Physiological Changes Associated With The Pre-Event Taper in Athletes

Sports Med 2004; 34 (13): 891-927
REVIEW ARTICLE 0112-1642/04/0013-0891/$31.00/0

2004 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
Physiological Changes Associated
with the Pre-Event Taper in Athletes
I nigo Mujika,
1,2
Sabino Padilla,
1
David Pyne
2
and Thierry Busso
3
1 Department of Research and Development, Medical Services, Athletic Club of Bilbao, Basque
Country, Spain
2 Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, ACT, Australia
3 Research Group, Physiology and Physiopathology of Exercise and Handicap, University of
Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne, France
Contents
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
1. Cardiorespiratory Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
1.1 Maximal Oxygen Uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
1.2 Economy of Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
1.3 Cardiac Function and Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
1.3.1 Resting Heart Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
1.3.2 Maximal Heart Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
1.3.3 Submaximal Heart Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
1.3.4 Blood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
1.3.5 Cardiac Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
1.4 Ventilatory Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
1.5 Haematology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
1.5.1 Balance Between Haemolysis and Erythropoiesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
1.5.2 Iron Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
2. Metabolic Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
2.1 Energy Expenditure/Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
2.2 Substrate Availability and Utilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
2.3 Blood Lactate Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
2.3.1 Maximal Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
2.3.2 Submaximal Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
2.4 Blood Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
2.5 Muscle Glycogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
2.6 Mineral Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
3. Biochemical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
3.1 Creatine Kinase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
3.2 Other Biochemical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
4. Hormonal Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
4.1 Testosterone, Cortisol and the Testosterone : Cortisol Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
4.2 Catecholamines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
4.3 Growth Hormone and Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
4.4 Other Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
892 Mujika et al.
5. Neuromuscular Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
5.1 Strength and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
5.2 Enzymatic Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
5.3 Muscle Fibre Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
5.3.1 Muscle Fibre Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
5.3.2 Metabolic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
5.3.3 Contractile Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
6. Immunological Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
6.1 Immune Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
6.2 Immunoglobulins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
6.3 Cytokines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
7. Psychological Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
7.1 Mood State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
7.2 Perception of Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
7.3 Quality of Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
8. Insights from Mathematical Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
8.1 Fatigue and Adaptation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
8.2 Variable Dose-Response Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
9. Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
10. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
Some of the physiological changes associated with the taper and their relation- Abstract
ship with athletic performance are now known. Since the 1980s a number of
studies have examined various physiological responses associated with the cardio-
respiratory, metabolic, hormonal, neuromuscular and immunological systems
during the pre-event taper across a number of sports. Changes in the cardiorespira-
tory system may include an increase in maximal oxygen uptake, but this is not a
necessary prerequisite for taper-induced gains in performance. Oxygen uptake at a
given submaximal exercise intensity can decrease during the taper, but this
response is more likely to occur in less-skilled athletes. Resting, maximal and
submaximal heart rates do not change, unless athletes show clear signs of
overreaching before the taper. Blood pressure, cardiac dimensions and ventilatory
function are generally stable, but submaximal ventilation may decrease. Possible
haematological changes include increased blood and red cell volume,
haemoglobin, haematocrit, reticulocytes and haptoglobin, and decreased red cell
distribution width. These changes in the taper suggest a positive balance between
haemolysis and erythropoiesis, likely to contribute to performance gains.
Metabolic changes during the taper include: a reduced daily energy expendi-
ture; slightly reduced or stable respiratory exchange ratio; increased peak blood
lactate concentration; and decreased or unchanged blood lactate at submaximal
intensities. Blood ammonia concentrations show inconsistent trends, muscle
glycogen concentration increases progressively and calcium retention mecha-
nisms seem to be triggered during the taper. Reduced blood creatine kinase
concentrations suggest recovery from training stress and muscle damage, but
2004 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2004; 34 (13)
The Pre-Event Taper in Athletes: Physiological Changes 893
other biochemical markers of training stress and performance capacity are largely
unaffected by the taper. Hormonal markers such as testosterone, cortisol, testos-
terone : cortisol ratio, 24-hour urinary cortisol : cortisone ratio, plasma and urina-
ry catecholamines, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 are
sometimes affected and changes can correlate with changes in an athletes
performance capacity.
From a neuromuscular perspective, the taper usually results in markedly
increased muscular strength and power, often associated with performance gains
at the muscular and whole body level. Oxidative enzyme activities can increase,
along with positive changes in single muscle fibre size, metabolic properties and
contractile properties. Limited research on the influence of the taper on athletes
immune status indicates that small changes in immune cells, immunoglobulins
and cytokines are unlikely to compromise overall immunological protection.
The pre-event taper may also be characterised by psychological changes in the
athlete, including a reduction in total mood disturbance and somatic complaints,
improved somatic relaxation and self-assessed physical conditioning scores,
reduced perception of effort and improved quality of sleep. These changes are
often associated with improved post-taper performances. Mathematical models
indicate that the physiological changes associated with the taper are the result of a
restoration of previously impaired physiological capacities (fatigue and adapta-
tion model), and the capacity to tolerate training and respond effectively to
training undertaken during the taper (variable dose-response model). Finally, it is
important to note that some or all of the described physiological and psychological
changes associated with the taper occur simultaneously, which underpins the
integrative nature of relationships between these changes and performance
enhancement.
The taper is a training phase before competition The relationship between the reduced training
during which the training load is progressively re- load during the taper and performance benefits is
duced for a variable period of time to allow for well established, allowing investigators to make
physiological and psychological recovery from ac- training recommendations to optimise pre-event ta-
cumulated training stress, with the aim of maximis- pering strategies.
[18-22]
However, the physiological
ing competition performance. Coaches and sports mechanisms underlying the observed performance
scientists involved in the preparation of elite athletes changes are less well understood. With the excep-
for major competitions are well aware of the per- tion of a report by Mujika
[20]
existing reviews deal-
formance-enhancing potential of a well designed ing with the physiological changes associated with
taper. This awareness is based on both anecdotal the taper in athletes date back to the late 1980s and
reports from successful competitions and peer-re- early 1990s.
[18,19,22]
Nevertheless, considerable ef-
viewed publications describing the beneficial per- forts by various sports science groups in the past few
formance consequences of a taper following a peri- years are continuing to shed light on the physiologi-
od of intensive training.
[1-17]
cal changes associated with the taper and mecha-
894 Mujika et al.
Table I. Effects of the taper on maximal oxygen uptake (
VO2max)
Study (year) Athletes Taper
VO2max Performance measure Performance

duration outcome (%)
(days)
Van Handel et al.
[31]
(1988) Swimmers 20 NR NR
Houmard et al.
[32]
(1990) Runners 21 5km indoor race
DAcquisto et al.
[5]
(1992) Swimmers 1428 100m, 400m time trial 4.08.0 impr
Jeukendrup et al.
[33]
(1992) Cyclists 14 8.5km outdoor time trial 7.2 impr
Shepley et al.
[30]
(1992) Runners 7 Treadmill time to exhaustion 622 impr
McConell et al.
[34]
(1993) Runners 28 5km indoor race 1.2 decl
Houmard et al.
[35]
(1994) Runners 7 5km treadmill time trial 2.8 impr
Zarkadas et al.
[36]
(1995) and Triathletes 14 5km field time trial run 1.26.3 impr
Banister et al.
[37]
(1999) Incremental maximal test 1.57.9 impr
Rietjens et al.
[38]
(2001) Cyclists 21 Incremental maximal test
Dressendorfer et al.
[39,40]
(2002) Cyclists 10 slightly 20km simulated time trial 1.2 impr
Margaritis et al.
[41]
(2003) Triathletes 14 30km outdoor duathlon 1.63.6 impr
Neary et al.
[23]
(2003) Cyclists 7 20km simulated time trial 5.4 impr
Neary et al.
[24]
(2003) Cyclists 7 40km simulated time trial 2.24.3 impr
decl = decline; impr = improvement; NR = not reported; indicates increased; indicates unchanged.
nisms responsible for the observed improvements in ance athletes. Recent investigations have reported
performance. The aim of this review is to compile
VO
2max
enhancements of 6.0% in cyclists reducing
and synthesise the present knowledge on tapering- their weekly training volume by 50% during 7 days.
induced physiological changes in athletes and assess This change was concomitant with a 5.4% improve-
the possible relationships between these changes ment in a simulated 20km time trial. On the other
and performance benefits of the taper. hand, neither an increase in
VO
2max
nor a simulated
performance gain was observed in cyclists reducing
1. Cardiorespiratory Changes training volume by 30% or 80% during a 7-day
taper.
[23]
The same group also reported an increase
Given the fundamental role that the cardiovascu-
in
VO
2max
(2.5%) and simulated performance
lar and respiratory systems play during exercise
(4.3%) in cyclists who maintained training intensity
training, they should respond to tapered training
but reduced training volume. In contrast, cyclists
with considerable structural and functional changes,
maintaining training volume but reducing intensity
despite the relatively short duration of the taper
only showed statistically non-significant improve-
typically performed by well trained athletes. These
ments in
VO
2max
(1.1%) and simulated performance
changes, as well as their potential effects on sports
(2.2%).
[24]
These results are in agreement with pre-
performance, are described in sections 1.1 to 1.5.
vious reports indicating that training intensity is a
key factor for the maintenance or enhancement of
1.1 Maximal Oxygen Uptake
training-induced adaptations and optimisation of
sports performance.
[3,4,19-22,25-30]
Maximal oxygen uptake (
VO
2max
) can increase
or remain unchanged during periods of taper before In line with these results, Jeukendrup et al.
[33]
competition in highly trained athletes (table I). This reported a 4.5% increase in cyclists
VO
2max
at the
is a relevant finding, given that a decrease in end of 2 weeks of reduced training (i.e. step taper,
VO
2max
during the taper would most likely be indic- consisting of a non-progressive standardised reduc-
ative of a poorly planned tapering strategy in endur- tion in the training load), accompanied by a 10%
higher peak power output and 7.2% faster 8.5km has been maintained. Although often non-signifi-
cant from a statistical point of view, taper-induced outdoor time trial. Well trained triathletes can in-
improvements in performance could be worthwhile crease
VO
2max
by 9.1% and criterion laboratory
in practical terms relative to competition re- running (1.26.3%) and cycling (1.57.9%) per-
sults.
[13,43]
Improvements of approximately one-half formances after 2 weeks of taper.
[36,37]
Margaritis et
of the typical within-subject variation in competi- al.
[41]
recently observed 3% gains in both
VO
2max
tion performance are considered to be worthwhile in and simulated duathlon performance during a
terms of substantially increasing a top athletes 14-day taper in long-distance triathletes.
chance of winning a medal. The magnitude of such
Several investigators have observed unchanged
practical improvements ranges from 0.9% in track
VO
2max
values as a result of a taper, but this did not
sprinters,
[43]
1.4% for highly trained swimmers,
[44]
preclude athletes from improving their performance
1.5% for cross-country runners and up to 3% for
(table I). In a study with high-school swimmers
marathon runners.
[45]
Another important considera-
tapering for either 2 or 4 weeks, both groups im-
tion is that laboratory or field-based performance
proved their swimming time trial performance by
tests are much less reliable measures of performance
48% but
VO
2max
was unchanged.
[5]
Shepley et
than competition itself and enhancements in these
al.
[30]
reported similar findings of unchanged
tests may not necessarily translate into similar per-
VO
2max
values but enhanced treadmill performance
formance gains in competition.
[43]
in male cross-country and middle-distance runners,
as did Houmard et al.,
[35]
who observed a stable
1.2 Economy of Movement
VO
2max
but a 2.8% gain in a 5km treadmill time trial
run and a 4.8% longer time to exhaustion in a
The economy of movement is defined as the
progressive run on the treadmill in tapered distance
oxygen cost of exercise at a given submaximal exer-
runners. In a study of male cyclists who tapered by
cise intensity. Economy has been assessed before
reducing their training frequency by 50% for 10
and after taper in runners, swimmers and cyclists.
days, Dressendorfer et al.
[39,40]
observed small im-
Results of economy studies have been disparate,
provements in
VO
2max
(2.5%) and a simulated
with the discrepancies probably related to factors
20km time trial (1.2%). Van Handel et al.
[31]
also
such as differences in the training and tapering
reported stable
VO
2max
values (65.4 pre-taper vs
programmes and the calibre of the athletes.
66.6 mL/kg/min, post-taper) in college-aged swim-
Houmard et al.
[35]
assessed the submaximal energy
mers (including Olympic medal winners) tapering
expenditure in a group of 18 male and six female
for 20 days leading up to the US National Champi-
distance runners performing a progressive 7-day run
onships. Unfortunately, performance outcomes were
or cycle taper where total training volume was re-
not reported in this investigation. Similarly, there
duced by 85%. The authors reported a 7% (0.9 kcal/
were no improvements in
VO
2max
or peak power
min) decrease in calculated submaximal energy ex-
output in a study in which trained cyclists underwent
penditure when running at 80% peak oxygen uptake
a step taper consisting of either continuous training
(
VO
2peak
) on a treadmill. This magnitude of im-
or intermittent training,
[38]
nor in runners during a
provement in running economy was evident in seven
3-week
[32,42]
or 4-week step taper.
[34]
of the eight subjects performing the run taper, but
Collectively, these studies generally show im- not in those performing the cycle taper. The investi-
proved or stable
VO
2max
and performance gains gators suggested that an elevation in the muscles
after a taper, particularly where training intensity mitochondrial capacity, along with neural, structural
896 Mujika et al.
and biomechanical factors could explain improve- taper, nor did McConell et al.
[34]
after a 4-week step
taper in runners at 65%, 85% or 95%
VO
2max
. ments in economy with the taper.
[35]
These observa-
tions confirmed an earlier investigation by the same
1.3 Cardiac Function and Dimensions
group that also described a lower oxygen cost of
running after a 3-week period of reduced training.
[32]
1.3.1 Resting Heart Rate
Improvements in economy of movement have
Few reports are available on the effects of taper-
also been reported in swimming, but these gains
ing on athletes resting heart rate (HR), with the
appear to be inversely related to the calibre of the
general consensus of investigators that resting HR
athletes. High-school level male and female swim-
does not appear to change during this phase of
mers tapering for 2 or 4 weeks showed downward
training (table II). Haykowsky et al.
[47]
reported
shifts in their oxygen uptake (
VO
2
)-velocity curves
unchanged mean resting HR values of 57 and 59
(i.e. economy) between 4.9 and 15.6% and between
beats/min before and after tapering for 2 weeks at an
8.5 and 16.7%, respectively, at a range of different
altitude of 1848m, respectively, and 59 and 56 beats/
swimming velocities.
[5]
The investigators suggested
min at 1050m. Unchanged resting HR values were
that changes in economy were dependent on reduc-
also observed by Flynn et al.
[48]
before and after 3
tions in training volume, and like Houmard and
weeks of taper in collegiate cross country runners
colleagues
[35]
they speculated that the taper had a
(51 vs 52 beats/min) and collegiate swimmers (54 vs
beneficial effect on biomechanics, allowing the
55 beats/min). In line with these results, stable rest-
swimmers to develop better stroke mechanics.
[5]
ing HR values were observed in a group of interna-
Johns et al.
[7]
also reported declines of 58% in the
tional-level swimmers tapering for 2 weeks,
[49]
in
oxygen cost of swimming after 10 or 14 days of
elite weightlifters tapering for either 1 or 4 weeks
[15]
taper in intercollegiate swimmers. In contrast, Van
and runners undergoing a 4-week step taper.
[34]
In
Handel et al.
[31]
did not observe any tapering-in-
contrast with these reports, Jeukendrup et al.
[33]
de-
duced changes in the economy curves of swimmers
scribed a decrease from 54 to 51 beats/min in the
of much higher calibre, who were described as con- sleeping HR of their group of cyclists after 2 weeks
siderably more economical than less skilled swim- of reduced training. However, these subjects were
purposely overreached before the taper, a condition mers.
that may have elicited abnormally high resting
In cyclists, Dressendorfer et al.
[39]
did not ob-
HR.
[50]
serve a marked improvement in economy at a power
output of 200W in male cyclists tapering for 10
1.3.2 Maximal Heart Rate
days, when values were compared with the previous
Results from investigations addressing the ef-
two training phases characterised by high volume
fects of taper on maximal HR are not consistent and
and high intensity, respectively. Nevertheless, the
values have variously been shown to decrease, re-
oxygen cost of cycling at that power output re-
main constant or increase after a taper (table II). For
mained lower after the taper (2.82 L/min) than at
instance, DAcquisto et al.
[5]
reported lower maxi-
baseline (2.95 L/min). Houmard et al.
[46]
reported
mal HR in swimmers after tapers lasting 2 (187 vs
unchanged submaximal
VO
2max
after a 10-day taper
192 beats/min) or 4 (185 vs 194 beats/min) weeks.
in runners. Rietjens et al.
[38]
did not observe any
Maximal HR did not change during taper in runners
changes in either the oxygen cost of cycling at 165 performing a progressive treadmill run to exhaus-
or 270W in cyclists before and after a 3-week step tion,
[35,46]
nor in a group of cyclists performing an
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Table II. Effects of the taper on heart rate (HR)
Study (year) Athletes Taper duration Resting HR Maximal HR Submaximal Performance measure Performance
(days) HR outcome (%)
Costill et al.
[3]
(1985) Swimmers 14 NR NR 461509m competition 2.24.6 impr
Houmard et al.
[46]
(1989) Runners 10 NR Incremental maximal test
Houmard et al.
[32]
(1990) Runners 21 NR slightly 5km indoor race
DAcquisto et al.
[5]
(1992) Swimmers 1428 NR 100m, 400m time trial 4.08.0 impr
Jeukendrup et al.
[33]
(1992) Cyclists 14 8.5km outdoor time trial 7.2 impr
McConell et al.
[34]
(1993) Runners 28 slightly 5km indoor race 1.2 decl
Flynn et al.
[48]
(1994) Runners 21 NR Treadmill time to exhaustion
Swimmers NR NR 23m, 366m time trial 3 impr
Houmard et al.
[35]
(1994) Runners 7 NR slightly 5km treadmill time trial 2.8 impr
Stone et al.
[15]
(1996) Weightlifters 728 NR Competition 8.017.5kg
impr
Haykowsky et al.
[47]
(1998) Swimmers 14 NR NR NR NR
Hooper et al.
[49]
(1999) Swimmers 14 slightly NR 100m time trial
Martin and Andersen
[51]
(2000) Cyclists 7 NR slightly Incremental maximal test 6 impr
Rietjens et al.
[38]
(2001) Cyclists 21 NR Incremental maximal test
Dressendorfer et al.
[39]
(2002) Cyclists 10 NR NR 20km simulated time trial 1.2 impr
Neary et al.
[23]
(2003) Cyclists 7 NR NR 20km simulated time trial 5.4 impr
decl = decline; impr = improvement; NR = not reported; indicates decreased; indicates increased; indicates unchanged.
898 Mujika et al.
incremental cycling test to exhaustion.
[38]
In con- ly), indicative of a positive training adaptation.
[39]
trast, maximal HR was slightly increased after 1 Similarly, no changes in HR at power outputs of 165
week of taper in cyclists,
[51]
2 weeks of taper in and 270W were reported before and after 3-week
swimmers,
[49]
and 3
[32]
and 4
[34]
weeks of reduced continuous or intermittent training step tapers.
[38]
In
training in runners. In an overreaching-recovery line with these results, Martin and Andersen
[51]
ob-
protocol, maximal HR increased from 178 to 183 served identical HR-power output slopes before and
beats/min, but this post-taper value was similar to after a 1-week taper in male collegiate cyclists, but
that measured before undertaking the intensified these slopes were markedly shifted to the right when
training.
[33]
Reduced maximal HR after intensified compared with baseline values. Neary et al.
[23]
re-
training is related with catecholamine depletion and ported that HR during a simulated 20km time trial
indicative of the neuroendocrine nature of an ath- was identical before and after taper in a group of
letes overreached/overtrained status.
[52,53]
A possi- male cyclists, but the oxygen pulse increased from
ble explanation for the inconsistent findings could 23.1 to 24.8mL O
2
/beat in those subjects reducing
relate to opposite effects on maximal HR of blood weekly training volume by 50% during the 7-day
volume expansion and the level of catecholamine taper, who also improved their simulated perform-
depletion that may have been incurred during the ance by 5.4%. Submaximal exercise HR values were
preceding phase of intense training. also unaffected by 1 or 4 weeks of taper in weight-
lifters.
[15]
1.3.3 Submaximal Heart Rate
In contrast, HR was elevated during an all-out
Most of the available literature on the effects of
5km treadmill run after performing both a running
taper on submaximal exercise HR indicates few
taper and a cycling taper. HRs were also 46 beats/
changes across a range of different athletic activities
min higher during a submaximal run at
VO
2peak
, but
(table II). No change in HR was observed by DAc-
this change did not attain statistical significance.
[35]
quisto et al.
[5]
when swimmers were required to
The overreaching-recovery protocol of Jeukendrup
swim at submaximal velocities ranging between 1.0
et al.
[33]
induced a clear increase in submaximal HR
and 1.3 m/sec before and after 2 or 4 weeks of taper.
measured during an 8.5km outdoor cycling time trial
Costill et al.
[3]
reported unchanged post-exercise HR
after the taper. These changes were thought to be
after an evenly paced 183m (200 yard) swim at a
related with the level of neuroendrocine fatigue in
speed representing 90% of individual seasons best
the pre-taper condition.
performance after 1 and 2 weeks of taper. A 10-day
1.3.4 Blood Pressure taper did not elicit a change in HR when running at
265 or 298 m/min.
[46]
Similarly, a 3-week taper did Only three published reports are available on the
not affect HR while running at 75%
VO
2max
in effects of taper on resting blood pressure (BP), and
collegiate runners (161 beats/min before taper vs none of them showed any substantial effect of taper-
163 beats/min after taper),
[48]
nor did a 3-week step ing on BP. Flynn et al.
[48]
reported pre- and post-
taper at 65% and 85%
VO
2max
[32]
or a 4-week step taper systolic BP values of 112 and 114mm Hg in
taper at 65%, 85% or 95%
VO
2max
.
[34]
Submaximal eight male runners, respectively, and 118 and
HR while cycling at a power output of 200W was 116mm Hg in five male swimmers. Diastolic pres-
unchanged after a 10-day taper in male cyclists sures were 73 and 74mm Hg for the runners, and 76
when compared with the preceding high-intensity and 78mm Hg for the swimmers. In swimmers,
interval training phase, even though HR was lower Hooper et al.
[49]
reported modest declines of 3.4%
than at baseline (137 vs 152 beats/min, respective- and 2.2% in systolic and diastolic pressures during
taper, with standard deviation values of 12.5% and gain.
[24]
The same group observed a 12% (27W)
12.2%, respectively. In terms of a power sport, the improvement in the ventilatory threshold after ta-
results of Stone et al.
[15]
indicated no tapering-in- pers lasting either 4 or 8 days.
[54]
A smaller improve-
duced changes in the resting BP of elite weight- ment of 2.9% was reported by Dressendorfer et
lifters. al.,
[39]
coupled with a performance gain over a simu-
lated 20km time trial of only 1.2%.
1.3.5 Cardiac Dimensions
The only study on the effects of a taper on cardiac
1.5 Haematology
dimensions assessed the effects of a 2-week swim-
ming taper at moderate altitudes of 1050m and
1.5.1 Balance Between Haemolysis
1848m.
[47]
The taper consisted of a progressive 73%
and Erythropoiesis
reduction in training volume, coupled with a slight
The taper is a specialised training strategy that
increase in the percentage of high-intensity training.
can be accompanied by a positive balance between
These investigators observed no marked change in
exercise-induced haemolysis and recovery-facilitat-
diastolic or systolic cavity dimensions, ventricular
ed erythropoiesis. Intensive athletic training can re-
septal wall thickness, estimated absolute or relative
sult in decreased red blood cells, haemoglobin con-
left ventricular mass, stroke volume, cardiac output,
centration and haematocrit.
[55-62]
These changes
cardiac index or fractional shortening. The investi-
have variously been attributed to a haemodilution
gators concluded that 3 weeks of altitude training or
caused by training-induced expanded plasma vol-
control training followed by 2 weeks of taper train-
ume, an imbalance between haematopoiesis and in-
ing was not associated with alterations in structural
travascular haemolysis, or iron deficiency.
[58,63,64]
and functional aspects of cardiovascular dynam-
On the other hand, taper-induced increases in
ics.
[47]
blood and red cell volume have been reported in
highly trained distance runners. Shepley et al.
[30]
1.4 Ventilatory Function
observed a 15% increase in total blood volume after
a 7-day high-intensity/low-volume taper in runners. Few investigators have addressed tapering ef-
This training-induced hypervolaemia is possibly as- fects on athletes ventilatory function. Peak venti-
sociated with an elevation of plasma renin activity latory volume during a simulated 20km cycling time
and vasopressin concentration during exercise and a trial was unchanged as a result of a 7-day taper, but
chronic increase in the water-binding capacity of the the ventilatory equivalent for oxygen declined from
blood.
[20,65-67]
Shepley et al.
[30]
also observed a 14% 25.5 to 24.0 L/LO
2
in those cyclists tapering by
increase in red cell volume and a slight 2.6% in- reducing training volume by 50%.
[23]
Unchanged
crease in haematocrit, possibly the result of an in- maximal ventilation was also observed in runners
creased haematopoiesis concomitant to a decreased after a 4-week step taper.
[34]
Submaximal ventilation
intravascular haemolysis. during a 10-minute treadmill run declined by 5.4%
after a 7-day taper in distance runners.
[35]
Similarly, Consistent with the above results, haemoglobin
power output at the ventilatory threshold increased concentration and haematocrit increased during the
by 12% (28W) in cyclists during a high-intensity/ taper in competitive swimmers
[55,60,62]
and triath-
low-volume taper eliciting a 4.3% performance im- letes.
[41,68]
These results have also been attributed to
provement over a simulated 40km cycling time trial, a decreased haemolysis and a net increase in eryth-
and by 8% (19W) in a low-intensity/high-volume rocytes, presumably facilitated by the reduced
taper that induced a 2.2% simulated performance training load that characterises periods of
900 Mujika et al.
taper.
[18,19,22,30,69]
This suggestion seems to be con- improvement in a treadmill run to fatigue after taper
firmed by the findings of Mujika et al.,
[26]
showing a to the increase in blood and red cell volume. Mujika
40% increase in the post-taper reticulocyte count et al.
[69]
observed a 2.3% mean competition per-
in a group of middle-distance runners tapering for formance improvement in tapered swimmers and a
1 week. This change was indicative of an enhanced positive correlation was found between post-taper
red cell production resulting in the release of imma- red cell count and the percentage improvement in
ture erythrocytes, with a smaller haemoglobin con- performance attained by the swimmers during taper
tent and reduced mean corpuscular haemoglobin (r = 0.83). Red cell count, haemoglobin and haemat-
values.
[70-72]
ocrit increased by 3.5, 1.8 and 3.3% in the swimmers
for which the taper was most effective, whereas
Two additional indices of a positive red cell
decreases of 2.2, 4.3 and 2.1% occurred in those
balance during taper are increased serum hap-
athletes improving less with the taper. The investi-
toglobin and decreased red cell distribution width.
gators suggested that the net increase in erythrocyte
Serum haptoglobin is a glycoprotein that binds free
values observed in the successful swimmers during
haemoglobin released into the circulation to con-
taper could have been in part responsible for the
serve body iron. Lower than normal haptoglobin
higher performance improvement attained, given
levels have been found in middle- and long-distance
that small percentage increases in the haemoglobin
runners and swimmers.
[56,59,73,74]
These observations
or haematocrit values can result in worthwhile im-
have been attributed to a rapid removal of the
provements in
VO
2max
and/or exercise capaci-
haptoglobin-haemoglobin complex from the blood
ty.
[76,77]
by the liver and suggest a chronic haemolytic condi-
tion. In contrast, serum haptoglobin can increase
1.5.2 Iron Status
with a 6-day taper in middle-distance runners.
[12]
Enhanced erythropoietic activity in the bone mar-
This finding was in parallel with a trend towards
row associated with the taper could jeopardise the
increased reticulocyte counts, suggesting that the
iron status of athletes. An iron profile indicative of a
reduced training load undertaken by the athletes
prelatent-latent iron deficiency, with normal red cell
during the taper facilitated a positive balance be-
count and haemoglobin, but lowered ferritin, serum
tween haemolysis and erythropoiesis.
iron and transferrin saturation and increased trans-
ferrin values
[78,79]
has been reported in middle-
The red cell distribution width decreased slightly
distance runners at the end of 6-day tapers. This,
during 12 weeks of intensive training and 4 weeks of
however, did not seem to negatively affect the ath-
taper in highly trained swimmers to attain signifi-
letes competition performance.
[12,26]
Lowered post-
cantly lower values at the end of the taper.
[69]
Slight
taper ferritin values have also been reported in male
reductions during taper have also been reported in
cross-country runners after a 3-week taper
[59]
and in
runners and swimmers.
[59]
Decrements in red cell
triathletes tapering for 2 weeks,
[68]
but not in swim-
distribution width are considered a positive adapta-
mers.
[69]
tion to training, given that a high red cell distribution
width has been associated with decreased deforma-
2. Metabolic Changes
bility, decreased osmotic resistance and increased
mechanical fragmentation of erythrocytes.
[63,75]
Energy metabolism underpinning exercise per-
With respect to the possible influence of the formance can be altered during a pre-event taper.
observed haematological changes on performance, Decreases in training load in favour of rest and
Shepley et al.
[30]
attributed part of the reported 22% recovery lower an athletes daily energy expendi-
ture, potentially impacting on energy balance and 2.2 Substrate Availability and Utilisation
body composition. Substrate availability and utilisa-
tion, blood lactate kinetics and muscle glycogen
There are few reports on the effects of tapering
content may also be altered during the taper.
on the respiratory exchange ratio (RER), used as an
index of substrate utilisation during exercise. During
2.1 Energy Expenditure/Energy Balance
submaximal-intensity exercise, RER has been
shown to decline or not to change after a taper. A
Margaritis et al.
[41]
recently reported the daily
group of club-level cyclists showed a post-taper
energy intake, energy expenditure, body mass and
shift in RER from 0.99 to 0.96 while cycling at a
body fat of 20 male long-distance triathletes during
power output of 175W, suggesting a higher contri-
4 weeks of overloaded training followed by 2 weeks
bution from fat to energy production at moderate
of tapered training. Energy intake did not change
exercise intensity.
[54]
Houmard and colleagues,
[35]
between both training phases (13.815.0 vs
13.215.0 MJ/day), whereas energy expenditure de- on the other hand, reported unchanged RER values
creased from 16.817.0 to 12.112.7 MJ/day. Total
during a 10-minute continuous run at 80%
VO
2peak
body mass did not change during the taper, but the
and during submaximal running at 265 and 298 m/
percentage body fat increased slightly from
min.
[46]
Rietjens et al.
[38]
also showed unchanged
11.411.5% to 11.812.1%.
[41]
Similar changes
rates of fat oxidation during a 90-minute steady-
were observed in a 4-week reduced training study on
state cycle after 7, 14 and 21 days of a step-taper.
ten well trained male distance runners, whose body
Three and 4-week step tapers elicited slight but
fat increased from 10.4% to 11.8%.
[34]
These results
statistically significant increases in runners RER at
indicate that a certain level of muscle mass loss may
65%, 85% and 95%
VO
2max
.
[32,34]
have taken place during the taper and suggest that
During maximal exercise, such as a simulated
athletes tapering for competition should pay careful
20km cycling time trial, RER values have been attention to matching energy intake in accordance
with the reduced energy expenditure that character- shown to remain unchanged after tapering.
[23]
Simi-
ises this training period.
larly, unchanged maximal RER values were report-
DAcquisto et al.
[5]
reported the body mass and
ed during treadmill running after either a running or
percentage body fat of female swimmers before and
a cycling 7-day taper.
[35]
These results suggest that
after 2- and 4-week tapers and observed that neither
the substrate contribution to power production dur-
variable changed significantly. There are additional
ing maximal-intensity exercise is not modified by a
studies indicating stability in body mass in well
taper. This lack of change may be related to stable
trained distance runners during a 3-week step
aerobic-anaerobic work production and oxygen def-
taper
[32,42]
and in collegiate cross-country runners
icit during the taper.
[80]
Another explanation could
and swimmers after a 3-week taper consisting of a
relate to increased muscle glycogen concentration
2033% weekly reduction in training volume.
[48]
during the taper, which theoretically induces a
Similarly, nine male cyclists maintained their body
higher carbohydrate utilisation during both maximal
mass during 10 days of taper consisting of resting
and submaximal exercise. Six days of taper coupled
every other day,
[39]
as did collegiate swimmers pre-
with a high carbohydrate diet increased carbohy-
paring for the final meet of the season.
[31]
These
drate oxidation and RER values during cycling at
studies, however, did not report the possible changes
80%
VO
2max
.
[81]
in fat mass and muscle mass of the athletes.
902 Mujika et al.
2.3 Blood Lactate Kinetics rowers performed maximal 500m indoor rowing
tests before and after a 1-week taper subsequent to 3
weeks of overload training. The investigator of the
2.3.1 Maximal Exercise
study concluded that the 25% decrease in training
Peak blood lactate concentration after maximal
volume during the taper was insufficient, or the
exercise can increase as a result of tapering (table
length too short a time for positive regenerative
III). This change, which could be related to an
adaptations and improved performance to occur.
[83]
increased post-taper muscle glycogen concentration
Taken as a whole, these findings and other similar
by a mass-action effect,
[35]
might underpin enhanced
results
[85-87]
support the contention that post-compe-
maximal performance capabilities.
[1,12,26]
In a study
tition peak blood lactate values may be a useful
on middle-distance runners, percentage 800m com-
index of anaerobic capacity
[26,86]
and a sensitive
petitive performance change during the taper posi-
marker of tapering-induced physiological
tively correlated with changes in peak post-race
changes.
[12,26]
blood lactate concentration (r = 0.87).
[26]
In a subse-
quent study by the same group, post-race peak blood 2.3.2 Submaximal Exercise
lactate increased by 7.6%, with peak lactate correlat-
Blood lactate concentration at submaximal exer-
ing highly with running performance.
[12]
Statistical-
cise intensity shows variable responses after the pre-
ly significant relationships between increases in
event taper (table III). Kenitzer
[82]
described a de-
peak post-race blood lactate levels and competition
crease in blood lactate concentration at 80% of
performance enhancement (r = 0.63) were seen in
maximal HR during the first 2 weeks of a taper in
international calibre swimmers during two consecu-
female swimmers, but a subsequent increase during
tive seasons.
[1]
Male cyclists peak blood lactate
weeks 3 and 4, leading to the tentative conclusion
concentration increased by 78% after 14 days of a
that 2 weeks was the optimum taper duration. In
step taper, concomitant with a 7.2% improvement in
contrast, DAcquisto et al.
[5]
observed reduced blood
an 8.5km outdoor time trial and a 10.3% increase in
lactate values during submaximal swimming in
peak power output.
[33]
Competitive high-school fe-
high-school females tapering for either 2 weeks
male swimmers increased their peak blood lactate
(1526% decline) or 4 weeks (2633% decline).
concentration by 20% after taper programmes that
These results are consistent with those of Costill et
induced time trial performance gains of 48%.
[5]
al.,
[3]
who described a 13% reduction in submaximal
lactate, in parallel with a mean 3.1% swimming Shepley et al.
[30]
reported modest peak blood
performance improvement in competition after a lactate increases after high (7.2%) and low (9.8%)
2-week taper. Similarly, an 8.0% higher post-taper intensity tapers, while a laboratory-based perform-
power output at a blood lactate concentration of 4 ance measure (time to exhaustion at 1500m run
mmol/L has been reported in rowers.
[84]
pace) improved by 22% and 6%, respectively. Van
Handel et al.
[31]
also showed modest changes in peak In contrast to reports on higher blood lactates,
lactate concentrations in collegiate swimmers pre- Flynn et al.
[48]
did not observe any change in blood
paring for national championships (6.9 to 7.5 mmol/ lactate concentration in collegiate athletes running
L). A similar trend (peak blood lactate concentration at 75%
VO
2max
or swimming at 90%
VO
2max
. Un-
increased from 14.4 to 15.8 mmol/L) was observed changed submaximal blood lactate concentrations
in elite junior rowers after a 1-week taper.
[84]
In were also observed in runners performing either a
contrast, no change in peak blood lactate values or run or a cycle taper for 7 days,
[35]
in collegiate
performance were observed in a study in which swimmers tapering for either 10 or 14 days before a
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Table III. Effects of the taper on blood lactate concentration (H[La])
Study (year) Athletes Taper duration Peak H[La] Submaximal Performance measure Performance outcome
(days) H[La] (%)
Costill et al.
[3]
(1985) Swimmers 14 NR 461509m competition 2.24.6 impr
Van Handel et al.
[31]
(1988) Swimmers 20 slightly slightly NR NR
DAcquisto et al.
[5]
(1992) Swimmers 1428 100m, 400m time trial 4.08.0 impr
Jeukendrup et al.
[33]
(1992) Cyclists 14 NR 8.5km outdoor time trial 7.2 impr
Johns et al.
[7]
Shepley et al.
[30]
(1992) Runners 7 slightly NR Treadmill time to exhaustion 622 impr
McConell et al.
[34]
(1993) Runners 28 NR 5km indoor race 1.2 decl
Flynn et al.
[48]
(1994) Runners 21 NR Treadmill time to exhaustion
Swimmers NR 23m, 366m time trial 3 impr
Houmard et al.
[35]
(1994) Runners 7 NR 5km treadmill time trial 2.8 impr
Stone et al.
[15]
(1996) Weightlifters 728 NR Competition 8.017.5kg impr
Kenitzer
[82]
(1998) Swimmers 1428 NR 14 days, 4 91m submaximal set 4 impr
2128 days
Bonifazi et al.
[1]
Mujika et al.
[26]
(2000) Runners 6 slightly NR 800m competition
Smith
[83]
(2000) Rowers 7 NR 500m simulated time trial
Steinacker et al.
[84]
(2000) Rowers 7 slightly NR 2000m time trial-competition 6.3 impr
Rietjens et al.
[38]
(2001) Cyclists 21 NR Incremental maximal test
Mujika et al.
[12]
(2002) Runners 6 NR 800m competition 0.41.9 impr
decl = decline; impr = improvement; NR = not reported; indicates decreased; indicates increased; indicates unchanged.
904 Mujika et al.
major competition,
[7]
in cyclists performing a step nia changes associated with different tapering strate-
taper for 21 days
[38]
and in elite weightlifters taper- gies is warranted, especially in high-intensity/short-
ing for 1 or 4 weeks.
[15]
Van Handel et al.
[31]
report- duration sporting events.
ed a subtle shift of the blood lactate-swimming
velocity curve back to the left after taper, whereas
2.5 Muscle Glycogen
lactate recovery curves were unaffected. McConell
et al.,
[34]
on the other hand, reported a higher blood
Muscle glycogen concentration has been shown
lactate at 95%
VO
2max
in runners after a 4-week step
to increase progressively during periods of taper.
taper. Inconsistent findings may be related to the
Neary and colleagues
[54]
showed an increase in mus-
duration and the type of training performed during
cle glycogen concentration of 17% after a 4-day
the taper.
taper and 25% in an 8-day taper. The same group of
investigators compared the change in muscle glyco-
2.4 Blood Ammonia
gen concentration after two different 7-day tapers in
male cyclists: one in which training intensity was
When the rate of muscular adenosine triphos-
maintained at around 8590% of maximal HR and
phate (ATP) hydrolysis exceeds the rate of adeno-
training duration progressively reduced from 60 to
sine diphosphate (ADP) rephosphorylation through
20 minutes; and the second where the duration re-
either oxidative or non-oxidative processes, ATP is
mained constant at 60 minutes but intensity declined
resynthesised via the myokinase reaction. This pro-
progressively from 85% to 55% of maximal HR.
cess results in the formation of adenosine
Muscle glycogen concentration increased by 34%
monophosphate (AMP), which is then deaminated
and simulated 40km time trial performance by 4.3%
leading to the production of inosine monophosphate
during the shorter more intense taper, whereas mus-
and ammonia.
[88-90]
Post-exercise blood ammonia
cle glycogen concentration increased by 29% and
levels are used as a marker of exercise-induced
performance by 2.2% in the longer less intense
adenine nucleotide degradation and to monitor train-
taper.
[24]
A similar high-intensity/low-duration taper
ing stress and overtraining.
[91]
Mujika et al.
[11]
ob-
brought about a 15% increase in muscle glycogen
served stable resting ammonia concentrations dur-
and 22% in running performance on a treadmill,
ing a 4-week taper, but mean post-taper values (34.1
whereas no change in glycogen and a moderate 6%
mol/L) returned to baseline (32.8 mol/L) after
performance gain were observed with the low-inten-
they had been elevated by 12 weeks of intensive
sity/moderate-duration taper.
[30]
training (65.6 mol/L). Plasma ammonia values,
however, did not reflect changes in competition Six days of tapering during the luteal phase of
performance. Elite weightlifters resting and post- eumenorrheic athletes menstrual cycle resulted in a
exercise blood ammonia concentrations were not 13% higher muscle glycogen level when a high
changed by 1 or 4 weeks of taper, during which carbohydrate diet (78% carbohydrate) was con-
performance in competition increased by 8 and sumed during the final 34 days of the taper period
17.5kg, respectively.
[15]
Similarly, blood ammonia compared with a moderate carbohydrate diet (48%
was not affected by 1 week of taper in elite rowers carbohydrate). The women were able to supercom-
performing a maximal 500m rowing ergometer time pensate glycogen during the taper, but not to the
trial.
[83]
Given the potential influence of the taper on same magnitude as generally reported in men. Con-
exercise metabolism and pre-exercise energy sub- comitantly, cycling time to exhaustion at 8082%
strate availability, further research on blood ammo-
VO
2max
increased by 8%.
[81]
Table IV. Effects of the taper on blood creatine kinase (CK) concentration
Study (year) Athletes Taper duration Blood CK Performance measure Performance
(days) concentration outcome (%)
Burke et al.
[93]
Millard et al.
[92]
Yamamoto et al.
[62]
Houmard et al.
[42]
(1990) Runners 21 5km indoor race
Costill et al.
[4]
(1991) Swimmers 1421 Competition 3.2 impr
Flynn et al.
[48]
(1994) Runners 21 Treadmill time to exhaustion
Swimmers 23m, 366m time trial 3 impr
Mujika et al.
[11]
(1996) Swimmers 28 100200m competition 0.44.9 impr
Hooper et al.
[49]
(1999) Swimmers 14 slightly 100m time trial
Child et al.
[94]
(2000) Runners 7 Simulated half-marathon
Mujika et al.
[26]
(2000) Runners 6 800m competition
Mujika et al.
[12]
(2002) Runners 6 800m competition 0.41.9 impr
impr = improvement; NR = not reported; indicates decreased; indicates increased; indicates unchanged.
2.6 Mineral Metabolism altered permeability of tissue cell membranes. Fac-
tors that influence the degree of CK efflux into the
Mineral metabolism (basal plasma and 24-hour
blood include exercise duration and intensity, exer-
urinary calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc and copper)
cise mode and fitness level of the individual.
[92]
was studied in nine male cyclists during 6 weeks of
Various studies have shown decreases in CK levels
volume training, 18 days of high-intensity interval
during the taper (table IV). Studying ten male and
training and 10 days of a reduced frequency taper.
ten female collegiate swimmers before and after a
Urinary calcium decreased by 11.4%, plasma calci-
4-week taper, Millard et al.
[92]
noted a 70% lower
um concentration increased by 5.1% with the taper,
post-training and a 30% lower resting serum CK
but the metabolism of all other studied minerals
after the taper in the males, and 28% and 7% lower
remained unchanged.
[40]
The apparent rebound in
values in the females. Absolute post-taper CK val-
renal calcium might have resulted from either de-
ues were not different between sexes, and fell to
creased urinary calcium filtration associated with
their lowest levels of the season during the taper.
lower ionised plasma calcium or increased plasma
These results suggested that CK levels appear to
parathyroid hormone levels. Irrespective of the reg-
reflect training volume rather than intensity. Yama-
ulating mechanism, reducing the frequency of inter-
moto et al.
[62]
also observed decreased CK levels
val training during the taper appeared to trigger
after swimming tapers correlating with the daily
compensatory calcium retention.
[40]
workout volume during the taper.
Flynn et al.
[48]
described a CK reduction of 38%
3. Biochemical Changes
during 3 weeks of taper. Mujika et al.
[11]
also report-
ed a 43% decline in plasma CK during a 4-week
3.1 Creatine Kinase
taper, but this did not correlate with swimming
performance improvements, which ranged between Blood levels of creatine kinase (CK) have been
0.4% and 4.9%. Costill et al.
[4]
measured 28% lower used as an index of training-induced physiological
CK values after 23 weeks of taper, which resulted stress. Creatine kinase is a muscle enzyme occasion-
in an average performance improvement of 3.2%. ally increased in the blood following strenuous or
eccentric exercise, most probably as a result of Burke et al.
[93]
also observed a decline in CK levels
906 Mujika et al.
after the taper in swimmers, but their values re- Taken as a whole, the published literature ap-
mained in the high-normal range.
pears to suggest that plasma CK values could be of
some interest to assess recovery from acute training
In a group of male distance runners performing
stress and muscle damage during the taper, but the
simulated half-marathons before and after either a
validity of this parameter as a marker of an individu-
7-day taper or normal training, lower serum CK
al athletes performance capabilities seems limited. values were measured after the second half-mara-
thon in the tapered athletes.
[94]
This attenuated re-
lease of CK into the bloodstream was unlikely to be
3.2 Other Biochemical Parameters
a consequence of lower muscle force generation,
reduced oxidative stress or increased extracellular
Few biochemical parameters have been shown to
antioxidant protection. It was speculated that the
exhibit marked changes during the pre-event taper,
taper may have facilitated muscle recovery, such
limiting their utility as markers of physiological
that CK returned to resting values prior to the second
recovery and increased performance capacity. Ya-
half-marathon and resistance to exercise-induced
mamoto et al.
[62]
measured serum glutamic oxalacet-
injury was similar to that observed before the taper.
ic transaminase and glutamic pyruvic transaminase
Despite evidence that the taper reduced muscle dam-
(GPT) during two separate tapers in male swim-
age, half-marathon performance did not improve.
[94]
mers, with declines in GPT in the initial 49 days of
A 3-week step taper also resulted in decreased se-
each of the tapers. The authors speculated that this
rum CK in well trained runners.
[42]
decrease may reflect an increased post-taper ATP
In contrast to studies showing lower CK values
availability, maintaining the integrity of the cellular
after the taper, Hooper et al.
[49]
measured a statisti-
membrane and reducing the efflux of enzymes into
cally non-significant 17% increase in plasma CK
the bloodstream. Banister et al.
[95]
reported marked
during a 2-week taper, with very large inter-individ-
declines in the pattern of an elevation of serum
ual variation among swimmers. These investigators
enzyme activity (including CK, lactate dehydroge-
argued that plasma CK is not a reliable marker of
nase and aspartate aminotransferase) during 32 days training stress and reflects an acute response to a
single exercise session rather than an athletes ho- of taper subsequent to 28 days of normal training in
meostatic status. They also suggested that the large
two subjects.
inter-individual variation could indicate large differ-
Other purported biochemical markers of training
ences in the athletes physiological response to the
stress and performance capability, including blood
taper. Very large inter-individual variations with
urea, uric acid and creatinine were unchanged dur-
unchanged means were also observed in middle-
ing 6-day tapers in middle-distance runners.
[12,26]
distance runners after 6-day tapers.
[12,26]
Neverthe-
Serum uric acid did not change in distance runners
less, plasma CK levels increased with increasing
during a 7-day taper.
[94]
Costill et al.
[3]
did not detect
low-intensity continuous training distance during
any taper-induced changes in their swimmers blood
the taper, which led the authors to suggest that
pH, partial pressures of carbon dioxide and oxygen,
middle-distance runners could limit the exercise-
HCO
3
and base excess after a 183m (200-yard)
induced skeletal muscle damage before competition
submaximal swim at 90% of the seasons best per-
by reducing continuous running volume during the
taper.
[26]
formance.
4. Hormonal Changes
4.1 Testosterone, Cortisol and the
Testosterone : Cortisol Ratio
The plasma levels of testosterone (T) and cortisol
(C) could represent anabolic and catabolic tissue
activities, respectively. Although the T : C ratio has
been suggested as a marker of training stress,
[96,97]
the available data in the literature concerning andro-
gen and C responses to tapering in athletes are
inconclusive (table V). In a study on collegiate
runners and swimmers, Flynn et al.
[48]
observed no
change in the runners total testosterone (TT), free
testosterone (FT) and TT : C or FT : C ratios during
3 weeks of taper. Within the same study, on the
other hand, a group of swimmers TT and FT re-
turned towards baseline during the taper, after show-
ing blunted values throughout the intensive training
phases of the season. No changes were noticed in the
TT : C and FT : C ratios. Interestingly, changes in
TT and FT during training and taper, but not in
TT : C or FT : C ratios paralleled changes in per-
formance during criterion swims.
[48]
Male cyclists
serum T increased by 5.3%, and 24-hour urinary C
decreased marginally by 4.6% during 10 days of
reduced training, in the face of a 1.2% improvement
in performance. In addition, the serum T : urinary C
ratio was unaltered by the taper.
[39]
No changes were
seen in resting blood levels of T, C and TT : C in
runners performing a 3-week step taper,
[42]
nor in
these variables and sex-hormone binding globulin
(SHBG) in elite weightlifters after either 1 or 4
weeks of taper, during which competition perform-
ance improved by 8.0 and 17.5kg, respectively.
[15]
Mujika and colleagues
[11,12,26]
have also assessed
the effects of tapering on selected hormones in
swimmers and middle-distance runners. In a study
on swimmers, plasma TT, non-SHBG-bound-testos-
terone (NSBT), which is the sum of FT and albu-
min-bound T representing the biologically active
T
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908 Mujika et al.
fraction of T,
[100,101]
C, TT : C and NSBT : C re- the first taper, and the athletes competition per-
mained stable during a 4-week taper subsequent to 8 formance improved by an average of 3.2% in two
weeks of intensive training, despite large variations different 2- to 3-week tapers within a season.
[4]
On
in training volume.
[11]
Nevertheless, the 4 weeks of the other hand, no changes in TT, C or the TT : C
taper resulted in a 2.3% improvement in competition ratio were observed during 6 weeks of progressive
performance and percentage variations in swimming increase and 2 weeks of gradual decrease in training
performance during the taper correlated with volume in well trained swimmers.
[98]
A follow-up
changes in the TT : C (r = 0.81) and NSBT : C (r = investigation on elite swimmers over a two-season
0.76) ratios, and with changes in NSBT concentra-
period showed that the 1.52.1% performance im-
tion (r = 0.71).
[11]
provements during the tapers before the major com-
petitions of each season were positively related with
In an initial 6-day taper study on 800m runners,
the corresponding 2249% increases in post-compe-
TT, FT, C, TT : C and FT : C remained stable as a
tition peak lactate concentrations, but negatively
result of the taper and individual changes in these
related (r =
0.66) with the 1929% change in

markers did not parallel changes in performance
resting pre-competition plasma C concentration.
[1]
during the taper. However, TT correlated inversely
The conclusion of this study was that a low C
with low-intensity continuous training distance dur-
concentration formed a prerequisite for improved
ing the taper and positively with high-intensity inter-
performance in events that rely largely on the contri-
val training distance.
[26]
A subsequent study on
bution of anaerobic metabolism to total energy sup-
800m runners who also tapered for 6 days showed
ply.
[1]
In keeping with this conclusion, Mujika et
increased TT values after the taper, attributed to the
al.
[12]
observed strong correlations between changes
elimination of low-intensity continuous training
in peak blood lactate concentration after an 800m
from the main part of the training sessions during the
running race during a 6-day taper and changes in
taper.
[12]
The mechanism for increased TT post-
serum C (r =
0.75) and the TT : C and FT : C ratios

taper is thought to relate to enhanced pituitary re-
(r = 0.82). Collectively these findings indicate that a
sponse to the preceding period of intense training,
hormonal milieu propitious to anabolic processes is
bringing about a positive influence on androgenic-
necessary for optimum function of the glycolytic
anabolic activity during the subsequent taper,
power system and performance in middle-distance
characterised by reduced levels of physiological
events.
stress.
[11,12,102]
In view of the relationship between
LH and T, regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-
Elite junior rowers showing clear signs of over-
testicular axis, and given that the C secretion is in
reaching and hypothalamic downregulation during a
part controlled by a common regulatory pathway
high-load training phase reportedly recovered dur-
(i.e. the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis),
ing a subsequent week of taper. Time trial (2000m)
future investigations should assess possible changes
performance improved by 6.3%, while peripheral
in the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) con-
and central steroid hormone concentrations in-
centration during the taper.
creased by about 10%.
[84]
These changes were ac-
companied by positive changes in the Recovery- Changes in resting C concentration during the
Stress-Questionnaire for Athletes, which led the au- taper have been proposed as a means of monitoring
thors to suggest that the hypothalamus plays an performance capacity in athletes (table V). Col-
important role in integrating different kinds of stress legiate swimmers resting C values declined by
2330%, T concentration increased by 22% during influences, and responds by means of the endocrine
system (e.g. pituitary-adrenocortical and pituitary- useful tool for monitoring training and tapering-
induced adaptations. gonadal axes), the autonomic nervous system and
behaviour.
[84]
4.2 Catecholamines
Female collegiate swimmers salivary C levels
have been reported to decrease back to baseline
Plasma and urinary catecholamine concentra-
values after 4 weeks of taper, consisting of a pro-
tions have been measured in the past as a means to
gressive 63% reduction in training volume.
[103]
A
monitor training stress, and identify overreaching or
similar finding was reported in male swimmers,
overtraining in athletes.
[52,53,109-113]
Hooper and col-
whose salivary C decreased marginally by 4.8%
leagues
[111]
reported that plasma noradrenaline was
during the taper, to attain the lowest values of the
higher during the taper in swimmers who were over-
entire training season.
[104]
Several investigations,
trained and did not improve their performance. In
however, have reported unchanged or slightly in-
another study by the same group, a small change in
creased C concentrations as a result of a taper in
time trial swimming performance during the taper
swimmers,
[10,11]
cyclists
[99]
and rowers.
[84]
Plasma C was predicted by changes in plasma noradrenaline
concentrations are subject to different kinds of phys- concentration, which accounted for 82% of the vari-
iological and psychological stressors,
[105,106]
which ance. The investigators concluded that the change in
could explain conflicting findings. The physical plasma noradrenaline concentration could be a use-
stress produced by the pre-taper intensive training ful marker for monitoring recovery associated with
could be replaced in the post-taper condition by the the taper, but they acknowledged that the role of
psychological stress associated with the oncoming catecholamines in the recovery phase after intense
major competition.
[10]
training is not well established, and that the expense
and complexity associated with catecholamine mea-
A recent investigation by Atlaoui et al.
[107]
specu-
surements preclude its use in routine screening of
lates that explanations for discrepancies among
athletes during the taper.
[49]
Other investigators have
studies include: (i) C binding with corticosteroid
also measured plasma adrenaline, noradrenaline and
binding globulin; (ii) varying densities of receptors
dopamine concentrations before and after taper in
in target tissues; and (iii) pre-receptor metabolism of
competitive swimmers.
[11]
The only noticeable
C by tissue-specific enzymes 11-hydroxysteroid
change in this study was a statistically non-signifi-
dehydrogenase (11-HSD). Two isoenzymes of
cant 22% decrease in plasma noradrenaline during
11-HSD interconvert active C and inactive cor-
the taper, but in contrast with the above investiga-
tisone (Cn) within target cells, modulating C action
tion, this change did not correlate with the 2.3%
at an autocrine level in peripheral tissues. Given that
gains in competition swimming performance, which
the 24-hour urinary C : Cn ratio is a valid index of
ranged between 0.4 and 4.9%.
[11]
renal 11-HSD activity,
[108]
it was suggested that the
C : Cn ratio could provide insight into the adapta-
4.3 Growth Hormone and Insulin-Like
tions of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis to
Growth Factor-1
training and tapering. The study of Atlaoui et al.
[107]
showed a decline of the C : Cn ratio during 3 weeks Human growth hormone levels increased 10%
of taper subsequent to 4 weeks of intensive training. from baseline following 3 weeks of intensive train-
A large negative correlation between performance ing in rowers, but decreased by 30% during the
changes in competition and changes in C : Cn dur- following 2-week taper phase.
[84]
Insulin-like
ing the taper (r =
0.69) suggests this ratio could be a growth factor-1 (IGF-1), a 7.5 kDa polypeptide that
910 Mujika et al.
plays an important role in the regulation of somatic ever, was not reflected by the exercise lactate levels,
growth, metabolism, and cellular proliferation, dif- which remained unchanged and there was no indica-
ferentiation and survival, has also been measured tion of glycogen depletion among the participating
before and after taper in athletes.
[114]
Nine male subjects.
collegiate swimmers total serum IGF-1 increased
5. Neuromuscular Changes
progressively by 76% above baseline during 4
months of intensive training and these elevated val-
The extraordinary plasticity of skeletal muscle
ues were maintained during 4 weeks of tapering.
tissue allows it to adapt to variable levels of func-
The levels of free IGF-1 increased by 77102% at
tional demands, neuromuscular activity and hormo-
all training measurements, including the taper. The
nal signals, and reversibly change its functional
levels of immunoreactive IGF binding protein-3
characteristics and structural composition.
[118-121]
A
(IGFBP-3) were 30% higher after intensive training,
pre-competition taper presumably reduces the de-
and remained elevated during tapering. In contrast,
mands placed on the neuromuscular system com-
IGF binding protein-1 declined to baseline values
pared with previous phases of a training programme.
during tapering. Performance measures were not
reported, but the authors of the study suggested that
5.1 Strength and Power
the increased total and free IGF-1 and total IGFBP-3
Increased strength and power as a result of a taper
could have played a role in the observed reductions
have been a common observation in different athlet-
in skinfold measurements during the season.
[114]
ic activities (table VI). In 1985, Costill et al.
[3]
were
Two weeks of reduced training characterised by less
among the first researchers to describe such gains in
intense training, no weight training and shorter in-
swimmers. These investigators described an 18%
terval training in junior team handball players result-
improvement in swim bench power and a 25% gain
ed in a 7.7% increase in IGF-1, which returned to
in actual swim power in a group of 17 collegiate
baseline after being depressed during a period of
swimmers undergoing a 2-week taper. Swim power
intensive training. This change during the taper was
improvement correlated with a 3.1% competition
concomitant with gains in repeated sprint (2.1%)
performance gain (r = 0.68). The reduced training
and vertical jump (3.2%) performance.
[115]
may have allowed for an increase in maximal ten-
sion development through changes in the contractile
4.4 Other Hormones
mechanisms and/or neural controls on fibre recruit-
ment.
[3]
In keeping with these results, Johns et al.
[7]
Other hormones have been suggested as markers
observed a 5% increase in tethered swimming power of training stress and overtraining
[102,116,117]
during
and a 2.8% improved performance in competition periods of taper. To date, the relevant studies have
after 10 and 14 days of taper. National and interna- yielded inconclusive results about the usefulness of
tional level swimmers isolated mean arm and leg hormonal monitoring. Thyroid-stimulating hor-
power has also been shown to increase during a mone, triiodothyronine and thyroxine concentra-
4-week taper, especially during the initial 524 tions, for instance, were not altered by a 4-week
seconds of exercise.
[2]
Competition performance in- taper in male national and international level swim-
creased by an average of 2.6% during the taper. mers.
[11]
Steinacker et al.
[84]
reported increased rest-
ing insulin and C-peptide levels during a 1-week Raglin et al.
[14]
also reported gains during a 4- to
taper in rowers, suggesting a higher post-taper car- 5-week taper in swimming peak power (16%) and
bohydrate turnover capacity. This suggestion, how- mean power (20%). In addition, they observed a
Table VI. Effects of the taper on muscular strength and power
Study (year) Athletes Taper duration Strength Performance measure Performance
(days) and/or outcome (%)
power
Costill et al.
[3]
Cavanaugh and Musch
[2]
Prins et al.
[122]
Johns et al.
[7]
Shepley et al.
[30]
(1992) Runners 7 Treadmill time to exhaustion 622 impr
Gibala et al.
[123]
(1994) Strength trained 10 Voluntary elbow flexor 7 impr
strength
Houmard et al.
[35]
(1994) Runners 7 5km treadmill time trial 2.8 impr
Martin et al.
[124]
(1994) Cyclists 14 Incremental maximal test 8.0 impr
Raglin et al.
[14]
(1996) Swimmers 2835 Competition 2.0 impr
Hooper et al.
[6]
(1998) Swimmers 14 100m, 400m time trial
Hooper et al.
[49]
(1999) Swimmers 14 100m time trial
Trappe et al.
[17]
(2000) Swimmers 21 Competition 3.04.7 impr
impr = improvement; NR = not reported; indicates increased; indicates unchanged.
23% gain in neuromuscular function, as determined percentage motor unit activation. Percutaneously
with the soleus Hoffmann reflex, an indicator of the nerve-stimulated evoked contractile properties of
general excitability of the -motor neuron pool. the right knee extensors also improved during both
These changes correlated with changes in power and tapers, with peak twitch torque gains amounting to
were accompanied by a 2.0% improvement in com- 13% and 19%, respectively.
[30]
Similar positive
petition velocity. The investigators concluded that changes were also observed when the athletes per-
neurological adaptations may have a role in the formed no training at all for a week, a strategy that
performance gains that often follow the taper.
[14]
resulted in a 3% performance decline. This and other
More recently, Trappe et al.
[17]
noted a 720% in- similar findings, such as a 12% gain in peak tethered
crease in swim bench muscle power, a 13% increase swimming force, which was not accompanied by
in swim power and a 4% enhancement in competi- statistically significant improvements in competi-
tion performance as a result of a 3-week taper in six tion performance during a taper in male and female
male collegiate swimmers. However, Prins et al.
[122]
swimmers,
[6]
or a 2.8% treadmill running perform-
and Hooper et al.
[49]
reported unchanged muscular ance gain despite a lack of change in leg peak
force as a result of a taper, concluding that pre-taper isometric or concentric force,
[35]
suggest that the
force levels were not compromised by the training involvement of muscular force is influenced by a
load undertaken by swimmers. Differences with multiplicity of physiological and environmental
studies reporting gains in force after a taper may factors.
relate to variations in the calibre of the swimmers,
In contrast with these findings, the evoked con-
and the training and tapering programmes undertak-
tractile properties (peak twitch torque, time to peak
en.
twitch, half relaxation time and maximum rate of
In cross-country and middle-distance runners, torque development) were unchanged after 4 and 10
Shepley et al.
[30]
observed an increase in maximal days of taper in strength trained athletes.
[123]
The
voluntary isometric strength of the knee extensors taper, however, induced an increase in the isometric
after both a high-intensity/low-volume and a low- peak torque of the elbow flexors (7.5% at day 6, and
intensity/moderate-volume taper, despite unchanged 6.8% at day 10 of the taper), despite unchanged
912 Mujika et al.
motor unit activation and increased concentric peak 5.3 Muscle Fibre Characteristics
torque at low velocity (7.7% at day 4, and 2.8% at
5.3.1 Muscle Fibre Size day 10). These results were attributed to enhanced
In male collegiate swimmers, no changes in type contractile performance and/or an increase in neural
I fibre diameter and cross-sectional area were ob-
activation.
[123]
Collegiate cyclists showed improve-
served after a 3-week taper. On the other hand, type
ments in their isokinetic quadriceps strength at 30
IIa fibre diameter increased by 11%, and cross-
and 120 per second after a 2-week step taper, but
sectional area by 24%.
[17]
In male cyclists, a 7-day
strength gains were not correlated with improve-
high-intensity (8590% of maximal HR)/low-vol-
ments in laboratory cycling performance.
[124]
ume (progressive reduction from 60- to 20-minute
The above studies suggest that muscular strength
sessions) taper brought about a moderate 6.9% in-
and power production is usually suppressed by
crease in type I fibres cross-sectional area and a
chronic intensive training, but most likely recover
much larger 14% increase in type II fibres. When the
during the taper, when the training load is markedly
taper was high-volume (60-minute sessions)/low-
reduced. The mechanisms responsible for the taper-
intensity (progressive reduction from 85% to 55% of
induced improvements in muscular strength and
maximal HR), the observed 7.0 and 11% increases
power may be related to local changes in enzymatic in type I and type II fibres were not statistically
significant.
[24]
activities, and single muscle fibre characteristics
positively affecting neuromuscular, biomechanical
5.3.2 Metabolic Properties
and metabolic efficiency.
Only one investigation is available that analysed
the effects of the taper on the metabolic properties of
5.2 Enzymatic Activities
different fibre types. Neary et al.
[24]
reported that
after a high-intensity/low-volume taper, myofibril-
lar ATPase increased by 11% and succinate Neary et al.
[54]
did not observe changes in mito-
dehydrogenase by 12% in type I fibres. In type II,
chondrial enzymes carnitine palmityltransferase,
myofibrillar ATPase, succinate dehydrogenase, -
citrate synthase, -hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase
hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase and cytochrome
and cytochrome oxidase, and the cytoplasmic en-
oxidase increased by 1516%. These changes were
zyme lactate dehydrogenase after 4 or 8 days of
accompanied by a 4.3% improvement in a simulated
taper. The lack of change could have been related to
40km cycling time trial. After a high-volume/low-
the small group sizes and/or a mixture of males and
intensity taper, cytochrome oxidase (10%) and -
females within each group.
[54]
Shepley et al.
[30]
ob-
hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase (17%) increased
served an 18% increase in citrate synthase activity
in type I fibres, but only -hydroxyacyl CoA
after a 7-day high-intensity/low-volume taper in a
dehydrogenase (18%) increased in type II fibres.
group of nine male runners. In light of this finding,
The 2.2% improvement in simulated time trial per-
they attributed part of the laboratory performance
formance was statistically non-significant. Com-
gain to an increased capacity to maintain a high rate
bined type I and type II fibres succinate dehydroge-
of oxidative energy production, despite the poten-
nase and cytochrome oxidase activities correlated
tially inhibitory effects of increasing intracellular
with simulated 40km time trial performance after
temperature, hydrogen ion and lactate concentra- both tapers. These results illustrate that changes in
tion, and superoxide free radicals.
[30]
metabolic properties take place during the taper at
the single fibre level, are more pronounced when a in athletes during the taper phase prior to competi-
high-intensity taper is performed and contribute to tion. Most studies have focused on the acute effects
performance changes observed in whole body mus-
of exercise on cellular and soluble immune re-
cle function. Type II fibres seemed to be more
sponses immediately post-exercise and in the first
responsive to the taper, possibly due to their specific
few hours of recovery. Observations of a temporary
contractile properties and a greater potential to in-
suppression in the immune response after intensive
crease their oxidative enzyme capacity.
[24]
exercise lead to the creation in early to mid 1990s of
the J-curve
[132]
and open window
[133]
models.
5.3.3 Contractile Properties
More recently, attention has focused on possible Neuromuscular adaptations also occur at the sin-
mechanisms of immunosuppression, with the T- gle fibre level after tapering. After a 3-week taper,
Trappe et al.
[17]
observed, in deltoid muscle samples helper lymphocyte subsets T
h
1 and T
h
2 thought to
of highly trained collegiate swimmers 30% higher
regulate immunological control.
[134]
It appears that
peak isometric force, 67% faster shortening velocity
the prevailing cytokine pattern elicited by exercise
and 250% higher absolute fibre power in type IIa
and training activates specific T
h
-precursor cells
muscle fibres. Type I fibres also increased their
leading to upregulation of either the T
h
1 (cell-medi-
shortening velocity by 32%. These observations led
ated immunity) or T
h
2 (humoral immunity and an-
the authors to suggest that changes in contractile
tibody production) response.
[134]
Future studies are
properties may have been tightly related with the
required to fully characterise the time-course of
observed improvements in whole muscle strength
changes in these key immunological control mecha-
and power measures after the taper.
[17]
nisms during training and the taper.
While exercise and training-induced perturba-
6. Immunological Changes
tions in immune function of healthy athletes are
Many aspects of the immune system exhibit a
relatively transient, it is thought that an inability to
range of responses to acute exercise and prolonged
restore baseline levels after continual upward and
training in athletes preparing for competition: in-
downward fluctuations may, in some athletes after
creased leucocyte cell counts particularly neutro-
several years of training at the elite level, result in
phils and lymphocyte subsets;
[105]
decreased func-
chronic immunosuppression and an increased risk of
tional activity of the neutrophil respiratory burst and
illness.
[135,136]
Although evidence of immunosup-
natural killer cytotoxicity;
[125,126]
decreased response
pression in athletes is indicated indirectly by be-
to mitogen-induced T-lymphocyte proliferation;
[127]
tween-subject comparison of trained subjects with
decreased concentration of mucosal immune param-
sedentary individuals, a more direct indication is
eters, such as secretory immunoglobulin A;
[128,129]
obtained by analysis of within-subject changes for a
impaired delayed-type hypersensitivity response (T-
given athlete during a specified training period or
cell function);
[130]
unchanged or increased circulat-
taper prior to competition. The key questions for the
ing concentration of cytokines, such as the in-
athletes and coaches, clinicians and researchers are
terleukin family, tumour necrosis factor- and in-
the magnitude and duration of immunological
terferon-.
[131]
changes with training and whether any observed
Despite the high level of clinical and research
changes manifest into relevant clinical conse-
interest in the effects of exercise and training on
quences and impact negatively on training and com- immunity, there are only a limited number of studies
that have directly examined immunological changes petitive performance.
914 Mujika et al.
6.1 Immune Cells 3-week taper (50% reduction in training volume and
intensity after 22 weeks of 1820 h/week training)
Studies of athletes in training across a range of
in 20 collegiate swimmers elicited an increase in
sports have examined various immune cell counts
total leucocytes but a decrease in B-cell lymphocyte
and functional activities. In general, these studies
count.
[142]
However, total T-cells, neutrophils, and
show relative stability in immunological parameters
lymphocyte proliferative responses were unchanged
with little evidence of clinical consequences. While
over the same period suggesting that overall immu-
there is substantial evidence in controlled studies
noprotection was largely unchanged. It also appears
that short periods of intensified training lower rest-
that antioxidant supplementation during the taper
ing cell counts,
[137-140]
observational studies of ath-
enhances plasma antioxidant protection,
[41]
poten-
letes in training have failed to demonstrate the same
tially maintaining the delicate balance between oxi-
findings. One study which experimentally manipu-
dant and antioxidant properties of immune cells.
[143]
lated training volume and intensity in nine well
Sixteen male triathletes volunteered for a con-
trained cyclists before an 18-day taper showed im-
trolled-training double-blind antioxidant supple-
provements in cycling efficiency (6%) and simulat-
mentation and taper programme. Two weeks of
ed 20km time trial performance (6%) whereas rest-
tapered training induced decreases in resting blood
ing immune status (lymphocyte subset counts and
glutathione concentration, erythrocyte superoxide
incidence of respiratory illness) was unchanged
dismutase activity and plasma antioxidant status, but
throughout a 10-week training programme.
[39]
Sta-
had no effect on lipoperoxidation or markers of
bility in cell counts was also observed in 12 young
muscle damage.
[41]
In seven male distance runners, a
male runners during 40 days of heavier and easier
7-day taper did not enhance serum free radical scav-
endurance training: transient reductions were ob-
enging capacity prior to, or during, exercise.
[94]
Col-
served in lymphocyte subsets (CD4+ and CD4/CD8
lectively these studies show small transient changes
ratio), particularly during periods of increased train-
in the distribution of immune cells during the taper
ing (high-intensity 1000m intervals) compared with
that are unlikely to have any substantial clinical
increased volume (double normal training vol-
consequences.
ume).
[141]
A small number of studies have directly ex-
6.2 Immunoglobulins
amined immune cell changes during a taper. Nation-
al and international level swimmers tapering for 4 In addition to cellular changes, there has been
weeks after 8 weeks of intense training had a de- extensive examination of training-induced changes
creased percentage of neutrophils after the taper, in soluble immunoproteins in athletes, particularly
whereas lymphocytes tended to increase.
[10]
The in- secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), which plays a
crease in lymphocytes correlated positively with the major role in effective specific immunity,
[136]
and
reduction in training volume during taper (r = 0.86). the immunoregulatory cytokines which are a diverse
In contrast, a short 6-day taper (involving an 80% family of intracellular cellular signalling molecules
reduction in high-intensity interval training) in nine released by immune cells that exert important influ-
male middle-distance runners elicited a modest but ences on inflammatory and immune responses.
[144]
statistically significant increase in neutrophils Some training studies showed that marked reduc-
(13%) and granulocytes (11%). However, the mag- tions in SIgA after acute exercise
[145]
and in the latter
nitude of the observed changes was considered too stages of a prolonged season of training,
[128,146]
are
small to be of immunological significance.
[10,12]
A associated with an increased risk of upper respirato-
ry illness. Elite swimmers showed a 4% reduction in per se. Recent studies have pointed to cytokines
SIgA per month over a 7-month season and values such as IL-1 and IL-6 forming a communication link
<40 mg/L were associated with an increased risk of between systemic circulation, energy metabolism
illness.
[128]
In contrast, other studies of swimmers and skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise.
[131]
Stud-
and rowers have not shown this associa- ies are required to characterise the time course of
tion.
[104,145,147,148]
The interpretation of these dispa- cytokine changes during training and the taper, in
rate findings requires consideration of the inherent order to fully understand physiological mechanisms
biological variability in immune parameters and underpinning these processes in athletes.
methodological differences in experimental design, Collectively, the interpretation of these studies
sample collection and assay techniques. Clearly, suggests that athletes should be mindful of excessive
further studies are required to resolve these conflict- loads during peak training periods, but can train with
ing findings of the soluble immune protein response confidence during the taper prior to competition in
to training and the taper prior to competition. the knowledge they are unlikely to compromise
overall immunological protection. Given the varia-
6.3 Cytokines ble findings of existing studies, one-off measures of
cellular and soluble immune parameters are unlikely
Similar to leucocytes and immunoglobulins,
to be informative unless immunosuppression is se-
there are many studies of the acute effects of exer-
vere. A multi-faceted approach involving systematic
cise on circulating cytokine concentration, but little
monitoring of underlying mucosal and cellular im-
is known about longitudinal changes in highly
munity,
[129]
review of clinical, training and lifestyle
trained athletes during training and the taper.
factors
[151]
and attention to practical strategies,
[152]
Cytokines have a role in both the acquired and
may provide a more effective means of managing
innate arms of host defence and can be pro- or anti-
the health of athletes during the taper period. This
inflammatory in nature.
[131]
Most of the exercise
approach should be communicated to athletes,
studies have focused on just three cytokines, in-
coaches and physicians to reassure the sporting
terleukin (IL)-1, IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor-
community that maintaining good health during the
. In general, the blood concentration of these
taper is compatible with elite level training.
cytokines is either unchanged or increased in re-
sponse to acute exercise such as the marathon.
[149]
7. Psychological Changes
There are also conflicting findings on the influence
of exercise intensity and type on cytokine re- It is unlikely that the physiological changes com-
sponse.
[150]
The pattern of post-exercise cytokine pletely explain the performance benefits associated
response (increases in IL-6 and IL-10) to eccentri- with a successful taper. Competition performance is
cally biased bench press and leg curl exercise in the result of a conscious effort
[153]
and it would be a
untrained males was less pronounced and occurred major oversight to obviate the paramount contribu-
at a later timepoint (72144 hours post-exercise)
[150]
tion of psychological and motivational factors to
than after strenuous endurance exercise.
[149]
Inter- post-taper athletic performance. Optimisation of an
pretation of the biological significance is also com- athletes physiological status resulting from a well
plicated by the notion that the immunological action designed tapering strategy is presumably accompa-
of cytokines is regulated by the balance between nied by beneficial psychological changes, including
concentration of the active molecules and their in- mood state, perception of effort and quality of sleep.
hibitors, rather than their circulating concentration Reports describing these changes are summarised in
916 Mujika et al.
sections 7.1 to 7.3, but an in-depth analysis and bewilderment (86%), and a 20% decrease in vigour-
discussion of the psychological parameters affected activity ratings.
[16]
by a taper is beyond the scope of this review.
Flynn et al.
[48]
reported a 17% reduction in the
global mood state of a group of male swimmers after
a 3-week taper. A similar 16% decline in total mood
7.1 Mood State
disturbance was also observed by Raglin et al.
[14]
in
12 collegiate female swimmers tapering for 45
Mood states are sensitive to variations in the
weeks. This decline correlated moderately with
training load undertaken by athletes
[154]
and altera-
mean swimming power (r = 0.34), which increased
tions should be expected as a result of a taper where
by 20% with the taper. Swimming velocity in com-
the training load is markedly reduced. Numerous
petition also improved by 2.0%. Hooper et al.
[6]
investigators have reported mood state changes as-
observed reduced tension, depression and anger af-
sociated with a pre-competition taper. Most, but not
ter 1 week of taper in state-level swimmers and a
all, of these reports indicate that tapering induces
10% lower total mood disturbance after 2 weeks,
positive changes in the athletes mood state, contrib-
which resulted in marginal time trial performance
uting to enhanced performance measures (table
gains of 0.2% in 100m and 0.7% in 400m events.
VII). Morgan et al.
[154]
and Raglin et al.
[155]
first
However, in a subsequent investigation on interna-
described decreased global mood scores computed
tional calibre swimmers, these authors did not detect
from the Profile of Mood States (POMS) question-
any change in the total mood disturbance after a
naire in college athletes tapering for 4 weeks. The
2-week taper.
[49]
In another study, young competi-
decrease in global mood scores was associated with
tive swimmers showed an acute decrease in total
decreased levels of perceived fatigue, depression,
mood disturbance after practices that were shorter in
anger and confusion accompanied by increased
duration than usual during a pre-competition week
levels of vigour. These investigators also reported
of taper. These competitive swimmers reported
that decreases in mood disturbance were related to
short-term mood benefits including decreases in
reductions in the training load with identical effects
scores of depression, confusion and tension. How-
in both males and females. However, some individu-
ever, these acute mood benefits during training prior
al athletes did not respond to the taper and no
to competition did not appear to be related to subse-
declines in tension scores were observed, with val-
quent performance in competition.
[158]
ues being higher in female than male athletes.
[154,155]
In fact, tension was the only mood variable that Total mood disturbance has also been shown to
remained elevated above baseline following the decline by 21% in track cyclists tapering for 2 weeks
taper. It has been speculated that elevated tension after a period of overreaching. At the same time,
probably reflects anxiety provoked by the anticipa- simulated 4km pursuit performance improved by
tion of the pending major championship.
[103]
2.0% and mean power output by 2.3%, but no sub-
stantial correlations were found between changes In contrast, Taylor et al.
[16]
reported sex differ-
in psychological variables and performance ences in tapering-induced mood state alterations.
changes.
[159]
During the tapering period the total Relatively small (1.3%) competition performance
mood score of the POMS also decreased in nine gains attained by female swimmers during taper
male and five female world-class canoeists tapering were presumably related with a deterioration in
for 3 weeks, so that 1 week before the Olympics this mood state indicated by increases in tension-anxiety
score was of the same magnitude as the basal off- (56%), depression-dejection (218%) and confusion-
T
h
e

P
r
e
-
E
v
e
n
t

T
a
p
e
r

i
n

A
t
h
l
e
t
e
s
:

P
h
y
s
i
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

C
h
a
n
g
e
s
9
1
7

2
0
0
4

A
d
i
s

D
a
t
a

I
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

B
V
.

A
l
l

r
i
g
h
t
s

r
e
s
e
r
v
e
d
.
S
p
o
r
t
s

M
e
d

2
0
0
4
;

3
4

(
1
3
)
Table VII. Effects of the taper on mood state and perception of effort
Study (year) Athletes Taper duration Mood state Perception Performance measure Performance
(days) of effort outcome (%)
Morgan et al.
[154]
Raglin et al.
[155]
(1991) Swimmers 28 NR NR NR
Snyder et al.
[156]
(1993) Cyclists 14 NR NR NR
Berglund and S afstr om
[157]
(1994) Canoeists 21 NR NR NR
Flynn et al.
[48]
(1994) Runners 21 Treadmill time to exhaustion
Swimmers 23m, 366m time trial 3
Houmard et al.
[35]
(1994) Runners 7 NR 5km treadmill time trial 2.8
Raglin et al.
[14]
(1996) Swimmers 2835 NR Competition 2.0
Berger et al.
[158]
(1997) Swimmers 7 NR NR NR
Taylor et al.
[16]
(1997) Swimmers NR Deteriorated NR Competition 1.3
Hooper et al.
[6]
(1998) Swimmers 14 NR 100m, 400m time trial
Berger et al.
[159]
(1999) Cyclists 14 NR 4km simulated pursuit 2.0
Hooper et al.
[49]
(1999) Swimmers 14 NR 100m time trial
Martin and Andersen
[51]
(2000) Cyclists 7 NR Incremental maximal test 6
Martin et al.
[99]
(2000) Cyclists 7 NR Incremental maximal test 6
Steinacker et al.
[84]
(2000) Rowers 7 NR 2000m time trial competition 6.3
Eliakim et al.
[115]
(2002) Handball players 14 NR 4 20m sprint, vertical jump 2.13.2
Margaritis et al.
[41]
(2003) Triathletes 14 NR 30km outdoor duathlon 1.63.6
Neary et al.
[23]
(2003) Cyclists 7 NR 20km simulated time trial 5.4
NR = not reported; indicates decreased; indicates improvement; indicates unchanged.
918 Mujika et al.
season total mood score of the POMS.
[157]
Twenty The perception of effort was decreased in swimmers
long-distance triathletes POMS score also de- of both sexes after a 4-week taper in collegiate
creased by 1012% after 14 days of tapering, during
athletes.
[154]
Flynn et al.
[48]
reported that RPE while
which total training load was progressively reduced
swimming at 90% of pre-season
VO
2max
decreased
by 3246%.
[41]
In contrast, Martin et al.
[99]
did not
from an average value of 14 (somewhat hard/hard)
observe any change in the total mood scores or the
after 2 weeks of hard training, to 9 (very light) at the
specific mood state scores (i.e. tension, depression,
end of the taper. On the other hand, these same
anger, vigour, fatigue and confusion) in a group of
investigators did not observe any taper-associated
cyclists tapering for 1 week after 6 weeks of high-
changes in the RPE of eight male cross-country
intensity interval cycling, despite major differences
runners during treadmill running at 75% of pre-
in the training load and performance assessments at
season
VO
2max
, despite major changes in training
the end of each of these training phases. These
loads. The same was true in a study on distance
investigators also indicated that some athletes with
runners performing on a treadmill at 80%
VO
2peak
relatively large mood disturbances responded well
before and after a 7-day taper,
[35]
and on male cy-
to the taper, whereas others responded poorly, sug-
clists performing a simulated 20km time trial before
gesting a low predictability of the POMS for re-
and after a taper of the same duration.
[23]
sponses to the taper.
[99]
The HR-RPE relationship could be a more valid
A 1-week step taper was enough for ten world-
marker for monitoring an athletes response to the
class male junior rowers showing clear signs of
taper. Neary et al.
[23]
observed a 4.5% decline in the
overreaching to recover after 18 days of intense
HR : RPE ratio after a 7-day stepwise taper during
training. Somatic complaints and somatic relaxation
which training volume was reduced by 50% and assessed with the Recovery-Stress-Questionnaire
for Athletes returned to baseline values during the performance enhanced by 5.1%. Martin and Ander-
taper. Maximal power during an incremental rowing sen
[51]
reported a 3.2% decline in the HR : RPE ratio
test increased by 2.7% and a 2000m time trial per-
after a 1-week taper in collegiate cyclists, associated
formance improved by 6.3%.
[84]
Similarly, Eliakim
with a 6% improvement in a graded exercise to
et al.
[115]
reported a return to baseline in the self-
exhaustion. Changes in the HR-RPE relationship
assessment physical conditioning score during 2
during 6 weeks of high-intensity interval training
weeks of less intense training in a group of junior
were a powerful predictor of performance responses
handball players, the values of which were reduced
to the taper. Subjects who demonstrated the greatest
during the preceding intensive training period.
decrease in HR for a given RPE tended to have the
greatest performance increases in response to the
taper (r = 0.72), confirming the usefulness of the
7.2 Perception of Effort
HR-RPE relationship.
[51]
Using a similar approach,
the submaximal blood lactate concentration (H[La])
The perception of effort during exercise is influ-
: RPE ratio has been put forward as a valid physio-
enced by a number of physiological and psychologi-
logical-psychological index of fatigue.
[156]
During 2
cal variables,
[160-162]
some of which are presumably
weeks of recovery training, the values for the
affected by a taper. The most widely used measure
H[La] : RPE ratio, which were reduced as a result of
of effort perception is Borgs Rating of Perceived
two previous weeks of high-intensity interval train- Exertion (RPE),
[163,164]
which has been shown to
change as a result of tapered training (table VII). ing, returned to normal baseline levels.
7.3 Quality of Sleep adaptation induced by exercise bouts. Training and
performance measurements were undertaken to es-
Given that tapering strategies are characterised
tablish a dose-response relationship based on the
by reduced training loads, it seems plausible that
negative and positive influences of training.
[166]
sleep quality could also be affected by the taper.
Model performance was considered to be the bal-
Forcing habitual exercisers to spend a sedentary day
ance between these two antagonistic functions
modifies sleep patterns and body temperature. With
ascribed respectively to fatigue (negative) and adap-
reduced exercise load, slow-wave sleep pressure is
tation (positive). A controlled experiment in which
reduced, resulting in lower levels of slow-wave
total work was reduced after 28 days of strenuous
sleep and increased rapid eye movement sleep.
[165]
training showed that repeated training bouts could
The most in-depth investigation dealing with sleep
yield a fatigue accumulation greater in magnitude
patterns during tapering in athletes indicates that
than adaptation.
[168]
A greater increase in fatigue
sleep onset latency, time awake after sleep onset,
than adaptation provoked a transient decrease in
total sleep time and rapid eye movement sleep time
performance during the intensified period of train-
were unchanged during the taper in female swim-
ing. A subsequent reduction of training loads al-
mers. On the other hand, slow-wave sleep, which
lowed fatigue (negative influence) to dissipate more
represented 31% of total sleep time during the peak
quickly than adaptation (positive influence), yield-
training period, was reduced to 16% following the
ing to criterion performance peaking.
[168]
taper, suggesting that the need for restorative slow-
Training responses were modelled in 18 elite
wave sleep is reduced with reduced physical de-
swimmers over a full competitive season including
mand.
[16]
However, the number of movements dur-
three taper periods.
[8]
This study showed that a pro-
ing sleep was reduced by 37% after the taper, indi-
gressive reduction of training over 3 or 4 weeks
cating less sleep disruption compared with previous
alleviated fatigue accrued with repeated training
periods of higher training loads.
[16]
Hooper et al.
[49]
without compromising the adaptations. The en-
reported a slightly improved quality of sleep in
hancement of competition performance observed
swimmers after 2 weeks of tapering for the Austra-
with taper was attributed to a reduction of the nega-
lian national championships.
tive influence of training.
[8]
This general scheme for
the effects of taper should be applicable to a large
8. Insights from Mathematical Modelling
range of sports, since the model adequacy has also
In an attempt to go beyond descriptive experi-
been tested in long distance running,
[169]
triathlon,
[37]
mental procedures to analyse the consequences of
weightlifting
[102,170]
and hammer throwing.
[171]
The
training, mathematical analysis of the relationship
goodness-of-fit indicators showed that the model
between performance and the amounts of training
structure allowed an acceptable description of the
was initiated by Banister and coworkers.
[166-168]
The
responses to training across these different sports.
development of such mathematical models could
Model simulations have been undertaken to de-
contribute to a better understanding of tapering ef-
termine the optimal design of a training programme
fects.
including taper duration and pattern of training re-
duction.
[37,172,173]
Theory and data derived from the
8.1 Fatigue and Adaptation Model
model studies suggest that the biological responses
to taper primarily involve a restoration of physiolog- Taper effects can be described in model studies
by the difference in the time course of fatigue and ical capacities following alterations due to intensi-
920 Mujika et al.
fied training. The physiological basis of recovery Conversely, a progressive reduction of training
with tapering would include variations in cardiore- volumes or loads would allow the athlete to respond
spiratory, metabolic and neuromuscular systems, more effectively to this session. Peaking perform-
which could have a direct influence on performance. ance with taper would arise from both the recovery
from past training and restoration of the tolerance to
training. The intensification of training would firstly 8.2 Variable Dose-Response Model
delay the positive influence of training. The reduc-
New developments in training modelling provide
tion of training would facilitate enhanced perform-
an alternative explanation of the effects of taper.
ance because of the combination of delayed re-
Time-dependent alterations in responses were ob-
sponses to past training and early reaction to training
served using a model with time-varying parame-
done during the taper. This observation highlights
ters.
[174,175]
Training experiments in non-athletes
the importance of maintaining sufficient amounts of
showed an enhancement in the negative effect of a
training during the taper. From a physiological point
training bout when training was intensified
[175]
and
of view, the change in dose-response between exer-
training frequency was increased.
[174]
These obser-
cise and performance could be related to neuroen-
vations yielded a variable dose-response model in
docrine responses to training. Modulations of endo-
which fatigue induced by a training dose varies with
crine system and autonomic nervous system with
the accumulation of training.
[176]
Responses of six
heavy training could induce a negative change in the
subjects who trained on a cycle ergometer were
bodys adaptive capacity to exercise bouts.
[178,179]
more precisely described using this new model for-
Changes in the neuroendocrine environment with
mulation than the initial model proposed by Banister
reduced training could modify and amplify the re-
et al.
[166]
However, the revised model should be
covery and adaptation process, permitting volumes
tested with other training designs and in athletes in a
of training during the taper phase to maintain or
real training and competition situation. Neverthe-
increase the bodys adaptation for enhanced per-
less, to determine whether the new model provides a
formance.
useful representation of an athletes responses to
heavy training and tapering, experimental data in
9. Future Research
athletes
[177]
were compared with model simulations
with similar training variations. The high level of Despite undeniable advances in this area, many
agreement between modelled and actual data gave questions relating to the physiological consequences
further support for the underlying theory of the of tapering and their performance implications re-
model including the fatigue factor increasing with main to be elucidated. From a physiological point of
training.
[176]
view, future research should focus on a more sys-
The variable dose-response model would explain tematic assessment of the validity of potentially
performance peaking by accounting the positive in- useful metabolic, biochemical and hormonal indices
fluence of training done during the taper. Model of adaptation to changing training loads (e.g. blood
computations show that transient decreases in per- ammonia, ACTH and urinary catecholamines). Con-
formance with intensified training could be attribu- trary to the static approach to the effects of the taper
table to a change in the responses to the training employed by the majority of studies available to
dose.
[176]
A designated work session well assimilat- date, investigations of a more dynamic nature are
ed during periods of normal training could be more required to describe, and eventually predict the time
difficult to cope with when training is intensified. course of physiological changes during the tapering
phase. In addition, tapering-induced metabolic haemolysis and erythropoiesis, contributing to
changes during actual competitive events need to be taper-induced performance improvements, but po-
addressed. To this aim, the use of spectral analytical tentially compromising the iron status of the ath-
techniques such as Fourier-transform infrared spec- letes. Reduced training loads will also have an im-
troscopy shows promise.
[180-190]
Notwithstanding the pact on daily energy expenditure and athletes should
integrative nature of physiological changes associat-
pay special attention to their energy intake during
ed with athletic training, the relationships between
the taper to avoid energy imbalance and undesirable
observed changes and performance enhancement
changes in body composition. Substrate contribu-
should be assessed.
tion to power production during exercise usually
From the point of view of performance optimisa-
remains stable during the taper, but an elevated
tion, more research is needed to ascertain the most
contribution from carbohydrates could take place
suitable tapering strategies in strength and power
due to increased muscle glycogen concentration.
sports (e.g. weightlifting, sprinting, jumping and
Higher peak blood lactate concentrations after a
throwing) on the one hand, and on endurance (e.g.
taper have been related with enhanced maximal
marathon and Olympic distance triathlon) and ultra-
performance capabilities in swimming, running, cy-
endurance (e.g. road cycling and long-distance
cling and rowing. On the other hand, unchanged or
triathlon) events on the other hand. In addition,
reduced blood lactate concentrations at submaximal
optimal tapering programmes for high-intensity in-
exercise intensities should be expected after an effi-
termittent team sports also require further investiga-
cient taper. Blood ammonia concentrations have
tion, particularly in the lead-up to multi-day tourna-
been measured to assess changes in adenine nucleo-
ments and championship events.
tide degradation during the taper, but results have
been inconclusive.
10. Conclusions
Blood levels of CK are usually reduced after a
taper, indicating recovery from training stress and
Some of the physiological mechanisms underly-
muscle damage. T, C and the T : C ratio can provide
ing the performance gains associated with the taper
information on the physiological stress, recovery
are slowly being unveiled. Increases in
VO
2max
and performance capacity of an athlete during the
during the taper may contribute to post-taper per-
taper, but performance gains also occur without
formance gains, but enhanced performances have
concomitant changes in these parameters. The
also been observed without changes in
VO
2max
. A
24-hour urinary cortisol : cortisone ratio, plasma
lower oxygen cost of exercise after the taper (i.e. a
and urinary catecholamines, growth hormone and
better economy of movement) can also contribute to
IGF-1 show promise as tools for monitoring training improved performances, but this change is more
stress and tapering-induced adaptations, but further likely to occur in athletes of a lower calibre. Cardiac
research is needed to make a solid statement about function and dimensions, and ventilatory function
their validity. Muscular strength and power, usually are not generally affected by the taper, and any
suppressed by intensive training, increase during the observed change seems to be a reflection of the
athletes adaptation to preceding training rather than taper, contributing to an athletes enhanced perform-
to the taper itself. ance capabilities. Local increments in oxidative en-
zymatic activities, and positive changes in single Haematological changes strongly suggest that the
muscle fibre size, metabolic and contractile proper- reduced training loads undertaken by athletes during
ties are tightly related with whole muscle strength the taper facilitate a positive balance between
922 Mujika et al.
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and power measures and performance changes ob-
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served in whole body muscle function. There is very
resistance machines. J Swimming Res 1989; 5: 7-10
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limited research on the effects of the taper on ath-
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training and Overreaching in Sport International Conference;
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