160 National R w c h Conseil nation4

Council Canada de rmherches Canada

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE B8LACKWELL
VISUAL TASK EVALUATOR, MODEL 3X
by hdS Rea and U J. Ouetlette
DBR Paper No. 1160
Division of Buttding Research
Price $2.00
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NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL CANADA
DI VI SI ON OF BUILDING RESEARCH
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE BLACKWELL VISUAL TASK EVALUATOR, MODEL 3X
b y
M. S. Re a a n d M. J. Ouellette
ANALYZED
DBR P a p e r No. 1160
of the
D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h
Ot t a wa , F e b r u a r y 1984
ABSTRACT
The CIE has recently published a method for assessing the
Visibility Level (VL) of realistic visual stimli (as defined by
Commission Internationale de l'gclairage, 1981 1. To implement the
system, a visibility meter is required; the Blackwell Visual Task
Evaluator, Model 3X was designed to be used with the CIE method.
At the request of the Chairman of the CIE Technical Committee 3.1
on visual performance, our laboratory undertook an independent
evaluation of the instrument. The findings are reported here.
While there are several idiosyncratic features of the Visual Task
Evaluator, many of these findings are applicable to other
visibility meters.
La CIE a rbcemment publie une methode pour dbterminer le
niveau de visibilit'e des stimli visuels rgels (tels que dgfinis
par la Commission internationale de l'bclairage, en 1981).
Comme cette mdthode requiert l'utilisation d'un appareil de mesure
de la visibilitd, on a consu un appareil special : le "Blackwell
Visual Task Evaluator, mod8le 3X". A la dernande du pr'esident du
Comite technique 3.1 de la CIE sur la performance visuelle, nos
laboratoires ont proc'ed6 3 une gvaluation de l'instrunent.
On trouvera ici les rgsultats de cette 6valuation. Quoique le
"Visual Task Evaluator" poss3de plusieurs caract'eristiques qui
lui sont propres, bon nombre de ces conclusions s'appliquent 3
d'autres instruments du meme type.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
3. CENTER AND SURROUND FIELDS
3.1 General description
3.2 The brightnesses of the fields
3.3 The operator's tasks
3.4 Field luminances
4. OPERATION OF THE OUTPUT CONTROL
4.1 Control dial
4.2 Luminance
4.3 Veiling luminance
4.4 Color
5. OPERATION OF THE CONTRAST CONTROL
5.1 Control wheel
5.2 Transmission
5.3 Veiling luminance
6. OPTICAL FIDELITY
7. DETERMINATION OF ADAPTATION LUMINANCE
8. BRIGHTNESS MATCHES
8.1 Luminance and brightness
8.2 Task field complexity
9. MAGNIFICATION
10. PULSING PROCEDURE
10.1 Appearance
10.2 Temporal characteristics
10.3 Luminance transients
11. POLARIZATION
12. USE AS A FIELD INSTRUMENT
13. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Table I Fields seen through VTE
Table I1 Contrast Reduction by the VTE
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE BLACKWELL VISUAL TASK EVALUATOR, MODEL 3X*
1. INTRODUCTION
The Model 3X Rlackwell Vi sual Task Eval uat or (VTE) i s pat t er ned
a f t e r s e ve r a l e a r l i e r ver s i ons of t h e VTE (Blackwell, 1959, 1970;
Blackwell e t al , 1964); t he var i ous ver si ons of t h e VTE were, i n t ur n,
pat t er ned a f t e r s e ve r a l e a r l i e r v i s i b i l i t y met er s ( Jones, 1920;
Bennet t , 1931; Luckiesh and Moss, 1934; Cot t r e l l , 1951). The purpose of
any of t he s e i nst r ument s i s t o r ender complex, r e a l i s t i c st i ml i t o some
vi s ua l t hr eshol d by a r educt i on i n opt i c a l t r ansmi ssi on (Dunbar, 1939;
Eastman and Guth, 1960). Almost a l l of t h e l a t e r v i s i b i l i t y met er s
(Fi nch, 1957; Eastman, 1968; Sl a t e r , 1975; Levy and Nelder, 1976;
O' Donnell et a l , 1976), i ncl udi ng a l l of t h e ver s i ons of t h e VTE,
at t empt t o reduce vi s ua l s t i mul i t o a t hr eshol d cont r as t . These
i nst r ument s a r e capabl e of addi ng l i g h t t o t h e v i s u a l f i e l d a s
t r ansmi t t ed l i g h t from t he ext er nal world i s reduced. I n t h i s way t h e
adapt at i on l e v e l of t h e oper at or i s hel d r e l a t i ve l y const ant whi l e t h e
cont r as t of t he st i mul us i s modulated.
The CIE method (Commission I nt e r na t i ona l e de l l Ecl ai r age, 1981;
I l l umi nat i ng Engi neer i ng Soci et y of Nort h America, 1981) i s based upon
t he det er mi nat i on of t he t hr eshol d cont r as t of a t ask. While it i s
pos s i bl e t o e va l ua t e t h e t hr eshol d c ont r a s t of a bs t r a c t t a s ks by ot he r
psychophysical t echni ques, i t was proposed i n t he CIE method t h a t
r e a l i s t i c , complex v i s u a l t a s ks shoul d be eval uat ed wi t h c ont r a s t
reduci ng v i s i b i l i t y meters. Therefore, v i s i b i l i t y met ers l i k e t h e VTE
a r e a n e s s e n t i a l t o o l i n t h e CIE method f o r a s s e s s i ng v i s u a l t a s k s of
i n t e r e s t t o l i ght i ng pr a c t i t i one r s . I n f a c t , t h e VTE wa s desi gned t o
implement t h e C I E method.
According t o t he CIE method (1981), Vi s i b i l i t y Level (VL) i s a
measure of how easy t h e t a s k i s t o s ee, I n t h i s system, t h e VL of a
t a s k i s simply t he r a t i o of i t s physi cal c ont r a s t (C) t o i t s t hr eshol d
c ont r a s t ( c) . Thus:
VL is equal t o uni t y a t de t e c t i on t hr eshol d, and it i ncr eas es as a
l i n e a r f unct i on of t a s k cont r as t . For t h i s reason, VL has been c a l l e d
t he ' cont r as t met r i c' of v i s i b i l i t y .
To be i n correspondence wi t h Equation ( I ) , a v i s i b i l i t y meter shoul d
reduce t h e c ont r a s t of t h e r e a l t a s k t o t hr es hol d wi t h pe r f e c t o p t i c a l
f i d e l i t y and wi t hout a f f e c t i ng t he oper at or ' s adapt at i on l evel . For
* Thi s pr oj ect was undertaken a s an assignment from t he Chairman,
Pr of . Dr . H. Bodmann, of t h e Commission I nt e r na t i ona l e de l t Ec l a i r a ge ,
Techni cal Committee 3.1.
such an i d e a l v i s i b i l i t y meter, VL i s simply i nver sel y pr opor t i onal t o
i t s ' cont r ast t r ansmi t t ance' (CT). That is:
This paper pr esent s an assessment of t he l a t e s t VTE, Model 3X, a s
a t ool f o r accur at el y determining VL. Although t he r e i s no at t empt i n
t h i s paper t o eval uat e t he va l i di t y of t he VL formalism, i t is c l e a r l y
necessary t o as s es s cont r as t reducing v i s i b i l i t y met ers l i k e t h e VTE.
Without ve r i f i c a t i on of t he i r accuracy, i t i s impossible t o est i mat e t h e
uncer t ai nt y associ at ed wi t h t he determined VL f o r t h e t a s k of i nt e r e s t ,
even f o r an i deal observer. There i s a l s o no at t empt t o compare t he VTE
wi t h ot her v i s i b i l i t y meters. However, many of t h e poi nt s made i n t h i s
r epor t a r e appl i cabl e t o ot her i nst rument s of t h i s type.
2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
The VTE is act ual l y two pi eces of apparatus: an opt i c a l uni t and
a cont r ol uni t ( Fi gur e 1). The opt i c a l uni t i s bas i cal l y a r e f r a c t i ng
t el escope combined wi t h a system of var i abl e f i l t e r s (Figure 2).
Obj ect s i n t he e xt e r na l world viewed through t h e VTE eyepi ece can be
made t o appear br i ght er or dimmer by adj us t i ng a ' cont r ast cont r ol '
wheel ( Fi gur e 1) t h a t dr i ves a p a i r of var i abl e dens i t y f i l t e r s (X i n
Figure 2). Light produced by an i nt e r na l lamp and t r ansmi t t ed through
anot her, mechanically l i nked p a i r of var i abl e dens i t y f i l t e r s (Y i n
Figure 2) keeps t he br i ght ness of t he viewed f i e l d r e l a t i ve l y const ant
whi l e t h e cont r as t of t h e viewed obj ect i s reduced.
The cont r ol uni t r egul at es t he vari ous components of t he opt i c a l
uni t . Meters on t he cont r ol u n i t gi ve t he oper at i onal s t a t u s of t he
opt i c a l unt t . I n t h i s r epor t t he cont r ol uni t i s not s pe c i f i c a l l y
eval uat ed; i n t he subsequent di scussi on t h e t e r m VTE w i l l be used t o
descr i be only t he opt i c a l uni t .
3. CENTER AND SURROUND FIELDS
Through t he eyepiece, t he VTE oper at or can see two d i s t i n c t luminous
regions: a c i r c ul a r cent er f i e l d and an annul ar surround f i e l d
(Figure 3).
3.1 General des cr i pt i on
The surround f i e l d has an out er diameter of about 16'. The i nner
diameter, and t hus t h e di amet er of t he cent er f i e l d, can be, nominally,
1.5, 3 or 6 O , depending upon t he s i z e of t he sel ect ed f i e l d aper t ur e
( Fi gur e 3).
Depending upon t he pos i t i on of mi rror s hut t e r s A, B and C
( Fi gur e 2) t he cent er f i e l d of t h e VTE w i l l gi ve a view e i t h e r of
[ 1 ] a luminous pat ch or [ 2] some proport i on of luminance from t he
ext er nal world and of a superimposed luminous v e i l produced by t h e
i nt e r na l lamp. For des cr i pt i ve c l a r i t y, t hese two views w i l l be c a l l e d
t he s ubs t i t ut i on and t h e t a s k f i e l d s , r espect i vel y.
3.2 The br i ght nesses of t he f i e l d s
The br i ght nesses of t he surround and s ubs t i t ut i on f i e l d s a r e
determined by: [ l ] t he out put of t h e i nt e r na l l i g h t source, 2 t he
posi t i on of t he ' output cont r ol ' d i a l on one s i de of t he VTE 3 1 t he
pos i t i on of t h e 'mode cont r ol ' f i l t e r [ 4 1 t he t ransmi ssi ons and
r ef l ect ances of opt i onal chromatic f i l t e r s i ns er t ed i n t he f i l t e r
nacel l e and [ 5] t he t r ansmi ssi ons and r ef l ect ances of t he opt i c a l
components i n t he two paths. The br i ght ness of t he t as k f i e l d depends
on [ l ] t he br i ght ness( es) of t h e ext er nal world, [ 2] t he out put of t h e
i nt e r na l source, and [ 3] t he f i xed and t he var i abl e t ransmi ssi ons and
r ef l ect ances of t he opt i c a l components i n t h e pat h of t h e cent er f i el d.
The br i ght ness of t he ext er nal world can be reduced wi t h t he cont r as t
cont r ol wheel on one s i d e of t he VTE. Thi s wheel cont r ol s t h e pos i t i on
of t he var i abl e densi t y f i l t e r s (X, Fi gure 2) t ha t at t enuat e pa r t of t h e
l i g h t coming from t h e e xt e r na l world. As t he br i ght ness of t h e image of
t he ext er nal world i s reduced, l i ght from t he i nt e r na l source is added
t o t he t a s k f i e l d through t he mechanically l i nked var i abl e dens i t y
f i l t e r s (Y). This keeps t he br i ght ness of t he t as k f i e l d roughly
const ant a s t he cont r as t i s reduced.
3.3 The oper at or ' s t asks
When making v i s i b i l i t y measurements wi t h t he VTE, t he oper at or must
match t he br i ght ness of t he annul ar surround f i e l d wi t h t h e br i ght ness
of one or more luminous regi ons i n t he t as k f i e l d. To do t h i s t he
oper at or must f i r s t s e t t h e cont r as t cont r ol wheel t o t h e pos i t i on t h a t
gi ves t he maximum t ransmi ssi on of l i ght from t he ext er nal world.
The surround f i e l d br i ght ness i s t hen adj ust ed t o match t he br i ght ness
of t he view of t he ext er nal world. This can be done by modulating t he
out put of t he i nt e r na l source, by usi ng a f i xe d range f i l t e r and by
adj ust i ng t he pos i t i on of t he output cont r ol di a l . As noted above,
t hes e manipulations a l s o determine t h e br i ght ness of t he s ubs t i t ut i on
f i e l d. The brightness-matched surround and s ubs t i t ut i on f i e l d s a r e
i nt ended t o keep t he VTE oper at or ' s adapt at i on l e ve l const ant whi l e
making t he v i s i b i l i t y measurements.
A subsequent t as k is t o reduce t he cont r ast of t he image i n t h e
t ask f i e l d t o some vi s ual t hreshol d (C), usual l y t he boundary between
v i s i b l e and i nvi s i bl e. As not ed i n Sect i on 2, t he t r ansmi ssi on of t h e
VTE i s reduced whi l e a v e i l is added t o t he t as k f i e l d. I deal l y, t he
VTE should exact l y r epl ace t he at t enuat ed luminance from a uniform f i e l d
i n t he ext er nal world wi t h luminance from a uniform v e i l cr eat ed by t he
i nt e r na l source; i n t h i s way t he t o t a l luminance i n t h e t a s k f i e l d would
remain const ant . Such a system would modulate t he cont r ast of t he image
of t he ext er nal obj ect wi t hout a f f e c t i ng i t s background br i ght ness.
Theref ore, when t he oper at or s e t s C, t he ' cont r as t t ransmi t t ance' (CT)
of an i deal VTE could be used t o unambiguously determine t he VL of t he
t a s k of i nt e r e s t .
3.4 Fi el d luminances
A problem wi t h t he VTE, di scussed i n some d e t a i l i n subsequent
s ect i ons , i s t ha t t he luminances of t he var i ous f i e l d s a r e r a r e l y, i f
ever, t he same. Table I shows t he r e l a t i ve luminances of t he surround
and cent er f i e l d s and descr i bes t h e condi t i ons under which t hey were
obtained. A l l of t he measurements r epor t ed her e and t hose i n subsequent
s ect i ons were obt ai ned wi t h a focused Pr i t char d photometer car ef ul l y
posi t i oned a t t he VTE eyepiece.
4. OPERATION OF THE OUTPUT CONTROL
The output cont r ol d i a l dr i ves a pa i r of var i abl e densi t y f i l t e r s
( Z i n Fi gur e 2). These f i l t e r s l ar gel y determine t h e br i ght ness of t h e
surround and s ubs t i t ut i on f i e l ds , a s w e l l a s t he br i ght ness of t he
luminous ve i l , f o r a gi ven s e t t i n g of t h e di al .
4.1 Control d i a l
The out put cont r ol d i a l (Fi gures 1 and 2) i s not s ui t a bl e f o r ,
pr eci s e measurement and reproduct i on of surround and s ubs t i t ut i on f i e l d
luminances. Pr eci si on i s l i mi t ed by a l ar ge separ at i on (up t o 2 mm)
between t h e analogue s c a l e and t h e poi nt er . Backlash i n t h e out put
cont r ol d i a l is es peci al l y troublesome; br i ght ness s e t t i ngs must always
be approached from t h e same di r e c t i on t o obt ai n r epr oduci bl e readi ngs.
4.2 Luminance
The output cont r ol d i a l dr i ves var i abl e densi t y f i l t e r s which var y
t he luminance of t he surround annulus and t he s ubs t i t ut i on f i e l d
(Fi gure 2). The r e l a t i ve luminance of t he f i e l d s f o r s ever al out put
cont r ol s e t t i ngs i s shown i n Fi gur e 4. The manufacturer' s da t a agr ee
wel l wi t h those obt ai ned i n our l aborat ory.
The absol ut e luminances of t he VTE surround and s ubs t i t ut i on f i e l d s
were about 7% lower t han r epor t ed by t he manufacturer.
4.3 Vei l i ng luminance
As noted i n Sect i on 3, t he VTE procedures r equi r e t he oper at or t o
vary t he luminance of t he surround (and t her ef or e t h e s ubs t i t ut i on)
f i e l d u n t i l t he surround br i ght ness matches t he t as k bri ght ness.
However, t h i s mani pul at i on i s not independent of t h e cont r as t
t ransmi t t ance. An added ve i l i ng l i g h t i s appl i ed t o t he t as k f i e l d a s
t h e br i ght ness of t h e surround f i e l d i s increased.
A photometer was posi t i oned a t t he VTE eyepi ece t o measure t h e
luminance change of t h e t a s k f i e l d a s t he out put cont r ol was varied.
The cont r ast cont r ol d i a l was set a t '000' t o provide maximum
t r ansmi ssi on through t he VTE; t he mode cont r ol f i l t e r was s e t on LOW.
Fi gure 5 shows how t he luminance of a dark t as k f i e l d would change a s
a f unct i on of t h e out put c ont r ol s et t i ng. As t h e out put c ont r ol s e t t i n g
becomes lower (and t he br i ght ness of t he surround f i e l d becomes hi gher )
an added luminous v e i l i s appl i ed t o t h e cent er f i e l d. Apparently,
s t r a y l i ght , modulated by t he out put cont r ol di a l , i ncr eases t he
luminance of t he VTE t a s k f i e l d. Also, when t h e out put of t h e lamp i s
i ncr eased o r when t he mode cont r ol f i l t e r (Fi gure 2) i s set on HIGH, t h e
luminance in the task field produced by the stray light will be even
greater than that shown in Figure 5.
This stray light in the task field also reduces the contrast
transmittance of the VTE. A contrast transmittance value of 0.942 was
reported in the Manual for the instrument at maximum transmission
through the contrast control wedge. The manufacturer has not published
any information as to how this value was obtained or why it is less than
unity. In a personal commnication, however, the manufacturer has
indicated that, indeed, stray light from the internal source was
measured and this produced a contrast transmittance value less than
unity. It is implicit in the published information and from the
personal communication, that the contrast reduction due to stray light
should be a constant for the instrument.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the output control and the
percent contrast reduction due to stray light. Estimates of contrast
reduction were derived from the ratio of the ordinate values in Figure 4
with the ordinate values in Figure 5. Contrast reduction is not
constant, nor is it a monotonic function of the output control. If the
output control setting is low, as with brightness matches between the
surround field and bright target backgrounds, the contrast of the task
will be reduced by as much as 5% because of stray light. This contrast
reduction value is close to that which would be expected from the
contrast transmittance value of 0.942 reported by the manufacturer.
Based upon the personal communication with the manufacturer and this
close numerical correspondence, it seems reasonable to infer that the
contrast transmittance value reported in the manual was obtained with an
output control setting of '0' and using photometric conditions similar
to those reported above. However, Figure 6 shows that contrast
reduction is less, and, therefore, contrast transmittance improves, with
higher output control settings. Such conditions would occur when
brightness matches were made between the surround field and dim target
backgrounds. If one were to assume a constant contrast transmittance of
0.942, contrast thresholds would be systematically underestimated for
these darker target backgrounds. In short, if precise estimates of
contrast threshold are desired, the relationship between contrast
reduction and output control setting should be defined (as in Figure 6).
4.4 Color
The color of the surround and substitution fields will obviously
change with the voltage supplied to the incandescent internal lamp.
Because they are not spectrally flat, the mode control filter (HIGH or
LOW) and the output control filters will also affect the color of the
fields. Figure 7 shows the change in CIE chromaticity coordinates of
the surround annulus for HIGH and LOW modes for different output control
settings at a constant lamp voltage. These are not drastic changes but
are noticeable to a color normal observer.
5. OPERATION OF THE CONTRAST CONTROL
The contrast control wheel drives the variable density wedges (X and
Y in Figure 2), and these wedges largely determine the contrast
transmittance (CT) of the VTE.
5.1 Control wheel
The contrast control wheel (Figures 1 and 2) is rotated to place a
contrast-reducing veil on the view of the external world seen through
the VTE. The wheel linkage to the variable density wedges does not
operate smoothly in some places. When setting thresholds, this can be
an annoyance for smooth bracketing of the contrast threshold. Also, and
probably more important, these rough spots can serve as clues to the
subject, like dust on the wedge (Section 12), for reproducing threshold
settings.
5.2 Transmission
Figure 8 shows the relative transmission of the contrast control
wedge as supplied by the manufacture+ and as measured in our
laboratory. These readings agree very well. Contrast transmittance
(CT) is closely related to the relative transmission (RT) in Figure 8.
In a perfect visibility meter that exactly substituted luminance from an
internal source for luminance attenuated in the external world, CT = RT.
An absolute transmission of 0.104 was obtained when the contrast
control digital volt meter (DVM) reading was '000'. This agrees well
with a transmission of 0.101 supplied by the manufacturer.
5.3 Veiling luminance
A fundamental requirement for the VTE operation is that the
luminance of the task field is constant for any setting of the contrast
control wheel. Thus, the added veiling luminance should exactly
compensate for the subtracted task luminance as the contrast control
wheel is rotated (and vice versa). No data have been supplied by the
manufacturer for this particular instrument that would validate that
requirement. In an earlier publication by Blackwell (1970), however,
such data were presented for a Model 3 VTE. In Figure 22 of that paper,
log 'relative luminance' of the task field was plotted as a function of
the contrast control setting. From a casual examination of the highly
compressed ordinate in that figure and from the description in the text,
one would conclude that, indeed, the luminance of the task plus the
luminance from the veil is constant for any setting of the contrast
control wedge. In fact, this conclusion would be incorrect.
Measurements were made of the total luminance produced in the
center field. First, the internal lamp was turned off and the contrast
* The manufacturer actually presents 'contrast transmittance' values for
different contrast control readings.
cont r ol set a t '000' t o provide maximum t ransmi ssi on t o t he e xt e r na l
world. The luminance of a uniform whi t e car d was t hen measured through
t he cent er f i e l d. Next, a s e t t i ng of '1600' on t he cont r as t cont r ol wa s
est abl i shed, and t h e out put cont r ol d i a l adj ust ed u n t i l t h e luminance of
t he cent er f i e l d (now determined pr i mar i l y by t he ve i l i ng f i e l d ) was
equal t o t he cent er f i e l d luminance recorded previ ousl y. Luminances f o r
cont r ast cont r ol readi ngs between '1600' and '000' were t hen measured.
Thi s procedure was repeat ed s e ve r a l times. The ' hi gh extreme' and 'low
extreme' measurements a r e present ed i n Fi gure 9.
This f i gur e r eveal s two d i s t i n c t problems wi t h t he VTE. Fi r s t , t h e
f a c t t h a t t he r e a r e two curves r a t he r t han one demonstrates sl i ppage i n
t he counterbalanced, cont r as t cont r ol wedges (X and Y i n Fi gure 2).
Even though t he exact pos i t i on of one wedge i s known from t h e pot ent i o-
meter at t ached t o i t and t he associ at ed d i g i t a l vol t meter, t he ot her ,
mechanically l i nked, wedge can s l i p , producing var i ous luminances f o r a
pa r t i c ul a r cont r as t cont r ol s e t t i ng. Second, t he two curves have a
c ha r a c t e r i s t i c di p near t he '300' set t i ng. Thi s d i p corresponds t o a
luminance reduct i on of about 20%. Thus, t he t as k and ve i l i ng f i e l d s a r e
not accur at el y subst i t ut ed. Thi s 20% r educt i on i s qui t e i mport ant when
assessi ng VL f o r dark t a r ge t s on br i ght backgrounds, but , par ent het i -
c a l l y, such a r educt i on appears i ns i gni f i c a nt when pl ot t e d on a f our
decade l ogari t hmi c or di nat e, such a s was present ed i n Figure 22 of t he
Blackwell (1970) paper.
It should be noted t ha t t he r e l a t i ve luminance associ at ed wi t h t h e
'1600' s e t t i n g on t he ' hi gh extreme' curve i s not equal t o 1.0 a s might
be expected from t he measurement procedures descri bed above i n t h i s
sect i on. I n Sect i on 4.3, it was poi nt ed out t h a t s c a t t e r e d l i g h t from
t he i nt e r na l source produced an added v e i l on t he t as k f i e l d. The
magnitude of t he ve i l i ng l i g h t depended upon t he out put cont r ol s e t t i n g
(Figure 9). For t he out put cont r ol s e t t i ng needed t o match t he
luminance of t he whi t e car d seen i n t he t a s k f i e l d, a v e i l of s cat t er ed
l i ght i ncreased t he cent er f i e l d luminance by t hr e e percent when t he
cont r as t cont r ol s e t t i n g provided maximm t r ansmi ssi on ( a t '000' ).
6. OPTICAL FIDELITY
Opt i cal systems a r e not per f ect . Refracted r ays do not always come
t o focus i n t he same pl ane because of s c a t t e r , aber r at i ons and
di f f r act i on. Nat ural l y VTE opt i cs s uf f e r from t hese l i mi t at i ons a s
well. Funct i onal l y t hes e opt i c a l i n f i d e l i t i e s reduce t he t r ansmi t t ed
cont r as t of vi s ua l t ar get s . Smaller t a r ge t s o r t hose wi t h f i n e d e t a i l
( i e . s t i mul i having hi gher s p a t i a l frequenci es) a r e more af f ect ed by
t hese opt i c a l i n f i d e l i t e s t han a r e l ar ger stimuli (i . e. , t hose wi t h
lower s p a t i a l f r equenci es) . Thus, t h e cont r as t t r ansmi t t ance of t h e VTE
w i l l depend upon t he s i z e , or t he s p a t i a l frequency cont ent , of t he t a s k
being viewed through t he instrument.
The cont r as t of a luminous border can be measured through and
wi t hout t he VTE, and t h e r a t i o of t hese two c ont r a s t s can be considered
as t he cont r ast t r ansmi t t ance of t he VTE f o r t ha t stimulus. Cont rast
t r ansmi t t ance val ues of t h i s t ype were obt ai ned f o r two st i ml i of
di f f e r e nt si zes. One st i mul us was a black l e t t e r , s t r oke width about
0.5O, on a white background. The ot her comprised two l a r ge pat ches of
paper, one bl ack and one white; each pat ch completely f i l l e d t h e VTE
f i e l d of view (6O). The VTE cont r as t cont r ol d i a l was set f o r maximum
t r ansmi ssi on and t h e i nt e r na l l i g h t sour ce was t ur ned of f . The c ont r a s t s
of both s t i mul i measured under t hese condi t i ons wi t h and wi t hout t he VTE
a r e shown i n Table 11. One can s e e from t hes e da t a t h a t t h e cont r as t of
t he l e t t e r (wi t h t he hi gher s p a t i a l f r equenci es) agai nst i t s background
i s reduced by about 4%. The cont r as t of t he ot her st i mul us, wi t h l o w
s p a t i a l frequenci es, was not reduced a t a l l , i ndi cat i ng t ha t t he VTE
s e l e c t i ve l y reduces t h e cont r as t of t a s ks having hi gher s p a t i a l
frequenci es. Again, t h i s r e s ul t i s t ypi c a l of opt i c a l systems
(Langf ord, 1977).
These r e s ul t s , and those obt ai ned by ot her s from a va r i e t y of
opt i c a l systems, i ndi c a t e t h a t t he absol ut e t hr eshol ds f o r s m a l l t a r ge t s
obt ai ned through t he VTE, o r any ot her opt i c a l v i s i b i l i t y meter, w i l l be
hi gher t han t hose t h a t would be obt ai ned wi t hout i nt er veni ng opt i c s
(i . e. , f o r f r e e viewing). More i mport ant l y, however, t hese t hr eshol ds
w i l l be di f f e r e nt i a l l y hi gher depending upon t h e s p a t i a l frequency
cont ent of t he st i mul us being evaluated. Thus, a simple cor r ect i on
f a c t or l i k e t h a t i mpl i ed by t h e cont r as t t r ansmi t t ance val ue i s not
val i d. This d i f f e r e n t i a l at t enuat i on of s p a t i a l f r equenci es i mpl i es
t ha t t he CI E method (1981) does not adequately char act er i ze VL because
t hr eshol d c ont r a s t (C) i s not properl y def i ned f o r s pa t i a l l y di f f e r e nt
st i mul i . More s pe c i f i c a l l y, two t as ks est i mat ed by t he VTE t o have t h e
same val ue of C, but wi t h di f f e r e nt s p a t i a l f r equenci es, w i l l not
necessar i l y be equal i n VL i n f r e e viewing condi t i ons, due t o t h i s
d i f f e r e n t i a l at t enuat i on of s p a t i a l frequenci es.
7. DETERMINATION OF ADAPTATION LUMINANCE
According t o CIE 1912.1, one must be car ef ul t o cor r ect l y r e l a t e
cont r as t t hr eshol d ( e) val ues t o adapt at i on luminance. In t h i s regard
t her e is an e r r or i n t he VTE I ns t r uct i on Manual (June, 1978). I n
Sect i on I V of t he Manual, e n t i t l e d "Determination of t a s k background
luminance", t he manufacturer descr i bes a procedure f o r est i mat i ng t he
t a s k ( adapt at i on) luminance. The method f o r obt ai ni ng t h e t a s k
luminance is s i mi l ar t o t ha t used wi t h a Macbeth illuminometer
(Wyszecki and St i l e s , 1982). A br i ght ness match i s made between a
surround f i e l d of var i abl e, but known, luminance and t he t as k f i el d*.
From t h i s match t he luminance of t he t a s k f i e l d i s determined. But t h e
formula f o r t h i s method usi ng t he VTE is i ncor r ect i n t he Manual.
The manufacturer wr i t es:
* Di f f i c ul t i e s wi t h t he br i ght ness matching procedure a r e descri bed i n
Sect i on 8 below.
where:
TL is t he t as k luminance.
LK i s t he maximum luminance of t he surround f i e l d (i. e. , maximum
t ransmi ssi on of t he out put cont r ol wedges) f o r a gi ven mode
cont r ol f i l t e r . This i s known by pr i or cal i br at i on.
T i s t he t ransmi ssi on of t he out put cont r ol wedge.
Tc i s t he t ransmi ssi on of t he var i ous cubes i n t he o p t i c a l
pat h of t he VTE.
To be c l e a r , TL must f i r s t be be t t e r defined. I f t a s k luminance
i s t o be t aken a s t he luminance of t he a c t ua l t a s k wi t h no i nt er veni ng
opt i cs, t hen t he formula should be wr i t t en as:
where:
TVTE i s t he absol ut e t ransmi ssi on of t he VTE (0.104, Sect i on 5.2).
A l l ot her terms a r e defi ned as i n Equation (3).
I f t ask luminance is t o be t aken a s t he luminance of t he surround
f i e l d , and hence t he brightness-matched t a s k f i e l d, t hen t h e f or uul a
must be wr i t t en as:
where a l l terms a r e defi ned a s i n Equation ( 3) .
From t he t e xt i n Sect i on I V of t he VTE I ns t r uct i on Manual, i t
appears t h a t t h e manufacturer i nt ended t o def i ne t a s k luminance (TL) a s
i n Equation (4). Therefore, one must be car ef ul t o r e l a t e t he cor r ect
adapt at i on luminance t o cont r as t t hreshol d (c). The adapt at i on
luminance f o r C i s not t he luminance of t he a c t ua l t a s k (defi ned i n
-
Eq. 4) nor i s it a s defi ned i n Equation (3). Rather, i t i s t he
luminance def i ned i n Equation (5), t he t a s k f i e l d luminance percei ved a t
t he eyepiece of t he VTE. To r e l a t e ?! t o t he a c t ua l t as k luminance
def i ned by Equation ( 4) , one has two al t er nat i ves . One can e i t h e r
i ncr ease t he act ual t as k luminance by a f a c t or of 9.6 (1/0.104,
Sect i on 5.2) and obt a i n a new c, o r one can assume a r el at i ons hi p
between C and adapt at i on l e ve l ( l i k e t he Vi s i b i l i t y r ef er ence f unct i on
i n CIE 19/2.1) and t hen mathematically der i ve a t t he a c t ua l t a s k
luminance.
8. BRIGHTNESS MATCHES
Brightness matching of t he surround and cent er f i e l d s is qui t e easy
when t hes e juxtaposed f i e l d s a r e uniform and when t hey have t h e same
s pe c t r a l composition. I n most s i t ua t i ons where t he VTE would be used,
however, nei t her of t hes e condi t i ons e xi s t .
8.1 Luminance and br i ght ness
One of t he oper at or ' s f i r s t t asks when oper at i ng t he VTE
( Sect i on 3.3) i s t o make a br i ght ness match between t he t a s k and
surround f i e l ds . Bri ght ness matches a r e not necessar i l y luminance
matches, however. The l a r ge r t h e col or di f f er ence between two equal l y
br i ght f i e l ds , t he l a r ge r t he luminance di f f er ence (Alman, 1977).
The col or of t he surround f i e l d, produced by t h e i nt e r na l source, i s not
usual l y metameric wi t h t he col or ( s ) of t he view of t he ext er nal world a s
seen i n t he t a s k f i e l d. Consequently, t he t a s k and surround f i e l d s may
not have equal luminances, even though t h e i r br i ght nesses a r e matched,
because of t he col or di f f er ences i n t h e two f i e l ds .
The CI E 1912.1 formalisms def i ne adapt at i on l e ve l i n terms of
luminance. These formalisms r equi r e v i s i b i l i t y measurements of
r e a l i s t i c s t i mul i a t a speci f i ed adapt at i on luminance, but t he VTE
methodology f o r assessi ng adapt at i on l e v e l i s based upon br i ght ness.
Therefore, t her e is an i nconsi st ency between t he CIE formalisms and t h e
VTE methodology which was developed t o implement t h e CIE system.
To circumvent t he problem of heterochromatic br i ght ness matches
wi t h t he VTE r e s ul t i ng i n di f f e r e nt luminances f o r t h e t a s k and surround
f i e l ds , t he manufacturer makes t he following recommendation (p. 8,
VTE Manual) :
"When t her e is a l ar ge and troublesome col or di f f er ence between
t he luminance of t he t as k background and t h e luminances produced
wi t hi n t he VTE, consi der at i on should be given t o t he use of
chromatic f i l t e r s t o reduce o r el i mi nat e t h e observed col or
di f f er ences. Chromatic f i l t e r s may be used t o modify t he 2848OK
col or temperature of a l l beams produced wi t hi n t h e VTE by bei ng
i nser t ed i nt o t he f i l t e r nacel l e . . . ."
These "chromatic" f i l t e r s a r e be t t e r descri bed a s "conversion" o r
" l i ght balancing" f i l t e r s (Eastman Kodak, 1973). Kodak provi des a
descr i pt i on of t hese f i l t e r s , and t h i s should be used t o supplement t h e
VTE oper at i on because no d e t a i l s a r e gi ven i n t h e VTE Manual o r i n
r el at ed published a r t i c l e s a s t o how colored f i l t e r s could be used i n
t h e VTE t o make t a s k and surround f i e l d s t he same col or. Two poi nt s
should be made about t hese f i l t e r s , however. Fi r s t , i t i s unl i kel y t h a t
an exact col or match w i l l be obt ai ned between t a s k and surround f i e l d s
because only a l i mi t ed number of f i l t e r s a r e avai l abl e t o adj us t t he
col or temperature. Thus, only a crude col or match can be expected i n
many circumstances. Secondly, di scont i nuous sources such a s f l uor escent
lamps may have cor r el at ed col or t emperat ures t h a t w i l l not be exact l y
cor r ect ed by t he recommended conversion or l i ght balancing f i l t e r s .
There a r e i nconsi st enci es between t he manufacturer' s col or matching
recommendation and h i s luminance c a l i br a t i on recommendation ( Sect i on 7).
As t he col or cor r ect i ng or l i ght balancing f i l t e r s a r e i ns er t ed i n t o t he
f i l t e r nacel l e, t h e luminance of t h e surround f i e l d i s reduced. Thus,
the output control wedge must be manipulated to increase the luminance
of the surround. This luminance increase changes the color of the
surround field slightly (Figure 7), and new color filters may be
required to maintain a color match. This may be a minor problem because
the color shifts are small when the output control wedge is varied.
There is a more serious difficulty with this recommendation.
Inserting the color filters upsets the calibration of the surround
luminance provided by the manufacturer (Section 7). According to the
VTE Manual, the surround luminance should be used to determine the task
luminance, and thus define adaptation level, but the actual adaptation
luminance will be unknown without additional photometric measurements.
It is unlikely, despite the instructions in the VTE Manual, that
one can accurately predict task or surround field luminances from the
manufacturer's calibration and simple transmission measurements of the
color filters because of the multiple reflections between color filters
in the nacelle. One should make surround luminance measurements at the
eyepiece for every stimulus condition. These measurements are both
time-consuming and troublesome.
These measurements can be avoided if one knows the absolute
transmission of the VTE and the actual luminance of the task. Simply
multiplying the luminance of the external field by the transmission of
the VTE determines the task field luminance at the eyepiece.
where:
TL is task luminance at the eyepiece (similar to that described
in Equation 5).
FL is the luminance of the external field.
All other terms are as defined in Equation (4).
This approach avoids the problem of continually having to do
photometric measurements at the eyepiece. With this approach, however,
an independent luminance determination of the external field stimulus
must always be made, and, therefore, an additional instrument
(i.e., a luminance meter) must be employed.
It should also be noted that Equation (6) is, strictly speaking,
a different expression for task luminance than Equation (5) (Section 7).
But when both the brightness and the color of the task and surround
fields are the same, their luminances are the same.
The previous discussion in this section has dealt with the
relationship between luminance and brightness for the task and the
surround fields. A more important problem is associated with the
relationship between the luminance and brightness of the tasks and the
substitution fields. Assuming that the surround and substitution fields
have t he same luminous pr oper t i es*, t hen t he t a s k and s u b s t i t u t i o n
f i e l d s w i l l have d i f f e r e n t luminances when t h e t a s k and sur r ound f i e l d s
a r e brightness-matched but a r e of d i f f e r e n t col or s.
The t r a n s i e n t channel i n t he human v i s u a l syst em has a s p e c t r a l
s e n s i t i v i t y s i mi l a r o r i d e n t i c a l t o VA (luminance). Thi s channel
responds b e s t t o sudden changes i n luminance;
a b u r s t of a c t i v i t y occur s ,
a t t he onset and o f f s e t of t he change (Legge, 1978; I ngl i ng, 1978).
When t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n and t a s k f i e l d s a r e of d i f f e r e n t luminances, and
a r e a l t e r na t e d t empor ar i l y i n t h e Vm, t hen t r a n s i e n t s i g n a l s w i l l be
produced i n t h e v i s u a l system. As not ed i n Se c t i on 10.3, t h e s e
t r a n s i e n t s i g n a l s e l e v a t e c ont r a s t t hr es hol ds (Boynton and Mi l l er , 1963)
and t hus i nt r oduce a br i ght nes s matching a r t i f a c t i n t o t h e VTE t hr es hol d
dat a. Ther ef or e, i t i s i mport ant t o ensur e t h a t t he col or , a s wel l a s
t h e br i ght nes s of t he t a s k and t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n f i e l d s a r e t h e same.
A s di scussed above, t h i s ensur es t h a t t he luminances a r e t h e same.
8.2 Task f i e l d compl exi t y
It i s d i f f i c u l t f o r t he s ubj ect t o make br i ght nes s matches between
a complex t a s k (e. g. , a per son' s f ace) and t h e surround. The var i ous
luminances and col or s .make i t har d f o r t he s ubj e c t t o know what p a r t o r
p a r t s of t h e t a s k he shoul d us e when making t h e br i ght nes s matches.
It i s a l s o d i f f i c u l t f o r t he exper i ment er t o know what luminances i n t h e
complex f i e l d a r e r e l e va nt t o measure and wei ght t o de s c r i be t a s k f i e l d
luminance ( Sect i on 8.1).
I n e a r l i e r ver si ons of t he VTE, Rlackwell recommended t h a t
br i ght nes s matches be made between t h e sur r ound and a defocused t a s k
f i e l d (Rl ackwel l , 1970, p. 268). The assumption i mp l i c i t wi t h t h i s
method was t h a t a da pt a t i on luminance was based upon t h e aver age
Luminance of t he t as k f i e l d . Lat er i n t h a t paper (p. 280), t he aut hor
recommended magnifying t h e hi ghe s t c o n t r a s t bor der and s e t t i n g t h e
~ u r r o u n d br i ght nes s equal t o t he hi gher luminance. Thi s assumes t h a t
adapt at i on l e v e l i s based upon t h e hi ghe s t luminance. Nei t her pr ocedur e
can be recommended wi t h conf i dence on t h e o r e t i c a l grounds.
Mul t i col or ed t a s k s pr es ent a problem. F i r s t , i t is d i f f i c u l t t o
know what c ol or t h e sur r ound f i e l d shoul d be f o r a br i ght nes s match.
Second, i t i s pos s i bl e t o have a v i s i b l e boundary wi t h equal luminance
on bot h s i d e s but d i f f e r e n t col or s . Thus, VL can be g r e a t e r t ha n u n i t y
when t he luminance c ont r a s t of t he f i e l d , a s def i ned i n t h e CIE
formalism, i s below t hr eshol d. Thi s f a i l u r e of t h e CIE formalism t o
def i ne col or c ont r a s t at t hr eshol d a c t u a l l y makes i t i mpossi bl e t o
accur at el y de s c r i be VL f o r any mul t i col or ed st i mul us.
9. MAGNIFICATION
The s i z e of t he t as k f i e l d image produced by t h e VTE o p t i c s i s
va r i a bl e , but r a r e l y equal t o t h a t of t h e phys i cal t a s k under
* Thi s i s not t he case, a s poi nt ed out i n Table I.
free-viewing condi t i ons. Therefore, t he VTE must be f ur t he r away o r
c l os e r t o t he t a s k t han a free-viewing observer would be f o r a matched
vi s ual angle. This di f f er ence between t he l ocat i on of t he VTE a t t he
proper magni f i cat i on and t he l ocat i on of a free-viewing obser ver may
confound t he v i s i b i l i t y measurements due t o t he di f f e r e nt 'body shadow'
pos i t i ons (i . e. , l i ght i ng geometries). Fur t her , because t h e apparent
s i z e of t he st i mul us i s important t o v i s i b i l i t y ( l ar ger obj ect s a r e
gener al l y more v i s i b l e t han smaller ones), t he magni fi cat i on of t he VTE
must be cor r ect l y determined and t he pos i t i on of t he instrument adj ust ed
t o match t he vi s ua l angl e of t he obj ect seen through t h e VTE and seen by
free-viewing. (There i s no di scussi on of t hese poi nt s i n t he r el evant
publ i shed documents.) Therefore, wi t hout an awareness of t hes e f a c t or s
and t he proper a t t e nt i on t o posi t i on t he VTE, one may f i nd t ha t t he
est i mat ed val ues of VL a r e not cor r ect l y r e l a t e d t o t he free-viewing
s i t uat i on.
10. PULSING PROCEDURE
The VTE i ncl udes a pul si ng mechanism, purported t o si mul at e
f i xa t i on pauses (Blackwell, 1970).
10.1 Appearance
The VTE may be operat ed i n a s t a t i c mode (no pul si ng) , a ' f i xed
pul se r a t e ' mode of , nominally, 200 ms pauses, o r i n a ' var i abl e pul se
r a t e ' mode. Nei t her pul si ng mode s a t i s f a c t or i l y mimics br i ef views
fol l owi ng saccadi c eye movements. The mi r r or s hut t e r system occludes
t he t ask from t op t o bottom and t hen r eveal s i t from bottom t o top.
Hence, t h e lower por t i ons of t he t a s k a r e present ed f o r a per cept i bl y
longer time t han t he upper por t i ons. Therefore, c r i t i c a l ar eas of t he
t as k i n t he lower por t i on of t he t a s k f i e l d w i l l have lower t hr eshol ds
than c r i t i c a l ar eas a t t he top of t he t as k f i e l d. Fi xat i onal pauses a r e
not char act er i zed by t h i s slow up-and-down occl usi on procedure, but
probably by an onset and an of f s e t of t he whole vi s ual f i e l d s i mi l ar t o
t ha t fol l owi ng bl i nks (Riggs e t a l , 1981).
10.2 Temporal c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s
These important i ssues of appearance asi de, i t i s debat abl e
whether one should have 200 ms pr esent at i ons. Thi s i s a somewhat
a r bi t r a r y pr esent at i on time and t a r ge t s present ed f o r s l i g h t l y di f f e r e nt
peri ods w i l l be char act er i zed by di f f e r e nt cont r as t t hr eshol ds
( Ki t t e r l e and Corwin, 1979).
Fi gure 10 shows t he luminance modulation of a uniform luminous t a s k
f i e l d produced a t t he eyepi ece by t he VTE i n t h e f i xed pul se r a t e mode.
The 'on' and ' of f ' hal f cycl es a r e not exact l y t he same dur at i on, and
ne i t he r a r e equal t o 200 ms. The cont r as t t hr eshol d val ues obt ai ned
wi t h t h i s ramping procedure w i l l be di f f e r e nt from t hose t ha t would be
obt ai ned wi t h a f l a s h f o r i nst ance, because of t emporal -spat i al
i nt er act i ons i n t he vi s ua l system (Kelly, 1977).
when t he VTE i s i n t he var i abl e pul se r a t e mode, t ypi cal ' on'
hal f-cycl es a r e a s shown i n Fi gur e 11. The var i abl e ' of f ' hal f-cycl es
may range from 0.7 s t o 3.0 s, depending upon t he del ay knob s e t t i n g
(minimum and maximum del ay, r espect i vel y) . For a gi ven s e t t i n g of t h e
del ay knob, however, t he ' of f ' hal f-cycl es were not always t he same
durat i on. The l a r ge s t va r i a t i on i n t h e ' of f ' hal f-cycl e f o r a
pa r t i c ul a r del ay knob s e t t i ng was 33%. The consequences of t h i s
va r i a t i on f o r t hr eshol ds were not eval uat ed i n t h i s st udy.
10.3 Luminance t r a ns i e nt s
The luminance of t he s ubs t i t ut i on f i e l d i s hi gher t han t ha t of t h e
surround f i e l d by a f a c t or of 1.3 (Table I ) . The surround f i e l d i s
supposed t o be brightness-matched t o t he t as k f i el d. Ignori ng t he
problem di scussed i n Sect i on 8 on br i ght ness matches, a luminance
t r a ns i e nt w i l l be produced when t he t as k and s ubet i t ut i on f i e l d s a r e
al t er nat ed. Thi s can produce an a r t i f a c t ua l l y hi gher cont r as t t hr eshol d
t han would be expected i f t he luminances of t he t as k and s ubs t i t ut i on
f i e l d s were equal (Boynton and Mi l l er , 1963).
11. POLARIZATION
The VTE opt i c a l system can, through r e f r a c t i on and r e f l e c t i on,
change t he pol ar i zat i on of t h e l i g h t reachi ng t h e oper at or ' s eye.
When focused on an unpol ari zed f i e l d , t he VTE produced a hor i zont al
pol ar i zat i on of 1.8% a t t h e eyepi ece (Rea, 1981). Plane pol ar i zed
l i ght from an ext er nal source was reduced by a s i mi l a r amount a f t e r
t r ansmi ssi on through t he VTE. Thi s change i s unimportant under most
circumstances, but i t should be t aken i nt o account i f t he pol ar i zat i on
pr oper t i es of t a r ge t s a r e of i nt e r e s t .
12. USE AS A FIELD INSTRUMENT
The VTE i s f a i r l y heavy, and t he handles a r e not wel l s i t ua t e d f o r
l i f t i n g . It i s d i f f i c u l t t o t r ans por t and cumbersome t o set on a
t r i pod. The VTE i s a l s o a f r a g i l e instrument. The opt i cs and i nt e r na l
pa r t s r equi r e f r equent realignment and adjustment. Furt her, t h e
instrument i s s us ept i bl e t o dust and moisture; consequently i t r equi r es
r egul ar cl eani ng and at t ent i on. However, t he i nst rument i s not designed
f o r convenient ser vi ci ng; t he chassi s cover cannot be removed as a
s i ngl e uni t . I nst ead, t he s i de panel s must be i ndi vi dual l y dismantled
by t he removal of many screws. Fur t her , wi res l eadi ng t o vari ous
e l e c t r i c a l components are at t ached t o t h e s i d e panel s, s o t hey must be
unsoldered when ser vi ci ng t he instrument.
Par ent het i cal l y, t he unavoidable dust pa r t i c l e s t ha t ge t on t h e
cont r as t cont r ol wedges (X i n Fi gur e 2) can be es peci al l y troublesome i n
t h i s instrument because subj ect s can occasi onal l y use them t o reproduce
t hr eshol d s et t i ngs . Subj ect s merely match t h e l ocat i on of dus t
pa r t i c l e s acr oss t r i a l s r at her t han successi vel y est i mat e t he v i s i b l i t y
of t h e t ask. Even t h e most s i nc e r e s ubj ect s have d i f f i c u l t y i gnor i ng
them once they have been noticed.
13. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The d i f f i c u l t i e s out l i ned above br i ng i nt o quest i on t he a b i l i t y of
t h e Blackwell Vi sual Task Eval uat or, Model 3 X t o provi de accur at e da t a
f o r t he computation of Vi s i bi l i t y Level (VL). Some of t he d i f f i c u l t i e s
wi t h t he cur r ent model of t h e VTE can be e a s i l y overcome o r reduced
(e.g., i ns e r t i on of a neut r al densi t y f i l t e r i nt o t he opt i c a l pat h of
t he s ubs t i t ut i on f i e l d) . Other d i f f i c u l t i e s could not be e a s i l y
overcome but would r equi r e a more ser i ous redesi gn of t he VTE
(e.g., making i t more impervious t o dust , redeveloping t h e pul si ng
act i on, el i mi nat i ng sl i ppage a t t he cont r ast cont r ol wedges, reducing
t h e weight).
There a r e ot her , more fundamental, d i f f i c u l t i e s wi t h t h e
v i s i b i l i t y meter concept t ha t cannot be e a s i l y o r cheaply overcome.
Foremost of t hese i s t ha t opt i c a l systems a r e imperfect; some s p a t i a l
f r eqenci es a r e pr e f e r e nt i a l l y reduced i n modulation amplitude
(e.g., cont r ast t ransmi t t ance). Thus, v i s i b i l i t y est i mat es of c e r t a i n
stiwli w i l l be bi ased r e l a t i ve t o f r e e viewing. Without implementation
of very expensive l ens systems, car ef ul alignment and r i gi d mountings,
i t i s unl i kel y t ha t a completely s a t i s f a c t or y por t abl e v i s i b i l i t y meter
could be const ruct ed.
The br i ght ness matching method ( s e t t i ng surround, s ubs t i t ut i on and
ve i l i ng luminances) a l s o pr esent s s er i ous fundamental problems. Complex
and colored f i e l d s cr eat e t heor et i cal uncer t ai nt i es a s t o t he adapt at i on
l e v e l of t h e observers. Fur t her , t he equat i ons descr i bi ng VL a r e based
upon luminance whereas t he VTE methodology i s based upon bri ght ness.
Thi s could be a s er i ous i nconsi st ency when t h e VL of col ored t a r ge t s
(e.g., automobile t a i l l i ght s or egr ess si gnage) is important. I n s hor t ,
t hes e fundamental l i mi t a t i ons of a l l v i s i b i l i t y meters, i ncl udi ng t h e
VTE, may i nt r oduce a r t i f a c t s i n t o t he t hreshol d estimates t ha t would not
be pr esent i n r e a l viewing s i t uat i ons .
I n sum, both pr a c t i c a l and t he or e t i c a l problems wi t h t he VTE w i l l
l ead t o i naccur aci es i n est i mat i ng Vi s i b i l i t y Level. The magnitude of
t hese e r r or s w i l l depend upon t he s pa t i a l , temporal and chromatic
c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of t he st i mul us a s w e l l a s such pr oper t i es of t h e VTE a s
s cat t er ed l i ght , opt i c a l i nf i de l i t y, and opt i cal -mechani cal
nonl i near i t i es . W e a r e not aware of any r ecent review of t he pr a c t i c a l
and t he or e t i c a l aspect s of assessi ng Vi s i bi l i t y Level. It seems t ha t
some more ser i ous' wor k i n t h i s a r e a must t ake pl ace bef or e t h e VTE, o r
ot her v i s i b i l i t y meters, can be conf i dent l y used wi t h t he model
present ed i n CIE 19/2. 1.
REFERENCES
Alman, D.H. (1977), "Errors of the Standard Photometric System when
Pleasuring the Brightness of General Illumination Light Sources,"
Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Vol. 7, No. 1,
55-62.
Bennett, M.G. (1931), "A Visibility Meter," Journal of Scientific
Instruments,
Vol. 8, 122-126.
Rlackwell, H.R. (1959), "Development and Use of a Quantitative Method
for Specification of Interior Illumination Levels on the Basis of
Performance Data," Illuminating Engineering, Vol. 54, 317-353.
Rlackwell, H.R. (1970), "Development of Procedures and Instruments for
Visual Task Evaluation, " Illuminating Engineering, Vol. 6 5,
267-29 1.
Rlackwell, H.R., R.N. Schwab and B.S. Pritchard (19641, "Visibility and
Illumination Variables in Roadway Visual Tasks," Illuminating
Engineering, Vol. 59, 277-308.
Boynton, R.M. and N.D. Miller (1963). "Visual Performance Under
-
conditions of Transient ~da~tation, " Illuminating Engineering,
- Vol. 58, No. 8, 541-550.
Commission Internat ionale de lfEclairage (1981 ), "An Analytic Model for
Describing the Influence of Lighting Parameters upon Visual
Performance, Volume 1: Technical Foundations," CIE Publication
no. 19/2.1, Paris.
Cottrell, C.L. (1951), "Measurement of Visibility," Illuminating
Engineering, Vol. 46, No. 3, 95-103.
Dunbar, C. (1939), "Fundamental Principles of Meters used to Measure
Visibility," Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society
(London), 33-40.
Eastman, A.A. (1968), "A New Contrast Threshold Visibility Meter,"
Illuminating Engineering, Vol. 63, 37-40.
Eastman, A.A. and S.K. Guth (1960), "Comparison of Visibility
Measurement Systems," Illuminating Engineering, Vol. 55, No. 3,
176-184.
Eastman Kodak Co. (1973), "Kodak Filters for Scientific and Technical
Uses,"
K & o
Rochester NY.
Finch, D.M. (1957), "Some Factors Influencing the Night Visibility of
Roadway Obstacles, " Illuminating Engineering, ~ol. 52, No. 3,
pp. 120-130.
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (19811, IES Lighting
Handbook, Reference Volume, J.E. Kaufman ed., Baltimore: Waverly
Press Inc.
Ingling, C .R. ( 19781, "Luminance and Opponent Color Contributions to
Visual Detection and to Temporal and Spatial Integration: Comment ."
Journal of the Optical Soei_ery Vol. 68, No. 8,
1143-1 147.
Jones, L.A. (1920), "A Method and Instrument for the Measurement of the
Visibility of Objects,"
Philosophical Ser. 6,
Vol. 39, No. 229, 96-134,
Kelly, D.H. (1977), "Visual Contrast Sensitivity," Optica Acta, Vol. 24,
No. 2, 107-129.
Kitterle, F.L. and T.R. Corwin (1979), "Enhancement of Apparent
Contrast in Flashed Sinusoidal Gratings ," Vision Research, Vol.
19,
33-39.
Langford, M.J. (1977), Advanced Photography, New York: The Focal Press,
57-60.
Legge, G.E. (1978), "Sustained and Transient Mechanisms in Human Vision:
Temporal and Spatial Properties," Vision Research, Vol. 18, 69-81.
Levy, A.W. and J. Nelder (1976), "Twin Rotating-Disc Visibility Meter,"
Lighting Research and Technology, Vol. 8, No. 3, 163-166.
Luckiesh, M. and F.K. Moss (1934), "A Visual Thresholdometer," Journal
of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 24, 305-307.
OIDonnell, R.M.. S.H. Critchley and R. Chapman (1976). "Sector Disc
~isibilit~~~om~arator," ~ighting Resesrch and ~echnolo~~, Vol. 8,
No. 2, 113-144.
Rea, M.S. (1981), "Haidinger's Brushes with Common Spectral
Distribution," Building Research Note 173, National Research
Council Canada, Ottawa.
Riggs, L.A., F.C. Volkmann and R.K. Moore (19811, "Suppression of the
Blackout due to Blinks," Vision Research, Vol. 21, No. 7,
1075-1079.
Slater, A.I. (19751, "A Simple Contrast Reducing Visibility Meter,"
Lighting Research and Technology, Vol. 7, No. 1, 52-55.
Wyszecki, G. and W.S. Stiles (1982), Color New ~ork: John Wiley
& Sons Inc., 262.
-18-
Table I: Fi el ds seen through VTE
Fi el d
Rel at i ve
Luminance
surround: annulus 1 .O
a
cent er : s ubs t i t ut i on 1.34
a
t as k (maximum ve i l ) 1.32
b
t ask (minimum v e i l ) ?
a
Cont r ast cont r ol DVM readi ng set a t "1600" (maximm at t enuat i on
of t he ext er nal world), cap over t he obj ect i ve l ens.
b
The t a s k luminance depends upon t he oper at or ' s br i ght ness
matches between it and t he ( var i abl e) annulus luminance.
Because br i ght ness matches a r e equi val ent t o luminance
matches under most s i t ua t i ons , t he r e l a t i v e luminance of t he
t a s k f i e l d w i l l vary depending upon t h e s pe c t r a l composition of
t he t ask, t he oper at or ' s s pe c t r a l s e ns i t i vi t y, and t he t ask
s t i nul us complexity ( bot h i n luminance and col or ) .
Table 11: Contrast Reduction by t he VTE
Spa t i a l Cont r ast % Cont r ast
frequency r educt i on
With VTE Without VTE
a
High 0.802 0.841
b
Low 0.917 0.9 12
a
Black pr i nt ed l e t t e r of s i z e 0.5" on whi t e background.
b
Two pi eces of paper, one bl ack t h e ot he r white.
Successi vel y, each pat ch f i l l e d t he VTE f i e l d
of view ( 6' ) .
F I G U R E 1
BL ACKWEL L V I S U A L T A S K E V AL UAT OR ( V T E )
a ) O P T I C A L U N I T , S H O WI N G OU T P U T CONT ROL A N D C ON T R A S T CONT ROL
b ) O P T I C A L U N l T A N D CONT ROL U N l T
OBJECTlVE
LENS
SHUTTERS A AND C I N PHASE
SHUTTERS A AND B OUT OF PHASE
OR CALI BRATI ON
VARI ABLE DENS l TY
/SPACER CUBE
OR FI XATI ON
LI GHT SYSl EM
LI GHT SOURCE
,
OBSERVER
F I G U R E 2
V T T O P T I C A L S Y S T E M
FIELD suRRo"ND"""'Z '/ /'
1) TASK FIELD =
EXTERNAL WORLD + VEI L
2) SUBSTI TUTI ON FIELD
F I G U R E 3
F I E L D S V I E WE D B Y VT E O P E R A T O R - - - -- - - -
F, 1 I I I I
1 1 I 1
0 . 4 4 1 I I I I I I I
-
40, uA L A M P S E T T I N G
+
-
0. 42 80,100
- 120.1 60 40 ?lo
Uw'.
llOO.O;OO 30 20 70 60
- > 90 50
O 50 10 0
W
/
L OW MODE 90,100,120
-
-
-
0. 40
H I G H MODE
I I
0. 38 I I I I I
I
N
W
I
1
-
0. 46 0 . 4 8 0. 50 0 . 5 2 0. 54
a
X
- -
0
I I I I I I I I I
0 20 4 0 6 0 80 100 F I G U R E 7
O U T P U T C ON T R OL S E T T I N G C I E C H R O M A T I C I T Y C O O R D I N A T E S OF VTE
SURROUND ANNUL US F OR L OW A N D H I G H
F I G U R E 6
P O S I T I O N S OF MODE C ON T R OL F I L T E R .
P O I N T S A R E L A B E L L E D A C C O R D I N G TO
C O N T R A S T R E D U C T I O N OF THE T A S K F I E L D THE1 R R E S P E C T I V E OUT P UT CONT ROL
DUE T O S C A T T E R E D V E I L S E T T I N G S
B R 6 4 6 9 - 5
B R 6469- 6
l I l ~ l l I ~ l l l ~ l 1 1 -
>\
C -
-
-
-
'?
-
-
\
-
-
-
-
- Z
-
-
-
-
-
'\
-
+
-
-
Z
-
-
-
.\
-
- - \
- \
-
-
-
I-
-
-
- t
I
-
a
-
' *
-
-
\ -
- S U P P L I E D B Y
MA N U F A C T U R E R
ME A S U R E D I N
D B R L A B O R A T O R Y
J
-
-
I I I I 1 I I I I I I I
C O N T R A S T C ON T R OL READ l N G
F I G U R E 8
T R A N S M I S S I O N OF THE C ON T R A S T
CONT ROL WEDGE
H I G H E X T R E ME
L O W E X T R E ME
-
C O N T R A S T C O N T R O L R E A D I N G
F I G U R E 9
C A L I B R A T I O N O F L U M I N A N C E B A L A N C I N G
S Y S T E M
-26-
O P E N
C L OS E D
T I M E , s
F I G U R E 10
T E MP O R A L WA V E F O R M OF V T E S U B S T I T U T I O N F I E L D
S HUT T E R S Y S T E M O P E R A T I N G I N F I X E D P U L S E
RAT E M O D E
T I M E , s
F I G U R E 11
A N E X A M P L E OF THE T E MP O R A L WA V E F O R M O F V T E
S U B S T I T U T I O N F I E L D S HUT T E R S Y S T E M O P E R A T I N G I N
V A R I A B L E P U L S E RAT E M O D E