1.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES & MEASUREMENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
a. Definition of Physis
Physics, the most fundamental science, is concerned with the basic principles of
the Universe. It is one of the foundations on which the other physical sciences
astronomy, chemistry, and geology are based.
Physics is the study of the properties and nature of matter, the different forms of
energy and the ways in which matter and energy interact in the world around us.
To understand physics, we need to know Model, Theories and aws in
describing a phenomenon.
The study of the laws that determines the structure of the universe with
reference to the matter and energy of which it consists. It is not concerned not
with chemical changes that occur but with the forces that e!ist between ob"ects
and the interrelationship between matter and energy.
!. The "oa# of Physis
The goal of Physics is to provide an understanding of nature by developing
theories based on e!periments
. The !ea$ty of Physis
The beauty of Physics lies in the simplicity of its fundamental theories and in
the way "ust a small number of basics concepts, e#uations, and assumptions can
alter and e!pand our view of the world.
%. The a&eas of Physis
Physics can be divided into five areas$
i. Mechanics $% which is concerned with the effects of forces on material ob"ects.
&lso covers the main concepts of physics, e.g. forces, energy and the properties
of matter.
ii. Thermodynamics $ % which deals with heat, temperature, and the behavior of
large numbers of particles. &lso e!plains heat energy in terms of its
measurement and the effects of its presence and transference. Includes the gas
laws.
iii. Electromagnetism $% which deals with charges, currents, and electromagnetic
fields. &lso e!plains the forms, uses and characteristics of these two linked
phenomena.
iv. Relativity (Year : 1905) $% a theory that describes particles moving at any speed,
and connects space and time
v. Quantum Mechanics (Year: 1900) $% a theory dealing with behavior of particles
at the submicrospic level as well as the macroscopic world
'ince the turn of the century, however, #uantum mechanics and relativistic
physics have become increasingly important( the growth of modern physics has
been accompanied by the studies of atomic physics, nuclear physics )*+,-. and
particle physics.
e. So'e te&'s of Physis
i. stro!hysics $ % The Physics of astronomical bodies and their interactions.
&strophysics also studies the physical and chemical processes involving
astronomical phenomena. &strophysics deals with stellar structure and evolution
)including the generation and transport of energy within stars., the properties of
the interstellar medium and its interactions with stellar systems, and the
structure and dynamics of systems of stars and systems of gala!ies.
ii. "eo!hysics $ % The branch of science in which the principles of mathematics and
physics are applied to the study the earth/s crust and interior. It includes the
study of earth#uake waves, geomagnetism, gravitational fields, and electrical
conductivity using precise #uantitative principles. In applied geophysics the
techni#ues are applied to the discovery and location of economic minerals )e.g.
petroleum..
iii #io!hysics $% The study of the physical aspects of biology.
iv. Theoretical $hysics $ % The study of physics by formulating and analy0ing
theories that describe natural processes. Theoretical physics is complementary
to the study of physics by e!periment.
v. E%!erimental $hysics $ % The study of physics by e!periment
vi. Mathematical $hysics $% The branch of theoretical physics concerned with the
mathematical aspects of theories in physics
vii. Thin&ing $hysics $ % The study of Physics which emphasis more on critical
thinking and teaching physical concepts
viii. aws $ % & law is a descriptive principle of nature that holds in all circumstances
covered by the wording of the law. 'ome laws are named after their discoverers
)e.g. 1 2oyle/s law.( some laws, however, are known by their sub"ect matter to
describe them )e.g. 1 the law of conservation of mass., while other laws use
both the name of the discoverer and the sub"ect matter to describe them )e.g. 1
3ewton/s law of gravitation..
i!. Theory $ % & description of nature that encompasses more than one law but has
not achieved the uncontrovertibly status of a law . Theories are often both
eponymous and descriptive of the sub"ect matter )e.g. 4instein/s theory of
relativity and 5arwin/s theory of evolution..
!. 6ypothesis $ % & theory or law that retains the suggestion that it may not be
universally true. 'ome hypothesis about which no doubt still linger have
remained hypotheses ) e.g. &vogadro/s hypothesis . for no clear reason.
1.( QUANTITIES & UNITS
&ll things in classical mechanics can be e!pressed in terms of the fundamental
dimension or unit$
Di'ension Unit
ength meter
Mass M kilogram
Time T second
7or e!ample$
'peed has dimension of 8 T )i.e. 9m per hour..
7orce has dimension of M

8 T
:
etc...
Len"th)
Distane Len"th *'+
;adius of visible universe * ! *<
:-
To &ndromeda =ala!y : ! *<
::
To nearest star > ! *<
*-
4arth to 'un *.? ! *<
**
;adius of 4arth -.> ! *<
-
'ears Tower >.? ! *<
:
7ootball field *.< ! *<
:
Tall person : ! *<
<
Thickness of paper * ! *<
%>
@avelength of blue light > ! *<
%A
5iameter of hydrogen atom * ! *<
%*<
5iameter of proton * ! *<
%*?
Ti'e)
Inte&,a# Ti'e *s+
&ge of universe ? ! *<
*A
&ge of =rand Banyon C ! *<
*>
C: years * ! *<
,
Dne year C.: ! *<
A
Dne hour C.- ! *<
C
ight travel from 4arth to Moon *.C ! *<
<
Dne cycle of guitar a string : ! *<
%C
Dne cycle of 7M radio wave - ! *<
%+
ifetime of neutral pi meson * ! *<
%*-
ifetime of top #uark > ! *<
%:?
Mass)
O!-et Mass *."+
Milky @ay =ala!y > ! *<
>*
'un : ! *<
C<
4arth - ! *<
:>
2oeing A>A > ! *<
?
Bar * ! *<
C
'tudent A ! *<
*
5ust particle * ! *<
%,
Top #uark C ! *<
%:?
Proton : ! *<
%:A
4lectron , ! *<
%C*
3eutrino * ! *<
%C+
Units...
SI *Syste' Inte&nationa#+ Units)
mks$ E meters )m., M E kilograms )kg., T E seconds )s.
cgs$ E centimeters )cm., M E grams )gm., T E seconds )s.
De&i,e% Units )
3ewton, Foule, @att, Dhm G. and etc.
/&itish Units)
Inches, feet, miles, pounds, slugs...
fps $ E foot, M E pound, T E second
@e will use mostly 'I units with mks system, but you may run across some problems )rarely
happen. using 2ritish units. Hou should know how to convert back I forth.
The 0 Inte&nationa# Syste' of Units *SI+
mol mol Amount of Substance
cd candela Luminous Intensity
K kelvin Temperature
I Ampere Electric current
s second Time
9g kilogram Mass
m meter Length
Symbol SI Units Quantity
De&i,e% Units
Stan%a&% P&efi1es ) $se% to %enote '$#ti2#e of ten
3ato& P&efi1 Sy'!o# 3ato& P&efi1 Sy'!o#
*<
%*
deci d *<
*
deka da
*<
%:
centi c *<
:
hecto h
*<
%C
milli m *<
C
kilo k
*<
%-
micro m *<
-
Mega M
*<
%,
nano n *<
,
=iga =
*<
%*:
pico p *<
*:
Tera T
*<
%*?
femto f *<
*?
Peta P
*<
%*+
ato a
1.4 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Juantity Unit &bbreviation In terms of 2ase
Units
3o&e Ne5ton N ." 's
6(
Ene&"y & 7o&. 8o$#e 8 ." '
(
s
6(
Po5e& 7att 7 ." '
(
s
64
P&ess$&e Pasa# Pa ." 9 *'s
(
+
E#et&i Cha&"e Co$#o'! C A s
E#et&i
Potentia#
:o#t : ." '
(
9 *A s
4
+
Ca2aitane 3a&a% 3 A
(
s
;
9 *." '
(
+
In%$tane Hen&y H ." '
(
9 *s
(
A
(
+
Ma"neti 3#$1 7e!e& 7! ." '
(
9 *A s
(
+
DIMENSIONS
Many physical #uantities can be e!pressed in terms of a combination of fundamental
dimensions such as
KengthL
KTimeL T
KMassL M
KBurrentL &
KTemperatureL M
K&mountL 3
The symbol K L means dimension or stands for dimension
There are physical #uantities which are dimensionless$
numerical value
ratio between the same #uantity angle
some of the known constants like ln, log and etc.

Di'ensiona# Ana#ysis
5imension analysis can be used to$
Grab the hole picture !
Meas$&e'ent
s
Q$antiti
es
Units Instruments
Nector Juantities
'calar Juantities
&ccuracy I Uncertainty
'ignificant 7igures
5imension
&nalysis
5erive an e#uation.
Bheck whether an e#uation is dimensionally correct. 6owever, if an e#uation is
dimensionally correct, it doesn/t necessarily mean it is correct.
7ind out dimension or units of derived #uantities.
De&i,e% an E<$ation *Q$antities+
4!ample *)
Nelocity E displacement 8 time
KvelocityL E KdisplacementL 8 KtimeL
E 8 T
E T
%*
v E s 8 t

4!ample :$ The period of a pendulum

The period $ of a swinging pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum l and the
acceleration of gravity g.
@hat are the dimensions of the variablesO
t = T
m = M
= L
g = LT
6(
@rite a general e#uation$
2y using the dimension method, an e!pression could derived that relates T, l and g
T ' m
a
(
)
g
c
whereby a, b and c are dimensionless constants
Thus
T * &m
a
(
)
g
c
@rite out the dimensions of the variables
KTL E Km
a
LK(
b
LKg
c
L
E M
a

b
)T
%:
.
c
E M
a

c
T
%:c
T
*
E M
a

bPc
T
%:c
Using indices
a * 0
l
T &
g

+,c * 1 - c * +.
) / c * 0
) * +c * .
T * &m
a
(
)
g
c
T * &m
0
(
.
g
+.
:
l
T
g

@hereby, the value of k is known by e!periment
E1e&ises
The viscosity force, 0 going against the movement of a sphere immersed in a fluid depends
on the radius of the sphere, a1 the speed of the sphere, v and the viscosity of the fluid, 2. 2y
using the dimension method, derive an e#uation that relates 0 with a1 v and 23
)given that
0l
v
.
To he. 5hethe& a s2eifi fo&'$#a o& an e<$ation is ho'o"eno$s
4!ample *
sE vt
KsL E KvL KtL
L.H.S KsL E
R.H.S KvL KtL E T
%*
T
E
Thus, the left hand side E right hand side, rendering the e#uation as homogenous
4!ample :
=iven that the speed for the wave of a rope is
0
4
m
, check its homogeneity by using the
dimensional analysis.
:
0
4
m

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
:
0
4
m

.6.'. K B L E K T
%*
L
:
E
:
T
%:
;.6.'. K B L E MT
%:
, K m L EM
[ ]
[ ]
:
:
0
M5T
5T
m M

l
T &
g

Con#$sion) The above e#uation is not homogenous ).6.' Q ;.6.'.

E1e&ises
'how that the e#uations below are either homogenous or otherwise
v E u P :as
s E ut P R at
:
3in% o$t %i'ension o& $nits of %e&i,e% <$antities
4!ample
Bonsider the e#uation :
m
T
&
, where m is the mass and T is a time, therefore dimension
of k can be describe as
:
m
T
&


: :
>
m
T
&

:
:
>
m
&
T

[ ]
[ ]
: :
m
M
&
T T

1
]
E MT
%:
S unit$ kgs
%:
thus, the units of k is in kgs
%:
E1e&ise
The speed of a sound wave, v going through an elastic matter depends on the density of the
elastic matter, T and a constant 4 given as e#uation ,> E
?
6 @
6?
. 5etermine the dimension for
4 in its 'I units

Di'ensiona# Ana#ysis
4!ample$
The period $ of a swinging pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum l and the
acceleration of gravity g. @hich of the following formulas for $ is correctO
=iven$ l has units of length )5. and g has units of )5 6 T
:
..
a. $E :)lg.
:
)b.
:
l
$
g

)c. :
l
$
g

;eali0e that the left hand side $ has units of time )T .
'olution$
)a.
:
>
: >
.
5 5
5 T
T T
1

1
]
3ot ;ightU
)b.
:
:
5
T T
5
T

3ot ;ightU
)c.
:
:
5
T T
5
T

This has the correct unitU This must be the answerU
1.; SCALAR AND :ECTOR
'calars$
Sa#a&s a&e <$antities 5hih ha,e 'a"nit$%e 5itho$t %i&etion
E1a'2#es of sa#a&s
Mass
Te'2e&at$&e
Aineti ene&"y
Ti'e
A'o$nt
Density
ha&"e
Nector$
A ,eto& is a <$antity that has !oth 'a"nit$%e *siBe+ an% %i&etion
It is &e2&esente% !y an a&&o5 5he&e!y
the #en"th of the a&&o5 is the 'a"nit$%eC an%
the a&&o5 itse#f in%iates the %i&etion
The sy'!o# fo& a ,eto& is a #ette&
5ith an a&&o5 o,e& it
Two ways to specify
It is eithe& "i,en !y
a 'a"nit$%e AC an%
a %i&etion
O& it is "i,en in the 1 an% y o'2onents as
A1
Ay
A1 > A os
Ay > A sin
The 'a"nit$%e *#en"th+ of A is fo$n% !y $sin" the Pytha"o&ean Theo&e'

: :
% y
+
The #en"th of a ,eto& #ea&#y %oes not %e2en% on its %i&etion.
The %i&etion of A an !e state% as

*
tan
tan
y
%
y
%

,
'ome Properties of Nectors$
4#uality of Two Nectors
A
y
x

A
A
A
y
x
A
x
A
y
T5o ,eto&s A an% / 'ay !e %efine% to !e e<$a# if they ha,e the sa'e 'a"nit$%es an%
2oint in the sa'e %i&etions. i.e. A> /
3egative of a vector$
The ne"ati,e of ,eto& A is %efine% as "i,in" the ,eto& s$' of Be&o ,a#$e 5hen a%%e% to
A . That isC A D *6 A+ > E. The ,eto& A an% FA ha,e the sa'e 'a"nit$%e !$t a&e in
o22osite %i&etions.
'calar Multiplication$
The '$#ti2#iation of a ,eto& A !y a sa#a&
6 5i## &es$#t in a ,eto& /
6 the 'a"nit$%e is han"e% !$t not the %i&etion
Do f#i2 the %i&etion if is ne"ati,e
If > EC the&efo&e 2 > C & > EC 5hih is a#so .no5n as a Be&o ,eto&
*&. > & > *&.
*D+& > & D &
Nector &ddition
A B
A
A
B
B
A
-A
B = A
The a%%ition of t5o ,eto&sC & an% 2
6 5i## &es$#t in a thi&% ,eto&C B a##e% the &es$#tant
B E & P 2
Geo'et&ia##y *t&ian"#e 'etho% of a%%ition+
2$t the tai#6en% of 2 at the to26en% of &
B onnets the tai#6en% of & to the to26en% of 2
7e an a&&an"e the ,eto&s as 5e #i.eC as #on" as 5e 'aintain thei& #en"th an% %i&etion
More than two vectorsO
x
1
x
5
x
4
x
3
x
2
x
i
x
i
= x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
A
B
C
Nector 'ubtraction$
It is e<$i,a#ent to a%%in" the ne"ati,e ,eto&s.
;ules of Nector &ddition
Bommutative
A
-B
A - B
B
A - B C =
A + (-B) C =
A + B = B + A
A
B
A + B
B
A
A + B
&ssociative
5istributive
Parallelogram method of addition )tail%to%tail.
The 'a"nit$%e of the &es$#tant %e2en%s on the &e#ati,e %i&etions of the ,eto&s
Unit Nectors
A :eto& 5hose 'a"nit$%e is 1 an% %i'ension#ess.
The 'a"nit$%e of eah $nit ,eto& e<$a#s a $nityC that is


Useful e!amples for the Bartesian unit vectors K i1 71 & L
6 they 2oint in the %i&etion of the xC y an% z a1es &es2eti,e#y
Bomponent of a vector in :%5$
A ,eto& & an !e &eso#,e% into t5o o'2onents
A1 an% Ay

The o'2onent of & a&e)
V&!V E &! E & cos M
V&yV E &y E & sin M
The 'a"nit$%e of &$
: :
% y
+
The %i&etion of &$

tan
y
%

*
tan
y
%

,
The $nit ,eto& notation fo& the ,eto& A is 5&itten
& E &!i P &y"
Bomponent of vector in C%5$
A ,eto& & an !e &eso#,e% into th&ee o'2onents &! , &y an% &0.
& E &!i P &y" P &0k
If
5ot Product ) 'calar . of two vectors$
If H > IEE *no&'a# ,eto&s+ then the %ot 2&o%$t is Be&o.
JA K /J > A/ os IE > E and i W " E " W k E i W k E <
if H > EE *2a&a##e# ,eto&s+ it "ets its 'a1i'$' ,a#$e of 1
JA K /J > A/ os E > 1 and i W " E " W k E i W k E *
The %ot 2&o%$t is o''$tati,e.
Use the %ist&i!$ti,e #a5 to e,a#$ate the %ot 2&o%$t if the o'2onents a&e
.no5n.
Bross product ) vector. of two vectors$
The 'a"nit$%e of the &oss 2&o%$t is "i,en !y
The ,eto& 2&o%$t &eates a ne5 ,eto&.
This ,eto& is no&'a# to the 2#ane %efine% !y the o&i"ina# ,eto&s an% its
%i&etion is fo$n% !y $sin" the &i"ht han% &$#e.
If H > EE *2a&a##e# ,eto&s+ then the &oss 2&o%$t is Be&o.
If H > IEE *no&'a# ,eto&s+ it "ets its 'a1i'$' ,a#$e.

The &e#ationshi2 !et5een ,eto&s i C - an% . an !e %es&i!e% as
i 1 - > 6 - 1 i > .
- 1 . > 6 . 1 - > i
. 1 i > 6 i 1 . > -

The &es$#tant has a 'a"nit$%e A D / 5hen A is o&iente% in the sa'e %i&etion as /.
The &es$#tant ,eto& A D / > E 5hen A is o&iente% in the %i&etion o22osite to /C an%
5hen A > /


3o. The magnitude of a vector & is e#ual to X)&
!
:
P &
y
:
P&
0
:
..Therefore, if any
component is non0ero, & cannot be 0ero. Proof of this generali0ation of the Pythagorean
theorem.
BE >+.: km
& E %2, therefore the components of the two vectors must have opposite sings and e#ual
magnitudes.
Tan M E ;
y
8 ;
!
E )&
!
P 2
y
. 8 )&
!
P 2
!
.

1.L MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
Te&'ino#o"y)
True value standard or reference of known value or a theoretical value
&ccuracy closeness to the true value
Precision reproducibility or agreement with each other for multiple trials
Ty2es of E&&o&s
i. Syste'ati e&&o&s
'ometimes called bias due to error in one direction% high or low
9nown cause
Dperator
@rong calibration of glassware, sensor, or instrument
@hen it is determined, it can be corrected
May be of a constant or proportional nature
ii. Ran%o' e&&o&s
Bannot be determined )no control over.
;andom nature causes both high and low values which will average out
Multiple trials help to minimi0e
A$&ay an% P&eision
The Une&tainty)
4!ample$
True value of thickness of a book is ?cm.
'tudent & uses meter ruler and measures the thickness to be >.,cm with an
uncertainty of <.*cm.
'tudent 2 , with Nernier caliper, found it to be >.+?cm with an uncertainty of <.<*cm.
@e may say,
'tudent & has 'o&e a$&ate value, but #ess 2&eise.
'tudent 2 got a 'o&e 2&eise value, but #ess a$&ate )due to the faulty caliper. Un%
calibrate U.
6owever, after sending the caliper to be calibrated, student 2 performs the
measurement again and found the thickness is >.,+cm. 'o, now he has more accurate and
more precise value.
3ote$ @e always report a measurement in a way that would includes the uncertainty
carried by the instrument.
Co'!inin" $ne&tainties D an% 6
&dding or subtracting #uantities then sum all individual absolute uncertainties
:.* Y <.* P :.< Y <.: E >.* Y <.C
:.* Y <.* % :.< Y <.: E <.* Y <.C
This method overestimates the final uncertainty.
Co'!inin" $ne&tainties 1 an% Z
@hen 5ividing or multiplying #uantities, then sum all of the individual relative uncertainties
):.? Y <.*. ! )?.< Y <.*.
E ):.? Y >[. ! )?.* Y :[. E*:.? Y -[ )or <.A? or <.A.
):* Y -[. 8 )?.< Y >[.
E >.*: Y *<[ or >.: Y <.>: or >.: Y <.>
6owever it will overestimate final uncertainty.
The Si"nifiant fi"$&es
The number of 'ignificant figures of a numerical #uantity is the number of reliably known
digits it contains.
7or measured #uantity, it is defined as all of the digits that can be read directly from the
instrument used in making the measurement plus one uncertain digit that is obtained by
estimating the fraction of the smallest division of the instrument/s scale.
3ote$ 4!act #uantities are considered as having unlimited number of significant figures. @e
need to be concerned with significant figures only when dealing with measurements that
have re#uired some estimation.
7or e!ample,
;eading of the thickness of a book is
?.<cm or ?<mm from meter ruler )with : sf.
?.<<cm or ?<.< mm from vernier caliper. )with C sf.
The &$#es of si"nifiant fi"$&es$
*. &ny figure that is non%0ero, is considered as a significant figure.
:. \eros at the beginning of a number are not significant
4!ample$ <.:?> %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% C s.f
C. \eros within a number are significant.
4!ample$ *<>.- m %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% > s.f
>. \eros at the end of a number after the decimal point are significant.
4!ample$ :A<?<.< %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - s.f
?. \eros at the end of a whole number without a decimal point may or may not be significant.
It depends on how that particular number was obtained, using what kind of instrument, and
the uncertainty involved.
4!ample$ ?<<m %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% could be * or C sf.
Bonvert the unit$
?<<m E <.?km ) * sf .
?<<m E ?< <<<cm ) ? sf .

A%%ition an% S$!t&ation 2&oesses
The rule$
The final result of an addition and8or subtraction should have the same number of significant
figures as the #uantity with the least number of decimal places used in the calculation.
4!ample$
:C.* P >? P <.-+ P *<< E *-,
4!ample$
:C.? P <.?-A P <.+? E :>.,
M$#ti2#iation an% %i,ision 2&oesses
The rule$
The final result of an multiplication and8or division should have the same number of
significant figures as the #uantity with the least number of significant figures used in the
calculation.
4!ample$
<.?+- ! C.> E *.,,:>
E :.<
4!ample$
*C.,< 8 <.?+< E :C.,-?? E :>.<
Esti'atin" the s#o2e
1. Si'2#e onse&,ati,e 'etho%
Plot error bars on the graph
5raw ma!imum )m
ma!
. and minimum )m
min
. slopes.
The simplest method is to plot the data )and associated error bars. and draw : lines through
the points. Dne with a ma!iumum slope that still manages to go through all of the error bars
and one with the minimum slope that does likewise.
The average slope and uncertainty on the slope are given above.
This is a very simple method but usually overestimates the uncertainty especially if the data
is reasonably linear to start with and the error bars are large.