the %e)ease%. not the e!i-lottis.
R. v Har/ottle, 9199.; . SR .0:
CSe:uall assaulte% -irl. hel% her le-s while )om!anion stran-le% herD
Charge* $irst3%e-ree mur%er while )ommittin- s!e)ifie% offen)e. s. 231C8D.
Test* Restri)ti+e Test of Su/stantial Causation* 0n a))use% ma /e foun% -uilt un%er s.
231C8D if it is esta/lishe% /eon% a reasona/le %ou/t that*
1D The a))use% was -uilt of the un%erlin- )rime of %omination or of attem!tin-
to )ommit that )rimeK
2D The a))use% was -uilt of the mur%er of the +i)timK
3D The a))use% !arti)i!ate% in the mur%er in su)h a manner that he or she was a
su/stantial )ause of the +i)timPs %eathK
"D there was no inter+enin- a)t of another whi)h resulte% in the a))use% no lon-er
/ein- su/stantiall )onne)te% to the %eath of the +i)timK an%.
8D The )rimes of %omination an% mur%er were !art of the same series of e+ents.
+otes* The stan%ar% for )ul!a/le homi)i%e is Smit%ers.
The stan%ar% for 1
st
%e-ree mur%er is 5arbottle.
The stan%ar% for 2
n%
%e-ree mur%er is Smit%ers Cas !er 3etteD.
33
0ow to 9uild a first3degree murder charge
3 Start with s. 222 to esta/lish homi)i%e
3 Use s. 222C2D an% C8DCaD to esta/lish )ul!a/le homi)i%e CThis onl esta/lishe%
manslau-hter. so farD
3 Use s. 229 to esta/lish that the )ul!a/le homi)i%e is mur%er
3 Then use s. 231 to esta/lish that the mur%er is first3%e-ree CIn this )ase. the use%
s. 231C8DC/D an% CeDD.
33
R. v >ette, 92001; . SR 188
C98 ear3ol% /oun% in her home. )lothes wra!!e% aroun% her hea%D
)atio* There is onl one test of )ausation for all homi)i%e offen)es. It is the Smit%ers Test. The
Su/stantial Cause Test of 5arbottle is not a test of )ausation. /ut a test of moral )ul!a/ilit.
)easons* 7a/e arti)ulate the Smit%ers Test not as a %ou/le ne-ati+e CIoutsi%e %e
minimus ran-eJD. /ut in !ositi+e terms. 0r/our 5. ma=orit* This sim!l )larifies the test.
/ut %oes not )han-e it. LE'eureu:3Du/O 5. )on)urrin-* It %oes )han-e the test. it ma>es
the threshol% hi-her / mo+in- the fo)us awa from the lower en% of )ausation.
2,
:ultiple Causes
7ulti!le )auses that are )om/inin- to lea% to a !arti)ular result Ce.-. 3ic%olson. Two
hea+ /lows. The )ause of %eath of was a )om/ination of a few thin-s. in)lu%in-
al)ohol. health. an% the /lows.D 6+en if the ille-al a)t alone woul% not ha+e )ause% %eath
the a))use% is still lia/le /e)ause it was a )ontri/utin- )ause outsi%e the de minimus
ran-e CSmit%ers TestD.
:ultiple Assailants
Garfour. S >i)>s the %e)ease% an% sta/s him the heart. The a))use% Cnot SD then >i)>s
the %e)ease% on his arms an% on his /o%. The a))use% was )on+i)te%. 3ic%olson an%
Garfour fit into the Smit%ers test. It is ne)essar for the =ur to /e )on+in)e% /eon% a
reasona/le %ou/t that the a)t )ause% CI)ontri/utin- )ause outsi%e the de minimus ran-eJD
the result.
R v =al/ot *2007+, 'nt (
6acts* The a))use% was a);uitte% at trial le+el of )ul!a/le homi)i%e resultin- from a
/rawl outsi%e a restaurant. The a))use% ha% >i)>e% the %e)ease% after the %e)ease% ha%
re)ei+e% some /lows to the hea%.
)atio* Si-nifi)ant Contri/utin- Cause Test 3 The Crown %i% not !ro+e /eon% a
reasona/le %ou/t that the >i)> was the Co!erati+eD )ause of %eath.
R. v <laue, 91975; 1 6-R 1111 *(+
C5eho+ahEs Witness -irl sta//e%. woul% ha+e sur+i+e% ha% she a))e!te% /loo% transfusion.D
)atio* The thin s>ull rule a!!lies to 5eho+ahEs Witnesses. CThis was in)or!orate% in
Cana%a as Se)tion 22" of the Code.D $ailure of 'ictim to mitigate does not brea* c%ain
of causation.
R v %!&hael *1810+
Clau%anum. !oisone% /a/ throu-h un>nowin- )hil%D
)atio* Where an in%i+i%ual /rin-s a/out a !arti)ular )onse;uen)e throu-h the use of an
inno)ent or un)ons)ious a-ent. then )ausation will /e attri/ute% /a)> to the a))use%
%es!ite the inter+ention of the inno)ent a-ent.
The inno)ent !artEs a)tions %o not /rea> the )hain of )ausation.
). v Cribbin # le-al )ausation is em/e%%e% in s. < of the Charter as the !rin)i!le that
moral inno)en)e shoul% not /e !unishe%. The morall inno)ent woul% /e !unishe% if
)ausation was re%u)e% to a mere 4ut $or Test.
33
Death that mi-ht ha+e /een !re+ente%
22%. Where a !erson. / an a)t or omission. %oes an thin- that results in the %eath of
a human /ein-. he )auses the %eath of that human /ein- notwithstan%in- that %eath from
that )ause mi-ht ha+e /een !re+ente% / resortin- to !ro!er means.
R.S.. ). C33". s. 22<.
2/
Death from treatment of in=ur
22(. Where a !erson )auses to a human /ein- a /o%il in=ur that is of itself of a
%an-erous nature an% from whi)h %eath results. he )auses the %eath of that human /ein-
notwithstan%in- that the imme%iate )ause of %eath is !ro!er or im!ro!er treatment that is
a!!lie% in -oo% faith.
0))eleration of %eath
22,. Where a !erson )auses to a human /ein- a /o%il in=ur that results in %eath. he
)auses the %eath of that human /ein- notwithstan%in- that the effe)t of the /o%il in=ur
is onl to a))elerate his %eath from a %isease or %isor%er arisin- from some other )ause.
22/. QRe!eale%. 1999. ). 8. s. 9R
@illin- / influen)e on the min%
22&. No !erson )ommits )ul!a/le homi)i%e where he )auses the %eath of a human
/ein-
CaD / an influen)e on the min% alone. or
CbD / an %isor%er or %isease resultin- from influen)e on the min% alone.
/ut this se)tion %oes not a!!l where a !erson )auses the %eath of a )hil% or si)> !erson
/ wilfull fri-htenin- him.
MENS REA: THE MENTAL ELEMENT
Introduction
In )ontem!orar terms su/=e)ti+e mens rea means intention. >nowle%-e. re)>lessness. or
wilful /lin%ness. In Cana%a. ne-li-en)e is an a))e!ta/le mens rea stan%ar% for some
)rimes.
Sault Ste .arie an% .otor 7e%icle &eference esta/lishe% that. un%er s. < of the
Charter. there is a )onstitutional re;uirement of mens rea for an offen)e threatenin-
li/ert. (arliament )an e:!ressl esta/lish an o/=e)ti+e stan%ar%. 4ut 7aillancourt an%
.artineau foun% that for mur%er. this is un)onstitutional.
Strict lia'ility and the constitutionalisation of mens rea
See ss. 222. 2293231. Criminal Code.
9eaver v )8 ;1'(/< SC) (31
CSu-ar of mil>D
)atio* 6+en if mens rea is not e:!li)it in the statute. it will /e rea% into it. 7ens rea will
/e rea% in unless (arliament e:!li)itl states that the offen)e is one of a/solute lia/ilit.
2&
R. v !ty of Sault Ste. %ar!e, 91978; 2 SR 1299
)atio* There are 3 )ate-ories of lia/ilit.
1. Criminal lia/ilit* true )rimes. $ull mens rea re;uirement.
2. Stri)t lia/ilit* !u/li) welfareHre-ulator offen)es. No mens rea re;uirement. /ut
a))use% ma !lea% the %efen)e of %ue %ili-en)eHreasona/le )are.
3. 0/solute lia/ilit.
.biter* Ina%+ertent a)ts )ommitte% / someone who faile% to >now what he ou-ht to
ha+e >nown are not )rimes.
Re < %otor Aeh!&le (&t, 1985 S 81
)atio* The )om/ination of a/solute lia/ilit with im!risonment is a +iolation of the ri-ht
to li/ert. an% thus offen%s s. < of the Charter. This is /e)ause su)h a !ro+ision allows
for the !unishment of the morall inno)ent.
Aa!llan&ourt v R, 91987; 2 SR :.:
Cro//e% a !ool hall. ma%e a))om!li)e ta>e /ullet out of his -un. a))om!li)e shot an%
>ille% someone anwaD
Charge* Se)on% %e-ree mur%er Cfelon mur%erD un%er ss. 213CfD Qnow 232R an% 21C2D.
)atio* It is a !rin)i!le of fun%amental =usti)e that. a/sent !roof /eon% a reasona/le
%ou/t of at least o/=e)ti+e foreseea/ilit. there )annot /e a mur%er )on+i)tion.
C7artineau /uil%s on this later an% ma>es the re;uirement for mur%er su/=e)ti+e.D
R. v %art!neau, 91990; 2 SR :..
C4ro>e into a trailer with !ellet -un an% rifle. 0))use%Es )om!anion shot the two
o))u!ants. ILa% sa our !raersJD
)atio* CLamer C5C. ma=oritD (rin)i!les of fun%amental =usti)e re;uire !roof /eon% a
reasona/le %ou/t of su/=e)ti+e foresi-ht of %eath for mur%er )on+i)tions. This is /e)ause
of the hea+ sti-ma of su)h a )on+i)tion. an% the se+erit of the !unishment.
CLE'eureu:3Du/O. %issentin-D 'ow )an it /e in)onsistent with fun%amental =usti)e when
it has /een a !art of our sstem for o+er 322 ears? Re=e)ts sti-ma ar-ument /e)ause all
)rimes )arr a sti-ma.
Su'1ectie mens rea
The a))use% must inten% or su/=e)ti+el a!!re)iate the )onse;uen)es. Fenerall. with
res!e)t to )riminal offen)es. su/=e)ti+e mens rea is a !resume% re;uirement. That is. !roof
of intention. >nowle%-e. re)>lessness or wilful /lin%ness.
2'
SomeoneEs su/=e)ti+e state of min% ma /e inferre% from his a)tions an% the e+i%en)e. The
Crown must !ro+e -uilt Cin)lu%in- su/=e)ti+e mens reaD /eon% a reasona/le %ou/t # not to
an im!e))a/le stan%ar%.
In o/=e)ti+e mens rea. the fault is in failin- to %ire)t oneSs min% to a ris> that a reasona/le
!erson woul% ha+e a!!re)iate%. 0lthou-h o/=e)ti+e mens rea is a !ermissi/le /asis for
)riminal res!onsi/ilit. a statutor !ro+ision )reatin- su)h an offen)e must e:!ressl a%o!t
an o/=e)ti+e stan%ar%. otherwise a su/=e)ti+e stan%ar% will /e !resume% C+%9rouxD.
.ens rea has nothin- to %o with the a))use%Ss +alue sstem. The onl issue is whether or
not the a))use% inten%e% to )ause the !rohi/ite% a)t.
R. v =h$roux, 9199.; 2 SR 5
)atio* Criminal offen)es are on a su/=e)ti+e mens rea test. e:)e!t in )ases of ne-li-en)e.
or ina%+erten)e. or a/solute lia/ilit. If su/=e)ti+e mens rea is not state% e:!li)itl. it will
/e rea% in.
0lthou-h o/=e)ti+e mens rea is !ermissi/le. a statutor !ro+ision )reatin- su)h an
offen)e must /e e:!ressl a%o!te%.
R. v 'rtt *19:8+, 'nt (
)atio* .ens rea )annot /e !resume% /ut it ma. on the fa)ts of the )ase. /e inferre%.
)easons* One ma infer an intention on /ehalf of an a))use% on the /asi) !rin)i!le that
!eo!le inten% the )onse;uen)es of their a)tions. 'owe+er. the onus is still on the Crown to
!ro+e that the a))use% ha% the ne)essar mens rea.
-otie
-e4!s v R, 91979; 2 SR 821
CSent !a)>a-e on /ehalf of Tatla. %enie% it was a /om/. Char-e% with >illin- TatlaEs
%au-hter an% son3in3law.D
)atio* 7oti+e is not !art of the mens rea an% is not ne)essar for the )ommission of a
)rime.
)easons* .ens &ea an% moti+e are se!arate. .ens &ea is the e:er)ise of a free will to use
!arti)ular means to !ro%u)e a !arti)ular result. whereas moti+e is that whi)h !re)e%es an%
in%u)es the e:er)ise of the will.
7oti+e is no !art of the )rime an% is le-all irrele+ant to )riminal res!onsi/ilit. /ut it is
im!ortant as e+i%en)e.
R v %athe *197.+, *<(+
Cfa>e hol%3u! in ,i)toriaD
Charge* 0ttem!te% ro//er.
34
)atio* If the e+i%en)e iel%s an inferen)e of -uilt. /ut e;uall li>el an inferen)e of
inno)en)e. then there is no !roof /eon% a reasona/le %ou/t of the )ommission of a )rime.
The !resum!tion of inno)en)e must stan%. If he was =ust =o>in-. as he sas. then he )annot
/e )on+i)te% /e)ause he %i% not ha+e the intention.
+otes* In & ' :il*ins a man too> a )o!Es motor))le for a ri%e as a =o>e. 'e %i% not ha+e
the intent to steal # to )on+ert it !ermanentl to his own use. In &. ' -err a %run> man too>
a 32 l/ ashtra from a /ar. In /oth )ases the a))use% were a);uitte% /e)ause the %i% not
ha+e the intent to steal.
DonEt these )ases )onfuse moti+e with intent? 'is moti+e was a =o>e. /ut their intention
was to %o the a)t.
Le-islatures )an ma>e it an offen)e to =o>e a/out )ertain thin-s.
Intention
R. v. <uBBan7a and 8uro&her *1979+ *'nt (+
C$ren)h -us %istri/ute% ri%i)ulousl anti3$ren)h !am!hletsD
Charge* Wilful !romotion of hatre% un%er s. 211.2C2D Qnow 319C2DR.
)atio* In this )onte:t. IwilfullJ means with the intention of !romotin- hatre% an% %oes not
in)lu%e re)>lessness. therefore !roof of an intention to !romote hatre% is essential to
)onstitute an offen)e un%er s. 319C2D. It is not )lear from the e+i%en)e that the a!!ellants
inten%e% to !ro%u)e the )onse;uen)e of !romotin- hatre%.
)easons* This is a true )rime. so the mens rea stan%ar% is su/=e)ti+e. Therefore
IwilfullJ. for the !ur!oses of this se)tion. means IintentionallJ. It is not enou-h to /e
re)>less.
Test*
The a!!ellants TwilfullT CintentionallD !romote% hatre% a-ainst the $ren)h Cana%ian
)ommunit of 6sse: Count onl if*
CaD Their )ons)ious !ur!ose in %istri/utin- the %o)ument was to !romote hatre%
a-ainst that -rou!. or
C/D The foresaw Crea%* su/=e)ti+el a!!re)iate%?D that the !romotion of hatre%
a-ainst that -rou! was )ertain or morall )ertain to result from the %istri/ution of
the !am!hlet.
R v Hard!n7 *2001+, *'nt (+
)atio* IWilfullJ in s. 319C2D shoul% /e e:ten%e% to the su/=e)ti+e )on)e!t of wilful
/lin%ness /ut not to the o/=e)ti+e )on)e!t of re)>lessness.
R. v @undel *>o. 1+
Charge* S!rea%in- false news CS. 111D.
31
)atio* The mens rea stan%ar% in this offen)e is *no(ledge. Court sai% that when
>nowle%-e is s!e)ifie%. re)>lessness is not enou-h.
+%9roux # re)>lessness is im!lie% if no mens rea stan%ar% is s!e)ifie%.
"ec2lessness or wilful 'lindness
Sansre7ret v R, 91985; 1 SR 570
)ec7lessness # to form a !art of the )riminal mens rea. re)>lessness must ha+e an
element of the su/=e)ti+e. It is when one. aware that there is %an-er that his )on%u)t
)oul% /rin- a/out the result !rohi/ite% / the )riminal law. ne+ertheless !ersists. %es!ite
the ris>. It is the )on%u)t of one who sees the ris>U an% ta>es the )han)e.
Wilful blindness 3 arises where a !erson who has /e)ome aware of the nee% for some
in;uir %e)lines to ma>e the in;uir /e)ause he %oes not wish to >now the truth. The
fault of wilful /lin%ness is in %eli/eratel failin- to in;uire.
Flan+ille Williams thin>s wilful /lin%ness is e;ui+alent to >nowle%-e. Courts )an onl
fin% wilful /lin%ness when the a))use% all /ut >new. The a))use% /asi)all >new. the
=ust )ons)iousl )hoose to )lose their ees to the realit.
Whene+er >nowle%-e is re;uire% as the mens rea stan%ar% of an offen)e. wilful /lin%ness
will suffi)e. Were the a))use% is %eli/eratel i-norant as a result of /lin%in- himself to
realit. the law !resumes >nowle%-e.
+egligence is the failure to ta>e reasona/le )are # it is not -enerall a )riminal )on)e!t. It
is an o/=e)ti+e stan%ar%.
R. v. urr!e *1975+, 21 ... *2d+ 292 *'nt. .(.+
C>i% )ashe% a for-e% )he;ueD
Charge* Utterin- a for-e% %o)ument. s. 3&1C1D. whi)h has a mens rea re;uirement of
>nowle%-e.
)atio* In or%er for the %o)trine of wilful /lin%ness to a!!l. the a))use% must ha+e
subjecti'ely ha% his sus!i)ions arouse%. an% then )hose to %eli/eratel i-nore those
sus!i)ions. In this )ase there was no e+i%en)e that the a))use%Es sus!i)ions were
arouse%.
)easons* The test for wilful /lin%ness is su/=e)ti+e sus!i)ion.
R. v 8uon7 *1998+, 'nt (
C'ar/oure% a frien% who sai% he was in trou/le )onne)te% to a mur%er. 0))use% %i% not
>now for )ertain that his frien% ha% %one the >illin-s. Di%nEt as> him either.D
Charge* 4ein- an a))essor after the fa)t to mur%er un%er s. 23C1D.
)atio* The a))use% satisfies the mens rea re;uirement of the )har-e of a))essor after the
fa)t to mur%er /e)ause he was wilfull /lin% to whether or not his frien% was )ul!a/le for
32
the mur%ers / failin- to ma>e the ne)essar in;uiries in res!onse to his sus!i)ions.
,iability turns on t%e decision not to in;uire (%en real suspicions arise, not on
speculations about (%at t%e accused (ould %a'e learned if %e made t%ose in;uiries.
+otes* Duon- ar-ue% that the Crown must !ro+e not onl that the sus!i)ions were
arouse%. /ut also that his sus!i)ions woul% ha+e /een )onfirme% if he followe% u! on it.
The )ourt re=e)te% this ar-ument.
R v Shalaan 3 Deals with ss. 23.1 an% 892 whi)h sa that someone )an /e )har-e% as an
a))essor e+en if the !rin)i!le has not /een )har-e% of the !rimar offen)e.
&'1ectie Fault
See Ss. 2193222. 23". 23&. Criminal Code.
O/=e)ti+e mens rea is what the a))use% shoul% ha+e >nown. irres!e)ti+e of a)tual
awareness. +%9roux !ointe% out that there is a !resum!tion a-ainst o/=e)ti+e mens rea.
The o/=e)ti+e stan%ar% is onl in !la)e when (arliament e:!ressl sas so.
Criminal .e$li$ence: the 1udicial eolution of the standard
Criminal ne-li-en)e )rimes ha+e an o/=e)ti+e mens rea stan%ar%. This is )urious.
/e)ause the wor%in- of s. 219C1D. )riminal ne-li-en)e. %oes not e:!li)itl show that it is
o/=e)ti+e. The -et the o/=e)ti+e mens rea stan%ar% from the title # Ine-li-en)eJ.
Ne-li-en)e is. / %efinition. o/=e)ti+e. e.-. 7anslau-hter )om/ines ne-li-en)e with
)ul!a/le homi)i%e.
R. v =utton 3 =utton, S
CTwo a))use% thou-ht that their )hil% ha% /een mira)ulousl heale% of %ia/etes. an% the
mother sto!!e% -i+in- him his insulin.D
Charge* 7anslau-hter un%er s. 222C8DC/D 3 )ul!a/le homi)i%e / )riminal ne-li-en)e.
Criminal ne-li-en)e at s. 219C1DC/D.
The SCC s!lit 3 # 3 on whether )riminal ne-li-en)e was o/=e)ti+e or su/=e)ti+e.
7)Intre sai% that )riminal ne-li-en)e is acting mindlessly* one fails to turn oneEs min%
to thin-s that one ou-ht to Co/=e)ti+e stan%ar%D. 7ens rea is satisfie% when one fails to
li+e u! to the stan%ar% of the reasona/le !erson. The test is a mar7ed and significant
departure from the stan%ar% of the reasona/le an% !ru%ent !erson. The onus is still on
the Crown to !ro+e /eon% a reasona/le %ou/t that the o/=e)ti+e stan%ar% mens rea has
/een met.
7)Intre 5 sas that a mista>e of fa)t %efen)e is not -oo% enou-h in )ase of )riminal
ne-li-en)e. The %efen)e of reasonable mista>e of fa)t is allowe%. howe+er Cthe wel%er
who see>s a%+i)e that there is no e:!losi+e -asD. 7)Intre 5 sas the =ur shoul%
)onsi%er the information a+aila/le at the timeK the =ur is to loo> at all the )ir)umstan)es.
33
7anslau-hter has to /e o/=e)ti+e. an% mur%er has to /e su/=e)ti+e. Otherwise. what is
the !oint of ha+in- two se!arate offen)es??
R v Hundal, 9199.; 1 SR 8:7
Charge* %an-erous %ri+in- CCriminal Code. s. 2"9D
)atio* The mens rea stan%ar% for %an-erous %ri+in- is o/=e)ti+e. an% it is %etermine% / a
mo%ifie% o/=e)ti+e test.
Test* The mo%ifie% o/=e)ti+e stan%ar% !ro)ee%s as thou-h the reasona/le !erson was in
the shoes of the a))use%.
The mo%ifie% o/=e)ti+e test woul% a!!l an o/=e)ti+e stan%ar%. /ut woul% allow the
a))use% to raise a reasona/le %ou/t that a reasona/le !erson woul% not ha+e a!!re)iate%
the ris>s. This will a+oi% the !ro/lem of sen%in- someone to =ail who suffers a heart
atta)> while %ri+in-.
R. v re!7hton, 9199.; . SR .
Charge* Unlawful a)t manslau-hter. s. 222C8DCaD.
)atio* The o/=e)ti+e mens rea stan%ar% for manslau-hter is )onstitutional. it %oes not
+iolate s. < of the Charter.
)easons*
Test* Determinin- mens rea for manslau-hter Cmo%ifie% o/=e)ti+e testD.
1D Woul% a reasona/le !erson in the same )ir)umstan)es ha+e /een aware that the
li>el )onse;uen)es of his unlawful )on%u)t woul% )reate the ris> of %eath?
If no. the a))use% must /e a);uitte%. If esK
2D Was the a))use% unaware /e)ause
a. 'e %i% not turn his min% to the )onse;uen)es of the )on%u)t an% thus to
the ris> of %eath li>el to result? CIf es. )on+i)tion must /e entere%D OR
/. 'e la)>e% the )a!a)it to turn his min% to the )onse;uen)es of the )on%u)t
an% thus to the ris> of %eath li>el to result. %ue to human frailties? If esK
3D In this )onte:t of the !arti)ular offen)e. woul% the reasona/le !erson with the
)a!a)ities of the a))use% ha+e ma%e himself aware of the li>el )onse;uen)es of
the unlawful )on%u)t an% the resultin- ris> of %eath?
+otes* The reasona/le !erson will /e in+este% with an enhan)e% foresi-ht that the
a))use% ma ha+e / +irtue of s!e)ialise% >nowle%-e or s>ill.
R. v <eatty, 92008; 1 SR 19
3%
C0))use% lost )ons)iousness momentaril while %ri+in-. )rosse% the meri%ian. an% >ille%
three !eo!leD
Charge* %an-erous %ri+in- )ausin- %eath Cs. 2"9C"DD.
)atio* The mo%ifie% o/=e)ti+e test re;uires !roof of a mar>e% %e!arture from the
stan%ar% of a reasona/le !erson in all the )ir)umstan)es. Onl a mar>e% %e!arture )an
%emonstrate suffi)ient /lameworthiness to su!!ort a fin%in- of !enal lia/ilit.
We ha+e a trul o/=e)ti+e test Cshort of in)a!a)itD. /ut the threshol% is +er hi-h
Cmar>e% %e!arture from the reasona/le stan%ar%D.
)easons* The stan%ar% for )riminal ne-li-en)e is more stri)t than the stan%ar% for )i+il
ne-li-en)e /e)ause )riminal fault must /e /ase% on )on%u)t that merits !unishment.
7o%ifie% O/=e)ti+e Test*
0)tus reus* %i% the a))use% )ommit the a)tCsD s!elle% out in the )har-e?
7ens rea* The trier of fa)t shoul% /e satisfie% on all the e+i%en)e that the )on%u)t
amounte% to a mar>e% %e!arture from the stan%ar% of )are that a reasona/le !erson woul%
o/ser+e in the a))use%Es )ir)umstan)es.
33
3 In 3o'a Scotia P%armaceutical an% <e Sou=a. the i%ea that the su/=e)ti+e
stan%ar% went to the heart of e+er )riminal offen)e was re=e)te% on)e an% for all.
This settle% the issue that the o/=e)ti+e stan%ar% was )onstitutional.
R. v F*?+, 2008 S :0
Three -ra%ations of the o/=e)ti+e stan%ar%*
1D Re+erse onus %ue %ili-en)e* stri)t lia/ilit !u/li) welfare an% re-ulator offen)es.
CSault Ste .arieD
2D 7ar>e% De!arture from the O/=e)ti+e norm* -ross ne-li-en)e. C6eattyD
3D 7ar>e% an% Su/stantial De!arture from the O/=e)ti+e norm* )rimes of )riminal
ne-li-en)e. C$0>2D
Crimes 'ased on predicate offences
Commonl$ charged offences in this special categor$!
3 Unlawful a)t manslau-hter # s. 222C8DCaD Qor s. 222R # 0 !erson )ommits )ul!a/le
homi)i%e when he )auses the %eath of a human /ein-. / means of an unlawful a)t.
3 0ssault )ausin- /o%il harm # s. 2&<C/D # 6+er one who. in )ommittin- an assault.
)auses /o%il harm to the )om!lainant. is -uilt of an in%i)ta/le offen)e...
3 0--ra+ate% assault # s. 2&1C1D # 6+er one )ommits an a--ra+ate% assault who
woun%s. maims. %isfi-ures or en%an-ers the life of the )om!lainant.
3 Unlawfull )ausin- /o%il harm # s. 2&9 # 6+er one who unlawfull )auses /o%il
harm to an !erson is -uilt of ... Qan offen)eR.
3 Criminal ne-li-en)e )ausin- /o%il harm # s. 221.
3 Criminal ne-li-en)e )ausin- %eath # s. 222.
3 Dan-erous O!eration Causin- 4o%il 'arm # s. 2"9C3D.
3 Im!aire% %ri+in- )ausin- %eath # s. 288C3D.
3 Se:ual 0ssault )ausin- /o%il harm # s. 2<2C)D.
3(
3 0--ra+ate% Se:ual 0ssault # s. 2<3.
3 7is)hief )ausin- %an-er to life # s. "32C2D.
3 0rson )ausin- /o%il harm # s. "33C/D.
R. v 8eSouBa, 91992; 2 SR 911
Charge* Unlawfull )ausin- /o%il harm CCriminal Code. s. 2&9D.
)easons* There are two !arts to the mens rea element of s. 2&9. $irst. an un%erlin-
offen)e with a )onstitutionall suffi)ient mental element must /e )ommitte%. Se)on%. the
ris> of the /o%il harm )ause% / the un%erlin- a)t must /e o/=e)ti+el foreseea/le.
8eSousa 3 the &orres)onden&e )r!n&!)le
1. 1redicate offence
0RCsD 7RCsD
2. Aggravating circumstances =>causes bodil$ harm? C0RD .b@ective
foreseeabilit$ of bodil$ harm that is more than trivial or transitor$ C7RD
R. v re!7hton, 9199.; . SR .
)atio* The 7o%ifie% O/=e)ti+e Stan%ar% is an a!!ro!riate test for the mens rea of
unlawful a)t manslau-hter.
33
1redicate .ffences =-n a +utshell?*
$or )ertain offen)es that lin> a !re%i)ate unlawful a)t to a !arti)ular )onse;uen)e or
result a )on+i)tion will follow where*
3 the actus reus is esta/lishe%K 0ND
3 the mens rea for the un%erlin- offen)e Cwhi)h )annot /e an a/solute lia/ilit
offen)eD is ma%e outK 0ND
3 The a)t in ;uestion must ha+e -i+en rise to an o/=e)ti+el foreseea/le ris> of
/o%il harm that is more than tri+ial or transitor in nature 3 ie. the reasona/le
!erson woul% ha+e foreseen this more than tri+ial or transitor le+el of harm as a
li>el )onse;uen)e of the a)t at issue.
Ta>e those !re%i)ate offen)es !remise% on an un%erlin- assault # for e:am!le. assault
)ausin- /o%il harm Cs. 2&<C/DD # to se)ure a )on+i)tion the Crown must !ro+e that the
a))use%*
ctus reus*
1D a!!lie% %ire)t or in%ire)t for)e to another !erson
2D without that !ersonEs )onsentK an%
3D that this )ause% /o%il harm to that !erson.
.ens rea*
1D inten%e% to a!!l %ire)t or in%ire)t for)e to that !erson
2D >new. or was re)>less or wilfull /lin% towar%s. the fa)t that the !erson was not
)onsentin-K 0ND
3D that a reasona/le !erson woul% ha+e foreseen that /o%il harm of more than a
tri+ial or transitor nature was a li>el )onse;uen)e of the for)e a!!lie%.
3,
)emember that the predicate offence can never be an absolute liabilit$ offenceAAA
e.-. assault )ausin- /o%il harm. $irst the Crown must !ro+e 0R an% 7R of assault.
Then the Crown must !ro+e the 0R an% 7R Cwhi)h is o/=e)ti+e foreseea/ilit of /o%il
harmD of /o%il harm.
e.-. unlawful a)t manslau-hter. $irst must !ro+e an unlawful a)t C4oth 0R an% 7RD.
an% then must !ro+e )ausin- %eath C7R stan%ar% is objecti'e foreseeability of bodily
%armD.
MENS REA & MISTAKES
-ista2es of Fact
See ss. 2&8. 2<132<3.2. Criminal Code.
7ista>e of fa)t is a %efen)e that is /ase% on an a/sen)e of mens rea.
7ista>e of fa)t was a+aila/le as a %efen)e to )har-e of ra!e.
O))urs when there is an honest /ut mista>en /elief in the e:isten)e of )onsent.
Ne-ates mens rea of the )rime. an% means the a))use%Es )on%u)t was inno)ent.
4ut the a))use% must meet an e+i%entiar /ur%en to show an air of realit to his mista>e
of fa)t.
There must /e Iother )ir)umstan)esJ that le% to this mista>en /elief # his testimon is not
enou-h.
The mista>e. /ase% on these other )ir)umstan)es. %oes not nee% to /e reasona/le.
#a))aCohn v R, 91980; 2 SR 120
C,an)ou+er man an% his realtorD
Charge* The ol% s. 1"3 Cra!eD.
)atio* There must /e an air of realit to a mista>e of fa)t %efen)e /efore it )an /e left
with a =ur.
7ista>e of fa)t is when the a))use% has an honest /ut mista>en /elief in fa)ts. This is a
su/=e)ti+e stan%ar%. 7ista>e of fa)t is a ne-ation of -uilt intention Cmens reaD # not a
!ositi+e %efen)e. Ne+ertheless. the onus is on the a))use% to raise it as a %efen)e.
Sin)e Pappajo%n (arliament has )o%ifie% the nee% for /elief to /e reasona/le*
s. 2&8." AccusedBs belief as to consent # where an a))use% alle-es that he
/elie+e% that the )om!lainant )onsente% to the )on%u)t that is the su/=e)t3matter
3/
of the )har-e. a =u%-e. if satisfie% that there is suffi)ient e+i%en)e that. f /elie+e%
/ the =ur. the e+i%en)e woul% )onstitute a %efen)e. shall instru)t the =ur. when
re+iewin- all the e+i%en)e relatin- to the %etermination of the honest of the
a))use%Es /elief. to )onsi%er the !resen)e or a/sen)e of reasona/le -roun%s for
that /elief.
Sansre7ret v R, 91985; 1 SR 570
Ce:3-irlfrien% ra!e in Winni!e-. se)on% +isit. !arole offi)er tal>e% +i)tim out of !ressin-
)har-es on first o))asionD
Charge* The ol% s. 1"3 Cra!eD.
)atio* Wilful 4lin%ness !re)lu%es the %efen)e of mista>e of fa)t. 'owe+er. re)>lessness
%oes not !re)lu%e the %efen)e of mista>e of fa)t.
+otes* 0n a))use% ma still /e a/le to !lea% mista>e of fa)t if he was re)>less. C/ut not
in se:ual assault )ases anmore. /e)ause this has /een %isallowe% s. 2<3C2D.D
S. 2<3C2D 3 it is not a %efen)e to a )har-e un%er s. 2<1. 2<2. or 2<3 that the
a))use% /elie+e% that the )om!lainant )onsente% where
aD the a))use%Es /elief arose the from
iD self in%u)e% into:i)ation
iiD re)>lessness or willful /lin%ness
/Dthe a))use% %i% not ta>e reasona/le ste!s to as)ertain that the
)om!lainant was )onsentin-.
33
SeCual Assault!
In 1912 (arliament re!la)e% the )rime of Ira!eJ with the offen)e of Ise:ual assault.J
This new offen)e was a%%e% to the Code / s. 2<1 /ut not e:!ressl %efine%.
In R. v. hase. the Su!reme Court hel% that a se:ual assault is an assault within an one
of the %efinitions of s. 2&8C1D whi)h is )ommitte% in )ir)umstan)es of a se:ual nature.
su)h that the se:ual inte-rit of the +i)tim is +iolate%.
This %etermination is o/=e)ti+e # i.e. whether. +iewe% in li-ht of all the )ir)umstan)es.
woul% a reasona/le o/ser+er )hara)teriLe the assault as se:ual in nature.
In most instan)es the un%erlin- assault will /e one !remise% u!on s. 2&8C1DCaD. Un%er
that su/se)tion. -i+en hase. the elements of se:ual assault are as follows*
(&tus reus!
3 a!!lin- for)e %ire)tl or in%ire)tl to another !ersonK
3 the a!!li)ation of for)e must. when the entire )ir)umstan)es are +iewe%
o/=e)ti+el. +iolate the se:ual inte-rit of that !ersonK an%
3 without the )onsent of that other !erson.
%ens rea!
3&
3 an intention to a!!l %ire)t or in%ire)t for)e to another !ersonK an%
3 >nowle%-e of. or re)>lessness. or wilful /lin%ness towar%s the a/sen)e of )onsent.
N.4. The Crown nee% not !ro+e that the a))use% ha% an mens rea with res!e)t to the
se:ual nature of his or her /eha+iour.
In a%%ition to the offen)e of sim!le se:ual assault there are also a--ra+ate% forms of the
offen)e. These a--ra+ate% forms ha+e a%%itional e:ternal )ir)umstan)es Celements of the
&D that the Crown must esta/lish. The also )arr a lon-er !otential ma:imum
!unishment an% a minimum in )ertain )ir)umstan)es.
6.-. s. 2<2C1D Se:ual assault with a wea!on. threats to a thir% !art or )ausin- /o%il
harm.
lso see section 2#?, ggra'ated Sexual ssault.
33
:eaning of >ConsentB!
2,(. =2? Application # This se)tion a!!lies to all forms of assault. in)lu%in- se:ual
assault. se:ual assault with a wea!on. threats to a thir% !art or )ausin- /o%il
harm an% a--ra+ate% se:ual assault.
=3? Consent # $or the !ur!oses of this se)tion. no )onsent is o/taine% where the
)om!lainant su/mits or %oes not resist / reason of
CaD the a!!li)ation of for)e to the )om!lainant or to a !erson other than the
)om!lainantK
C/D threats or fear of the a!!li)ation of for)e to the )om!lainant or to a !erson
other than the )om!lainantK
C)D frau%K or
C%D the e:er)ise of authorit.
2/3.1=1? :eaning of "consent# # Su/=e)t to su/se)tion C2D an% su/se)tion 2&8C3D.
I)onsentJ means. for the !ur!oses of se)tion 2<1. 2<2 an% 2<3. the +oluntar
a-reement of the )om!lainant to en-a-e in the se:ual a)ti+it in ;uestion.
=2? Where no consent obtained # No )onsent is o/taine%. for the !ur!oses of se)tions
2<1. 2<2 an% 2<3. where
CaD the a-reement is e:!resse% / the wor%s or )on%u)t of a !erson other than the
)om!lainantK
C/D the )om!lainant is in)a!a/le of )onsentin- to the a)ti+itK
C)D the a))use% in%u)es the )om!lainant to en-a-e in the a)ti+it / a/usin- a
!osition of trust. !ower or authoritK
C%D the )om!lainant e:!resses. / wor%s or )on%u)t. a la)> of a-reement to
en-a-e in the a)ti+itK or
3'
CeD the )om!lainant. ha+in- )onsente% to en-a-e in se:ual a)ti+it. e:!resses. /
wor%s or )on%u)t. a la)> of a-reement to )ontinue to en-a-e in the a)ti+it.
=3? Subsection =2? not limiting # Nothin- in su/se)tion C2D shall /e )onstrue% as limitin-
the )ir)umstan)es in whi)h no )onsent is o/taine%.
R v E4an&huk, 91999; 1 SR ..0
CDirt man in trailer in 'erita-e 7all !ar>in- lotD
Charge* Se:ual assault un%er s. 2<1.
)atio* There is no %efen)e of im!lie% )onsent to se:ual assault in Cana%a.
The a))use% %i% not raise e+en an air of realit a/out an honest /ut mista>en /elief. 0s
lon- as the )om!lainant %i% not subjecti'ely )onsent. the Crown has met its /ur%en to
%emonstrate the a/sen)e of )onsent. The fin%in- that the +i)tim %i% not )onsent to the
se:ual tou)hin- )annot )oe:ist with a fin%in- that reasona/le %ou/t e:ists on the ;uestion
of )onsent.
+otes* The la)> of )onsent is su/=e)ti+e an% )omes from the )om!lainantEs own min%. If
she )onsents out of fear of +iolen)e. her fear %oes not nee% to /e reasona/le.
'er la)> of )onsent -oes to the a)tus reus.
33
In a)tus reus. I)onsentJ means that the woman wante% the se:ual tou)hin- to ta>e !la)e.
In mens rea. I)onsentJ means the woman affirmati+el )ommuni)ate% her a-reement.
33
%!stake of Fa&t 3 Sexual (ssault
2/3.2 Where belief in consent not a defence # It is not a %efen)e to a )har-e un%er
se)tion 2<1. 2<2 or 2<3 that the a))use% /elie+e% that the )om!lainant )onsente%
to the a)ti+it that forms the su/=e)t3matter of the )har-e. where
CaD the a))use%Es /elief arose from the a))use%Es
CiD self3in%u)e% into:i)ation. or
CiiD re)>lessness or wilful /lin%nessK or
C/D the a))use% %i% not ta>e reasona/le ste!s. in the )ir)umstan)es >nown to the
a))use% at the time. to as)ertain that the )om!lainant was )onsentin-.
Outsi%e se:ual assault. Pappajo%n still -o+erns the %efen)e of mista>e of fa)t.
Sub@ective mens rea can be negated b$ sub@ective mista7e of fact8 and ob@ective
mens rea can be negated b$ a reasonable mista7e of fact.
%4
-ista2e of Law
3 7ista>e of Law %oes not affor% a %efen)e.
3 I-noran)e of the law is no e:)use. ignorantia juris non excusat.
3 Se)tion 19 of the Criminal Code.
There are !oli) reasons for this rule*
3 7ista>e of Law woul% in+ol+e !rotra)te% %is!utes a/out what the a))use%
/elie+e%.
3 7ista>e of Law woul% en)oura-e !eo!le to remain i-norant of the law.
3 7ista>e of Law woul% ma>e a !erson a law unto themsel+es # the law woul%
/e)ome what the >now or %onEt >now.
4ut there are 2 e:)e!tions to this -eneral rule*
1. Colour of Ri-ht # a!!lies to !ro!ert offen)es an% is e:!ressl in)lu%e% in
statutes relatin- to theft. 0!!lies when the a))use% /elie+es he ha% a le-itimate
)i+il le-al ri-ht to the !ro!ert. C&. ' <oros%D
2. Offi)iall in%u)e% error of law C,9'is 0City of2 ' +etreaultD
R v a")/ell and %lynar&huk, 1972 ars4ell(lta 125 *8!st. t.+
E'en a reasonable mista*e of la( does not afford a defence.
)atio* 7ista>e of law )annot !ro+i%e a %efen)e to a )har-e. /ut it ma /e )onsi%ere% in
senten)in-.
R v 8orosh, 2001 ars4ellSask 55 *(+
CFu stole /a)> what he thou-ht was his own trailer an% sol% it on to someone elseD
Charge* Theft un%er s. 322.
)easons* In either a mista>e of fa)t or mista>e of law. the mista>e must -i+e rise to
either*
3 an honest /elief in a !ro!rietar or !ossessor ri-ht to the thin- in ;uestion or
3 0n honest /elief in a state of fa)ts whi)h. if true. woul% at law =ustif or e:)use
the a)t %one.
0)tus Reus*
3 Ta>in- somethin- to whi)h someone else has a +ali% !ro!ert interest.
7ens Rea*
3 $rau%ulent intent Cintent to %e)ei+eD
3 0/sen)e of )olour of ri-ht
3 Intent to %e!ri+e tem!oraril or a/solutel
Bou nee% to >now that ou are ta>in- !ro!ert to whi)h ou ha+e no le-al )laim. If ou
/elie+e ou ha+e a le-al )laim to the !ro!ert. then mens rea is ne-ate% /e)ause there is
)olour of ri-ht.
0 )olour of ri-ht mista>e must /e an honest /elief Csu/=e)ti+e. not o/=e)ti+eD. Colour of
Ri-ht e:)e!tion in s. "29C2D. Colour of Ri-ht is onl a!!li)a/le to !ro!ert offen)es.
%1
0/sen)e of )olour of ri-ht is te)hni)all a mens rea element. /ut it reall a)ts more as a
%efen)e where the a))use% has somethin- of an e+i%entiar /ur%en.
R. v 8ra!nv!lle *1991+, 5 R *1
th
+ .8 *'nt. #rov. 8!v.+
C(art of -rou! that /lo)>e% a roa% on Crown lan% that the thou-ht shoul% /elon- to the
a/ori-inalsD
Charge* 7is)hief un%er s. "32C1DC)D.
)atio* The statutor %efen)e of )olour of ri-ht in)lu%es an honest /elief of a le-al ri-ht.
/ut not an honest /elief in a moral ri-ht.
)easons* The %efen)e of )olour of ri-ht %oes not e:ten% to honest /elief in moral rather
than le-al ri-hts.
+otes* Colour of ri-ht is %efine% as Ian honest /elief in the e:isten)e of a state of fa)ts
whi)h. if a)tuall e:iste%. woul% at law =ustif or e:)use the a)t %one.J
-$v!s *!ty+ v =$treault, 9200:; 1 SR 120
CDi% not renew his +ehi)le re-istration /e)ause the offi)ial tol% him that he woul% /e sent
a renewal form automati)all. an% he ha%nEt -otten a renewal form. It was lost in the
mail.D
)atio* The %efen)e of offi)iall in%u)e% error is a+aila/le in Cana%a for offen)es whi)h
ha+e a fault element # not for stri)t lia/ilit offen)es su)h as this one. The %efen)e for
this offen)e is %ue %ili-en)e. whi)h the a))use% %i% not ma>e out.
)easons* To su))essfull raise a %efen)e of offi)iall in%u)e% error. the a))use% must
!ro+e si: elements*
1D that an error of law or of mi:e% law an% fa)t was ma%eK
2D that the !erson who )ommitte% the a)t )onsi%ere% the le-al )onse;uen)es of his or
her a)tionsK
3D that the a%+i)e o/taine% )ame from an a!!ro!riate offi)ialK
"D that the a%+i)e was reasona/leK
8D that the a%+i)e was erroneousK an%
&D That the !erson relie% on the a%+i)e in )ommittin- the a)t. This relian)e must /e
o/=e)ti+el reasona/le.
33
:ista7e of aw D further points
Un%er s. "29C2D a %efen)e ma /e ma%e out / Ile-al =ustifi)ation or e:)useJ or I)olour
of ri-htJ. Colour of ri-ht ma /e informe% / a mista>e of fa)t or law. or mi:e% law an%
fa)t. The stan%ar% for mista>e of law is su/=e)ti+e. thou-h a )ourt ma )onsi%er all
fa)tors. in)lu%in- the unreasona/leness of the /elief C&. ' 5o(sonD. in %eterminin-
whether or not the a))use% hel% an honest mista>en /elief.
%2
The /ur%en is on the Crown to %emonstrate that there was no )olour of ri-ht C$TR* /ut
this /ur%en is usuall met +er easilD.
SELECTED EXCULPATORY DEFENCES
(ir of "eality for )efences
R. v. !nous
)atio* The =u%-e is onl o/li-ate% to lea+e a %efen)e with the =ur of there is an
e+i%entiar foun%ation -i+in- an air of realit to the %efen)e.
)easons* There is an air of realit when*
1. 6+i%en)e of the %efen)e
2. U!on whi)h a !ro!erl instru)te% =ur. a)tin- reasona/l. )oul% a);uit if the
/elie+e% the e+i%en)e to /e true.
0llowin- a %efen)e to -o to the =ur when it is not su!!orte% / e+i%en)e woul% in+ite
+er%i)ts not su!!orte% / e+i%en)e an% )onfuse the =ur.
When assessin- air of realit for a s. 3"C2D %efen)e. there must /e an air of realit to the
a))use%Es su/=e)ti+e /elief as well as the o/=e)ti+e reasona/leness of that /elief.
R.v. Fonta!ne
CConfirms CinousD
)atio* The air of realit test is a reall low threshol%. Defen)es %o not )reate re+erse
onuses. the air of realit /ur%en is onl enou-h to !ut the %efen)e in !la.
Self*)efence
Se&t!ons .1,.7 of the r!"!nal ode
Defen)es are /ro>en %own into
- 5ustifi)ations
- 6:)uses
- In)a!a)it
Self3%efen)e an% %efen)e of !ro!ert are =ustifi)ations.
R. v 0on7
3 Se)tion 3"Es two se)tions are two %ifferent %efen)es. The relate to two %ifferent
)ir)umstan)es.
3 The la)> of intention to )ause %eath or -rie+ous /o%il harm is the ma=or
%ifferen)e /etween the two se)tions. (resen)e or a/sen)e of intent will %etermine
whi)h of the su/se)tions will a!!l.
%3
Where an a))use% %oes not inten% to )ause %eath. s. 3"C1D is the )ontrollin- !ro+ision
Ce+en where %eath resultsD. In )ontrast. s. 3"C2D onl a!!lies in situations where the
a))use% inten%e% to )ause %eath.
Ele"ents of a s. .1*1+ defen&e
1. 0n unlawful assault Cper P9tel* reasona/le !er)e!tion of an unlawful assaultDK
2. The assault was not !ro+o>e%K
3. La)> of intent to >ill or )ause -rie+ous /o%il harmK an%
". $or)e use% is no more than ne)essar for self3%efen)e Cas ;ualifie% in -ongD.
Ele"ents of a s. .1*2+ defen&e
1. 0n unlawful assault Cper P9tel* reasona/le !er)e!tion of an unlawful assaultDK
2. @mplicitly 0per 6axter2A 0n intention to )ause %eath or -rie+ous /o%il harmK
3. The a))use% has a reasona/le a!!rehension of %eath or -rie+ous /o%il harmK an%
". The a))use% reasona/l /elie+es that he )annot otherwise !reser+e himself from
%eath or -rie+ous /o%il harm unless he re!els the unlawful assault in >in%.
3 In s. 3" self3%efen)e. there is a limit of ne)essit.
3 The a!!li)ation of for)e must /e no more than ne)essar. It is the for)e that must /e
ne)essar. not the )onse;uen)es that must /e no more than ne)essar.
3 The )ourt must not wei-h to a ni)et the ne)essit le+el of the a)tion. There is a
mar-in of %is)retion.
R. v 8ee7an *1979+, (lta (
)atio* It is not ne)essar that someone retreat /efore the )an rel on a %efen)e of self3
%efen)e.
'owe+er. if the a))use% )oul% ha+e retreate% an% %i%nSt it is e+i%en)e that his /elief that
he )oul% not otherwise !reser+e himself was unreasona/le.
R. v -avall$e, 91990; 1 SR 852
C4attere% woman -ot han%e% a -un / her a/usi+e li+e3in /ofrien%. She shot him while
he wal>e% out of the room.D
-ssue* 7a a /attere% woman )laim a %efen)e of self3%efen)e un%er s. 3"C2D if the assault
that she was %efen%in- herself a-ainst was not imme%iatel o))urrin-?
)atio* 0 /attere% woman ma use the %efen)e of self3%efen)e is she meets the o/=e)ti+e
re;uirements of /oth s. 3"C2DCaD an% s. 3"C2DC/D.
)easons* Su/se)tion 3"C2DCaD %oes not a)tuall re;uire that the a))use% a!!rehen%
imminent %an-er.
The test is what the a))use% reasona/l !er)ei+e% -i+en her situation an% e:!erien)e.
This is a mo%ifie% o/=e)ti+e test. The issue is not what an outsi%er woul% ha+e
reasona/l !er)ei+e% /ut what the a))use% reasona/l !er)ei+e%. -i+en her situation an%
e:!erien)e. The law %oes not re;uire that her fear was )orre)t. onl reasona/le.
%%
There must /e e:!ert e+i%en)e le% showin- that the a))use% was sufferin- from /attere%
womanEs sn%rome. There must /e e+i%en)e le% that she reasona/l a!!rehen%e%
-rie+ous /o%il harm or %eath.
Test* 0sses " thin-s when a!!lin- this*
1. Whether a))use% was a/use%
2. Whether she suffere% from 4attere% WomanEs Sn%rome
3. Im!a)t that 4attere% WomanEs Sn%rome ha% on her min%set an% !er)e!tion
". S!e)ifi)s a/out the in)i%ent as to whether she su/=e)ti+el /elie+e% she was in harm
an% )oul% not otherwise !reser+e herself. an% whether this /elief was reasona/le
-i+en the histor of a/use an% her 4attere% WomanEs Sn%rome.
R v #$tel, 91991; 1 SR .
Ca))use%Es %au-hterEs %ru-3%ealin- /ofrien%Vthe %e)ease%Vmo+e% in. Re-ularl
threatene% a))use%. %au-hter. an% -ran%3%au-hter. 0))use% too> -un %e)ease% -a+e her
an% shot him with it.D
1lea* Self3%efen)e un%er s. 3"C2D.
)atio* $or the !ur!oses of %eterminin- whether or not the a))use% ha% a reasona/le
/elief of %eath or -rie+ous /o%il harm as !er s. 3"C2DC/D of the Criminal Co%e. one must
ta>e into a))ount the whole )onte:t of the situation. in)lu%in- histor of threats a-ainst
the a))use% lea%in- u! to the in)i%ent.
)easons* (re+ious threats )an -o to the reasona/leness of the a))use%Es /elief that he or
she is in %an-er.
Test* %i% the a))use% reasona/l /elie+e. in the )ir)umstan)es. that she was /ein-
assaulte%?
)efence of Property 3)wellin$4
Se)tions "23"2 # Defen)e of real !ro!ert
R v <axter *1975+, 'nt (
)atio* When there is no e+i%en)e of a reasona/le a!!rehension of in=ur to !ro!ert. the
ri-ht to use for)e is %ealt with un%er self3%efen)e Cs. 3"C2DD.
Se)tion "1C2D onl has the effe)t of turnin- a)ti+e resistan)e into assault. $or the
!ur!oses of s. "1C2D. !assi+e resistan)e will not /e )onsi%ere% assault.
)easons* Intentional >illin- of a mere tres!asser )an onl /e =ustifie% where the !erson in
!ossession of the !ro!ert is a/le to ma>e out a )ase of self3%efen)e.
The use of for)e in these )ir)umstan)es is su/=e)t to the restri)tions that
1. the for)e use% is ne)essar
2. that the harm sou-ht to /e !re+ente% )oul% not /e !re+ente% / less +iolent means
3. that the for)e use% is not %is!ro!ortionate to the in=ur it is inten%e% to !re+ent
%(
The analsis fo)uses on the a))use%Es state of min%. whether he reasona/l /elie+e% that
the use of for)e was ne)essar an% !ro!ortionate.
R. v 5unn!n7, 92005; 1 SR :27
C0))use% hosts a /ooLe3u!. unin+ite% Charlie )omes alon- an% refuses to lea+e when
as>e%. 0))use% -et shot-un to s)are him aware. /ut shot-un a))i%entall -oes off an%
>ills Charlie.D
)easons* There are four elements to the %efen)e of !ro!ert %efen)e raise% / the
a))use% in this )ase. To se)ure a )on+i)tion the Crown must !ro+e /eon% a reasona/le
%ou/t that the a))use% %i% not a)t in %efen)e of !ro!ert*
1D 'e must ha+e /een in !ossession of the %wellin-3house. an%
2D 'is !ossession must ha+e /een !ea)ea/le. an%
3D The %e)ease% must ha+e /een a tres!asser. an%
"D The for)e use% to e=e)t the tres!asser must ha+e /een reasona/le.
.ecessity
Courts are relu)tant to re)o-nise ne)essit as a %efen)e. Cana%a %oes. howe+er.
re)o-nise the %efen)e of ne)essit in some limite% )ir)umstan)es. Ne)essit is a
)ommon law %efen)e.
Ne)essit )ame u! in the .orgentaler )ases. 0t that time. Di)>son 5 sai% that if the
%efen)e of ne)essit e:iste% in Cana%ian law. it )oul% -o no further than to =ustif non3
)om!lian)e in ur-ent situations when )om!lian)e woul% otherwise /e im!ossi/le.
R. v 8udley and Ste)hens *1881+, 11 D<8 27. *R+
C7en on a life/oat. >ille% an% ate the /o. /e)ause otherwise the woul% ha+e %ie%.D
)atio* Sometimes it is a hi-her !rin)i!le to la %own our life than to ta>e someone
elseEs to !reser+e our own. The %efen)e of ne)essit is not a+aila/le in 6n-lish law for
a )har-e of mur%er.
#erka v R, 91981; 2 SR 2..
CSmu--lin- %ru-s from Colum/ia to 0las>a. set %own in No Name 4a when their shi!
/e-an to sin>.D
Charge* Im!ortin- )anna/is into Cana%a. an% !ossession for the !ur!oses of traffi)>in-.
)easons* CDi)>son 5. ma=oritD 0 =ustifi)ation is when a )rime is =ustifie% /e)ause it was
)ommitte% in !ursuit of some hi-her -oo%. su)h as /rea>in- the s!ee% limit to -et an
in=ure% !erson to hos!ital. The onl =ustifi)ations that shoul% /e allowe% in the )riminal
law are those alrea% s!e)ifi)all re)o-nise% in the Criminal Co%e.
The %efen)e of ne)essit ma )orre)tl /e seen as an e:)use. howe+er. One ma !lea%
ne)essit when the are IIn ur-ent situations of )lear an% imminent !eril when
)om!lian)e with the law is %emonstra/l im!ossi/le.J This !reser+es the o/=e)ti+it of
the )riminal law. When ne)essit is an e:)use. the )on%u)t is not /lameworth.
%,
0t its heart. this is )onne)te% to the !rin)i!le that the )riminal law )an onl !unish
a)tions whi)h are +oluntar. If the a))use% was in a situation that ma%e )om!lian)e with
the law im!ossi/le. then it )annot /e sai% that their a)tions in /rea>in- the law were trul
I+oluntarJ # the a)tion was morall or normati+el in+oluntar. This is moral
in+oluntariness. %ifferent from stri)t in+oluntariness. It is still +oluntar in the stri)test
terms. /ut it is in+oluntar insofar as it is a )hoi)e that is un!alata/le. It was.
realisti)all. una+oi%a/le. 7oral in+oluntariness is to /e measure% on the /asis of
so)ietEs e:!e)tation of a!!ro!riate an% normal resistan)e to !ressure.
The %efen)e of ne)essit woul% not a!!l if the ne)essitous situation was reasona/le
foreseea/le an% the a)tor )oul% ha+e a+oi%e% it. CIn these situations. the a)t woul% not /e
trul normati+el in+oluntar.D
4ur%en of !roof* Thou-h ne)essit is frame% as a %efen)e the onus. as alwas. is on the
Crown to !ro+e +oluntariness.
Test* In or%er for a %efen)e of ne)essit to /e ma%e out. the followin- must all /e met*
1D The situation must /e one that %eman%s a)tion an% ma>es )ounsel for !atien)e
unreasona/le.
2D 4rea>in- the law must ha+e /een the onl o!tion a+aila/leK the o!tion to a)t
without /rea> the law must ha+e /een una+aila/le. an%
3D The harm infli)te% must /e less than the harm sou-ht to /e a+oi%e%
C!ro!ortionalitD.
R v -at!"er, 92001; 1 SR .
)atio* C!er CuriamD The re;uirements for the %efen)e of ne)essit are*
1D Imminent !eril or %an-er
2D No reasona/le le-al alternati+e. an%
3D (ro!ortionalit /etween the harm infli)te% an% the harm a+oi%e%.
The stan%ar% for the first an% se)on% re;uirements is the mo%ifie% o/=e)ti+e stan%ar%.
The stan%ar% for the thir% re;uirement is the o/=e)ti+e stan%ar%.
)easons* The mo%ifie% o/=e)ti+e stan%ar% loo>s to what a reasona/le !erson woul% ha+e
%one in the situation. ta>in- into a))ount I!ersonal )hara)teristi)s that legitimately affe)t
what ma /e e:!e)te% of that !erson.J
:odified ob@ective test # %i% the honestl /elie+e this? Was it reasona/le for them to
/elie+e it?
The o/=e)ti+e stan%ar% must /e use% for the thir% re;uirement of the ne)essit %efen)e.
for to %o otherwise woul% +iolate fun%amental !rin)i!les of the )riminal law.