the
psychologist
vol 22 no 12 december 2009
The power of
music
Adrian North and David Hargreaves
introduce a special issue
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the
psychologist
vol 22 no 12 december 2009
CONNLAITH COWLEY
book reviews 1038
change management; the dopaminergic mind; others in mind; masculinities; and
what your stuff says about you
society 1044
President’s column; research excellence framework; effort in testing; and more
careers 1058
music in change; working in Bahrain; all the latest jobs, and how to advertise
looking back
creative genius in classical music, with Dean Keith Simonton
1076 The power of music
one on one 1080 Adrian North and David
…with Raymond MacDonald Hargreaves introduce the special
issue with a look at how music
psychology is changing in the
digital era 1012
ARTICLE
opportunity widely exists to, and a our article, we address three other health-
and accessible, should society value it
significant number of people actually do, related implications of music that lie
less or more?
use music to achieve a wide range of goals, outside those that have been studied
there is a need for an applied psychology traditionally.
of music.
In our recent book The Social and
Applied Psychology of Music (North & Rock music and self-injurious
Hargreaves, 2008) we attempted to map behaviour
resources
North, A.C. & Hargreaves, D.J. (2008). out what this field might look like. We The rise of heavy rock with supposedly
The social and applied psychology of argued that the digital revolution and pro-suicide lyrics in the 1970s and 1980s
music. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. subsequent emphasis of music researchers led to legislation (e.g. attempts to ban
on the implications of musical behaviour sales of CDs featuring a ‘parental advisory’
means that the paradigm in which many sticker), public protest (e.g. by the
references
Brennan, F.X. & Charnetski, C.J. (2000). specific IgE production in atopic Lai, H. & Good, M. (2005). Music stress on leukocyte function in rats.
Stress and immune system function dermatitis patients with latex allergy. improves sleep quality in older Research in Nursing and Health, 15,
in a newspaper’s newsroom. Behavioral Medicine, 29, 15–19. adults. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 131–137.
Psychological Reports, 87, 218–222. Kirkpatrick, F.H. (1942). Music and the 49, 234–244. Mitchell, L.A., MacDonald, R.A.R. &
Hauser, M.D. & McDermott, J. (2003). factory worker. Psychological Record, MacDonald, R.A.R., Mitchell, L.A., Dillon, Brodie, E.E. (2006). A comparison of
The evolution of the music faculty: A 5, 197–204. T. et al. (2003). An empirical the effects of preferred music,
comparative perspective. Nature Kirkpatrick, F.H. (1943a). Music in investigation of the anxiolytic and arithmetic and humour on cold
Neuroscience, 6, 663–668. industry. Journal of Applied pain reducing effects of music. pressor pain. European Journal of
Kimata, H. (2003). Listening to Mozart Psychology, 27, 268–274. Psychology of Music, 31, 187–203. Pain, 10, 343–351.
reduces allergic skin wheal Kirkpatrick, F.H. (1943b). Take the mind McCarthy, D.O., Ouimet, M.E. & Daun, North, A.C. & Hargreaves, D.J. (2000).
responses and in vitro allergen- away. Personnel Journal, 22, 225–228. J.M. (1992). The effects of noise Musical preference during and after
special issue
Parents’ Music Resource Center), and background and self-esteem, which raises stressor, the listener’s musical preference,
many apparently bizarre local actions the issue of which of the latter is the and their prior level of musical experience
(e.g. the suspension of a Michigan high better predictor of the former. (e.g. Pelletier, 2004). More interestingly
school pupil for wearing a T-shirt still, this reduction in stress manifests itself
promoting Korn that featured no lyrics through physical measures, such as
or words apart from the band’s name). Pain, stress and immunity reduced levels of cortisol, and this has a
The assumption on which these were Other research paints a more positive very provocative further implication.
based, namely that the music causes self- picture of the relationship between music Lower levels of stress are associated with
injurious thoughts and actions, is not so and health. Although music therapy is greater immunity to illness of course, and
far-fetched as might seem, as several stereotyped as addressing psychological several studies have indicated effects of
studies suggest at least a correlation problems, some recent studies have music listening on physical measures of
between music and suicide. For example, demonstrated its role in treating immune system strength, such as salivary
Stack et al. (1994) found a link between conventional physical disorders. The immunoglobulin A (e.g. Brennan &
suicide rates among teenage Americans most convincing evidence comes from Charnetski, 2000). Although the
and variations in subscriptions to a heavy Standley’s (1995) meta-analysis of 55 mechanism by which this occurs is not
rock magazine; studies concerning the effect well understood, the implication is clear:
and we (North of music on 129 medically music contributes directly to physical
and Hargreaves, related variables. Podiatric health.
2006) have pain, paediatric respiration, This allows us to make a strong case
found that fans pulse, blood pressure and use for music therapy, since it has implications
of rock and rap of analgesia (in dental for finance-related variables, such as the
were more patients), pain, medication amount of drugs that patients require and
likely than in paediatric surgery patients the amount of time they spend in hospital.
others to and EMG all showed effect Furthermore, pain, immunity and stress
consider sizes over 2, and the mean are implicated in such a range of physical
suicide and effect size over all 129 problems that the health effects of music
to self-harm. variables was .88, meaning might be much wider-ranging than the
Other research, that the impact of music was present research suggests. Perhaps we
though, is less almost one standard should not be surprised, for instance, that
suggestive of deviation greater than both Lai and Good (2005) and Tan (2004)
a link. We have without music. showed that music can improve sleep
also found Arguably the largest single quality, and that Kimata (2003) showed
(North & body of literature concerns the that music can alleviate allergic responses,
Hargreaves, Labelling music as suicide- impact of music on chronic both of which have further health
2006) that inducing may be helping to create pain, pain experienced during implications of their own.
thoughts of the problem and after treatment, and pain
suicide and self- experienced specifically by
harm precede an cancer patients and those Animal welfare
interest in rock, so that the latter can’t undergoing palliative care (e.g. MacDonald The impact of music on well-being may
have caused the former. Similarly, merely et al., 2003; Mitchell et al., 2006). Research not be limited to humans. Ethological
describing a song as ‘suicide-inducing’ or suggests that music can mediate pain in research on the functions and learning
‘life-affirming’ leads listeners to perceive it these cases by distracting the patient’s of birdsong is well known; and there is
as such (North & Hargreaves, 2005); by attention from it and/or by increasing their research concerning human perception
labelling music as suicide-inducing, perceived control over the pain (since if of music that has considered how non-
campaigners and legislators may be patients believe that they have access to humans do so (see Hauser & McDermott,
helping to create the problem they aim music as a means of pain control, then this 2003; Panksepp & Bernatzky, 2002;
to eradicate. Other research (North & belief itself decreases the aversiveness of Wallin et al., 2000). However, there is
Hargreaves, 2006; Scheel & Westefeld, pain). Similar research on stress has a growing body of evidence specifically
1999; Schwartz & Fouts, 2003; Stack et yielded the not entirely unsurprising concerning music and animal welfare.
al., 1994) shows that the correlation conclusion that it may be reduced by Perhaps the clearest example is
between suicidal tendencies and an music; but also that the amount of stress provided by Wells et al. (2002), who
interest in rock is mediated by family reduction varies according to age, the played classical music, heavy metal music,
relaxation and exercise. American North, A.C. & Hargreaves, D.J. (2008). The Processes, 60, 133–155. suicidality. Adolescence, 34, 253–273.
Journal of Psychology, 113, 43–67. social and applied psychology of music. Pelletier, C.L. (2004). The effect of music Schwartz, K.D. & Fouts, G.T. (2003).
North, A.C. & Hargreaves, D.J. (2005). Oxford: Oxford University Press. on decreasing arousal due to stress. Music preferences, personality style,
Labelling effects on the perceived North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J. & Journal of Music Therapy, 41, 192–214. and developmental issues of
deleterious consequences of pop Hargreaves, J.J. (2004). The uses of Peretti, P.O. & Kippschull, H. (1990). adolescents. Journal of Youth and
music listening. Journal of music in everyday life. Music Influence of five types of music on Adolescence, 32, 205–213.
Adolescence, 28, 433–440. Perception, 22, 63–99. social behaviors of mice, Mus Sloboda, J.A., O’Neill, S.A. & Ivaldi, A.
North, A.C. & Hargreaves, D.J. (2006). Panksepp, J. & Bernatzky, G. (2002). musculus. Psychological Studies, 35, (2001). Functions of music in
Problem music and self-harming. Emotional sounds and the brain: the 98–103. everyday life: an exploratory study
Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, neuro-affective foundations of Scheel, K.R. & Westefeld, J.S. (1999). using the experience sampling
36, 582–590. musical appreciation. Behavioural Heavy metal music and adolescent method. Musicae Scientiae, 5, 9–32.
special issue
www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog
psy 12_09 p1034_1035 livingstone:Layout 1 17/11/09 15:05 Page 1034
EYE ON FICTION
I
n summer 2004 Oprah’s Book Club the question remains: if Anna were alive cannot deny that she has fallen in love
highlighted Anna Karenina. Oprah had today, in our more liberal society and with him.
confessed that she always had a fear of with a prescription for an antidepressant, The couple leave Russia together, but
reading Anna Karenina, mainly because of would things have worked out better Karenin refuses to grant a divorce, unless
its length. Hence, she and her viewers for her? Anna renounces the right to see her son.
approached their summer’s reading of AK She is miserable at having left her son in
like an arduous long-distance run. Karenin’s care, and returns in secret to see
Through the magic of the internet, I am Into life’s corridor the boy. Far from pacifying her, this
able to re-live the show as though it were Written in instalments from 1873 to 1877 meeting only sharpens her despair.
yesterday… in the periodical The Russian Messenger, Vronsky is restless and misses his military
Narrator: ‘They came from across the AK still enjoys huge popularity and a high career, which he had to abandon to follow
globe, Oprah Book Clubbers ready to take profile in popular culture: curiously it her. Anna goes from disillusionment to
on the Anna Karenina 2004 challenge. even pops up in Will and Grace, where disillusionment, becomes consumed with
Eight long sections, 817 pages, 23 Jennifer Lopez makes a guest appearance jealousy, and ultimately her life becomes
complicated Russian names. The only reading it on the subway. Its continued intolerable to her. When she throws
thing to fear was fear itself. They would success is striking considering its length herself under a train, she fulfills the
battle the elements, summer heat, busy and complexity, as epigram of the novel:
family schedules, obstacles at every turn. alluded to by ‘Vengeance is mine, and
Some would stumble, exhausted from Oprah. If it is a I shall repay.’ Vronsky is
reading. But could they pick themselves masterpiece, it is “Anna breaks what may consumed with remorse and
up and press on to the final chapter? certainly not the be our last taboo: she is a enlists to fight the Turks, a
Could they do it? Could they read Anna ‘flawless’ woman who abandons course of action equivalent to
Karenina in just one summer? Could they masterpiece that her child for her lover” suicide.
conquer Tolstoy?’ both Fyodor In counterpoint to this
Group of people, chanting in unison: Dostoyevsky and dark, violent story, there is the
‘Anna, Anna, Anna, Anna’. Vladimir Nabokov relationship of Kitty and Levin.
The opening guest of the Book Club described it as, and the long passages on After initially rejecting him, Kitty returns
episode was a regular on the couch, The Russian peasant agricultural techniques to Levin, won over by his integrity and
Music and the Passion himself, Mr Barry will hardly be of interest to modern strength of character. Levin is surely one
Manilow. Manilow began by singing, to readers, if indeed they were ever of of the most rounded characters in fiction,
the tune of ‘Copacabana’, ‘Her name was interest. What, then, is the key to AK’s and one Tolstoy drew on his own
Anna, Anna Karenina … The hottest enduring appeal? character to create. His relationship with
broad north of the Kremlin.’ Most of us, even those who have not Kitty, which is essentially a happy one, is
But the final word of the show came read AK, may nonetheless be familiar with complex and totally believable.
from Megan Mullally, aka Karen from Will both how it begins and how it ends. The Anna’s story, on the other hand, is
and Grace, who was most intrigued in her novel opens with the famous and oft- primarily one of depression. One of the
reading by Anna’s mental unravelling: ‘Of quoted sentence, ‘All happy families are few descriptions of Anna’s happiness
course, now she’d just, like, take some alike, but an unhappy family is unhappy comes early in the novel. Recognising
Paxil and it’d all be good. But they didn’t in its own unique way.’ The novel ends the young Kitty’s coquettish excitement
have mood stabilisers back then with one of the most famous suicides in before a ball, Anna says, ‘Oh yes, it is
apparently.’ literary history, and the inevitability of good to be your age… I remember that
So, that is to say that Oprah and her Anna’s death only serves to make the blue haze, like the haze on the mountains
army of Nike-shod women did indeed, tragedy of her life all the sadder. in Switzerland. That haze which envelops
chapter by chapter, ‘conquer’ Tolstoy, Anna is married to Karenin, an everything at the blissful time when
practically trampling him under their air- important government official, a dry and childhood is just coming to and end,
cushioned feet. And I would not like to self-satisfied man 20 years her senior. The and its huge merry circle narrows to a
say that this is a bad thing, since famous opening sentence refers to the path which one treads gaily yet with
doubtless Oprah brought AK to hundreds family of Stephan Oblonsky, Anna’s dread into life’s corridor, bright and
of people who would never have brother. Stephan has been cheating on his splendid as it appears… Who has not
otherwise attempted it. Oprah’s Book wife with his children’s French governess, passed through it?’
Club is off-air now, and her viewers are and his wife Dolly has found out. Our Anna will enter the bright and
patiently awaiting her instructions, but sympathies are with Anna from the very beautiful path one last time to triumph at
eye on fiction
the ball, where she boldly dances the Taylor-Wood remembers feeling bemused to find a moral and yet also fulfilling way
mazurka with Vronsky. From that the day her mother handed her a note to lead one’s life. Anna is trapped in the
beautiful, blue-misted high point the path that said, ‘Give this to your step-dad dilemma of whether to choose her love
indeed grows ever narrower for Anna. But because I’m leaving you all.’ Taylor-Wood for Vronsky, at the expense of abandoning
would her path, as suggested by Megan recalls how ‘one day I saw her and she her son, or to choose her love of her son,
Mullally, be any easier to tread today? was living three doors away. I saw the at the expense of her own happiness. Plus
Certainly, in the 21st century, the apex blind in the kitchen go up, and there she ça change plus c’est pareil, as the
of female achievement extends beyond was. Then she pulled it down again. I still pretentious and moralising Countess
dancing the mazurka, and she would no can’t believe she was there. It was Lydia Ivanovna might have put it.
longer be trapped a ballroom like a great extraordinary.’ The complexities involved in the
fluttering swan. There would be no Stories like this are painful, the pursuit of happiness are as relevant today
boredom – with her intelligence, charm mothers seem selfish, unnatural and hard as they ever were, and pose a dilemma
and beauty, it is easy to imagine Anna that will be familiar to
in any of the hip, high-powered Sex in psychologists both in our
the City jobs (Sex in the City, personal and professional
incidentally, being another show to lives. In fact, the principle
have referenced Anna Karenina. When that in any system no one
Carrie is turned off by her Russian factor guarantees success
lover’s overly romantic gestures, but many guarantee
Miranda advises her to tell him that failure, has become known
‘He’s dating you, not Anna Karenina’). as the Anna Karenina
With her love of literature, it is principle, and is based on
possible to see Anna writing an the quotation from the
inspirational, Shirley Valentine-type novel, ‘All happy families
story, perhaps with the aid of are alike, but an unhappy
sympathetic psychologist, and – if family is unhappy in its
need be – an appropriate SSRI. Paxil own unique way.’
could be seen as a more sophisticated Writing in the
substitute for its 19th-century Telegraph Magazine in
equivalent, the morphine Anna was 2006, Judith Wenban-
using to self-medicate. She might even Smith, a chartered
get a six-figure advance and a slot on psychologist with a special
Oprah’s couch. interest in children, wrote,
‘Mothers who walk out on
their children can now
The last taboo support themselves and
So in answer to the question posed maintain social profiles –
on Oprah: yes, thanks to the ways in they are neither beggars
which society has moved on, in the nor pariahs – and that’s a
present day Anna’s story might have good thing.’ It is true that
ended happily. But this answer ignores today, Anna would not
the fact that Anna breaks what may be have had to leave the
our last taboo: she is a woman who country, as she does in the
abandons her child for her lover. novel. But that doesn’t
In The Female Eunuch, published mean children don’t get
in 1970, Germaine Greer painted a hurt. ‘Children suffer more
devastatingly bleak portrait of family from the absence of mothers
life, in which she argued that women to understand. It’s the child we feel sorry than they do fathers, undoubtedly,’
should not be afraid to walk out of their for, not the mother. Wenban-Smith continues. ‘Almost
marriages, if necessary leaving their To me, the exploration of this invariably, the mother has been the main
children behind. ‘Mother is the dead heart complex and still contemporary issue is carer in infancy and it’s to mothers that
of the family’, wrote Greer. But back in one of the keys to AK’s enduring success. children have the strongest and most
the real world, high-profile women who In Anna, Tolstoy has created a character secure attachment.’ Mothers who leave
abandon their children face widespread who we can understand and sympathise can have the best possible motives, but to
disapproval. Princess Diana was only six with, and while the reader is left to make a child, it boils down to one thing. ‘They
when her mother left to marry another up their own mind about the rights and will come to the conclusion that mummy
man. She would later recollect that she wrongs of her actions, most will find it didn’t love them enough, and that can be
and her younger brother, Charles, cried hard to either condemn or condone. To devastating.’
themselves to sleep together. The actor the casual reader, the novel may seem like So no, a prescription for Paxil would
John Thaw’s mother ran off with another nothing more than a tragic romance set in not be the solution.
man, leaving him in charge of his younger the top tier of 19th-century Russian
brother, while his lorry-driver father was aristocratic society, and as such, Anna’s
away. Thaw was seven. His widow, Sheila difficulties have little connection to the I Steven Livingstone is a clinical psychologist
Hancock, concluded that his abrasive way we live now. Look beyond the at the Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College
approach to life stemmed from this early surface, however, and we will see that the London
experience. As a child, the artist Sam major theme of the novel is the struggle steven.livingstone@iop.kcl.ac.uk