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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.
Chap, Copyright No..
Shelf.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
ADVANCED
English Grammar
/
JOHN HART,
Principal of several schools, and Author of
Lectures on English,
&c.
B. F. Johnson Publishing Co.,
Richmond, Virginia.
1898.
TWO
COPIES
RECEIVED.
Library
of
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49467
Copyright, 1898,
BY
B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO.,
Richmond, Va.
SECOND
COPV,
-^>^5W
THIS
book is dedicated to that large number of my old
pupils who have gone into the profession of teaching
and who have expressed the wish to have, in con-
venient form, for their own students, the same direct and
simple presentation of the essentials of English Grammar
which they used themselves when in my classes.
i-mt^*
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page.
Sketch of the English Tongue . .
9
Sources of Words
11
Alphabet
12
Classification of Letters
14
Classification of Words
15
Propositions and Sentences
15
Subject and Predicate 16
Divisions of Grammar 17
Etymology 18
Parts of Speech 18
The Noun 21,
114-118
Gender in the Noun 24
Distinctions of Gender 25-27
Person, Number and Case 28
Formation of Plural 28-33
Case 33
Possessive Case
33-34
Paradigm of Noun 34
The Verb
37, 56,
125-130
Voice
37
Mood 37-38
Tense 38-39
Person and Number
39
Transitive and Intransitive Verb 40
Regular and Irregular Verb
40
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page.
Principal Parts of Verb
41
Conjugation
41
Auxiliary Verb
41
Unipersonal Verb
41
Various Forms of Conjugation 55
Syntax of Noun
57
Syntax of Verb
63
The Pronoun
67-77, 119-121
Personal Pronoun 67-69
Reflexive Pronoun 69
Intensive Pronoun 70
Interrogative Pronoun 70
Demonstrative Pronoun 71
Anticipative Pronoun 71
Relative Pronoun 72
Syntax of the Pronoun 74
The Adjective 73-87, 122-124
Limiting Adjective 78
Article 79
Qualifying Adjective 83
Comparison 83
Irregular Comparison 84
Syntax of the Adjective 87
The Adverb
90-96
Adverbial Phrase 94
Syntax of the Adverb 96
The Preposition
99-103
Syntax of the Preposition 102
The Exclamation
104-105
ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7
Page.
The Conjunction 106-108
Syntax of the Conjunction 107-108
Variables 109-111
Syntax 113,
131-135
Infinitive 126-129
Subjunctive 129-130
Analysis 137-140
Irregular Verb 142-148
Selections 149-157
Punctuation 159-197
ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PART I.
BRIEF SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.
THE
birthplace of the English Language was the island of
Britain. The earliest inhabitants of this island were
Celts who, at the time that they became known to our present
history, had lost all record of the circumstances of their settle-
ment in Britain, and who are regarded to be a part of the great
Celtic race that lived on the continent of Europe in Gaul, the
present France.
The language of Britain was pure Celtic up to the year 55
B. C. At that time Julius Caesar made a campaign into Britain,
and in A. D. 43 the island was conquered by the Romans and
held until the year 426 as a Roman province. During these
years a considerable number of military and legal terms, and
a number of local names, were grafted from the Latin on the
Celtic speech.
The great influence, however, in the formation of the Eng-
lish language was the invasion of Britain by the Saxons, begun
in 449. These conquerors and their associates and kindred,
the Jutes
and Angles, came from the low country of northern
Germany, and made a terribly complete conquest of the island.
The Angles gave their name
'
* Engla-land
'
' to the whole terri-
tory, and the native language gave place almost entirely to the
Anglo-Saxon, the language of the conquerors.
In 596 priests from Rome began the conversion of the peo-
ple, and, in the main, grew steadily in influence and numbers.
By this means a considerable body of Latin words became part
of the language of the island.
2
10 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Beginning in 870 large numbers of Danes made inroads and
settlements in Britain, and in 1017 a Danish prince, Canute,
became king. During these years a number of Danish words
were added to the language, but the value of this addition
cannot be estimated because the Danish speech was essentially
the same as the Saxon.
The next event which affected the language was the con-
quest of England by the Normans in 1066. The language of
these conquerors was Norman-French, derived from a mixture
of Latin and Celtic, and, as the island remained under the gov-
ernment of the Normans until all the various races became
one, it is hard to overestimate the effect that the Norman
conquest has had on the present condition of the English
tongue.
About the beginning of the 16th century the "revival of
learning" took place. From that time to the present it has
been the custom to makemainly out of Latin and Greek
such new words as are demanded by the advance in the

sciences, and a large number of terms have come into English
by this means.
While the several sources enumerated above have all con-
tributed words to the English language, they have, with the
exception of Saxon, had almost no effect on the grammar
of
the tongue. The frame-work of English is wholly Saxon, and
its minor grammatical peculiarities are almost entirely so.
English is now the every-day speech of 140,000,000 people.
In the age of Elizabeth300 years agoit was spoken by
about 5,000,000. This is a rate of increase that has never
been equalled by any other tongue, and the character of the
peoples who speak it, its present rate of growth, its adaptation
to every purpose of human speech, and the ease with which it
can be acquired as a spoken language might seem to warrant
the claims of those enthusiasts who predict that English will
become in time the one surviving language of the earth.
INTRODUCTORY. 11
The following table gives approximately the number of
words in English from the principal sources. The proportion
of words in the language as it is spoken is very different from
that in the dictionaries, because, in speech, the commoner
words are frequently repeated. As most of these words that
occur so often are Saxon, the proportion of Saxon is far higher
in the language in motion, as spoken, than in the language at
rest, as in the lexicons
:
Celtic ........ 100 words.
In Lexicons.
(
In Use.
Latin (all sources) . . . 60 per cent. 30 per cent.
Anglo-Saxon 25 " 60
Greek 10 "
5
All others 5 "
5
ALPHABET,
ETC.
Written languages are either Symbolic or Sylla-
bic. In a symbolic language a written sign stands
for an idea, and the language must contain a vast
number of these signs. Many ancient languages
were symbolic, and, in modern times, Chinese and
Japanese are so.
In a syllabic language a written sign stands for
a sound or syllable, and these signs, which we call
letters, can be combined in many different ways.
By this means a small number of letters may be
made to represent a countless number of sounds.
English, as well as most other languages, is syllabic.
The alphabet of a syllabic language is the arrange-
ment of all the signs that stands for sounds. The
English alphabet is almost identical with the Latin,
and the present form of our written letters is sim-
plified from the Roman letters. It is likely that all
letters were originally pictures.
The letters used in printing attained their present
shape, the capitals directly from the Roman forms,
and the small letters by gradual alteration, from the
introduction of printing, 1474, down to about 1800,
when the long s went out of use. In addition to
the Roman letters we employ
"J,"
introduced by
the early Dutch printers and suggested by the form
of the last i in Roman numerals, as vij for
7 ;
"U,"
a form of the Roman V, and
"
W," which was the
Latin V doubled.
INTRODUCTORY. 13
The written alphabet in English contains twenty-
six letters
;
the alphabet as pronounced contains
forty-three sounds. This difference is produced by
the variety of the sound given to the same letter, as
the six sounds of "a" illustrated in ale, hat, rare,
farm,
task, all. It is also true that, in many cases,
different letters have the same sound, as in the use
of "c" for "a" or "k" ; the use of
"y"
for
i, &c.
Those letters which can be sounded without
changing the position of the organs of speech are
called vowels. They are a, e, i, o, u and also w and
y
when they end a syllable. In this case w is
sounded like u, as in how, and
y
is , sounded like i,
as in boy. Vowels often change in words which are
of the same origindifferent forms of the same
wordas band, bend, bind, bond, bundle. Two
vowels pronounced as one form a diphthong, as oi
in toil. When two vowels come together and but
one is pronounced the other is termed silent, as "a"
in boat. Final
"
e " in English is silent, as tree,
horse.
All the letters except vowels are called consonants
because they must be sounded by the help of vowels.
Consonants form the real body of a word, and, in
general, words that are kin to each other contain the
same consonants. (See example under vowels.)
The consonants are divided into classes as
follows
:
Mutes. Spirants.
Dentals . . d n t z s 1 th
Gutterals .
g
k n
g
h
Labials . . b
P
m V w f wh
Palatals . .
j
ch zh sh y r
The dental mutes have their sound stopped by
the teeth (dens), and the dental spirants have their
sound slightly prolonged
by a breath after the
tongue leaves the teeth.
The gutteral mutes have their sounds stopped by
the throat (gutta), and the spirants have a breath
after the sound is made.
The labial mutes have their sound stopped by the
lips (labium), and the spirants have a breath after
the sound is made.
The palatal mutes have their sound stopped by
the palate (palatum), and the spirants have a breath
after the sound is made.
The action of the vocal organs in producing con-
sonant sounds should be carefully noted and prac-
ticed until the above classification can be reproduced,
not as a matter of memory, but as a matter of
observation and common sense.
INTRODUCTORY. 15
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
According to its form a word is called primitive
when no simpler word with the same sense can be
found in the language
;
as, man, child.
It is called derivative when it can be obtained
from some simpler form ; as, manly, from man
;
childish, from child.
A word is called simple when it cannot be divided
into several words
;
as, horse, ox.
It is called compound when it can be divided into
several words
;
as, horse-fly, ox-cart.
PROPOSITIONS AND SENTENCES.
A Proposition is a thought expressed in words,
and may be principal or dependent.
A Principal Proposition is one that makes com-
plete sense by itself; as, Snow melts. It is often
called Principal Clause.
A Dependent Proposition is one that does not
make complete sense by itself, but must be under-
stood in connection with a principal proposition ; as,
When the sun shines. It is often called Dependent
Clause, and modifies some word in the principal
proposition.
The distinction is made according to the sense of
the proposition.
16
A Sentence is a collection of words that has some
meaning, and may be Simple or Complex or Com-
pound.
A Simple Sentence is one that contains one princi-
pal proposition.
A Complex Sentence is one that contains one prin-
cipal proposition, and any number of dependent
propositions.
A Compound Sentence is one that contains two or
more principal propositions, and it may or may not
have dependent propositions in it.
The distinction is made according to the
form
of
the sentence.
SUBJECT
AND PREDICATE.
Every proposition must consist of two parts
a
Subject and a Predicate. The subject is that of
which the declaration is made. The predicate is
that which makes the declaration. Thus in the
proposition, Snow melts, a declaration is made about
snow. Snow is therefore the subject. The word
melts makes a statement about snow, and melts is
therefore the predicate.
A Phrase is a collection of words that has no
subject or predicate.
Note.The names employed in formal grammar, in Eng-
lish, are entirely of Latin origin, and when a word is given as
the source of one of these terms, it is understood to be a
Latin word.
INTRODUCTORY. 17
THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.
Language is the expression of thought. This
expression commonly takes the form of spoken or
written words.
Grammar is the collection of the laws of lan-
guage.
A complete grammar should treat of the history
of the letters in a language, but the subject has
never been sufficiently investigated and the slight
sketch already given of the English letters must
suffice for the purposes of this book.
It should also treat of the spelling of words (or-
thography) and of their pronunciation (orthoepy).
But thesein a living languageare constantly
changing and are better left to lexicons.
It should also treat of the order of words in sen-
tences
;
but people know by instinct and early prac-
tice the order of words in their own language and
rules on this subject in an English grammar, written
for English-speaking people, would be needless.
The other divisions of grammar are Etymology,
Syntax and Prosody.
Etymology is the statement of the laws that
govern the forms of single words.
Syntax is the statement of the laws by which one
word influences or governs another, and these two
are the usual divisions of grammar.
Prosody is the statement of the laws of poetry,
and is commonly considered a science by itself.
ETYMOLOGY.
The words in a language are divided according to
their meaning into eight classes called Parts of
Speech. They are Noun, Verb, Preposition,
Adjective, Pronoun, Adverb, Exclamation,
Conjunction.
A Noun is the name of any person, place or
thing
;
as,
James, New York, hat.
A Verb is a word that declares action or being
;
as, run, is. Verbs often consist of several words
;
as, will run, have been.
A Preposition is a word that shows the relation
between a noun or pronoun and some other word,
as in the sentence, Run into the house, where the
preposition into shows the relation between the noun
house and the verb run.
An Adjective is a word that describes or limits
a noun
;
as, tall trees. A rough road. The good
old man.
A Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a
noun
;
as in the sentence,
John
lost his hat, the
pronoun his is used for
John's.
An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning
of a verb or an adjective or another adverb
;
as,
He runs slowly. She is very good. He runs too
slowly.
INTRODUCTORY. 19
An Exclamation is a word used to express some
emotion
;
as, Oh ! Ah ! Exclamations have no rela-
tion to other words. They are often called inter-
jections.
A Conju7ictio7i is a word used to join words or
phrases or propositions
;
as,
John
and Henry. In
the day or in the night. I called you, but you did
not hear.
In the following exercise state the class to which
each sentence and proposition belongs, pick out the
phrases and tell what part of speech each word is.
Also point out the subjects and the predicates :
EXERCISE.
The tree fell in the road. The water deafened us with its
roar. The kind man gave the beggar some money. You will
be wet if it rains.
James
fell from the horse when it reared.
The train ran so fast that we were greatly frightened. Oh!
what noise was that ? Robert tried to catch the hare, but she
ran too fast. Alas ! I fear he will never reach home. Owls
stay in hollows by day, but by night they search for food. A
strong wind blew fiercely over the water, but it did not drive
the sailors from their work. I cannot tell whom you mean.
The king raised a great army that he might conquer his neigh-
bors. Do not give him the knife, lest he cut himself with it.
If we had horses we might ride. When the traveler reached
the village he found all the guides sick. If we could tell when
the wolf was coming, we could prepare for him. No man can
fight successfully unless he has arms. We started to town be-
cause we wanted some books, but soon turned back when we
saw the horse was lame. If the river is too high you must
come home, however anxious you may be to cross. The gun
would not have exploded if Henry had not loaded it too
heavily. Many men have fought through long and dangerous
wars, and come home at last safe and sound. The family
moved from England to America, because the cost of living
was not so great in this country. The lady asked the little
girl where she lived. Ah, I am sorry for him. Columbus,
though he had many discouragements, persisted in his voyage
toward the west until, at last, he came to land. When the
merchant saw the robbers he ran into the wood and hid in a
thick tangle of bushes. The mill runs slowly because the water
is low, but when the rains come the pond will fill again, and the
wheels will turn as rapidly as ever. The depth of the river
was so great that we did not try the ford. He was chosen
king of England because he possessed the wisdom necessary
to direct the affairs of the country. The solons of the state
retreated from the capital when the enemy approached. The
city of London is, in some respects, the capital of the world.
The clergy of New England were busy in arranging for the
occasion of the trial.
THE NOUN.
21
PART II.
THE NOUN.
1. A Noun is a name of a person or a place or a
thing. The word noun is derived frm the Latin
nomen, a name, through the French nom, and nouns
are of the following sorts :
(1)
A Common Noun is a general or class name,
and is given to all objects of the same kind
;
as,
city, town, river, man, cow.
(2)
A Proper Noun is a particular name, and is
used to point out some one individual of a class
;
as,
James, Mary, London, Washington city.
In the last word "Washington city," the noun
city evidently shows the kind of thing spoken of,
and the noun Washington points out what special
city is meant. Proper nouns, as such, have no
meaning. The meanings which they once had (when
a man's name was Hunter because he hunted, etc.)
have been lost. They are spelled with a capital letter.
(3)
An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or
an action
;
as, warmth, cowardice, beauty, distance,
singing. These nouns are called abstract because
they name qualities which are considered apart or
abstracted from things to which they belong. In
the phrase "a deep river/' the depth is a quality of
the river, and taken by itself, apart from that which
has depth, it is called abstract.
(4)
A Material Noun is a common noun which is
the name of a material ; as, wood, iron, glass, gold.
These nouns do not naturally have a plural
woods
meaning different kinds of wood, irons meaning dif-
ferent kinds of iron, etc.
(5)
A Collective Noun is a common noun which is
the name of one body containing many individuals
;
as, army, flock, crowd, herd. If the entire mass is
considered as one, the noun takes a singular verb
;
as, The army was beaten. If the individuals form-
ing the mass are considered to act separately, the
noun takes a plural verb ; as, The people were
alarmed at the news.
(6)
Sometimes common nouns become proper ; as,
the Governor, meaning a particular governor, the
Queen
of
England,
(7)
Sometimes proper nouns become common, as
when we say a man is the Demosthenes of England,
and use the proper noun Demosthenes in place of
the common noun orator. So a great American
soldier might be called the Napoleon of America.
Refer to Exercise I. and state the class to which
each noun belongs.
THE NOUN. 23
Suggestions for Review Exercise.
Write five sentences containing a proper noun,
five containing a common noun, five containing an
abstract noun, five containing a collective noun, five
containing a proper noun ' used as a common noun.
Inflection is the change of form which a word
undergoes to fit it for its different uses. The inflec-
tion of nouns and pronouns is called Declension,
that of verbs is called Conjugation, and that of ad-
jectives and adverbs is called Comparison. Prepo-
sitions, Exclamations and Conjunctions have no
inflection. These last are called Particles,
GENDER IN THE NOUN.
2. There are four Genders or classes of nouns in
English, according to whether the thing which the
noun represents is male or female, or may be either
male or female, or has no sex and so is neither male
nor female. Gender in English is determined by
common sense, and is called Natural Gender. In
languages which determine the gender of a word by
rules of grammar, it is said to be Grammatical or
Artificial Gender.
(1)
Nouns which are the names of males are said
to be Masculine Gender (from mas, a male).
(2)
Nouns which are the names of females are
said to be Feminine Gender (from femina, a female).
(3)
Nouns which are the names of things that
have no sex are said to be Neuter Gender (from
neuter, neither).
(4)
Nouns which are the names of things that
may be either male or female are said to be Common
Gender (from communis, common).
Note.When a singular noun is used gcnerically, that is, to
stand for a whole class of things, it is masculine gender
;
as,
The elephant lives in India, he often reaches the age of a hun-
dred years.
GENDER IN THE NOUN. 25
The use in English allows us to speak of small animals and
children as neuter gender ; as, The mouse ran into its hole.
The child hurt its hand.
An unpleasant but growing use is to refer to moving objects
as feminine
', as when we say of a train of cars,
'
' Here she
comes.
'
'
Things without life are often spoken of as if they were living
beings (personification). In this way the sun is considered
masculine, the moon
feminine, etc.
3. The gender of masculine and feminine nouns
is shown in three ways.
(1)
By using distinct
words
; (2)
by using an additional word
; (3)
by
adding an ending.
(1)
Distinction of Gender by Different Words.
Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine.
bachelor spinster hart roe
boar sow horse mare
boy girl husband wife
brother sister king queen
buck doe lord lady
bull cow man woman
cock hen monk nun
dog bitch nephew niece
drake duck ram ewe
drone bee son daughter
earl countess stag hind
father mother uncle aunt
foal filly wizard witch
gander goose youth maid
f2)
Distinction of Gender by an Additional Word.
Masculine.
cock-sparrow
he-bear
man-servant
pea-cock
Feminine.
hen-sparrow
she-bear
maid-servant
pea- hen
(3)
Distinction of Gender by Adding an Ending to
Form Feminine.
r
asculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine.
abbott abbess hunter huntress
actor actress
Jew Jewess
baron baroness Joseph Josephine
count countess lion lioness
deacon deaconess marquis marchioness
director directress master mistress
don donna murderer murderess
duke duchess negro negress
emperor empress patron patroness
enchanter enchantress poet poetess
executor executrix prophet prophetess
giant giantess spinner spinster
heir heiress sultan sultana
hero heroine traitor traitress
host hostess votary votaress
Note.The ending er so often found in masculine nouns is
the Anglo-Saxon masculine ending (ere, man). Its corre-
sponding feminine was ster, as in spinster in list above. The
commonest feminine termination in English is ess
}
borrowed
GENDER IN THE NOUN. 27
from the Norman-French, and it is by the use of this suffix
that new feminines are formed in the language. The best usage
employs such words as author, poet, &c, for both genders,
and avoids as farias possible the use of the distinctively femi-
nine forms in ess. A small number of feminines are formed by
the Greek suffix ine, as in heroine. A small number are formed
by the South- Europe suffix a, as in sultana.
In the case of the four words bride, duck, goose and widow
the masculines are formed from the feminines.
Suggestions for Review Exercise.
Write four sentences containing masculine nouns,
five containing feminine nouns, five containing
neuter nouns, five containing nouns of the common
gender.
S> & &
PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE.
4. Nouns have three grammatical forms or prop-
erties, which vary to suit the use of the word,
person, number and case.
5. Person is the character which a word has ac-
cording as it represents the speaker or the person
spoken to or the person spoken of. If
John
is rep-
resented as speaking, the noun
John
is said to be
first
person. If he is spoken to,
John
is said to be
secondperson. If he is spoken of,
John
is said to be
third person. Nouns are rarely in the first person.
6. Number is a form of a word to show whether
it denotes one or more than one. There are, in
English, two numbers. When a word means but
one it is said to be Singular Number. When it
means more than one it is said to be Plural Number.
(1)
The plural is commonly formed from the sin-
gular by adding s ; as, singular, boy
;
plural, boys.
This method is Norman-French.
(2)
If the last letter of the singular does not
unite readily with s, the plural is made by adding
es ; as, box, boxes; church, churches.
(3)
Nouns ending in
y
with a consonant before it,
change
y
into ies
;
as, lady, ladies
;
enemy, enemies.
(4)
Nouns ending in o add commonly s, sometimes
es
;
as, canto, cantos; potato, potatoes. About
PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE. 29
forty nouns add es. The most common are buffalo,
cargo, calico, hero, mosquito, motto, negro, potato,
tomato.
(5)
Some nouns form the plural by the addition
of the Anglo-Saxon plural ending en or ne ; as, ox,
oxen
;
cow, kine
;
brother, brethren
;
child, children.
(6)
Some nouns form their plurals by changing
the vowels in the singular
;
as,
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
loot teet man men
goose
louse
geese mouse
lice tooth
mice
teeth
(7)
Many nouns which have come
from other languages retain the plu
languages
;
as,
into English
rals of those
Singular.
axis
datum
medium
Plural. Singular.
Latin.
axes nebula
data radius
media radix
Greek.
Plural.
nebulae
radii
radices
analysis
automaton
analyses crisis
automata miasma
French.
crises
miasmata
batteau
beau
batteaux madame
beaux monsieur
Italian.
mesdames
messieurs
bandit banditti libretto
Hebrew.
libretti
cherub cherubim seraph seraphim
(8)
A number of nounsmainly names of fish
<
have the same form in singular and plural ; as,
bass dace mackerel
cannon deer perch
carp grouse pike
cod heathen sheep
In the use of these nouns the number must, of
course, be inferred from the context (other words in
the sentence). If the sentence were, A sheep is
grazing, the word sheep would be singular. In the
sentence, I caught ten perch, the w
r
or*d perch is plural.
It is worthy of note that these last nouns name things belong-
ing to the life of those savages who spoke the earliest beginnings
of English. In general, in all languages, the irregular words
are those which are connected with the needs and emotions of
barbarians, and, as the people become civilized and learn some-
what of the science of speech, the new words that come into
their languages receive a regular form. These irregular old
words are frequently called strongs and the newer and more
regular words in a language are called weak, because the first
express strong and necessary ideas, etc.
(9)
Some nouns, names of things consisting of
two similar parts, or of things taken in a body, have
no singular ; as,
(a) antipodes drawers pinchers scissors tweezers
bellows lungs pliers shears tongs
breeches pantaloons scales spectacles trousers
(b) annals dregs staggers
archives. embers stacks
ashes lees victuals
assets oats vitals
The words measles, molasses and mumps belong by their
form to this class, but they should always be used as singulars.
(10)
A number of words having plural forms are
always used as singulars
;
as,
amends odds small-pox wages optics
gallows pains thanks politics ethics
news shambles tidings physics mathematics
The three words, alms, riches and eaves, are true singulars in
spite of their plural forms. An alms was common English in
1600. Riches is borrowed from French. Eaves is Anglo-
Saxon efese, an edge.
(11)
A number of words have two plurals with
different senses
;
as,
Singular. Plural. Plural.
brother brothers (in a family) brethren (in a community)
cloth cloth (kinds of cloth) clothes (to wear)
die dies (stamps for shaping) dice (game)
fish fishes (separately) fish (collectively)
genius geniuses (gifted men) genii (spirits)
index indexes (in books) indices (in algebraic quan-
tities)
pea peas (separately) pease (collectively)
penny pennies (separately) pence (collectively)
shot shots (trials at shooting) shot (collectively)
(12)
In forming the plural of compound nouns
the leading word in the compound has s added to it
;
as, looker-on, lookers-on
;
commander-in-chief, com-
manders-in-chief. Where both parts of the com-
pound are nouns, both are frequently pluralized
;
as, men-servants, knights-templars, women-servants.
When the last word in the compound is an adjective,
as in attorney-general, court-martial, etc., the s is
commonly added to the noun
;
as, courts-martial,
attorneys-general, etc. When the compound noun
is composed of words which make no complete sense
until they are all uttered
;
as, whip-poor-will, forget
me-not, etc., the s is added to the last word
(13)
A number of nouns have their last syllable
man; as, German, Englishman, talisman, etc. Some
are compounds of man, and some are not. They can
be tested by seeing if the feminine is formed by sub-
stituting woman for man
;
as, German, Ger-woman
;
Englishman, English-woman, etc. By this test it
appears that
"
Englishman" is a compound of man,
and
"
German
"
is not. Those that are compounds
of man form their plural in men; as, Englishmen,
Irishmen, Scotchmen, etc. Those that are not com-
pounds of man form their plurals by the addition of
s ; as, Germans, Mussulmans, Turcomans, ottomans,
talismans, etc.
(14)
Abstract nouns rarely form plurals. When
they do so these plurals are formed in accordance
with the laws for common nouns.
(15)
Proper nouns take their plural by adding s
to the singular without any further change ; as,
Berry, Berrys
;
Smith, Smiths, etc.
Suggestions for Written Exercise.
Write five sentences containing singular nouns,
five containing plural nouns, five containing plurals
formed by adding es, five containing foreign plurals.
7. Case is a form of a word to show its relation
to other words in the same sentence. There are
three cases in English, Nominative, Possessive
and Objective. The word case comes from the
Latin casus, a falling, because the Roman gram-
marians considered the nominative case as a perpen-
dicular spoke in a wheel, and the other cases as the
spokes below it that had fallen from the perpendicu-
lar position. The term decline, to give the cases in
order, and declension, an orderly arrangement of the
cases, comes from the same idea. A Paradigm is a
model or example to show the parts of a word.
8. In nouns the nominative and objective cases are
alike in the singular and alike in the plural. The
difference in their use prevents confusion.
9. The possessive case is used almost exclusively
{or proper nouns, and such common nouns as denote
persons.
The preposition
of
with the objective case takes
its place in other common nouns. Thus we say,
John's
hat, but, The roof
of
the house.
(1)
The possessive singular is formed by adding
an apostrophe and an s ('s) to the nominative singu-
lar. This ending (V) is the Anglo-Saxon possessive
ending es. In many proper nouns the nominative
ends in s. The possessive may then be formed by
adding an apostrophe only
;
as,
James' ;
or it may
be formed by adding an apostrophe and s ('s)
;
as,
James's.
In compound nouns the apostrophe and
s are added to the last word
;
as, son-in-law's.
(2)
In the plural, if the last letter of the nomina-
tive be s the possessive is formed by placing the
apostrophe after
the s
;
as, girls, girls'. But if the
last letter of the nominative plural is not s (as in
men) the possessive is formed by adding the apos-
trophe and s (s) as in the singular. Example : men,
men's.
10. Below is the declension of the noun.
Sing. Plur, Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
Norn. . boy boys lady ladies man men
Poss. . boy's boys' lady's ladies' man's men's
Obj. . . boy boys lady ladies man men
In the following exercise classify the nouns, and
tell their gender, person, number and case :
EXERCISE I.
Alms, Ann, anvil, army, aunt, bachelor, banditti, beauty,
beaux, boat, box, brother-in-law's, camp, cargo, carts, cat, cher-
ubim, churches, children, cities, cloth, Cora's, countess, deer,
drake, dice, Doctor Jones, duchess, eaves, eggs, Englishman,
father
5
feet, fishes, France, giantess, girl's, goose, he-bears, hen,
honesty, horses, Irishman, iron,
John
Smith, keys, King George,
ladies, length, Lewis's, London, Lucy's, Major- General,
Mary's, measles, men's, molasses, moons, morning, Mr. Green,
mumps, Mussulmans, Nebulae, negro, optics, oxen, pease,
physics, pinchers, potato, Potomac river, queens, Queen
Mary's, rivers, Robert's, sailors, salmon, seraphim, shot, silver,
sister's, sultana, sun's, talismans, tree, victuals, widow, witch's,
wood.
Direction 1.Go over above exercise and give
feminine of each masculine, and masculine of each
feminine.
Direction
2.
Go over above exercise and give
plural of each singular, and singular of each plural.
REVIEW OF NOUNS.
(To be Written.)
1. How many classes of nouns are there? and define each
sort and give example.
2. Make a sentence containing each sort of nouns.
3. Define gender. How many genders are there ? and give
names.
4. In how many ways is gender shown ? and give examples.
5. What masculine nouns are formed from feminines ?
6. Make a sentence containing a noun of each gender.
7. Define person, and explain fully.
8. Define number. How many numbers are there ? and give
names.
9. In how many ways is the plural formed from the singular?
and give examples.
10. Write ten nouns that form plural in s.
11. Write ten nouns that form plural in es.
12. Write five nouns that have same form for singular and
plural.
13. Make a sentence containing a noun of each number.
14. Define case. How many cases are there ? and give names.
15. How is the possessive singular formed ?
16. How is the possessive plural commonly formed ?
17. In what nouns is it formed by adding
('
s) ?
18. Write out the declension of five nouns.
THE VERB. 37
THE VERB.
11. A Verb is a word that declares action or
being, and every proposition must contain a verb as
its predicate to show what the subject does or is. The
word verb is derived from verbum, a word.
Since verbs make statements, they must employ
different forms to enable them to make statements
in various ways. The grammatical forms, or prop-
erties, of a verb are Voice, Mood, Tense, Number
and Person. From vox, voice ; modus, manner
;
tempus, time
;
numerus
y
number
;
persona, person.
Voice.
12. Voice is a form of the verb to show whether
the subject acts or is acted upon. There are in
English two voices.
(1)
The Active Voice represents the subject as
acting ; as,
John
shot.
(2)
The Passive Voice represents the subject as
acted upon; as,
John
was shot. In general any
sentence with a passive verb can be changed to a
sentence with an active verb without altering the
meaning, and vice versa. The existence of voice in
verbs is then not so much a matter of necessity as
it is an elegance of language.
Mood.
13. Mood is a form of the verb to permit the
making of statements in various ways. There are
in English five moods.
(1)
The Indicative Mood states as a fact or
asks a question
;
as, The tree
_///.
Who has come?
(2)
The Potential Mood states as possible or
necessary ; as, The man can sing. The hole must
be mended.
(3)
The Subjunctive Mood states as doubtful
;
as,
If
we come.
(4)
The
Imperative Mood states as a command
or entreaty
;
as, Shut the door. Have mercy.
These four moods all confine their statement to a
particular subject, and so are called the Finite Verb.
(5)
The Infinitive Mood is so named because it
does not confine its statement to any particular
subject. It includes all the verb besides the finite
verb.
Note.It is not necessary to include a formal potential
mood in the English verb. Exactly the same result would be
reached by regarding may, can, must, &c, as the principal
verb, and letting them govern an infinitive with to omitted.
Tense.
14. Tense is a form of the verb to show
;
first, the
time of the action, and second, whether the action
is complete or incomplete.
THE VERB. 39
15. There are three times
Present, Past and

Future, and an action may be complete or incom-
plete in any of these times.
The tenses for incomplete action are named from
the times
Present Tense, Past Tense and

Future Tense, and are called simple tenses.
16. The tenses for complete (or perfect) action
are named by placing the word perfect in each of the
former names
Present Perfect Tense, Past

Perfect Tense, Future Perfect Tense. They
are called the compotmd tenses.
17. The present tense shows incomplete action in
present time.
The present
perfect
tense shows complete action
in present time.
The past tense shows incomplete action in past
time.
The past perfect tense shows complete action in
past time.
Thefuture tense shows incomplete action in future
time.
The future perfect tense shows complete action in
future time.
Person and Number.
18. Person and number are forms by which the
verb is related to its subject. If the subject be
singular, the verb must be singular, &c.
19. According to their meaning verbs are divided
into two classes :
(1)
Transitive Verbs are those whose action
takes place upon an object.
(2)
Intransitive Verbs are those whose action
does not take place upon an object.
The word transitive (transeo) means to pass from
one to another, and the word intransitive (in-transeo)
means not to pass from one to another. The names
are exactly suited to the facts about the verbs.
20. It often happens that the same verb is some-
times used transitively and sometimes intransitively;
as, The child breathes ; The maiden breathed a
prayer.
21. It also happens frequently that an intransitive
verb becomes a transitive verb by having a prepo-
sition joined to it ; as, The man laughed; The man
laughed at the jest.
22. According to their
form
verbs are divided
into two classes
:
(1)
Regular Verbs are those in which the past
tense of the indicative mood, and the past participle
are formed by adding ed to the present ; as, learn
learntlearnt.
(2)
Irregular Verbs are those in which the past
tense and past participle are formed in any other
way
;
as, singsangsung.
THE VERB. 41
23. The three parts given abovethe present in-
dicative, the past indicative and the past parti-
cipleare called the Principal Parts of a verb,
and may be readily found by observing what forms
fit in the following blanks : Now I . Yesterday
I . I have
;
as, Now I come. Yesterday I
came. I have come.
The principal parts are so called because the
whole verb is built up on them.
24. The Conjugation of a verb is the arrange-
ment of all its parts in the proper order.
25. Auxiliary Verbs are those which aid in the
conjugation of other verbs by forming certain tenses.
They are be, do, have, shall, will, can, may, must.
Auxiliary verbs are often used also as principal
verbs, and they are all defective verbs
;
that is, they
lack some of their forms. Certain verbs, as, get,
got, got or gotten have double forms. Such verbs
are called redundant, and may be found in the list
of irregular verbs.
26. Unipersonal Verbs are verbs which have
but one personthe third person singular. They
are also called impersonal, possibly because they
cannot have a person as a subject. These verbs
refer
(1)
to the weather
;
as, It snows. It is warm,
etc.
;
or
(2)
to some phrase or proposition in the
same sentence
;
as, It is becoming to respect your
elders. It is true that he hurt himself; or
(3)
to
some emotion
;
as, It pains me. It pleases us.
In the following exercise select subject and predi-
cate. State whether verb is transitive or intransi-
tive, regular or irregular, etc. Give its principal
parts, and state voice and mood
:
EXERCISE II.
Did the hunter kill a deer ? Run, and bring the gun. A
man was injured by the train. May the boys go? The wind
will blow to-night. The soldiers watched the camp. The
deer leaped the chasm. We saw him leap. Men sometimes
murmur about nothing. The water spread over the valley.
John
walked to London. Some laughed. Stay where you
are. It will rain. The boy flew the kite. The gentlemen
have withdrawn. We shall walk the horse. The sentinel
watches alt night. I read the book. What is, is right. The
vessel struck on a rock. Mary reads badly. Get your
cane. We struck the mark. Lucy plays the piano. She
plays quite well. The bird flew. I was seen yesterday. The
barber will shave Henry. He was laughed to scorn. The
wind blew. The tree was shaken by the wind. Do not forget.
George must start.
CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 43
CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS.
27. Below are given the forms of the auxiliary
verbs that are used in the conjugation of other
verbs.
TO BE.
Used to Form Passive.
Principal Parts :
Presentam Pastwas Past Participlebeen
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I am 1. We are
2. Thou art 2. You are
3. He is
3. They are
Past Tense.
1. I was 1. We were
2. Thou wast 2. You were
3. He was 3. They were
Future Tense.
1. I shall or will be 1. We shall or will be
2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. You shall or will be
3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have been 1. We have been
2. Thou hast been 2. You have been
3. He has been 3. They have been
Past Perfect Tense.
1. I had been 1. We had been
2. Thou hadst been 2. You had been
3. He had been 3. They had been
Future Perfect Tense.
1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been
2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. You shall or will have
been been
3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have
been been
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
1. I may, can or must be 1. We may, can or must be
2. Thou mayst, canst or 2. You may, can or must
must be be
3. He may, can or must be 3. They may, can or must be
Past Tense.
1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would
should be or should be
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would
wouldst or shouldst be or should be
3. He might, could, would 3. They might, could, would
or should be or should be
Singular,
1. I may, can or must have
been
2. Thou mayst, canst or
must have been
3. He may, can or must
have been
Plural.
1. We may, can or must
have been
2. You may, can or must
have been
3. They may, can or must
have been
Past Perfect Tense.
1. I might, could, would or
should have been
2. Thou mightst, couldst,
wouldst or shouldst
have been
3. He might, could, would
or should have been
1. We might, could, would
or should have been
2. You might, could, would
or should have been
3. They might, could, would
or should have been
1. If I be
2. If thou be
3. If he be
1. If I were
2. If thou were
3 If he were
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
1. If we be
2. If you be
3. If they be
Past Tense.
1. If we were
2. If you were
3. If they were
Imperative Mood.
Present Tense.
Be (youthou
ye).
Infinitive Mood.
Presentto be Perfectto have been
Participles.
Presentbeing (gerund) Pastbeen
Perfecthaving been (gerund)
TO DO.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Sing.
I do
Thou doest
He does
Plur.
We do
You do
They do
Past Tense.
Sing.
I did
Thou didst
He did
Plur.
We did
You did
They did
TO HAVE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Sing.
I have
Thou hast
He has
Plur.
We have
You have
They have
Past Tense.
Sing.
I had
Thou hadst
He had
Plur.
We had
You had
They had
CAN. MAY.
Indicative Mood. Indicative Mood.
Present Tense. Present Tense.
Sing. Sing.
I can
Thou canst
He can
I may
Thou mayst
He may
Plur. Plur.
We can
You can
They can
We may
'
You may
They may
Past Tense. Past Tense.
Sing. Sing.
I could
Thou couldst
He could
I might
Thou mightst
He might
Plur. Plur.
We could
You could
They could
We might
You might
They might
SHALL. WILL.
Indicative Mood. Indicative Mood
Present Tense. Present Tense.
Sing.
I shall
Thou shalt
He shall
Sing.
I will
Thou wilt
He will
Plur.
We shall
You shall
They shall
Past Tense.
Sing.
I should
Thou shouldst
He should
Plur.
We should
You should
They should
Plur.
We will
You will
They will
Past Tense.
Sing.
I would
Thou wouldst
He would
Plur.
We would
You would
They would
MUST.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Sing.
I must
Thou must
He must
Plur.
We must
You must
They must
Note.
(1)
Let is used in the imperative mood to form
what might be called a thirdperson
;
as, Let them come, etc.
,
i. <?., Come they.
(2)
Have used as a principal verb and followed by an
infinitive
;
as, He had to come, is a common idiom (peculiar
construction) in English. In such forms have shows necessity.
Have followed by a past participle
;
as, He had his shoe
mended, is also a common idiom. Here have is used in place
of a periphrastic expression (roundabout way of saying a
thing). It means to cause to be done.
REGULAR VERB. 49
28. REGULAR VERB.
TO LOVE.
Active Voice.
Principal Parts :
Presentlove Pastloved Past Participleloved
Indicative Mood.
Sing, Plur.
I love We love
Thou lovest You love
He loves or loveth They love
Past Tense.
I loved We loved
Thou lovedst You loved
He loved They loved
-
Future Tense.
I shall or will love We shall or will love
Thou shalt or wilt love You shall or will love
He shall or will love They shall or will love
I have loved
Thou hast loved
He has loved
I had loved
Thou hadst loved
He had loved
We have loved
You have loved
They have loved
Past Perfect Tense.
We had loved
You had loved
They had loved
Sing. Plur.
I shall or will have loved We shall or will have loved
Thou shalt or wilt have loved You shall or will have loved
He shall or will have loved They shall or will have loved
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
I may, can or must love We may, can or must love
Thou mayst, canst or must You may, can or must love
love
He may, can or must love They may, can or must love
Past Tense.
I might, could, would or We might, could, would or
should love
Thou mightst, couldst,
wouldst or shouldst love
He might, could, would
or should love
should love
You might, could, would or
should love
They might, could, would or
should love
I may, can or must have We may, can or must have
loved
Thou mayst, canst or must
have loved
He may, can or must have
loved
loved
You may, can or must have
loved
They may, can or must have
loved
Past Perfect Tense.
I might, could, would or We might, could, would or
should have loved
wouldst or shouldst
have loved
He might, could, would or
should have loved
should have loved
should have loved
should have loved
REGULAR VERB. 51
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Sing. Plur.
If I love If we love
If thou love If you love
If he love If they love
Past Tense.
If I loved If we loved
If thou lovec If you loved
If he loved If they loved
Imperative Mood.
Present Tense.
Love (you, thou, ye) Do (you, thou, ye) love
Infinitive Mood.
Presentto love Perfectto have loved
Participles.
Presentloving (gerund) Perfecthaving loved (gerund)
TO BE LOVED.
Passive Voice.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
I am loved
Thou art loved
He is loved
I was loved
Thou wast loved
He was loved
Past Tense.
We are loved
You are loved
They are loved
We were loved
You were loved
They were loved
Future Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
I shall or will be loved We shall or will be loved
Thou shalt or wilt be loved You shall or will be loved
He shall or will be loved They shall or will be loved
I have been loved We have been loved
Thou hast been loved You have been loved
He has been loved They have been loved
Past Perfect Tense.
I had been loved We had been loved
Thou hadst been loved You had been loved
He had been loved They had been loved
I shall or will have been We shall or will have been
loved loved
Thou shalt or wilt have been You shall or will have been
loved loved
He shall or will have been They shall or will have been
loved loved
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
I may, can or must be loved Wemay, can or must be loved
Thou mayst, canst or must You may, can or must be
be loved loved
He may, can or must be They may, can or must be
loved loved
REGULAR VERB.
53
Past Tense.
Sing. Plur.
or I might, could, would
should be loved
Thou mightst, c o u 1 d s t
,
wouldst or shouldst be
loved
should be loved
We might, could, would or
should be loved
should be loved
should be loved
I may, can or must have
been loved
Thou mayst, canst or must
have been loved
He may, can or must have
been loved
We may, can or must have
been loved
You may, can or must have
been loved
They may, can or must have
been loved
Past Perfect Tense.
I might, could, would or
should have been loved
wouldst or shouldst
have been loved
We might, could, would or
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
If I be loved
If thou be loved
If he be loved
If we be loved
If you be loved
If they be loved
Past Tense,
Sing. Plur.
If I were loved If we were loved
If thou were loved If you were loved
If he were loved If they were loved
Imperative Mood.
Prese?it TenseBe (you, thou, ye) loved
Infinitive Mood.
Presentto be loved
Perfectto have been loved
Participles.
Presentbeing loved (gerund) Pastloved
Perfecthaving been loved
Note. The only personal endings now left in the English
verb are st or est for the second person singular, and th or eth
and s for the third person singular
;
j is the only one in com-
mon use.
The verb is so poor in endings that person and number can-
not generally be told from the verb alone. In order to deter-
mine them the subject noun or pronoun must be examined.
Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.
29. The method of conjugating irregular verbs is
exactly the same as the above, and requires no
notice beyond the caution to use the past participle
correctly in the compound tenses.
REGULAR VERB. 55
Different Forms of Conjugation.
30. The form of conjugation given above is the
Common form. There are several other forms to
express special meanings.
(1)
The Interrogative form is used in asking
questions, and contains only the Indicative and
Potential Moods. The only difference between the
Interrogative form and the Common form is in the
order of the words, and consists in placing the sub-
ject after
the first word in the verb
;
as, Lovest thou
me ? May we be excused ?
The auxiliary do is employed in the present and
past tenses of the Indicative Mood of the interroga-
tive form
;
as, Do you know ? Did he come ?
(2)
The Emphatic form is used for strong state-
ment and contains only the present and past tenses
of the Indicative Active, and the Imperative Mood.
It employs the auxiliary do joined to the present
infinitive (to omitted); as, I do love. They did love.
Do come.
(3)
The Progressive form is used to denote the
continuance of an action, and it may have all the
parts of a full verb although many of them are not
in use. In the Active Voice it employs the forms of
to be joined to the present participle of any verb
;
as, I am loving. You were coming. They will be
dancing. The Progressive form in the Passive Voice
is made by placing, the present participle of be (be-
ing) just before the last word
;
as, I am being loved.
They were being loved. Practically the present and
past of the Indicative are the only parts used in the
Passive Voice.
'
(4)
All forms of the verb may be used negatively,
i. e.
y
the statement in them may be denied by the
employment of the adverb not. This is placed im-
mediately
after
the first part of the verb, except in
the interrogative form, when it comes immediately
after the subject ; as, I shall not love. We have not
been loved. He is not being injured. Are you not
going ? The use of not in a question shows that
the answer yes is expected.
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 57
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN.
31. A noun may have nine uses in a sentence.
It may be
(1)
Subject
; (2)
Possessive
; (3)
Direct
Object
; (4)
Indirect Object
; (5)
Apposition
; (6)
Predicate Nominative
; (7)
Object of a Preposition
;
(8)
Absolute or Independent
; (9)
Adverbial.
(1)
Subject.
The Subject of a sentence is that of which the
declaration is made. In the sentence, Horses run,
horses is that of which something is declared, and it
is the subject of the sentence.
Rule of Syntax.The subject of a finite verb is
in the nominative case.
(2)
Possessive.
A noun which limits the meaning of another noun
denoting a
different
thing is put in the possessive
case. There is generally an idea ofpossession in the
first noun
;
as,
John
s knife, and hence the name of
the case. But in such phrases as, John's
father, the
noun John has in it no notion of ownership, but it
only limits the meaning of father so as to confine it
to one particular father. The limited noun is often
understood
;
as, The farm is
John's
(farm).
5
Rule of Syntax.A noun in the possessive
limits the meaning of another noun denoting a dif-
ferent thing.
(3)
Direct Object.
The Direct Object of a sentence is that on which
the subject acts. In the sentence,
John
killed the
dog, dog is that on which
John
acts, and it is the
direct object.
Rule of Syntax.The direct object of a transi-
tive verb is in the objective case.
Intransitive Verbs often take after them an
object in the objective case, but this object must be
of a meaning kin to that of the verb
;
as, To run a
race. He dreamed a dream. He died a tragic death.
Such objects are called Cognate objects.
(4)
Indirect Object.
The Indirect Object in a sentence is that with
reference to which the subject acts. In the sen-
tence,
John
gave the beggar money, beggar is that
with reference to which the giving was done, and it
is the indirect object. The indirect object can be
readily recognized by recasting the sentence, and
observing if the preposition to can be used before
it ; as,
John
gave money to the beggar.
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN.
59
Rule of Syntax.The indirect object of a verb
is in the objective case.
The indirect object precedes the direct,
(5)
Apposition.
Two nouns are said to be in apposition when they
mean the same thing, and have no verb between
them. In the sentence, William, the carpenter, is
sick, William and carpenter mean the same person,
and no verb is between them. They are then said
to be in apposition.
Rule of Syntax.-Nouns in apposition agree in
case.
One of the two nouns must be exactly fixed upon
as some essential part of the sentence
-subject or
direct object or indirect object, etc.and the other
must be said to be in apposition to it. This is
clearly necessary in order to decide their case.
(6)
Predicate Nominative.
When the subject in the nominative is followed
by another noun meaning the same thing as the
subject, and an intransitive verb is the predicate, the
latter noun is also in the nominative case, and is
called predicate nominative. In the sentence,
James
is a soldier,
James and soldier are the same person,
and the intransitive verb is stands between them.
Soldier is therefore the predicate nominative. The
verb commonly stands between the subject and the
predicate nominative except in interrogative sen-
tences.
Rule of Syntax.A noun in the predicate mean-
ing the same thing as the subject, agrees with it in
case.
(7)
Object of a Preposition.
Rule of Syntax.A noun in the objective case
may be governed by a preposition. This use of the
nounoften called phrase useinvolves the subject
of prepositions. Reference is made to section
23,
where these words are treated.
(8)
Absolute and Independent.
When a noun is joined to a participle, and the
noun has no grammatical relation to any word in
the sentence but that participle, the noun is con-
sidered to be in the nominative case and is called
Nominative Absolute. In the sentence, The tree
having
fallen blocked up the road, the noun tree is
joined to the participle having fallen,
but the noun
tree is also subject of blocked. Such forms are not
absolute. In the sentence, The tree having fallen,
we cut off the limb, the noun tree is joined to the
participle having
fallen, and tree clearly has no rela-
tion to any other word in the sentence. Tree in this
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 61
latter sentence is Nominative Absolute. Absolute
constructions are equivalent in meaning to depend-
ent clauses. The sentence above is equivalent to,
When the tree
fell
we cut off the limb.
The words during and notwithstanding are com-
monly called prepositions. They are really parti-
ciples in an absolute construction. I shall come
during the day, is, The day enduring (or lasting) I
shall come, etc.
When a noun is used merely to call the attention
of the person named, as,
John,
are you sick ? it can
have no grammatical relation to any other word in
the sentence. Such nouns are considered to be in
the nominative case, and are called Nominative
Independent, These nouns must clearly be of the
second person.
Rule of Syntax.Nouns used absolutely or
independently are in the nominative case.
(9)
Adverbial.
When a noun is used in a sentence in such a way
as to modify the meaning of a verb or an adjective,
as, He ran a mile
;
He is ten years old, it is said to
be used as an adverb. Such nouns are considered
to be in the objective case, and are called Objective
Adverbial. Frequently several nouns together are
so used; as, They tied him hand and
foot.
They
were routed, horse,
foot
and dragoon, etc. This
use of the noun involves the subject of Adverbs,
Reference is made to section
21,
where those words
are treated.
Rule of Syntax.A noun whose meaning allows
may be used in the objective case as an adverb.
SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 63
SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
32. Every proposition must contain a verb as its
predicate, and this verb must declare something
about a subject. The connection between the verb
and its subject is felt by understanding the sentence.
It is shown in the form of the verb by giving it a
singular form when the subject is singular number,
&c.
Rule of Syntax.A verb agrees with its subject
in number and person.
The subject of the imperative mood is the per-
sonal pronoun of the second person. It is com-
monly omitted, and must be understood with the
verb
;
as, Boys, come (you) here.
The introduction of these rules is a mingling of
syntax in etymology, but this irregularity is more
than balanced by the fact that the easiest way to
learn the forms of words is to study them in sen-
tences. And the examination of sentences necessa-
rily introduces syntax.
33. To parse a word is to state
(1)
its class,
(2)
its grammatical forms and
(3)
the law of its use in
a sentence.
34. To analyze a sentence is
(1)
to state its class
(see page
6), (2)
to point out its subject and predi-
cate and
(3)
to explain all the words, phrases and
clauses by which the subject or predicate is modified.
Analysis of the sentence can at this place be carried
through the first and second step only. As the
various parts of speech are presented, the analysis
should become more complete. Example : Parse
the following sentence : Cats catch mice.
Cats is a common noun, common gender, third
person, plural number, nominative case because it is
the subject of catch. Rule : The subject of a finite
verb is in the nominative.
Catch is an irregular transitive verb, from catch,
caught, caught, active voice, indicative mood, present
tense, third person, plural number to agree with its
subject, cats. Rule : A verb agrees with its subject
in number and person.
Note.Of course the form above for parsing the noun
must be varied to suit the use of the noun in the sentence.
Analyze the following sentences, and parse each
noun and verb
:
EXERCISE III.
Thomas, the butler, is a strong man.
James, the carpenter,
built our house. The queen has not seen her daughter. Does
the boy study his lessons ? A traveler gave the student some
maps. Is
John a carter? The child is learning French.
Could the king not have given the soldier a pardon ? Henry's
sister is a nice girl. Did the horse injure Robert's father's
buggy? Will the children have measles ? Can the servant's
boys not carry our friends the fruit ? The tiger is a ferocious
SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 65
beast. The gentleman should have given the servant's request
more attention. Henry will give
John,
the book-seller, the
note. If the cook call William,
James will answer. Can the
mason repair the farmer's fences? Was the house burned?
If the king advance, the enemy will retreat. Will the boy
not have an apple ? The boy walked a mile. William, your
coat is torn. The bridge being gone, the boys could not cross
the river. John's
father's brother is
John's
uncle. Henry is
six inches taller than James. The horse having been badly
hurt, was turned out. James, you should not do that. The
cane was four feet long.
John was here last week. The rain
having ceased, we went home. The boys ran a race. The
child dreams. The child dreamed a dream.
REVIEW OF VERBS.
(To be Written.)
1. Define a verb, and state difference between transitive and
intransitive verbs.
2. Write five sentences with transitive verbs as predicates.
3. Write five sentences with intransitive verbs as predicates.
4. Write five sentences containing verbs which may be used
either as transitive or intransitive.
5. What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs ?
6. Write five sentences containing regular verbs.
7- Write five sentences containing irregular verbs.
8. What is mood? How many are there in English, and
give names.
9. Make sentences containing verbs in each moodtwo sen-
tences to each mood.
10. What is voice ? and illustrate.
11. Write five sentences in the active, and change them to
the passive form.
12. Write five sentences in the passive, and change them to
the active form.
THE PRONOUN. 67
THE PRONOUN.
35. A pronoun is a word that represents a noun.
The term is gotten from pro-nomen, that which
stands in place of a noun. In the sentence,
John
broke his leg, the word his is used for, or instead of,
John's.
It is, therefore, a pronoun. As they repre-
sent nouns, pronouns must have, in general, the
same properties and be subject to the same laws as
nouns.. They may be subject, direct object, etc., in
a sentence.
Pronouns are of several sorts.
36. Personal Pronouns are those which mark
grammatical person, and so they have been used in
the paradigm of the verbs.
The personal pronoun of the first person is that
used when the speaker refers to himself (I) or to
himself and others with him (we).
The personal pronoun of the second person is
that used when the speaker refers to the person
whom he addresses (thou, you, ye).
The personal pronoun of the third person is that
used when the speaker refers to some person or
thing which he speaks of (he, she, it, they).
The personal pronoun of the first person has no
gender, but it has case and number, and is thus
declined
:
Sing. Plur.
Nom. . . I Nom. . . We
Poss. . . My or mine Poss. . . Our or ours
Obj. . . Me Obj. . . Us
The personal pronoun of the second person has
10 gender, but it has person and number, and is
tnus declined
:
Sing. Plur.
Nom. . . Thou Nom. . . You or ye
Poss. . . Thy or thine Poss. . . Your or yours
Obj. . . Thee Obj. . . You
The singular of this pronoun is confined to the
language of poetry and prayer. By the influence
of the Norman-French example, the plural is used
even when one person is addressed. The context
will often show whether you, yours is singular or
plural in meaning. An unsuccessful effort was made
two hundred years ago to introduce "you" with
a singular verb
;
as,
"
You was at home," and so to
make a distinction by means of the verb. This
form can be found in much of the writing of the
time. The plural ye is not in present use. It was
the only form of the nominative originally, and
"you" was employed exclusively as objective.
(3)
The personal pronoun of the third person has
a much clearer representative use than the other
two. It really does appear in the sentence in the
THE PRONOUN. 69
exact place of the noun, and so it must have gender
(to correspond to the gender of the noun) as well as
number and case. It is thus declined :
Singular. Plural.
Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. All Genders.
Nom . . . He She It They
Poss . . . His Her, Hers Its Their or Theirs
Obj . . . Him Her It Them
The pronoun of the third person is perfectly pro-
vided with forms for the different genders, and it is
consequently referred to in order to discover the
gender in which a noun is used. In the sentence,
The hare ran into his hole, hare is shown to be mas-
culine gender by reference to the pronoun.
The form its came into use about three hundred
years ago. It occurs but once in King
James'
Bible
and never had the apostrophe.
(4)
Personal pronouns are often used
reflexively
;
that is, they refer back to the subject of the sentence
;
as, I bought me a pair of shoes.
(5)
The present tendency of the language is to
use the forms ending in self or selves in place of
the simple forms, and these are usually called the
Reflexive Pronouns. They are used only in the
objective case, and are formed from the possessive
of the first and second person, and the objective of
the third as follows :
Objective Singular. Objective Plural.
1st Pers. Myself 1st Pers. Ourselves
2d Pers. Thyself, Yourself 2d Pers. Yourselves
3d Pers. Himself, Herself, Itself 3d Pers. Themselves
(6)
The Intensive Pronoun has the same forms
as the reflexive pronoun, but a different use. The
intensive pronoun is always in apposition to the noun
just before it, and is employed to make the noun
more emphatic. As the intensive pronoun is an
appositive it can never be an essential part of the
sentence (section
15, 5).
The
reflexive
pronoun
is always either the direct or indirect object, and is
an essential part of the sentence.
The following examples will illustrate : The king
himself will come (intensive). The king injures
himself (reflexive) . I bought
myself
a cane (reflex-
ive) . I saw the queen herself (intensive)
.
37. Interrogative Pronouns are those which
are used in asking questions. The term is derived
from interrogo, to ask.
They are who, which, what, and are declined as
follows :
Singular and Plural Alike.
Masculine and Feminine. Neuter.
Which What
(Whose)
Which What
Nom . . , Who
Poss . . . Whose
Obj. . . . Whom
THE PRONOUN. 71
Who is applied to persons ; as, Who is he ?
Whose hat is that ? Whom did
John
see ?
Which is applied to persons when it is used to
ask about one of a class ; as, Which of the boys
went away ? It is regularly used for things
;
as,
Which (thing) do you want ?
What is applied to things indefinitely
;
as, What
is that ? What will you have ? The possessive of
what (whose) is rarely used.
38. Demonstrative Pronouns are those that
point out some idea previously referred to
;
as, We
know that. This is so. They are this and that, and
the plurals these and those. They may have any
gender, to agree with the noun which they repre-
sent, and may be nominative or objective case.
Note. The demonstrative pronouns this and that, when
they refer to things, and are governed by prepositions, often
assume the forms here and there, and take the prepositions
after them
;
as, hereafter, hereby, herein, for after this, by this,
in this, and thereafter, thereby, therein, for after that, by that,
in that, etc.
39. The Anticipative Pronoun.No very sat-
isfactory classification can be given to the word there
in such sentences as, There lived a man, etc. This
use of there is commonly called anticipative, because
there anticipates or suggests beforehand some noun
which will follow it. In this use there may be singu-
lar or plural, and any gender to agree with the noun
to which it refers. Both the anticipative pronoun
and the noun to which it refers, must be in the nomi-
native case, and subject of the same verbthe pro-
noun being the grammatical, or formal, subject, and
the noun being the logical, or real, subject.
The pronoun it is often used in much the same
way as there. In such sentences as, It is true that
the plan failed, that the plan
failed is the real subject
of is, and it suggests that the subject will be found
later on. Somewhat akin to this anticipative use of
it is its use to represent something well known, as
in the sentence, I tell you what, he caught it. See
Article 26.
40. Relative Pronouns are those that both rep-
resent a noun or pronoun, and also join two sen-
tences together
;
as, We saw a man who was blind.
This is the boy whose book you found. Henry is
the person whom I met. Relative pronouns always
introduce a dependent clause, and join it to a princi-
pal clause. From their use in joining sentences, rela-
tive pronouns are sometimes called conjunctive pro-
nouns. The noun or pronoun to which the relative
refers is called the antecedent. It may sometimes
be omitted
;
as, (He) who steals my purse steals
trash. The relative is sometimes omitted
;
as, We
got the things (which) we wanted.
The relative pronouns are That, Who, Which,
What, and are thus declined :
THE PRONOUN. 73
Singular Singular Singular Singular
and Plural. a?id Plural, and Plural, and Plural.
Nom . . . that who which what
Poss . .
.
whose whose
Obj. . . . that whom which what
That has no possessive, and it cannot be used
after a preposition. It is the most used of the rela-
tives, as it refers with equal propriety to persons and
things
;
as, The man that we saw, etc. The house
that we built, etc. Who is applied to persons only.
Which is used when the antecedent is an animal or a
thing. What has the use of a compound, and is
equal to that which.
Besides the above, but is a relative pronoun after
a negative, in such sentences as, There is no one
but loves him. There is no one who does not love
him.
Compound Relatives are formed by adding ever or
soever to who, which and what. Their use is, in
theory, the same as that of the relatives, but their
meaning is more general. Practically they are used
only as nominatives, and their antecedent is not
expressed
;
as, Whoever wishes may go, etc.
Note.The relative which, when it is governed by a prepo-
sition, often assumes the form where and takes the preposition
after it ; as, whereafter, whereby, wherein, for after
which, by
which, in which, etc.
SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN.
41. A pronoun may have nine uses in a sentence,
eight of which are, in general, identical with the uses
of the noun, given in section
31,
and governed by
the same laws. The relative pronoun has an addi-
tional usethat of connecting sentences. The pro-
noun has no adverbial use.
Rule of Syntax.A Relative Pronoun agrees
with its antecedent in gender, person and number,
and introduces a dependent clause.
42. The dependent clause introduced by the rela-
tive is used to describe or limit the antecedent ; as,
I see a boy who is running. "Who is running"
describes "boy." The case of the relative is deter-
mined by observing what use it has in the dependent
clause
i. e., whether it is subject or direct object, etc.

43. When the dependent clause is explanatory, it
should be introduced by who or which. In the sen-
tence, Kings, who are the
refuge
of
the distressed,
should be merciful, the dependent clause is ex-
planatory and is properly introduced by who. The
sentence is equivalent to, Kings, and they are the
refuge of the distressed, should be merciful.
44. When the dependent clause is restrictive (or
descriptive) it is introduced by that, or, in many
cases, who and which. In the sentence, This is the
SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 75
horse that I bought (or which), the dependent clause
is restrictive, and merely limits the antecedent. It
is properly introduced by that or which.
Note.The common forms, a brother
of
mine, that horse
of
yours, &c, are identical in formation with the phrases, a
brother of Henry's, that horse of John's, &c. The latter are
mentioned under the heading of nouns, page 118.
Model for Parsing the Pronoun.Do you know
the man whose son brought me the note ? This is
a complex, interrogative sentence. Principal clause
is, Do you know the man ; Dependent clause is,
Whose son brought me the note. Subject of the
principal clause is you
;
predicate is do know. Sub-
ject of the dependent clause is son
;
predicate is
brought.
You is a personal pronoun, second person, singu-
lar or plural number, nominative case, subject of
do know. Rule : The subject of a finite verb is in
the nominative case.
Whose is a relative pronoun, masculine gender,
third person, singular number, to agree with its ante-
cedent, man
;
possessive case limiting son. Rule :
A noun or pronoun in the possessive limits the
meaning of another noun denoting a different thing.
noun, pronoun and verb :
EXERCISE IV.
Whom did you see ? We met the man whom you described.
He is the person who gave us the books.
John
is the boy
whose horse I borrowed. Henry was he whom you meant.
The house is Doctor Smith's, who often visits us. Why did
you not give him the money ? I have broken the gun which
my father gave me. Did you not hear the speaker whose
speeches are so praised ? Whoever wishes can come. We
found the book we had lost. The colt hurt itself. The king
himself will write him his commission. I could have got me
an umbrella. Who comes there ? Whom the gods love die
young. I engaged the person you mentioned. Whatever it
may be, I can discover it. Did you give the general himself
the letter ? That colt of mine was killed. A cousin of yours
will come.
REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 77
REVIEW OF PRONOUNS.
(To be Written.)
1. Define pronouns. How many sorts are there? and name
them and give examples.
2. Write five sentences containing personal pronouns as
subject.
3. Write five sentences containing personal pronouns as direct
object.
4. Write five sentences containing intensive pronouns.
5. Write five sentences containing reflexive pronouns.
6. What are interrogative pronouns ? and give example,
7. What is the peculiar use of the relative pronoun ?
8. Write five sentences containing relative pronouns as
subject.
9. Write five sentences containing relative pronouns as direct
object.
10. Write the declension of the personal pronouns.
*^
THE ADJECTIVE.
45. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun (or
pronoun) to limit or qualify its meaning. The term
is derived from adjectivus, that which is added. In
the sentence, The boy saw two men who had some
red apples, the words the, two, some and red are
clearly added to certain nouns, and affect their
meaning. The first three, the, two, some, limit the
meaning of the nouns to which they belong, and the
fourth, red, states a qaality of the noun to which it
belongs.
When an adjective is joined directly to a noun, as
in the sentence above, it is said to be used attribu-
tively. When it stands in the predicate, as, Snow is
white, it is said to be used predicatively. Any num-
ber of adjectives can be joined attributively to a
noun
;
as, The large, sweet, red apple. If several
adjectives are used in the predicate they must be
connected by conjunctions ; as, The child is healthy
and strong.
There are two general classes of Adjectives,
Limiting Adjectives and Qualifying Adjectives.
Limiting Adjectives.
46. A Limiting Adjective is one that merely limits
the meaning of a noun without stating any quality
that belongs to the noun. They are
THE ADJECTIVE. 79
47. Articles.The limiting adjectives the and an
or a are sometimes called Articles, and are occa-
sionally regarded to form a distinct
"
part of speech."
They are, however, simply limiting adjectives, and
should be treated as such without any distinction
between them and the other limiting adjectives.
The is used to point out a particular thing or
things ; as, the man (a special man)
;
the horses
(special horses).
An or a is used to point out any individual ; as, a
man (any man). When an is used before a word
beginning with a consonant it drops the n and as-
sumes the form a. An is used with singular nouns
only.
48. Pronominal Adjectives are those which have
the use
(1)
of adjectives
;
as, Some men were hurt,
and
(2)
of pronouns
;
as, Some laughed.
Following is a list of the most important pro-
nominal adjectives :
all either much several
another few neither some
any former other such
both latter own that
enough many same this
The two uses of the pronominal adjectives are
illustrated in the sentences below :
Used as adjectives, having
nouns to agree with
All men are mortal.

Another person must help
you.
Have you any money.
Both men helped me.
Either way is good.
I desire neither book.
Used as pronouns, having
no nouns, but standing in
place of nouns
All must die.

I need another.
I have not any.
Both are pleasant.
I do not like either.
Neither is good enough.
The pronominal adjectives are sometimes further
divided mto
four
classes :
(1)
Demonstrativesthose used to point out ob-
jects
;
as, This man. These men. That horse.
Those horses. The demonstratives are former, lat-
ter, that, these, this, those, same, such.
(2)
Indefinitesthose used to denote number in-
definitely ;
as, All men. Some trees. The indefi-
nites are all, any, another,
few,
many, none, other,
some.
(3)
Nmneralsthose used to denote number
exactly; as, Two boys. The
first
place. Numerals
are divided into Cardinals, which tell how many
;
as, one, two, three, etc. ; Ordinals, which tell
of
what
rank ; as,
first,
second, third, etc.
;
Distributives,
which tell how many apiece ; as, each, either, neither,
one apiece, two apiece, etc.
THE ADJECTIVE. 81
(4)
Interrogative and Relative pronouns when
used with a noun ; as, Which horse? Whatever
man.
49. Some of the pronominal adjectives change
their form for number and case ; either has either'
s
as possessive, another has another's as possessive,
and other has a plural
Norn, others
;
Poss. others'
;
Obj. others.
The forms each other and one an other are
always pronouns. In them the each and the one are
always nominative case ; other and an other may be
any case but nominative. The sentence, The girls
love each other=The girls love one the other. The
sentence, The girls borrow each other's books=The
girls borrow, the one the other's books. The sen-
tence, The girls give each other presents=The
girls give presents, the one to the otket. And so for
'one an other.
50. The pronominal adjectives any, no (a form of
none), and some, are used with the limiting adjective
else, and the nouns body or thing between them
;
as,
any body else, so7ne thing else. The last two words
in the combination form compound nouns, limited by
the adjective any or no or some. They are always
singular, and form the possessive by the regular
law
;
as, any body else's, etc.
51. The numerals, pair, brace, dozen, score, hun-
dred, thousand, etc., are nouns, and may be used as
singulars with the indefinite article before them ; as,
a pair, a dozen; or they may be used as plurals
;
as,
hundreds of men, pairs of horses. Such of them as
mean two (brace, couple, leash, pair, etc.,) are fol-
lowed by
of
and a plural noun
;
as, a pair
of
gloves,
a couple
of
horses. The others, in the singular, form
compound collective nouns with the following nouns
;
as, a dozen men, a hundred dollars. (The same form
is found in the phrase, a good many.) In the plural
they are followed by
of
and a plural noun
;
as, hun-
dreds
of
men. These last are also used as adjec-
tives
;
as, six dozen eggs, three hundred sheep. All
the other numerals are pronominal adjectives, except
in special cases ; as, by twos, byfours,
etc.
1. Write five sentences containing pronominal adjectives
used as pronouns.
2. Write five sentences containing demonstrative adjectives.
3. Write five sentences containing demonstrative pronouns.
4. Write two sentences illustrating the use of each other.
5. Write five sentences illustrating the use of numeral ad-
jectives.
THE ADJECTIVE. 83
Qualifying Adjectives.
52. A Qualifying Adjective is one that names
some quality of the noun to which it is joined
;
as,
A good man.
53. Regular Comparison.Most adjectives are
qualifying, and they, together with a few limiting
adjectives, have an inflection called Comparison to
enable them to express degrees of quality or
quantity.
54. There are three Degrees
of
Comparison, the
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
The Positive degree is the simplest form of the ad-
jective. The Comparative degree is formed from the
positive by the suffix er or the prefix more, and it
implies that the quality is one degree higher than
the positive. The Superlative degree is formed from
the positive by the suffix est or the prefix most, and
it implies that the quality is raised to its highest
degree.
In general, adjectives of one syllable form the
comparative and superlative by the suffixes er and
est ; as, positive
lo7tg, comparative
longer, super-
lative
longest ; and adjectives of more than one

syllable form the comparative and superlative by
prefixing more and most to the positive
;
as, posi-
tive
beautiful, comparative
more beautiful, super-

lative
most beautiful.
55. Irregular Comparison.Many adjectives
form their comparison irregularly as below :
Positive. Comparative, Superlative.
bad' \
evil
[
worse worst
ill 3
far farther farthest
forth further furthest
fore former foremost
good better best
hind hinder hindmost
late later latest
late latter last
little less least
many- more most
much more most
nigh nigher next (nighest)
old older-elder oldest- eldest
rathe rather
56. Three of these above owe their extreme
irregularity to the loss of some part which they had
in Saxon, and the use of another adjective in place
of it. Thus the Anglo-Saxon weors (bad) is the
positive from which worse and worst are derived
;
bet (good) is the positive that gave better and best
;
las (weak) is the positive of less and least.
Far, farther, farthest, refers to distanceI like the
farthest house.
(Forth), further, furthest, refers to something addi-
tionalI make thefurther statement.
THE ADJECTIVE. 85
Later and latest refer to timeDefer the matter
to a later date.
Latter and last refer to positionHe stood in the
last place.
Older and oldest refer to persons and things.
Elder and eldest to persons.
57. Incomparables.Some adjectives cannot, in
absolute strictness, admit of comparison, and these
are sometimes classed as incomparables. They are
adjectives in which the meaning of the positive is
already as strong as it can be made. Such are
dead, empty, eternal,
infinite, left, perfect,
perpetual,
square, wooden, etc.
Note. Some of these adjectives; as, perfect, round, square,
are often used to denote an approach to the quality which they
imply. When we say, The earth is round, we do not mean
exactly round but nearly so. In this use these adjectives can
be compared and such forms as, This painting is more perfect
than that one, would be correct.
58. In such sentences as,
John
lost his knife, the
word his may be regarded as an adjective and said
to limit knife. Then a new class of limiting adjec-
tives would be made, and the name given to them
is Possessive Adjectives.
The relation between his and knife is, however,
quite as clear if his is said to be the personal pro-
noun in the possessive case limiting knife. This
explanation of his makes the existence of the pos^
sessive adjective needless.
59. After these pronouns is often used the adjec-
tive own; as, my own home, his own father. The
adjective own has the sense of proper and qualifies
the following noun which is limited by the possess-
ives my, his, her, etc.
60. Adjectives Used as Nouns.
When the noun

to which the adjective belongs is omitted, the adjec-
tive becomes a noun
;
as, The good (men) die young.
The wicked (men) flee. The nouns thus formed are
always plural and are always preceded by the defi-
nite article the. Good (happiness). Goods (prop-
erty), and evil have become ordinary common
nouns.
61. A peculiar and very common English con-
struction is the use of the noun as an adjective in
such forms as, a winter home, the garden gate, etc.
These forms may generally be regarded as com-
pound nouns.
&
is,
&
SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 87
SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE.
62. The comparative degree of the adjective is
followed by the conjunction than and a clause
;
as,
John
is taller than William (is). I like
John
better
than (I like) William.
The superlative degree of the adjective is fol-
lowed by the preposition
of
and the objective case
;
as, He is the strongest of the boys.
That with which anything is compared is called
the Complement. In the above sentences William
and boys are complements.
Rule of Syntax.Adjectives limit nouns and
pronouns.
Rule of Syntax.Adjectives in the predicate
limit the subject. The predicate in this case is
some such verb as be, become, get, grow, look,
seem, etc.
noun, pronoun, adjective and verb :
EXERCISE V.
This coat fits you, that does not. The night was cold, but
the day was warmer.
John
is a strong boy. The longer
story pleases me. Robert is riding his own horse. Somebody
else must go. The brave soldiers aided each other. Several
persons were hurt when the house was wrecked. Some chil-
dren are polite, some are rough. A hundred cattle were
grazing. The poorer people were starved. Better boys
cannot be found. The merry children gave one another
little gifts. The sleepy baby was thrown out when the clumsy
cradle fell. When the colonel was sick his major commanded
the soldiers. The boys killed many birds when they were
hunting; and they missed a good many. Twenty men were
sent; they found the spring, and filled their casks. You must
get somebody else's umbrella. James is a stronger boy than
John. You should use your own books, and not borrow some-
body else's. He is an uncle of mine. William had his own hat.
REVIEW OF THE
ADJECTIVE. 89
REVIEW OF THE ADJECTIVE.
(To be Written.)
1. Define adjective, and state the two great classes and
explain.
2. What are the divisions of limiting adjectives ?
3. What is a pronominal adjective, and why is it so called ?
4. Name the classes of numerals.
5. Write out five adjectives which have regular comparison.
0.
Write out five adjectives which have irregular comparison.
7. Make five sentences containing qualifying adjective in
positive degree in predicate.
comparative degree in predicate.
superlative degree in predicate.
10. Make five sentences containing adjective in positive used
attributively.
11. Make five sentences containing adjective in comparative
used attributively.
12. Make five sentences containing adjective in superlative
used attributively.
THE ADVERB.
63. An adverb is a word that limits a verb or an
adjective or another adverb. The term comes from
ad-verbum, that which is added to a verb. The fol-
lowing sentences illustrate the use of the adverb :
(1)
Limiting a verb. The horse runs
fast.
The
soldiers will not retreat.
(2)
Limiting an adjective. The child is very ill.
The
freshly painted house is pretty.
(3)
Limiting another adverb. The girl reads
quite well. The note is rather badly written.
If several adverbs limit one verb or one adjective
or one adverb, the limiting adverbs must have con-
junctions between them expressed or understood
;
as, He speaks clearly and well. Really and truly
beautiful. Really and truly well made.
Note. An additional treatment of nouns, verbs, pronouns
and adjectives will be given farther on
;
but adverbs, preposi-
tions, exclamations and conju?ictio?is will be presented but
once, and the treatment then will be as full as seems desirable.
Further reference t the last four parts of speech will be
merely incidental.
64. With regard to their meaning adverbs are
divided into five classes, as follows :
(a) Adverbs
of
Cause answer the question, why ?
as, therefore, wherefore.
THE ADVERB. 91
(b) Adverbs
of
Degree answer the question, how
much? as, enough, little, much.
(c) Adverbs
of
Manner answer the question, how ?
as, badly, truly, well
(d) Adverbs
of
Place answer the question, where ?
whither? whence? as, here, there, everywhere.
(e) Adverbs
of
Time answer the question, when ?
how
often ? as, now, twice, frequently, seldom.
Note.The numeral adverbonce, twice, three times, etc.,
is included among adverbs of time. This arrangement has
some convenience, and is as exact as any classification that
can be made.
The common expression, Three times two are six, must be
explained as follows : Two is the subject, and, being an
adjective used as a noun, it is limited by the numeral adverb
three times, etc. The verb in these forms should be plural
except, perhaps, when one is the subject ; as, Three times one
is three. The use of English writers is, however, very dif-
ferent as to the verb in these sentences, and many good
authorities use the singular.
65. The Responsives.The common wordsyes and
no are better treated here than elsewhere. When
the question,
"
Did you go to town ?
"
is asked, the
answer, "Yes," means "I did go to town." The
answer, "No," means "I did not go to town." It
is plain that the words yes and no stand for whole
sentences, and so cannot be called parts
of
speech.
92
66. With regard to their use adverbs are divided
into three classes, as follows :
(a) Simple Adverbs are those which only modify
the words with which they are used ; as, He ran
quickly. They will come soon.
(b) Interrogative Adverbs are those used in ques-
tions
;
as, Why do you go ? Where is his home ?
(c) Conjunctive Adverbs are those that not only
modify a word but connect the clauses in which they
stand with the principal propositions
;
as, We know
where you went. He heard when they called. From
the fact that they connect propositions (like relative
pronouns) these adverbs are sometimes called rela-
tive adverbs.
Below is a list of the most important conjunctive
adverbs
:
as where and wherever whereon
than whereat whether
when whereby while
whence wherefore whilst
whenever wherein why
67. Regular Comparison.Adverbs admit of an
inflection (Comparison) similar to that of adjectives.
Many adverbs are related to adjectives in form and
meaning. Adverbs of one syllable form their com-
parative and superlative by the suffixes er and est.
Those of more than one syllable form by joining
THE ADVERB. 93
more and most to the positive
;
as, Positive
soon,
Comparative
sooner, Superlative
soonest; or, Posi-

tiverapidly, Comparative
more rapidly, Superla-

tive
most rapidly. The use of comparison in

adverbs is, like that in adjectives, to supply forms
by means of which different degrees of meaning
may be assumed by the adverbs.
68. Irregular Comparison.Like the corre-
sponding adjectives many adverbs form their com-
parison irregularly, as below
:
ositive. Comparative. Superlative.
badly )
ill
3
worse worst
far farther farthest
forth further furthest
late later (latter) last (latest)
little less least
much more most
near (nigh) nearer next
(rathe) rather
well better best
Note.In such sentences as, He would rather send than
go, etc. , the adverb rather has exactly its old force of sooner.
The full form would be, He would send sooner than he would
go. With this use of rather the verb would can be explained
as governing the following infinitive. In the common form,
He had rather send than go, the verb had cannot be explained
at all. This latter form is, however, the preference of many
good writers. There is some ground for supposing that would
rather expresses a weak preference, and had rather a strong
one.
69. Adverbial Phrases.Many adverbs contain
several words
;
as, every once in a while, every day,
etc. They can be recognized by observing that they
modify a verb, etc., and they may be parsed as one
word since they are generally equal in meaning to
some one adverb. These phrases should be assigned
to their proper classes. Some are simple
;
as, once
on a time, etc.
;
some are conjunctive
;
as, so soon as,
so long as, etc.
70. Position
of
the Adverb.Some adverbs and
adverbial phrases demand care as to their position
in the sentence. The most important is the adverb
only. Below are given some illustrations of the
changes in sense caused by inserting only in different
positions in a sentence
:
He only will see his house=No one else will see it.
He will only see his house=He will do nothing but see it.
He will see only his house=He will see nothing else.
He will see his only house=The only house he has.
Especially to be avoided is the placing of an ad-
verb between the infinitive of the verb and its sign
to; as, to greatly admire, etc.
No law governing this matter can be stated. The
adverb should be so placed in the sentence as to
render its use as clear as possible, and whenever
the sense cannot be made entirely plain by locating
the adverb, the sentence should be recast.
THE ADVERB. 95
71. Special Adverbs.
(1)
Adverbs are used as
nouns in such sentences as, Now is your time. I
have not seen him since then,
(2)
Adverbs are used as adjectives in such rare
phrases as, The then owner. Thine often infirmities.
The above sentence.
(3)
The same word is often used both as an ad-
verb and as a preposition
;
as, He went by. He
went by the gate. They rose up. They came up
the hill.
(4)
In phrases like twice a day, etc., the whole
may be regarded as a simple adverb, or a day may
be considered an adverb (daily), limited by another
adverb, twice,
(5)
The is an adverb in such forms as, the more
the better, etc. The full form is by how much (it is)
more, by that much (it is) better.
(6)
As may be a simple adverb, e.
g,,
As strong,
as truly.
Or it may be a conjunctive adverb, e.
g.,
He went
out as I came in.
Or it may be a relative pronoun, e.
g.,
He is not
so good a man as I thought.
Or it may be a conjunction, e,
g.,
As he is here,
I must go home.
SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB.
72. The comparative degree of the adverb is fol-
lowed by the conjunction than and a clause
;
as,
John
runs faster than William (runs). He lived here
longer than (he lived) in London.
73. The superlative degree of the adverb is fol-
lowed by the preposition <?/and the objective case
;
as, He runs fastest
of
all the boys. Other facts as
to the use of the comparative and superlative of the
adverb may be inferred from the remarks on the
same forms of the adjective (page
123).
Rule of Syntax.Adverbs modify verbs, adjec-
tives and other adverbs.
noun, pronoun, adjective, verb and adverb :
'
EXERCISE VI.
He came slowly, but he reached home at last. I cannot
tell why he does not like me. The taller house stands where
the mill stood years ago. How did you find out what was the
matter? The gentleman gladly gave the poor man some
money when he saw how much he needed it. Do you like
this city as much as Paris ? The general was not so brave a
soldier as the king. The more you read that history the
better you will like it. The robber ran quickly away as soon
as he saw the dog. Regularly, twice a week, he visited his
mother. The merchant will surely pay all his debts by
next
SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 97
year. Robert drives more carefully than James. The boys
like the farm better than the city. We climbed three hours
up a mountain two miles high. The father being dead, the
son inherited his whole estate. Robert, have you caught the
horse at last ? I am six years older than my only brother,
John.
Sllfe:
REVIEW OF THE ADVERB.
(To be Written.)
1. Define adverb, and state classes.
2. Make two sentences illustrating use of adverbs of each
class.
3. Write in full five adverbs which have regular comparison.
4. Write in full five adverbs which have irregular comparison.
5. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying verbs.
6. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying adjec-
tives.
7. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying other
adverbs.
8. Make four sentences illustrating the uses of as.
9. Make five sentences containing adverbial phrases.
THE PREPOSITION. 99
THE PREPOSITION.
74. A preposition is a word that shows the rela-
tion between a noun or a pronoun, and a verb, an
adjective or another noun. The term comes from
prae, before, and ponere, to place.
75. In the sentence, The tree is before the house,
the word before shows the relation between tree and
house. It is a preposition. The following sentences
illustrate prepositions which join
(1)
noun to verb.
Henry stood at the door
;
(2)
noun to adjective.
Lucy is fond of
flowers ; (3)
noun to another noun.
The man in the bed is sick.
The noun or pronoun which depends on the
preposition is said to be governed by it, and a prepo-
sition may also govern
(1)
an infinitive,
(2)
a clause,
when they are used as nouns
;
as
(1)
Noun, The man sat in the cart.
(2)
Pronoun, Give the books to him.
(3)
Infinitive (with to), They never saw him except to scold him.
(4)
Infinitive (in ing), His reason/br doing this is clear.
(5)
Clause, I will be guided by what you say.
76.
Following is a list of the most important
prepositions :
about around beyond off towards
above at but on under
across before by over underneath
after behind down round until
against below excepting since unto
along beneath for through up
amid beside from throughout upon
amidst besides in till with
among between into to within
amongst betwixt of toward without
77. There are two classes of prepositions
Simple
and Compound.
(1)
Simple Prepositions.The following are the
simple prepositions : at, by, for, in, of, off, on, out,
with, up.
(2)
Compound Prepositions are formed in several
ways
(a) By prefixing a preposition, a=on, be=by, to a

noun or an adjective
;
as, a-cross, a-round, besides,
be-low, etc.
(b) By adding a comparative suffix to an adverb
;
as, af-ter,
ov-er, etc.
(c) By combining several prepositions
;
as, into,
within, etc.
(d) By prefixing a preposition to an adverb
;
as,
a-bove, a-bout, be-fore,
etc.
Prepositions usually stand before the words that
they govern.
THE PREPOSITION. 101
78. Prepositional Forms.A number of words
now used as prepositions are not properly such, but
the tendency is constantly stronger to regard them
as prepositions, because their construction is so
rendered more simple.
Except and save are the imperatives of the verbs
to except and to save, and the word by which they
are followed is really the direct object of the verb.
Barring, conceiving
',
regarding, respecting, touch-
ing, are present participles of their respective verbs,
and the word governed by them is the direct object.
During and notwithstanding are used as preposi-
tions, but they are present participles (from endure
or dure and to not withstand). The nouns are
joined to them in a construction called absolute.
Section
31,
(8).
79. Prepositional Phrases are collections of
words joined by a preposition to the rest of the sen-
tence, and having the force of an adjective or an ad-
verb. Thus, in the sentence, The roses in the garden
are beautiful, in the garde7i is a prepositional phrase
used as an adjective to limit the noun roses. In the
sentence, The bird sits on the
fence,
o?i the
fence
is a
prepositional phrase used as an adverb to modify
the verb sits.
A prepositional phrase is sometimes used as a
noun in such forms as, from across the ocean, from
down the valley. Phrases so used are generally
governed by
from.
SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION.
80. Prepositions govern the objective case.
The preposition by and the objective case ex-
presses the agent with the passive voice
;
as, The
house was built by the carpenter.
81. Certain verbs, nouns and adjectives require
special prepositions after them. Observation and
practice will enable one to avoid errors in this
respect.
Below is a list of a few such words with the proper
prepositions :
Accord with. Convenient to (a person).
Acquit
of.
Convenient
for
(a purpose).
Adapted to (by design). Disappointed
of
(fail to get).
Adapted for
(by nature). Disappointed in (dissatisfied
Agree with (a person). with).
Agree to (or proposition). Y2.xX.fr0m (a person).
Confer on (give to a person, Part with (a thing).
discuss a plan). Reconcile to (a person).
Confer with (a person). Reconcile with (a thing).
Analyze the following sentences and parse each
noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb and prepo-
sition :
SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 103
EXERCISE VII.
The sailor sat quietly in his boat while the storm raged
around. Several hundred sheep were in the field when the
wolf was shot. Why did you not consent to the arrangement
more gracefully? Whom did the officers find in the house
when they searched it ? After he had gone up the hill he slipped
down. How can you answer such questions so ? When the
king had come to the city he found the gates strongly guarded
by soldiers. I drove to the left so soon as I saw the hole on
the right of the road. The boy climbed into the cart, but he
soon fell out again. I can come by to-morrow, if not earlier.
The bear was standing still on a rock when suddenly he spied
me and sprang down. The wind being still we could not ad-
vance many miles up the stream. When the deer had run a
few steps he fell dead. James, is that your knife? Yes, it is.
The day being bright we went out several hours for a walk.
The house which we built is forty feet long.
THE EXCLAMATION.
82. An exclamation is a word that expresses some
sudden emotion
;
as, ah ! hurrah ! oh ! etc. The
term is derived from ex-clamare, to cry out. Excla-
mations are often called Interjections.
83. Exclamations are not strictly parts of speech,
as they have no grammatical connection with other
words in the same sentence. They, therefore, have
no syntax. Really exclamations are whole sentences
in themselves. "Hurrah!' means "I am glad."
"Oh!' means "lam sorry," etc. In writing and
printing these words are followed by the exclama-
tion point
(
!
)
.
84. A number of the exclamations have no mean-
ing, but are simply natural cries, almost the same in
sound coming from men as from animals. Others
are the imperatives of verbs
;
as, hark ! hush ! etc.,
or shortened forms of phrases
;
as, Alas, from a
lesso=.0\\, miserable me ! Adieu, from a dzeu=(I
entrust you) to God ! Good-bye=God be with you.
O dear, O a
7
ieu=0 God ! Welcome !=You are
well come, etc.
Below are given sentences illustrating the use of
the exclamations :
Ah ! how sorry we all were.
Aha ! I have you there.
Alack a day ! whom have we here ?
THE EXCLAMATION.
105
Alas ! I have lost them.
Ha ! what was that ?
Hark ! can you not hear the shouting ?
Hush ! he is asleep.
O John ! come here.
Oh ! how I wish we had him back.
THE CONJUNCTION.
85. A Conjunction is a word that joins proposi-
tions or phrases or words together ; as, I shall go
and see the doctor. Come either to-morrow or next
day.
John
and
James.
The term is derived from
con-jungere, to join together.
Conjunctions are of two kinds
(a) Co-ordinating Conjunctions are those which join

two things of the same rank, i. e.
y
two principal
propositions or two dependent propositions or two
phrases or two words.
The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are, and,
both, but, either-or, neither-nor.
(b) Subordinating Coujunctions are those which
join two things of different ranks, and their only
use is, therefore, to join a dependent proposition to
a principal proposition
;
as, I gave him money
because he needed it, etc.
The principal subordinating conjunctions are, as,
after,
because,
before,
ere,
for, if,
lest, since, than,
though, till, unless, until, while, ivhether-or.
SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 107
SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION.
Rule of Syntax.The conjunction connects
words or phrases or propositions.
86. The conjunction has no control over the gram-
matical forms of the words which it joins. The only
requirement to be met is, in the case of co-ordinat-
ing conjunctions, that the two words, etc., should
have the same use in the sentence. If one of two
nouns joined by a conjunction is subject the other
must also be subject, etc.
The English language has completely lost the use
of the Subjunctive Mood except in rare cases and in
the practice of very exact writers. Many of the
offices performed in the classical languages by this
mood has been assumed in English by the Potential,
and many of them by periphrastic forms.
87. Many conjunctions require certain other con-
junctions to follow them to complete the sense.
These pairs are called Correlative Conjunctions,
e.
g.y
as-as, either-or, neither-nor, so-as, though-yet,
whether-or.
The adjective both requires the conjunction and
;
the adjective such requires the conjunction as. The
adverbs as and so require the conjunction as.
In the use of the correlative conjunctions it is not
clear that the first conjunction connects anything.
In the phrase, both
John
and
James,
the conjunction
and alone would seem to perform the office of con-
nective.
In complex sentences the conjunction that is often
omitted
;
as, I told you (that) he was here, etc.
Analyze the following sentences and parse each
part of speech
:
EXERCISE VIII.
I did not see the thief because it was so dark in the hall.
John
must either come himself or send a substitute. Did you
know that the President was here ? No. As he is innocent he
should be acquitted. I did not tell
James whether the king
would come to-morrow or not. The general could not save
his army, though he was as prudent as any man could have
been. Both
John
and his father staid till morning. We can-
not go away till our guests leave. The house was so situated
that the trees hid it completely from view. I did not know he
was here. No one could tell whether the cavalry would return
in time for the fight or not. Did you walk a mile, or two ?
Mary, I cannot be ready for dinner, so do not wait for me.
The king having ended his speech, the people applauded. The
wheel being broken is no longer safe. I do not know how
many inches taller Robert is than I. This house was built
forty years ago. John
minds his own business, and nobody
else's. An uncle of Robert's passed through here to-day and
left him a message. Our own house is good enough for us.
VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 109
VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH.
88. Many words vary in the uses made of them,
and consequently become different parts of speech
in different circumstances. The use of course de-
termines what part of speech a word must be, and
a little thought will commonly enable the student
to decide the question accurately. A list of a few
of the most common of these variables is, however,
appended for the sake of illustration :
A is an adjective ; as,
A is apreposition
;
as,
Above is a preposition
;
as,
Above is an adjective ; as,
Above is an adverb
;
as,
After is a preposition
;
as,
After is an adverb
;
as,
All is adjective ; as,
All is a pronoun
;
as,
All is an adverb
;
as,
Any is an adjective ; as
Any is an adverb ; as,
Any is a pronoun
;
as,
As is an adverb
;
as,
As is a conjunction
;
as,
As is a relativepronotm
;
as,
Below is an adverb
;
as
Below is a noun
;
as,
Below is & preposition
;
as
He has a horse.
He went ^-hunting.
He lives above the post-office.
Read the above sentence.
He lives above.
He called
after
me.
He came soon after. He came
after you left.
All men are sinners.
All is gone.
He went all over the place.
Has he any money ?
Is he any better ?
I have money. Has he any ?
He is as brave as you. He came
as I left.
As he did not come, I will go.
He is not such a man as I like.
He went below.
He came from below.
He lives below the hill.
But is an adverb
;
as,
But is a conjunction
;
as,
But is a preposition
;
as,
Else is an adjective ; as,
Else is an adverb
;
as,
Else is a conjunction
;
as,
Enough is an adjective
; as,
Enough is an adverb
;
as,
Enough is a pronoun
;
as,
Full is an adjective ; as,
Full is an adverb
;
as,
Like is an adjective
;
as,
Like is an adverb
;
as,
Like is a noun
;
as,
Like is a verb
;
as,
Near is an adjective; as,
Near is an adverb
;
as,
Near is a preposition
;
as,
Since is an adverb
;
as,
Since is a conjunction
;
as,
Since is a preposition
;
as,
That is an adjective ; as,
That is a conjunction
;
as,
That is a pronoun
;
as,
What is an adjective ; as,
What is an adverb
;
as,
What is an interjection
;
as,
Whatis an inter-pronoun
;
as,
Whatis a relativepronoun
;
as,
He can #/ do this.
He was sick but he recovered.
All are dead but him.
He saw someone else.
Where else is he ?
He will come, else he will write.
He has enough money.
He has slept enough.
He got enough.
He is
full of learning.
He has
full
many a friend.
He is like his brother.
He acts like a madman.
He and his like are rascals.
I like flowers.
The rtear approach of danger
frightened him.
He was near.
He was near me.
He has not been here since he
was sick.
He cannot come since he has no
money.
He has been here since Monday.
He shot that bird.
He said that he was sick.
He rode his horse, not that of his
father.
What a noise he makes.
What with his talents and his
wealth, he became a leader.
What! did he do this?
What did he say ?
He did what he promised.
VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. Ill
89. Any part of speech may be used as a verb in
such sentences as, "But me no buts," "Clerk me
no clerks," etc.
The words most likely to be confused are the
adverbs, conjunctions and prepositions.
90. Any part of speech may be used as a noun in
such sentences as, He said
"
Yes." It spells "long"
etc. The commonly quoted sentence, "The boy
said that that that that that lady used was incor-
rect/' contains four different uses of that.
Refer to any school dictionary, and, taking a few
pages at a time, select all the words that may be
used in several ways in a sentence. Make a sen-
tence in which these variable forms are correctly
introduced.
Analyze and parse the following sentences.
Change simple sentences to compound, and com-
pound to simple. Change active verbs to passive,
and passive to active. Note each part of speech
that may be used in several ways
:
EXERCISE IX.
1. John's uncle gave him a watch.
John kept the watch
two years. Now he has lost it.
2. We came to a stream. The stream was Detween two
hills. We crossed the stream on a log.
3. The house was built by my father. The house was built
during the war. It has been sold. A rich merchant bought it.
4. The boys went hunting. They went into the mountains.
They saw three deer. They shot one.
5. We shall go to London. We shall start next week.
We shall stay six months.
6. The roads were very steep. The load was quite heavy.
The horses could not pull the wagon. The driver took some
of the load off.
(1)
The book which we are reading was written by a welU
known scholar who lived at the close of the fifteenth century.
(2)
You must come to see me again and bring with you your
daughter Mary, whom we all admire so much.
(3)
Dr.
Smith, who lived here so long, moved to Paris, and, when he
had been there a year, he came back to America again.
(4)
The mountains which we see yonder in the distance stand
in Scotland, where I was born.
SYNTAX. 113
PART III
SYNTAX.
91. Syntax is the statement of the laws by which
one word is related to others in the same construc-
tion. The word is derived from the Greek sun-taxis,
arrangement together.
Regular Constructions follow the general laws of
Syntax, and these have been already stated partially.
Irregular Constructions (called idioms) do not fol-
low those general laws, but must be otherwise
accounted for. Commonly these idioms result from
leaving out words necessary to the exact construc-
tion. This omission is called Ellipsis.
In this part of the Grammar will be treated those
extensions of the general laws which seem most
important, and those irregular constructions which
best illustrate the idioms of the language.
NOUNS.
Nominative Case.
92. I. Rule of Syntax.The subject of a finite
verb is in the nominative case.
The subject may be
1. A noun; as,
John
came.
2. Apronoun
;
as, He came.
3. An
infinitive ; as, To hunt is tiresome.
4. Aphrase
;
as, Reading good books is instructive.
5. A clause
;
as, That he is brave is clear to all.
II. Rule of Syntax.A noun in the predicate
meaning the same thing as the subject agrees with
it in case.
Predicate Nominative.
(1)
The infinitive or participle of an intransitive
or passive verb may take a noun or pronoun after
it in the same case as a noun or pronoun preceding
it ; as, He is regarded to be a brave man. I con-
sider him to be a gentleman. In the first case man
is in the nominative because he is the subject. In
the second case gentleman is in the objective because
him is the direct object.
(2)
When the subject consists of more than one,
the predicate nominative is plural ; as,
John
arid
James
are my
friends.
NOUNS. 115
Possessive Case.
93. Rule of Syntax.A noun in the possess-
ive limits the meaning of another noun denoting
a
different thing.
(1)
When the limited noun may be easily under-
stood it is often omitted ; as, We are going to our
aunt's (home).
(2)
When several possessives are in apposition
the last term takes the possessive ending
;
as, He
rode his brother Robert's horse.
(3)
When several possessives are connected by
and, and separate ownership is asserted, each noun
takes the possessive ending ; as, John's and Wil-
liam's shoes. Here
John
and William own different
shoes.
(4)
When several possessives are connected by
and, and joint ownership is asserted, the last noun
takes the possessive ending ; as, Walker and Smith's
office. Here Walker and Smith own the same office.
Objective Case.
94. I. Rule of Syntax.The direct object of a
transitive verb is in the objective case.
The direct object may be
1. A noun ; as, I saw

John.
2. Apronoun ; as, Robert knows us.
3. An infinitive ; as, He likes to read, or reading.
4. Aphrase; as, He wishes to have a holiday.
5. A clause
;
as, He knows that you can come.
(1)
Every part of a transitive verb in the active
voice may have a direct object.
(2)
Verbs meaning to allow, promise, refuse, etc.,
may have a direct object after the passive ; as, He
was promised a reward.
(3)
Verbs meaning to ask, elect, choose, name,
teach, etc., may have two direct objects, one of the
person and the other of the name given or the office
bestowed, etc.
;
as, The people chose him king.
He taught us grammar.
II. Rule of Syntax.The indirect object of a
transitive verb is in the objective case.
Note. Generally the indirect object comes before the direct
object ; as, Give the beggar (indirect object) money (direct
object). But when both objects are represented by pronouns,
the tendency is strong to place the direct object first ; as, Give
it (direct) him (indirect).
Any verb whose meaning permits may take
an indirect object in addition to its direct object.
When such verbs become passive they give two
forms of the passive sentence.
If the sentence, The hunter shot the deer, is
changed to the passive form, it can have but one
shapeThe deer was shot by the hunter. The sub-
ject hunter becomes the objective, governed by by
;
the direct object deer becomes the subject ; the verb
changes from active to passive, and no other form
can be made,
NOUNS.
117
But if the sentence, The teacher gave the boys
holiday, be put in the passive, it can assume the
form,
(1)
The boys were given holiday by the
teacher, and
(2)
Holiday was given the boys by
the teacher. In the first case the indirect object ot
the active becomes the subject, in the second case
the direct object of the active becomes the subject.
In each case that object which does not become the
subject in the passive form keeps the same relation
which it had in the active.
The same peculiarity is shown by sentences which
contain two direct objects as in
(3)
above.
III. Rule of Syntax.Prepositions govern a
noun or pronoun in the objective case.
(1)
The object of a preposition may sometimes
be omitted
;
as, The man (whom) I sent for did not
come.
(2)
The objective case and the preposition
of
is
used instead of the possessive of common nouns
which are the names of things
;
as, The foot of the
stair, instead of the stair's foot, etc. The possessive,
however, is frequently found.
(3)
The objective case and the preposition
of
is
used instead of the possessive of antecedent ; as,
This is the house
of
the doctor who comes to our
house, instead of, This is the doctor's house who
comes to our house.
(4)
The objective case and the preposition by is
used for the agent with passive verbs
;
as, He was
hurt by the train.
(5)
The preposition <?/"and the possessive case are
often found in such forms as, He is a brother of
John's, etc. This is an elliptical (shortened) form
for, He is a brother of (out of the number of)
John's
brothers. The preposition governs brothers under-
stood. The similar form, in which no plural noun
can be understood ; as, That nose of
John's,
that
head of his, etc., does not admit the same explana-
tion. It properlv came into use as an outgrowth of
the other form.
In the following sentences parse the nouns
:
EXERCISE X.
1. A wit's a feather, and a chief's a rod,
An honest man's the noblest work of God.
2. Come, gentle spring ! ethereal mildness, come !
3. Confidence is a plant of slow growth.
4. There mark what ills the scholar's life assail,
Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail.
5. A little rule, a little sway,
A sunbeam in a winter's day,
Is all the proud and mighty have
Between the cradle and the grave.
THE PRONOUN. 119
THE PRONOUN.
95. Rule of Syntax.A pronoun agrees with
its antecedent in gender, number and person.
(1)
All pronouns agree with the nouns for which
they stand in all respects but in case. Every pro-
noun takes its case from its use in the sentence in
which it stands, and these uses are covered by the
laws given for nouns. As already stated, the pro-
noun cannot be used in the Nominative Independent,
and has one use which the noun has notviz., the
connective use of the relative pronoun.
(2)
When the antecedents of a pronoun are of
several persons, the pronoun is first person rather
than second, and second rather than third
;
as, You
and
John
and I saw our friends. You and
John
saw
your friends.
(3)
When the antecedents are of different genders,
the pronoun is masculine rather than feminine, and
feminine rather than neuter ; as, Neither man nor
woman neglected his task. This use is objected to
by some writers, but the form is clearly better than,
Neither man nor woman neglected their tasks, as
the sentence contains no plural as antecedent to
their. Some writers use the form, Neither man nor
woman neglected his or her task, but the repetition
of the pronoun is clumsy and needless.
(4)
The preposition to with the objective of rela-
tive pronouns takes the place of the indirect object
;
as, He is the person to whom I gave the ticket, or
He is the person whom I gave the ticket to.
(5)
The relative pronoun whose is commonly said
to be the correct form when the antecedent is a
person, its place being taken by
of
which when the
antecedent is a thing; as, The man whose son
came, etc. The mountain, the top of which we
saw. This distinction, however, is not reliable, as
numerous examples of excellent English will show
"fruit whose mortal taste," etc.

(6)
The relative pronoun which may have a
clause as its antecedent ; as, He climbed the moun-
tain, which was a difficult feat. The relative that
cannot have this use. The nearest form in which
that can be used would be, He climbed the moun-
tain and that (demonstration) was a difficult feat.
(7)
The relative pronoun what has the same
power as that which. The use of what is fourfold.
It may be equivalent to
1. Two nominatives; as, This is what he is=the person

(pred. nom.) that (pred. nom.)
2. Nominative and Objective ; as, This is what he
saw=the thing (pred. nom.) that (dir. obj.)
3. Two objectives
;
as, He got what he sawthe thing
(dir. obj.) that (dir. obj.)
4. Objective and Nominative
;
as, I see what he is
the person (dir. obj.) that (pred. nom.)
THE PRONOUN. 121
(8)
In such sentences as,
John
gave Robert his
knife, it is not possible to say whether
John
or
Robert is the antecedent of his, whether it is John's
knife or Robert's. Such difficulties may generally
be removed by rearranging a sentence, using such
words asformer and latter, etc. English, however,
seems to need an additional pronoun of the third
person to be used as the representative of some
exact word in the sentence
;
as, for instance, the
subject. In the above sentence the new pronoun
would refer to John,
and there would be no doubt
of the meaning.
Such an additional pronoun has been frequently
suggested, but there is no inclination on the part
of people generally to adopt it.
In the following sentences parse the pronouns :
EXERCISE XL
1. Good company in a journey makes the road seem shorter
than it is.
2. They shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig-
tree.
3. No one knows what the future has in store for him.
4. Your son and I must go to-day. You and your brother
can come later.
5. I never thrust my nose into other men's porridge. It is
no bread and butter of mine. Every man for himself, and
God for us all.
6. There is no man so good that, were he to submit all
his actions to the law, he would not deserve hanging ten times
in his life.
THE ADJECTIVE.
96. Rule of Syntax.Adjectives modify nouns
and pronouns.
(1)
Adjectives in the predicate both complete the
meaning of the verb and modify the subject. In the
sentence, Snow is white, is is a verb of incomplete
predication. The adjective white completes the
meaning of the verb and, at the same time, modifies
snow.
(2)
Adjectives which have different forms for sin-
gular and plural agree with their nouns in number
;
as, this apple, these apples, that man, those men.
(3)
Indefinite adjectives of quantity are followed
by singular nouns. Indefinite adjectives of number
are followed by plural nouns
;
as, much rain, many
rains.
(4)
The adjectives each, every, either, neither must
be used with singular nouns ; as, each day, every
man, either road.
97. Articles.When several adjectives limit a
noun, and but one person or thing is meant, the
article is used before the first adjective
;
as, The tall,
blue mountains. But if several persons or things
are meant, the article is repeated before each adjec-
tive
;
as, The tall and the blue mountains.
In the same way when several nouns mean the
same person or thing the adjective is used before
THE ADJECTIVE. 123
the first ; as, The farmer and merchant has come
(one person). But if several things are meant, the
article is repeated before each
;
as, The farmer and
the merchant have come (two persons).
98. Comparative Degree.The comparative de-
gree is used when two things are compared. When
the comparative degree is used the latter term of
the comparison must exclude the former by the use
of the adjective other ; as, England is richer than
any other country. If other were omitted England
in the above sentence would be said to be richer
than itself.
99. Superlative Degree.The superlative de-
gree is used when comparison is made between
more than two things.
When the superlative degree is used the latter
term of the comparison should include the former
;
as, England is the richest of all countries. If other
were inserted England would be said to be the rich-
est thing of a class to which it did not belong (other
countries).
100. As a multitude oi adverbs end in ly, the few
adjectives in this ending, friendly, leisurely, etc., are
sometimes misused as adverbs. This is especially
the case with friendly. Adverbs formed from these
adjectives do not exist, as they would have the
awkward forms
friendlily, etc. Their place is taken
by a prepositional phrase, in afrie?idly
manner, etc.
John
looks pale, The
rose smells sweet, etc., the adjective is properly used,
because the reference of pale and sweet is to the
nouns and not to the verbs.
John
arrived
safe, John
arrived
safely,
the adjective or the adverb is used
according to whether the reference is to John
or to
arrive. The meaning is about the same in both
forms, but in a great majority of such sentences the
reference is intended to be to the nouns, and these
sentences should contain the adjective.
In the following sentences parse the adjectives :
EXERCISE XII.
1. These apples are not ripe.
2. The merchant lived many years and saved right much
money.
3. Each seems worse than the other.
4. The Pacific is larger than any other ocean.
5. The elephant is the largest of animals.
6. Oh, a dainty plant is the ivy green,
That creepeth o'er ruins old
;
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween,
In his cell so lone and cold.
7. It's wiser being good than bad.
It's safer being meek than fierce.
It's fitter being sane than mad.
THE VERB. 125
THE VERB.
I. Agreement.
103. Rule of Syntax.A verb agrees with its
subject in number and person.
(1)
When the subject consists of several parts,
joined by either-or, neither-nor, the verb is in the
singular
;
as, Neither
John
nor
James has come.
(2)
When the subject consists of several parts,
joined by and, the verb is in the plural
;
as,
John
and James
are here.
(3)
Collective nouns take a singular verb when
the idea is one of unity. They take a plural verb
when the idea is one of plurality
;
as, The army has
marched (as one man). The people were disap-
pointed (as many).
(4)
When several nouns form one idea, the verb
is singular
;
as, The wheel and axle was broken.
(5)
When one of two subjects is excluded from
the statement of the verb by not, the verb is in the
singular and agrees with the subject which is not
excluded
;
as,
John,
not James, is here.
(6)
When several subjects are of different persons
the verb takes the first person rather than the
second and the second rather than the third
;
as,
You and
James and I (we) went fishing and (we)
caught some fish. You and
James
(you) went fish-
ing and (you) caught some fish.
(7)
When subjects of different persons are joined
by either-or, neither-nor, the verb agrees with the
nearest subject ; as, Either you or I am mistaken.
Neither you nor he is mistaken.
(8)
When one of two subjects of different persons
is excluded from the statement of the verb by not,
the verb agrees with the other
;
as, You, not I, are
wrong. I, not you, am wrong.
(9)
When several words compose the name of one
subject, the verb is singular; as, "The Curiosities
of Literature" is a valuable book.
(10)
The verb to be often agrees with the predi-
cate nominative instead of the subject ; as, The
wages of sin is death.
II. Government.
Rule of Syntax.Transitive verbs (in the active
voice) govern the objective case.
(1)
Participles and infinitives have the same power
to govern nouns (that is, to cause them to be in the
objective case) as the finite verb. They have be-
sides the use of some other part of speech, as
follows :
(a) The infinitive may be a neiiter noun in the
nominative or objective case, and may be the subject
or direct object in a sentence. The infinitive used
as direct tfbject is commonly called Complementary
Infinitive ; as, To hunt (hunting) is tiresome. I
like to
fish
(fishing).
THE VERB. 12*
(b) The infinitive may be an adjective. It may
either stand in the predicate with an intransitive or
passive verb, or it may be used attributively and
modify a noun directly ; as, He is to be excused
(excusable). He lent me a book to read (a reading
book).
(c) The infinitive may be an adverb. It may
modify
(1)
a verb ; as, I came to see you.
(2)
An
adjective ; as, It was dreadful to hear.
(3)
An
adverb
;
as, To speak truly.
(d) The infinitive in ing (the gerund) may be the
object of a preposition
;
as, He excels in writing.
He made a fortune by saving, etc.
Note.With the participle there are two constructions in
English which involve little difference either in grammar or in
sense. We may say,
(1)
He heard the thief cominghere
thief is direct object and is limited by coming used as an adjec-
tive. Or we may say,
(2)
He heard the thief s cominghere
coming is direct object and is limited by the possessive
thief s.
Some cases might involve a preference. The farmer confessed
his horse's breaking the fence, is correct. The farmer con-
fessed his horse breaking the fence, would have no meaning.
When reference is intended to the noun, the noun is subject
or object, as in sentence (I) where thief
is direct object.
When reference is intended to the participle, the participle is
subject or object, as in sentence
(2)
where coining is direct
object. The remarks are not limited to the present participle.
(2)
The infinitive mood of a verb (being a noun)
is often the direct object of a transitive verb, and
(being a verb) may itself have a subject, direct
object, etc.
In the sentence, I saw him (to) come, him (in the
objective case) is the subject of to come.
Rule of Syntax.The subject of the infinitive
mood is in the objective case.
(3)
To is commonly omitted from infinitives after
tne active voice of bid, dare,
feel,
hear, let, make,
need, observe, see, and the auxiliaries
;
as, I bid him
(to) go, etc. The verb need, in negative sentences,
does not take the ending (s) of the third person
singular
;
as, He need not go. The use of to with
the infinitive is borrowed from the Danish.
Note.In the construction, I needs must go, He needs
must come, etc., needs is an adverb. It may be an objective
plural kin to the objective adverbial, or it may be a pojssessive
singular in which the apostrophe has never been inserted, and
so really identical with the phrase
of
necessity, with which it is
identical in meaning. (See remarks on possessive of common
nouns, Article
9.)
Parse the infinitives and participles in the follow-
ing sentences
,
EXERCISE XIII.
(1)
Seeing is believing.
(2)
By spending his money too
fast, he became poor.
(3)
In doing this you will not lose any-
thing.
(4)
To walk is pleasant.
(5)
We saw a boy carrying a
basket.
(6)
He lent me a horse to ride.
(7)
I have some-
THE VERB. 129
thing to tell you. (8) We saw the boy catch the colt.
(9)
I
wanted to look at him.
(10)
Bid him bring the wood.
(11)
Through his trying to save a friend, the sailor himself
was drowned.
(12)
We like walking by the sea.
(13)
He is
not to blame. (14) We met the sailor coming up the hill.
(15)
The king discovered the general's concealing the facts.
(16)
He needs must use somebody else's books.
(17)
We
regretted the boy's arriving so late.
III. Tense
of
Infinitive.
When the infinitive ex-
presses action which is present or future at the time
of the verb on which the infinitive depends, the
present is the tense of the infinitive
;
as, I wished to
see you yesterday. The seeing was to take place
while I was wishing, or a little in the future from
that time.
When the infinitive expresses action which is past
at the time of the verb on which the infinitive
depends, the perfect is the tense of the infinitive
;
as, He seemed to have heard bad news. The hear-
ing was past at the time of the seeming.
104. Subjunctive Mood.The subjunctive mood
has nearly passed out of use in English. The lan-
guage has lost much in beauty and exactness by
this fact, but there is no sort of likelihood that
the subjunctive will ever be restored to the place
which it held even seventy years ago.
The subjunctive should be used when a statement
is so made as to imply doubt or consequence or wish
in the mind of the speaker
;
as (doubt), If it be clear
to-morrow I may go. (Consequence), He must take
heed lest he
fall.
(Wish) , I would he were here.
In the following sentences parse the verbs with
special attention to infinitives and participles :
EXERCISE XIV.
1. You will find angling to be like the virtue of humility.
2. The accusing spirit, which flew up to heaven's chancery
with the oath, blushed as he gave it in
;
and the recording
angel as he wrote it down dropped a tear upon the word and
blotted it out forever.
3. The sounding cataract haunted me like a passion.
4. By governing himself, a man learns to rule others.
5. The wretch concentred all in self,
Living, shall forfeit fair renown,
And, doubly dying, shall go down
To the vile dust from whence he sprung,
Unwept, unhonored and unsung.
6. Night is the time to weep,
To wet with unseen tears
Those graves of memory where sleep
The joys of other years.
7. A noise like of a hidden brook
In the leafy month of
June,
That to the sleeping woods all night
Singeth a quiet tune.
SYNTAX. 131
SYNTAX.
Subject, Predicate and their Modifiers.
105. The subject of a sentence is a noun or any
form that can be used as a noun, i. e., a noun, or a
pronoun, or an adjective used as a noun, or the
infini-
tive
of
a verb, or a phrase, or a clause
;
as,
Noun : William is here.
Pronoun : They will come.
Adjective used as a Noun : The wicked will be punished.
Infinitive : To hunt is pleasant. Running is tiresome.
Phrase: Attending to his own business makes a man rich.
Clause : That this is trtie is clear to all.
106. The predicate must be a verb. No other
word can be used as a verb. When the subject and
the predicate of a sentence have been selected all
the remaining words, phrases and clauses are modi-
fiers either of the subject or of the predicate. The
direct object, together with its adjectives, must be
taken along with the predicate, as it is necessary to
complete its meaning.
Those which modify the Subject are adjectives or
adjectivalphrases or adjectival clauses.
Those which modify the Predicate are adverbs or
adverbialphrases or adverbial clauses.
107. The subject taken alone is called the gram-
matical subject, because it is, in grammar, the nomi-
132
native case to the verb. The grammatical subject
taken with all its adjectival modifiers is called the
logical or complete subject, because it is the complete
thing of which something is declared.
108. The predicate taken alone is called \}ne gram-
maticalpredicate, because, in grammar, it agrees with
the grammatical subject. The grammatical predi-
cate taken with all its adverbial modifiers is called
the logical or complete predicate, because it is the
complete thing which makes the declaration.
109. Modifiers of the Subject.The modifiers
of the subject may be
1. An adjective : as, The rich man died.

2. A noun orpronoun in the possessive case; as, John's
father came. Her father came.
3. A noun in apposition ; as, William, the tailor, made
my coat.
4. An adjective phrase; as, The flowers in the garden are
pretty. The bird sitting on the fence
is a robin
.
5. An adjective clause introduced by a relative ; as, The
boy whomyou see is Thomas.
As the noun can have any number of adjective
modifiers, the subject may be modified by any num-
ber of these adjectival forms.
110. Modifiers of the Predicate.The modi-
fiers of the predicate may be
SYNTAX.
133
1. An adverb
;
as, He travels slowly.
2. A direct object ; as, They saw me.
3. An indirect object ; as, He gave William a dollar.
4. An objective adverbial; as, He walked a mile.
5. An infinitive ; as, He tried to speak.
6. An adverbialphrase
;
as, He went into the garden.
7. An adverbialclause; as, He stopped because Icalled him
As the verb may have several adverbs to modify
it, the predicate may be modified by any number of
these adverbial forms.
111. Dependent Propositions are either adjective
or adverbial, according as they modify a noun or
pronoun, or a verb in the principal propositions.
According to their meaning dependent clauses
are
(a) Causal, i. e
,
those which state a reason
;
as,
Since he has come, I can go. Causal clauses are in-
troduced by the causal conjunctions, because, as, etc.
(b) Concessive, i. e., those which state a conces-
sion
;
as, Though he is rich he is not happy. Con-
cessive clauses are introduced by the concessive
conjunctions, though, however, etc.
(c) Conditional, i. e., those which state a condition;
as,
If
he come I shall go. Conditional clauses are
introduced by the conditional conjunctions,
if,
etc.
(d) Comparative, i. e., those which state a compari-
son
;
as, It looks as
if
it were going to rain. Com-
parative clauses are introduced by the comparative
conjunction, as
if,
etc.
(e) Final, i. e.
y
those which state a purpose or
result ; as, I made the gate so the horse could get
through. I made the fence so high that the horse
did not jump it. Final clauses are introduced by
the final conjunctions, that, lest, etc.
(f) Temporal, i. e.
y
those which state time
;
as, I
shall come when the sun rises. Temporal clauses
are introduced by the temporal conjunctions, when,
while, etc.
(g)
Relative, i. e.
y
those introduced by a relative
pronoun or a relative adverb
;
as, The man who was
sick got well. I know where he is.
Relative clauses introduced by a relative pronoun
are used as adjectives and modify some noun in the
principal proposition.
The other dependent clauses are commonly
adverbial, and modify the verb of the principal
proposition.
112. There is practically no use of mood peculiar
to the dependent clause in English. The tendency
to simplify the syntax has been strong enough to
abolish the subjunctive almost wholly. But there is
a peculiar use of tense illustrated in the conditional
and comparative sentence, sometimes called the
hypothetical law of tense, from hypothesis=a sup-
position.
SYNTAX. 135
When the speaker says, If I had money, I could
pay you, the reference is to present time, but the
verb is past tense. When the speaker says, If I
have money, I can pay you, the reference is to
future time, but the verb is present tense. When
the speaker says, If I had had money, I could have
paid you, the reference is to past time, but the verb
is past perfect
tense.
The law is that in sentences containing supposi-
tions, the verb slips backward one stepfor future
time the verb is present, for present time the verb
is past, for past time the verb is past perfect.
113. When the speaker gives the exact words of
another person, as in this sentence, I saw Mary and
she said, "I am not well," the form is called direct
narration {oratio recta), and is enclosed in quotation
marks as above.
When the speaker gives, not the exact words, but
the substance of what another person says, as in
this sentence, I saw Mary and she said that she was
not well, the form is called indirect narration {oratio
obliqud). Clauses in oratio obliqua always depend
on the verb (of saying or thinking) in the principal
sentence. Consequently these clauses are always
dependent.
In the following exercise analyze the sentences,
classify the clauses, turn oratio recta into oratio
obliqua and vice versa.
EXERCISE XV.
1. The boy said that he was going- to town to-day to get his
books.
2. No one could imagine where the deserters went.
3. The king made the wall so thick that the enemy could
not break through.
4. We did not know our lessons because we did not study
them long enough.
5. The lion looked as if he would spring upon us.
6. This man is a great benefactor to the poor, though he is
so poor himself.
7.
Henry said,
"
I shall not lend
John
my knife again in a
hurry."
8. When the whistle sounded, all the workmen left the
factory.
9. We dug this ditch that the water might be drawn off.
10. You look as if you did not believe us.
11. We shall see him if he comes to-morrow.
12. The lady declared that her little daughter was too ill to
be at school.
13. We send this now, lest we forget it to-night.
14. The master asked John
whether he was fond of skating
or not.
15. As you are here, we can go to church together.
16. Though these boys are brothers, they do not love each
other.
17. I cannot go with you if my cousin, William, does not go.
18. I feel as if I should faint.
19. Those boys whom we saw at the corner were going
hunting.
20. Whenever he sees me he says that I am like my father.
21. We made the fence that the horse might not get away.
22. We made the fence so that the horse did not get
away.
SYNTAX. 137
114. The following examples will illustrate the
complete analysis of the sentence
:
1. Simple Sentence.
Washington, the commander of the Americans, captured
the British army under Cornwallis at Yorktown.
This is a simple declarative sentence.
Grammatical SubjectWashington,
Adjectival modifiers
(a) the commander

of
the
Americans.
I.
i
Grammatical Predicate
captured.
Adverbial modifiers
(b) the British army under

Cornwallis.
(b) at Yorktown.
Modifiers of the Subject
(a) The commander of the Americans.

Central word
commander, in apposition to
Washington.
Modifiers
(a') the, adjective limiting com-

mander.
fa')
of
the Americans, prepositional
p
h r a s e=adjective limiting
commander.
Modifiers of the Predicate
(b) The British army under Cornwallis.

Central word
armydirect object of captured.

Modifiers (b') the adjective limiting army.
j I
J
(b') Britishadjective limiting army.
(b') under Cornwallis, prepositional
phrase=adj. limiting army.
(c) At Yorktown. Prepositional phrase used as an
adverb of place to limit captured.
10
II.
This analysis is sufficient for the simple sentence
because it reduces the elements of the sentence to
phrases, and the composition of these can be seen
at a glance. The compound sentence, in case it
does not contain dependent clauses, can be divided
into its simple sentences and each simple sentence
analyzed by the above method.
2. Complex Sentences.
The king, who was frightened at the condition ofthe treasury,
took those measures to fill it which were suited to his needs.
This is a complex, declarative sentence.
Grammatical Subject
King.
Adjectival Modifiers
(a) the.
(a) who was frightened at the
I.
\
condiiio?i
of
the treasury.
Grammatical Predicate
took.
Adverbial modifiers
(b) those measures to

fill
it which
were suited to his needs.
Modifiers of the Subject
(a) Theadjective limiting king.

(a) Who was frightened at the condition
of
the treas-
ury, dependent clause used as an adjective
limiting king,
(a) Who was frightened at the condition of the
treasury.
Subject
who.
Adjectival modifiers
(a
7
)
(none).
Predicate
wasfrightened.
Adverbial modifiers
(b') at the condition

of
the treasuryprepositional phrase used as
adverb modifying was frightened.
II
\\l.\
SYNTAX. 139
Modifiers of the Predicate
(b) Those measures to fill it which were suited to his

needs.
Central word
measuresdirect object of took.

Adjective modifiers
(a') those adjective lim-

iting measures.
(a') to Jill itinfinitive
phrase used as an
adjective modifying
measures.
(a') which were suited to
his needsrelative
clause used as an
adjective limiting
measures.
(a') To fill it.
Central word
to
Jill.
Adverbial element
(b") itdirect object of to

jut.
(a') Which were suited to his needs.
Subject
which.
Adjective modifiers
(a") (none).
Predicate
were suited.
Adverbial modifiers
(b") to his needsprepo-

sitional phrase used as an adverb modifying
were suited.
III. 1
I
The compound sentence may be divided into
simple and complex sentences, and the complex
sentences analyzed as above.
Analyze the following sentences
:
EXERCISE XVI.
1. His sons, of whom the old man had three, were con-
stantly plotting against their father's peace of mind.
2. Where the torrent poured last winter there is now a
rocky bed in which great boulders lie.
3. Such men as William Tell will be venerated as long as
there are nations to bless their benefactors.
4. In his guarded tent
The Turk lay dreaming of the hour
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent,
Should tremble at his power.
5. When we came to the brook we found that we could cross
by climbing from rock to rock.
6. Although the location was unfavorable the settlers found
that they prospered in their new home.
7. While he was calling his men to come to his rescue the
robber chief was killed by a shot from the attacking party.
8. It may be true that he is a selfish man in general, but I
know some instances of his generosity.
9. Those who were injured in the battle we. had to carry
many miles before we could leave them in safety.
10. Whenever we go to the country we feel relief from our
ordinary duties.
11. Have you never seen the people who live in your old
home?
12. We could not tell whether the enemy would attack us
or wait for us to attack them.
SYNTAX. 141
13. In order that he might rob a neighbor whom he had
promised to defend, black men fought on the coast of Coro-
mandel and red men scalped each other by the great lakes of
North America.
14. Spake full well in language quaint and olden,
One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine,
When he called the flowers, so blue and golden,
Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine.
15. If, as you say,
1
you never had any friends to aid you,
how did you succeed so well ?
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
Present. Past. Past Participle.
abide abode abode
arise arose arisen
awake awoke-ed awaked
be was been
bear (to produce) bore born
bear (to carry) bore borne
beat beat beaten
begin began begun
behold beheld beheld
bend bent-ed bent-ed
bet bet-ed bet-ed
bereave bereft bereft-ed
beseech besought besought
bid bid, bade bid, bidden,
bind bound bound
bite bit bit, bitten
bleed bled bled
blend blent-ed blent-ed
bless blest- ed blest- ed
blow blew blown
break broke, brake broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
build built-ed built-ed
burn burnt-ed burnt-ed
burst burst burst
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 143
buy- bought bought
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
chide chid chid, chidden
choose chose chosen
cleave (to adhere) clave, cleaved cleaved
cleave (to split) clove, cleft, clave cleft, cloven
cling clung clung
clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
crow crew, crowed crowed
cut cut cut
dare durst, dared dared
deal dealt- ed dealt- ed
dig dug, digged dug, digged
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt-ed dreamt-ed
dress drest-ed drest-ed
drink drank, drunk drunk, drunken
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled
eat ate, eat eaten, eat
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel
felt felt
fight
fought fought
Prese?it. Past. Past Participle.
find found found
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbear forbore forborne
forget forgot forgot, forgotten
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
get got got, gotten
gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt
gird girded, girt girded, girt
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
heave heaved, hove heaved
hew hewed hewn-ed
hide hid hid, hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
kneel knelt- ed knelt-ed
knit knit-ed knit-ed
know knew known
lade laded laded, laden
lay laid laid
lead led led
leap leapt-ed leapt-ed
learn learnt- ed learnt-ed
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay Iain
light lit, lighted lit, lighted
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
mow mowed mowed, mown
pass passed, past passed, past
pen penned, pent penned, pent
prove proved proven-ed
put put put
quit quit-ed quit-ed
rap rapped, rapt rapped, rapt
read read read
rend rent rent
rid rid-ed rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang, rung rung
rise rose risen
rive rived rived, riven
run ran run
saw sawed sawed, sawn
say- said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved-en
shear sheared, shore shorn, sheared
shed shed shed
shine shone, shined shone, shined
shoe shod shod
shoot shot shot
show showed shown, showed
shred shred shred
shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk,shrunken
shut shut shut
sing sang, sung sung
sink sank, sunk sunk
sit sat sat
slay- slew slain
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid, slidden
sling slung slung
slit slit-ed slit-ed
smell smelled, smelt smelled, smelt
smite smote smitten, smit
sow sowed sown-ed
speak spoke spoken
speed sped, speeded sped, speeded
spell spelled, spelt spelt, spelled
spend spent spent
spill spilled, spilt spilt, spilled
spin spun, span spun
spit spit, spat spit
split split, splitted split, splitted
spoil spoilt- ed spoilt-ed
spread spread spread
spring sprang, sprung sprung
stand stood stood
stay- stayed, staid stayed, staid
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stride strode stridden
strike struck struck
string strung strung
strive strove striven
swear swore, sware sworn
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen, swelled
swim swam, swum swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
Present. Past Past Participle.
thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived
throw- threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden, trod
wake woke, waked waked, woke
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wed wedded, wed wedded, wed
weep wept wept
wet wet, wetted wet, wetted
win won won
wind wound, winded wound
work worked, wrought worked, wrought
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
EXERCISES. 149
The following selections are for further exercise
in analysis and parsing
:
Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring
Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess sing
;
That wrath which hurled to Pluto's gloomy reign
The souls of mighty chiefs untimely slain :
Whose limbs unburied on the naked shore,
Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore :
Since great Achilles and Atrides strove,
Such was the sovereign doom, and such the will of
Jove.
Declare, O muse ! in what ill-fated hour,
Sprung the fierce strife, from what offended power ?
Latonai's son a dire contagion spread,
And heaped the camp with mountains of the dead
;
The king of men his reverend priest defied,
And, for the king's offence, the people died.
Opening
of
Homer's Iliad
Pope's Translation.
Arms and the man I sing, who, forced by fate,
And haughty Juno's
unrelenting hate,
Expelled and exiled, left the Trojan shore :
Long labors, both by land and sea, he bore
;
And in the doubtful war, before he won
The Latian realm, and built the destined town :
His banished gods restored to rites divine,
And settled sure succession in his line
;
From whence the race of Alban fathers come,
And the long glories of majestic Rome.
O, muse ! the causes and the crimes relate,
What goddess was provoked, and whence her hate :
For what offence the queen of Heaven began
To persecute so brave, so just a man
;
Involved his anxious life in endless cares,
Exposed to wants and hurried into wars
;
Can heavenly minds such high resentment show,
Or exercise their spite in human woe ?
Opening
of
Vergil's sEneid
Dryden s Translation.
Arms and the chief I sing, whose righteous hands,
Redeemed the tomb of Christ from impious bands
;
Who much in council, much in field sustained,
Till just success his glorious labors gained
;
In vain the powers of Hell opposed his course,
And Asia's arms, and Libya's mingled force
;
Heaven blessed his standards, and beneath his care
Reduced his wandering partners of the war.
O sacred muse ! who ne'er in Ida's shade,
With fading laurels deck'st thy radiant head
;
But sitt'st enthroned, with stars immortal crowned,
Where blissful choirs their hallowed strains resound
;
Do thou inflame me with celestial fire,
Assist my labors and my song inspire.
Opening
of
Tasso' sJerusalem Delivered
Hoole's Translation.
Of man's first disobedience and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought deach into the world and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater man
EXERCISES. 151
Restore us and regain the blissful seat,
Sing heavenly muse, that on the secret top
Of Horeb or Sinai didst inspire
That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed,
In the beginning how the Heavens and Earth
Rose out of Chaos; or, if Sion hill
Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed,
Fast by the oracle of God
;
I thence
Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song,
That with no middle flight intends to soar
Above the Ionian mount while it pursues
Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme.
Opening
of
Miltori s Paradise Lost.
Harp of the North ! that mouldering long hast hung
On the witch-elm that shades Saint Fillan's spring,
And down the mournful breeze thy numbers flung,
Till envious ivy did around thee cling,
Muffling with verdant ringlet every string
O minstrel Harp, still must thine accents sleep ?

Mid rustling leaves and fountains murmuring,
Still must thy sweeter sounds their silence keep,
Nor bid a warrior smile nor teach a maid to weep ?
Not thus in ancient days of Caledon,
Was thy voice mute amid the festal crowd,
When lay of hopeless love, or glory won,
Aroused the fearful or subdued the proud.
At each according pause, was heard aloud
Thine ardent symphony sublime and high
;
Fair dames and crested chiefs attention bowed :
For still the burden of thy minstrelsy-
Was knighthood's dauntless deed and beauty's matchless eye.
O wake once more ! how rude soe'er the hand
That ventures o'er thy magic maze to stray
;
O wake once more ! though scarce my skill command
Some feeble echoing of thine earlier lay
;
Though harsh and faint and soon to die away,
And all unworthy of thy nobler strain,
Yet if one heart throb higher at its sway
The wizard note has not been touched in vain,
Then silent be no more ! Enchantress, wake again !
Opening
of
Scott's Lady
of
the Lake.
I purpose to write the history of England from the accession
of King James
the Second down to a time which is within the
memory of men still living. I shall recount the errors which,
in a few months, alienated a loyal gentry and priesthood from
the House of Stuart. I shall trace the course of that revolu-
tion which terminated the long struggle between our sover-
eigns and their parliaments, and bound up together the rights
of the people and the title of the reigning dynasty. I shall
relate how the new settlement was, during many troubled
years, successfully defended against foreign and domestic
enemies
;
how under that settlement the authority of law and
the security of property were found to be compatible with a
liberty of discussion and of individual action never before
known; how, from the auspicious union of order and freedom,
sprang a prosperity of which the annals of human affairs had
EXERCISES. 153
furnished no examples; how our country, from a state of
ignominious vassalage, rapidly rose to the place of umpire
among European powers ; how her opulence and her martial
glory grew together
;
how, by wise and resolute good faith,
was gradually established a public credit fruitful of marvels
which to the statesmen of any former age would have seemed
incredible; how a gigantic commerce gave birth to a maritime
power, compared with which every other maritime power,
ancient or modern, sinks into insignificance; how Scotland,
after ages of enmity, was at length united to England, not
merely by legal bonds, but by indissoluble ties of interest and
affection; how, in America, the British colonies rapidly became
far mightier and wealthier than the realms which Cortes and
Pizarro had added to the dominions of Charles the Fifth; how,
in Asia, British adventurers founded an empire not less splendid
and more durable than that of Alexander.
Opening
of
Macaulay*s History
of
England.
I have friends whose society is extremely agreeable to me
;
they are of all ages and of every country. They have dis-
tinguished themselves both in the cabinet and in the field, and
obtained high honors for their knowledge of the sciences. It
is easy to gain access to them, for they are always at my service,
and I admit them to my company and dismiss them from it
whenever I please. They are never troublesome, but imme-
diately answer every question I ask them. Some relate to
me the events of past ages, while others reveal to me the
secrets of nature. Some teach me how to live, and others how
to die. Some by their vivacity drive away my cares and
exhilarate my spirits while others give fortitude to my mind,
and teach me the important lesson how to restrain my desires
and depend wholly on myself. They open to me, in short, the
various avenues of all the arts and sciences, and upon their
information I safely rely in all emergencies. In return for all
these services they only ask me to accommodate them with a
convenient chamber in some corner of my humble habitation,
where they may repose in peacefor these friends are more
delighted by the tranquillity of retirement than with the
tumults of society.
Petrarch,
Learning is like mercuryone of the most powerful and
excellent things in the world in skillful hands
;
in unskillful,
the most mischievous.
Pope.
He that knoweth not what he ought to know is a brute
among men
;
he that knoweth no more than he hath need of,
is a man among brute beasts
;
and he that knoweth all that he
may know, is as a god amongst men.
Pythagoras.
I consider a human soul without education like marble in the
quarry, which shows none of its inherent beauties until the
skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface
shine and discovers every ornamental spot, cloud and vein that
runs through the body of it. Education, after the same
manner, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to view
every latent virtue and perfection, which without such help are
never able to make their appearance.
Addison.
A joyless and dreary season will old age prove if we arrive
at it with an unimproved or corrupted mind. For this period,
as for everything, certain preparation is necessary; and that
EXERCISES. 155
preparation consists in the acquisition of knowledge, friends
and virtue. Then is the time when a man would specially wish
to find himselfsurrounded by those who love and respect him
who will bear with his infirmities, relieve him of his labors and
cheer him with their society. Let him, therefore, now in the
summer of his days, while yet active and flourishing, by acts
of seasonable kindness and benevolence insure that love, and
by upright and honorable conduct lay the foundation for that
respect which in old age he would wish to enjoy. In the last
place let him consider a good conscience, peace with God and
the hope of heaven, as the most effectual consolations he can
possess when the evil days shall come.
Blair.
Hohenlinden.
On Linden when the sun was low,
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow,
And dark as winter was the flow
Of Iser, rolling rapidly.
But Linden saw another sight,
When the drum beat at dead of night
Commanding fires of death to light
The darkness of her scenery.
By torch and trumpet fast arrayed
Each horseman drew his battle blade,
And furious every charger neighed
To join the dreadful revelry.
Then shook the hills with thunder riven :
Then rushed the steed to battle driven
;
And louder than the bolts of Heaven
Far flashed the red artillery.
But redder yet that light shall glow
On' Linden's hills of stained snow :
And bloodier yet the torrent flow
Of Iser, rolling rapidly.
Tis morn : but scarce yon level sun
Can pierce the war clouds, rolling dun,
Where furious Frank and fiery Hun
Shout in their sulphurous canopy.
The combat thickens. On, ye brave
Who rush to glory, or the grave
;
Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave,
And charge with all thy chivalry.
Few, few shall part where many meet
!
The snow shall be their winding sheet,
And every turf beneath their feet
Shall be a soldier's sepulchre.
Campbell.
The Light of Other Days.
Oft in the stilly night
Ere slumber's chain has bound me,
Fond memory brings the light
Of other days around me,
EXERCISES. 157
The smiles, the tears
Of boyhood's years,
The words of love then spoken :
The eyes that shone
Now dimmed and gone,
The cheerful hearts now broken :
Thus in the stilly night
Sad memory brings the light
Of other days around me.
When I remember all
The friends so linked together
I've seen around me fall
Like leaves in wintry weather,
I feel like one
Who treads alone
Some banquet hall deserted,
Whose lights are fled,
Whose garlands dead,
And all but he departed !
Thus in the stilly night
Sad memory brings the light
Of other days around me.
Moore.
PUNCTUATION.
1. The subject of Punctuation (punctum, a point,
a pause) is so closely connected with Grammar that
it may with propriety be introduced at this place.
2. The laws of Punctuation are designed to show
the uses of the Punctuation Marks.
3. The Punctuation Marks are signs placed in
sentences, and they are contrived mainly to mark
the points where pauses should be made in reading
or where certain rise and fall (cadence, inflection) of
the voice should occur. The general intention of
these points is to give such directions for reading
that sentences when read shall produce the same
impression as sentences properly spoken.
4. The present art of punctuation is a modern
one, and, with few exceptions, is the same in all
languages. Aldo Manuzio, a Venetian printer, first
called general attention to the value of a system of
punctuation about 1500, and the Dutch and English
printers have contributed largely to perfect the art.
5. Quite a number of the names now given to
punctuation marks belonged originally to the parts
of the sentence cut off by these marks. The names
were gradually and easily transferred to the marks
themselves.
CAPITAL LETTERS.
>. Capital Letters {caput, a head, a beginning)
^e some uses kin to those of punctuation marks,
capitals were employed in ancient languages for
centuries before the small letters came into exist-
ence. They retain, in English, the special uses
below.
1. The Title of books, newspapers, essays, etc.,
should be in capitals
;
as, PARADISE LOST, THE
LONDON TIMES, ESSAY ON ETERNITY, etc.
2. Headings of pages, chapters, sections, etc.,
should be in capitals
;
as, PUNCTUATION, THE
PRONOUN, CHAPTER III., etc.
3. The
first
word of every piece of writing should
begin with a capital. Quite a common use is to set
the whole of the first word in capitals.
4. The first word in every sentence should begin
with a capital.
5. The first word in every verse (line) of poetry
should begin with a capital. In some writing having
the form of poetry, where the author intends to be
humorous, the humor is supposed to be heightened
by closing a verse with part of a word and using
the rest to begin the next verse
;
as,
PUNCTUATION. 161
He had a can-
dle in his hand,
Which cast a fee-
ble gleam.
The law which requires each verse to begin with
a capital letter is not commonly observed in compo-
sition of this sort.
6. All the names for God
;
as, Father, Creator,
Supreme Being, etc., should begin with a capital.
The pronouns referring to God are not generally
spelled with capitals when the noun is in the
sentence.
7. The words Heaven and Hell and Devil are
often spelled with capitals.
8. Names of the Bible and of its parts should
begin with capitals : as, the New Testament, the
Book of Psalms, etc.
9. Names of religious bodies and political parties
and organizations should begin with capitals
;
as,
the Catholics, the Christian Association, the Demo-
cratic Party.
10. All proper nouns should begin with a capital
South, North, East, West, when used as nouns
should begin with capitals
;
as, He lived in the
West.
11. Names of days of the week, holidays and
months should begin with capitals. Many writers
include names of the seasons also.
162
12. Proper adjectives should begin with capitals
;
as, American, British, etc.
13. Names of offices and titles should begin with
capitals
;
as, President of the United States, Your
Majesty, etc.
14.' The first word after a formal phrase should
begin with a capital ; as, Be it resolved, That we
shall, etc.
15. The first word of a quotation should begin
with a capital.
16. The pronoun I and the exclamation O ! are
capitals.
17. Any word to which special attention is to be
directed may begin with a capital. Such words are
usually spelled with a capital when they name things
of great general importance, or when they name
parts of a subject which are introduced for the first
time
;
as, During the progress of the Thirty Years
War, etc. The Pronoun is a word, etc.
18. All nouns naming things referred to as if they
were persons (Personification) should begin with
capitals ; as, Brightest in dungeons, Liberty, art
thou !
In the following exercise state the reason for the
use of capitals :
PUNCTUATION. 163
1. Mr. Wilson bought a Shakespeare and a Milton in New
York.
2. Our Father which art in Heaven.
3. I met the President of France at Calais.
4. William moved to the South last Christmas.
5. The soldier cried,
'
' We are happy to buy victory with life.
"
6. The place of the Noun is often taken by the Pronoun.
7. O ! how I wish Thanksgiving would come.
8. Have you never read the Tempest ?
9. LADY OF THE LAKE.
10. All nature is but art unknown to thee
;
All chance, direction which thou canst not see,
All discord, harmony not understood,
All partial evil, universal good.
11. On Friday, August, 10th., we started to the East.
12. Silence and Darkness! solemn sisters! twins
From ancient night.
13. He voted with the Republican Party.
14. The Comedy of Errors was played at the Globe in London.
15. Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,
Old Time is still a flying,
And this same flower that smiles to-day,
To-morrow may be dying.
7. There are six principal punctuation marks :
1. The Comma
,
2. The Semicolon
;
3. The Colon
:
4. The Period
5. The Interrogation
?
6. The Exclamation
!
Generally the period marks the longest pause,
the colon marks the next longest, the semicolon the
next and the comma the shortest. The pause value
of the interrogation and the exclamation is variable,
and sometimes longer and sometimes shorter. They
serve rather to warn the reader about the proper
inflection of voice than anything else.
8. In addition to the above, there are several
other marks :
7. The Apostrophe
8. The Quotation
9. The Dash

10. The Parenthesis
( )
11. The Bracket
[ ]
PUNCTUATION.
165
12. The Caret
13. The Diaeresis
14. The Hyphen
15. The Continuation
The Cedilla
V
Several of the above have only a single use, but
that is one of some importance and will be stated
at the proper place.
THE COMMA.
9. The word komma means, in Greek, a part cut
off. It is applied, in punctuation, to the smallest
division of a sentence and so to the sign which
makes the smallest divisionthe comma.
10. The Comma has two great uses.
(1)
To
mark ellipsis (omission) and
(2)
to separate any
part of the sentence which is in any way detached
in meaning from the rest.
11. Ellipsis.The comma is employed to mark
the omission of a word (generally a noun or pro-
noun or a verb, or both)
;
as, In London we heard
we heard
fine music
;
in Paris, better. Robert is the brighter
is
boy
;
John,
the better student. The black cloth
cloth costs on the
costs a dollar
;
the blue, two dollars.
January,
10th.
In the following sentences supply the ellipsis :
1. To err is human ; to forgive, divine.
2. London, April, 10th., 1890.
3. Thomas caught nine fish; Henry, seven.
4. August is the hottest month; January,
the coldest.
5. The valiant soldiers received praises: the cowardly, pun-
ishment.
6. My horse is lame; yours, sound.
7.
In May we have flowers; in September, fruits.
PUNCTUATION. 167
Write ten sentences illustrating ellipsis marked by
the comma.
12. Parenthetical Forms.The comma is em-
ployed to cut off words and phrases that are not
necessary to the structure of the sentence. These
are said to be used parenthetically, and they either
indicate some unexpressed idea that the writer has
in mind or they connect the sentence in which they
stand with something that has gone before
;
as,
Above all things, we must speak the truth. Wil-
liam was warned ; but, in spite
of
this, he did not
study. When these parenthetical forms occur in the
midst of the sentence, they must be cut off by two
commas, as in the last example. Otherwise, they
have one comma, as in the first.
All these forms must be examined carefully to see
if they are really parenthetical or only seemingly so.
In the following exercise point out the paren-
thetical expressions and give rule for the commas :
1. Robert is, without doubt, the best boy I know.
2. You can tell, to a certainty, the day of our coming.
3. In fact, the king had not started at that time.
4. This is the road to town, you know.
5. As a matter of course, we shall do as you wish.
6. We wish you would come, to be sure.
7. He rode a fiery horse, consequently, he was thrown.
8. I tell you, then, I will not go.
9. He said, too, that you had deceived him.
10. Then I told him I would not come.
11. They said that they were too tired.
13. Intermediate and Relative Expressions,
not Restrictive.The Comma is employed to cut
off expressions that come between some essential
words in the sentence, and to cut off relative clauses
when they are not restrictive. When these expres-
sions really restrict some essential word so as to
form one idea with it, they are restrictive and are
not cut off by commas. In the sentence, The man
who would rule others must rule himself, the rela-
tive clause, taken together with its antecedent man,
forms one idea and that whole idea is the subject of
the verb must. This clause is restrictive, and should
not be cut off. In the sentence, The Alps, which
are in Europe, are famous mountains, the relative
clause is not restrictive, and should be cut off by
commas. The sentence means, The Alps (and
they are in Europe) are famous mountains. If this
sentence were written without commas it would be,
The Alps which are in Europe are famous moun-
tains
;
and it would indicate that there were some
other Alps, not in Europe and not famous. Care
should be taken to distinguish clearly between those
clauses which are restrictive and those which are
not. In some cases little difference in meaning is
involved, but in many instances the distinction is
very important.
In the following exercise point out the interme-
diate expressions and the relative clauses, and give
rule for the commas :
PUNCTUATION.
169
1. The general, with all his soldiers, rode into the town.
2. Kings, who are rulers of others, should rule themselves.
3. The book, for want of proper care, soon fell to pieces.
4. The bpy, who was standing on the bridge, witnessed the
whole incident.
5. Education, in its highest sense, includes many things.
6. The queen, accompanied by all her ladies in waiting,
was at the church.
7. The love of money, which is the root of all evil, was his
gravest fault.
8. Those horses which were in the pasture have been sold.
9. Robert, with many of his father's gifts, will never be his
equal.
Write ten sentences containing intermediate ex-
pressions cut off by commas.
Write ten sentences coutaining relative clauses
which are restrictive.
Write ten sentences containing relative clauses
which are not restrictive.
14. Dependent Clauses.The cpmma is em-
ployed to cut off dependent clauses unless their
connection with the principal clause is extremely
close, as in short sentences.
In the following exercise point out the dependent
clauses, and give rule for the commas
:
1. Touch a snake, and he will bite you.
2. I could ride as well as you, if I had a bicycle.
3. When we had started to town, it began to rain.
4. Who can tell us where he is ?
12
5. If you do not write your exercise carefully, it will be full
of errors.
6. Though the price was high, he decided to buy the house.
.7. I cannot hear what you say.
8. We shall not have any holiday this year, though we have
worked so hard.
9. I may go if I choose.
Write ten sentences containing dependent clauses
properly cut off by commas.
15. Several Co-ordinate Clauses.The comma
is employed to separate clauses of the same rank
when, several of them occur in a sentence, unless
the clauses themselves contain co7nmas.
In the following exercise point out the co-ordinate
clauses and give rule for the commas :
1. Think justly, speak justly, act justly.
2. The leader was dispirited, the army was in confusion.
3. The lightning flashed, the thunder rolled, the rain poured
down.
4. We met the enemy, defeated them, and returned to
camp.
5. The citizens were reduced to misery, their food was
gone, their water was impure, their dwellings were in ruins.
6. We hurried to the city, saw the governor, got his consent,
and came home at once.
7. Edward caught the colt, bridled it, and leaped into the
saddle.
PUNCTUATION. 171
Write ten sentences containing co-ordinate clauses
16. Expressions and Words in a Series.The
comma is employed to separate expressions and
words when several come together, and have the
same use in the sentence ; as, Reading, spelling,
writing, are our first lessons. The darkening sky,
the sobbing wind, the gathering gloom, announced
the storm.
(a) If the expressions are all short and a con^
junction is used, the comma is omitted
;
as, Health
and wealth are the rewards of industry. Early to
bed and early to rise, etc.
(b) Some of the conjunctions may be omitted and
the comma used instead
;
as, The night was gloomy,
dark and cold.
(c) If the conjunction is used before the last ex-
pression, the comma is omitted after it ; as, Read-
ing, writing and spelling are our first lessons. The
darkening sky, the sobbing wind, and the gathering
gloom announced the storm.
(d) In such forms as, The beautiful blue Danube,
the comma should be used between the adjectives or
not according as you mean that the Danube is
beautiful, and the Danube is blue
;
or that the blue
Danube is beautiful. Ordinarily the comma is not
needed.
(e) If there is but one word in the sentence after
the series, the last word of the series does not take
a comma after it ; as, Henry rode a large, spirited,
vicious horse.
In the following exercise point out the words and
expressions forming a series and give rule for the
commas :
1. The attentive pupil, the careful teacher, the pleasant
room, contribute to the school's success.
2. To keep the heart pure, to keep the life clean, to store
the mind with knowledge, are high aims in life.
3. Splendid orators, wise philosophers, great generals and
gifted poets made Greece the most famous country in the
world.
4. The pale face, the quivering lip, and the tattered dress
all aroused our sympathy.
5. The horses were fleet, strong, full of fire.
6. The general was brave, honest and fortunate.
7. The day on which we started was cold, damp, cloudy
and disagreeable.
Write ten sentences containing expressions and
words, in series, properly cut off by commas.
17. Words and Phrases in Pairs.The comma
is employed to separate words or phrases used in
pairs and to cut them off from the rest of the sen-
tence
;
as, Want and idleness, competence and in-
dustry, go hand in hand. The sick and the well,
the strong and the weak, the rich and the poor, went
out to hear him.
PUNCTUATION. 173
In the following exercise point out the words and
phrases in pairs and give rule for the commas :
1. Vice and ignorance, poverty and extravagance, misery
and carelessness, belong together.
2. Powder and ball, horses and carts, food and clothing,
were lacking for the men.
3. His most distinct qualities were, honor and good breed-
ing, truth and consideration for others.
4. The brave and the cowardly, the reckless and the pru-
dent, the unhurt and the wounded, took shelter from the
storm of shells.
5. Women and children, men and horses, wagons and can-
non, were piled in hopeless disorder.
6. Lawyer and client, doctor and patient, teacher and pupil,
are all interested in this affair.
Write five sentences containing words or phrases
in pairs, properly cut off by commas.
18. Inverted Clauses, etc.The comma is em-
ployed to separate a clause or a phrase or an in-
finitive which has been moved from its natural posi-
tion to the beginning of the sentence
;
as, Alarmed
by the noise, he rushed to the house. So in making
lists of names, when the last name is put first, it is
cut off by a comma
;
as, Smith,
John
William.
In the following exercise point out the inverted
forms and give rule for the commas :
1. Springing to his feet, the soldier seized his spear.
2. Having called his comrades to his side, he ran out of the
tent.
3. To tell the truth, we never supposed you would come.
4. Looking carefully upward, the guide saw a small, tough
root.
5. To obtain an education, one should submit to many
hardships.
6. Determined to succeed, the merchant rebuilt his store.
7. Driving his new horses to the sleigh, William made the
journey quickly.
8. To confess our real belief, we do not consider him honest.
9. Disappointed in this scheme, the king turned his atten-
tion to another.
10. Jones, Thomas S., Judson, William C, King, Robert E.,
Long,
James A.
11. Having gained the summit of the hill, we saw a glorious
scene.
Write ten sentences containing inverted forms
19. Brief Quotations.The comma is some-
times employed before a quotation, especially if the
quotation is a very short one or if it is interrupted
by the words of the writer; as,
"
Well !
"
said the
old man,
"
I cannot understand this."
20. Apposition.The comma is employed to
cut off a noun or pronoun in apposition
;
as, Samuel
Johnson, one of the greatest of Englishmen, lived
long in obscurity.
If the apposition noun or pronoun is very simple
in form it makes, practically, a compound with the
PUNCTUATION. 175
leading noun and no comma is needed
;
as, James
the blacksmith shod my horse.
A title used with a name should be separated by
a comma
;
as,
John
Smith, Esquire.
In the following exercise point out the appositions
and give rule for the commas :
1. William Shakespeare, the greatest writer in the world,
was an Englishman.
2. Smith, the old carpenter, was put into prison.
3. Hugh saw His Grace, the Archbishop of York.
4. Robert the coachman upset the carriage.
5. This is Captain Wilkes, commander of the troop.
6. The voters elected Thomas judge.
7. Turner, the great landscape painter, has left many ex-
amples of his skill.
Write ten sentences containing appositions prop-
erly cut off by commas.
21. Nominative Independent and Absolute.
The comma is employed to cut off independent
nominatives and absolute constructions from the
rest of the sentence ; as,
John,
come here. When
we reached the fence, the gate being locked, we
climbed over.
In the following exercise point out the independent
and absolute constructions and give rule for the
commas
:
1. We had to come back, the bridge having fallen.
2. William, close the door, if you please.
3. Being delayed by the storm, we did not reach home in
time.
4. Boys, hurry through with your tasks.
5. The train having left, the stranger started afoot.
6. The storm having delayed us, we did not reach home in
time.
Write five sentences containing independent nomi-
natives and five containing absolute constructions,
22. In Letters.The comma is the simplest and
best mark to use after the "salutation," although
several others are employed ; as, Dear sister, Dear
sir, etc. The plural of sir is sirs and not
"
gentie-
men."
"^5
PUNCTUATION. 177
THE SEMICOLON,
23. The word semicolon means the half of a
colon. The sign suggests a pause midway in length
between that of the comma and that of the colon,
and marks a division of the sentence larger and
more complex than that marked by the comma, and
shorter and more simple than that marked by the
colon.
24. Compound Sentences.The semicolon is
employed to separate the members of compound
sentences if any or all of these members contain
commas
;
as, We came home
;
but, however, we did
not find our friend.
Sometimes, when the members are long and
involved, a colon is used between them. When
they are short and closely related, a comma may be
employed.
In the following exercise point out the members
separated, and give rule for the semicolon :
1. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; logic and rheto-
ric, able to contend.
2. Let us not wait for dinner; go, serve it quickly.
3. Death, as the Psalmist saith, is certain to all; all must die.
4. Yesterday, as I was going home, I saw a knife in the
path
;
I picked it up and found that it was mine.
5. Dangers, by being despised, grow great ; so they do by
absurd provision against them.
Write ten compound sentences having their prin
cipal divisions made by the semicolon.
25. Particular Forms Dependent on a Gen-
eral Form.The semicolon is employed to sepa-
rate clauses and expressions having a common
relation to the same form. The particulars are cut
off from that on which they depend by a colon.
When the particulars are very simple, they may be
separated by commas and cut off from that on which
they depend by a semicolon.
In the following exercise point out the particulars
and the clause, etc., to which they are all related,
and give rule for the semicolon :
1. There are three things for you to attend to: get the
books
;
have the horse shod
;
post the letters.
2. We were especially struck with these points about the
hotel : the attention to our comfort; the excellence of the fare;
the politeness of the servants.
3. In his speech for the new college he told us : that we
should be liberal in our gifts; that we should be hearty in our
support; and that we should be satisfied with small results at
first.
4. There are four genders in English Grammar, masculine,
feminine, neuter and common.
5. We objected to about everything we experienced in that
city; the cold, the dampness, the dirt.
Write five sentences containing particulars sepa-
rated by semicolons and cut off from the general
form by colons.
Write five sentences containing particulars sepa-
rated by commas and cut off from the general form
by semicolons.
PUNCTUATION. 179
26. Clauses Having a Connection in Sense
Alone.The semicolon is employed to separate
clauses when several of them have a connection in
sense which, however, is not formally expressed.
The colon is often used in the same way.
In the following exercise point out the clauses
which are related, and give rule for the semicolons :
1. Henry sprang upon his horse ; he dashed the spur into
its flank; he rushed madly down the pathway.
2. He clinched his teeth; he closed his eyes; the dreadful
leap was taken.
Write five sentences having a connection in sense
alone between the clauses. Separate clauses by
semicolons.
27. Before As.The semicolon is employed
before as, when it introduces an example ; the
comma follows as. A noun is a name
;
as,
John,
etc.
"*S&r>
y&jJB* '^fW
"fljltfe
THE COLON.
28. The word Kolojt means a member (an impor-
tant member of the body
;
as, an arm). It is used
in punctuation to denote the largest division of the
sentence made by any mark and, so, the mark itself.
29. The Added Clause.The colon is employed
to cut off a clause added to a sentence already com-
plete
;
as, Be honest : it will pay you.
When a connecting word is used with the added
clause, the semicolon is used to cut it off; as, Be
honest
;
for
it will pay you.
In the following exercise point out the added
clauses, and give rule for the colons, etc. :
1.
James could not climb the tree
;
yet he continued to try.
2. Come at night : I can give you more time then.
3. Do not keep that ; for it is not yours.
4. Write him at once : he will answer your letter.
Write five sentences containing added clauses cut
off by colons and five containing added clauses cut
off by semicolons.
30. Formal Phrases.The colon is employed
to cut off such phrases as, To be brief, To continue,
To conclude, etc., when they begin a paragraph and
refer to all of it.
PUNCTUATION. 181
31. Compound Sentences.The colon is em-
ployed to separate the members of a compound
sentence if any or all of their members contain
semicolons (see Article
24) ;
as, He contracted
debts, without the means of payment ; he made
promises, having no prospect of fulfilling them
:
thus, he accumulated a burden which he could never
shake off.
Write five compound sentences containing colons
properly used.
32. Quotation.The colon is employed before a
direct quotation and before a list of particulars in-
troduced by such words as, thus, asfollows, etc.
;
as,
Heywood said :
"
Rome was not built in one day."
The ordinary divisions of time are these : first, the
year
;
second, the month
;
third, the week, etc.
If the quotation is a very long one it is usual to
add a dash to the colon, thus,
:
.
If the quotation is short a comma is often em-
ployed before it.
Write five sentences containing quotations prop-
erly cut off by colons.
Write five sentences containing lists of particulars
properly cut off by colons.
33. The Responsives.The colon is employed
after yes and no when a continuation follows
;
as,
Yes : we will come. No : you cannot go. If a
nominative independent follows the responsive, the
colon comes after the nominative and the responsive
is followed by a comma
;
as, Yes, madam : I can
go. No, sir : we did not do it.
Write ten sentences containing the responsives
properly cut off by colons or by commas.
V
PUNCTUATION. 18a
THE PERIOD.
34. In Greek it was common for a sentence to
begin with the subject and to close with the predi-
cate. By this means the two were brought together
in the reader's mind and a sort of circuit was made.
Periodos, a circular track, represented this idea
;
and
the term was used for a set of words that made
complete, rounded, sense. It was then transferred
to the mark that cuts off the complete sentence.
The word continues to be used in rhetoric in its old
sense. The period was the earliest of the punctua-
tion marks, and it is easy to fancy that the forms of
many of the others were based upon that of the
period.
The uses of the period are not numerous, and are
so simple that they need only to be stated.
35. Complete Sentence.The period is em-
ployed after complete sentences. Sometimes writers
might differ as to the point at which the sentence is
to be considered complete, but whenever it is com-
plete the period must cut it off.
36. Abbreviations, etc.The period is em-
ployed after abbreviations and titles of books, etc.
;
as, Eng. for England, Va. for Virginia.
In its use with shortened forms the period does
no more than mark the fact of abbreviation. Other
punctuation must be employed as if the period were
not used.
If an abbreviation close the sentence, the period
is not repeated.
In some words which are greatly used in their
abbreviated forms the period is not employed.
The title pages of this or of any other book will
sufficiently illustrate the use of the period in titles
of books, etc.
Write ten sentences containing periods properly
used with abbreviations.
PUNCTUATION. 185
THE INTERROGATION.
37. The interrogation or question mark (interrogo
%
to ask, questio, a. question) is employed after direct
questions
;
as, Can we do this ? The portion of the
sentence cut off by the interrogation mark is gener-
ally the same as that cut off by the period, and hence
a capital is commonly employed after it. This mark
is sometimes employed after a single word when it
is used ironically
;
as, William is a good
(?)
fellow.
In the part of the sentence cut off by it, the
interrogation mark is sometimes equal to a colon or
to a semicolon or to a comma.
When but one question stands in the construction,
the interrogation mark has the force of a period, and
closes the sentence.
When several questions follow each other in the
same construction, the interrogation mark has a
force less than that of the period, and the sentence
continues through all the questions
;
as, Must we
submit to robbery ? to extortion ? to violence ?
In cases of difficulty the question may be decided
by recasting the interrogative sentence and making
it declarative. Then it may be seen whether the
interrogation marks take the place of periods or of
colons, etc.
38. Some sentences, declarative in form, are in-
tended as questions, and should be followed by the
13
interrogation mark
;
as, You are well ? You cannot
come with us ?
Some questionsrhetoricalare questions in
form only. In meaning they are exclamatory, and
may have either the interrogation or the exclamation
mark.
39. The tone in which a question is asked indi-
cates much about the nature of the question and
about the answer expected. Commonly, questions
which contain negative predicates expect the answer,
Yes
;
as, Did you not do this ? Strong accent on
the subject indicates that the answer, No, is ex-
pected
;
as, Did Henry do this ? etc. The interro-
gation mark would be more serviceable if it had
been placed at the beginning of the sentence
instead of at the end.
Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the
interrogation mark.
PUNCTUATION. 187
THE EXCLAMATION.
40. The exclamation mark (exclamo, to cry out)
must be employed at the end of expressions in-
tended to indicate strong emotion
;
as, Help ! the
house is falling ! In some cases two points are
used together. The exclamation is sometimes em-
ployed after a word to show that its use is ironical
;
as, The gentleman
(!)
who could so hurt a child,
etc. (See
37.)
When several interjections occur together they
may take the mark after each one
;
as, Fie ! fie ! fie !
you should not do that ; or,
They may take a comma between them and the
exclamation mark at the end of the sentence
;
as,
Fie, fie, fie, you should not do that ! or,
They may take a comma between them and the
exclamation mark after the last one
;
as, Fie, fie, fie !
you should not do that.
The proper position of the exclamation mane may
be decided by settling how much of the sentence is
exclamatory and placing the mark after that part.
The interjection O should not have an exclama-
tion mark after it. It should be used only with the
nominative independent to call the attention of the
person addressed.
exclamation mark.
THE APOSTROPHE.
42. The apostrophe is, in form, a comma, but it
is placed above the word with which it belongs. It
is employed, somewhat as the comma is, to mark
omission (see Article
11) ;
as, e er for ever, etc.
The most common use of the apostrophe is with
the possessive case. (See Article 9 in the Gram-
mar.) It is also employed in forming the plural
of letters and figures
;
as, A's, c's, 2's, 3's, etc.
apostrophe.
THE QUOTATION MARK.
43. Quotation is the use by one writer of the
exact words of another, and it is marked by
enclos-
ing the borrowed expression within quotation marks.
These signs are sometimes called guillemets, from
the name of their French inventor.
44. When the connection is close between the
quotation and the words which introduce it, the
quotation does not begin with a capital ; as, I wrote
me that,
"
it was raining all day Sunday and no one
could go out."
When a quotation is formal, or when a stanza of
poetry is quoted, it is common to begin it with a
capital.
PUNCTUATION. 189
45. When a quotation is inside another quotation,
it is cut off by semi-quotation marks
;
as, William
wrote, "I saw a man, 'black as Erebus,' creep
down the stairs."
There is no end to the complication which might
arise from placing one quotation within another and
that within another, etc. No rule can be stated for
all these cases.
46. In quoting the substance of a statement
without desire to reproduce its exact form, the
quotation is frequently enclosed in semi-quotation
marks. When several quotations are made con-
secutively, the mark is placed at the beginning of
each, but at the end of the last one only.
47. The quotation mark is often employed to
show the ironical use of a word. (See
37.)
48. When the latter part of the quotation mark
comes at the same place with some other punctua-
tion mark, that mark is included in the quotation
mark if it punctuates the words of the quotation
;
but, if it punctuates the entire quotation with refer-
ence to the rest of the sentence, the mark includes
the quotation mark.
quotation mark.
THE DASH.
49. The dash is of comparatively recent origin,
but it is employed to such extent by careless
writers, to save the thought necessary for exact
punctuation, that it has assumed some of the func-
tions of the other marks. The dash has certain
valuable uses of its own, and it would be well to
confine it strictly to those uses.
50. Omission
of
Words.The dash is employed
to mark omission of words, etc.
;
as, In the town
of . In the year 18
.
51. Repetition.The dash is employed before a
repetition made for rhetorical effect ; as, Hear the
fate of Carthageof Carthage, once the mistress
of a continentof Carthage, once the rival of proud
Rome. This rhetorical repetition is called the Echo.
52. Change
of
Construction.The dash is em-
ployed to mark sudden change of construction
;
as,
The traitor, the murderer, the thiefthe same dark
doom awaits them all.
53. Sudden Change
of
Thought.The dash is
employed to mark sudden change of thought, or to
mark interruption or hesitation even when there is
no break in the construction
;
as, Brimful of wrath
and cabbage. The general was energetic, accom-

plished, far-sightedbut a coward. I wish I could
aid you,but
butI cannot,
PUNCTUATION. 191
54. Expressions Leading to a Conclusion.The
dash is employed before a concluding clause when
a number of expressions, all tending towards it,
come before
;
as, His uncommon learning, his rare
gentleness, his unexampled courageall these have
made him what he is.
55. Parenthesis.
-The dash is often employed to

cut off parenthetical forms
;
as, The daynever
long at this seasonclosed before we finished. Its
use denotes that the included words have less con-
nection with the construction than forms cut off by
commas and more connection than forms cut off by
the parenthesis mark. It is, of course, difficult in
some cases to choose among the three methods of
marking parenthesis.
In cases in which the parenthesis may be left out
without the sentence's requiring any punctuation at
that place, no mark except the dash is needed. In
cases where the omission of the parenthesis would
necessitate punctuation, the proper mark must be
employed in addition to the dash.
56. Question and Answer.The dash is employed
to separate question and answer when they are
placed on same line
;
as, Where is Paris
?
In
France, etc.
57. Following Other Marks.The dash is em-
ployed after the other marks to lengthen the pause
which they indicate. This use may be seen in sev-
eral of the articles above.
'ash.
THE PARENTHESIS.
58. The word parenthesis in Greek means some-
thing inserted, and it is applied to matter placed, by
way of explanation or comment, in the midst of a
sentence with which it has no grammatical connec-
tion
;
as, Milton's Poems (London Publishing Com-
pany).
John
(that is my boy's name) is a good
student, etc. From the thing itself the name has
been transferred to the marks which indicate this
insertion.
Commas and dashes also denote a sort of paren-
thesis, but the parenthesis mark is to be employed
when the matter inserted is most disconnected from
the construction in which it stands.
59. The words enclosed in parenthesis marks
should be those
of
the writer, and, in this respect,
the use of these marks differs from that of the
bracket. This distinction is, however, not strictly
observed. We frequently see, in reports of speeches,
the use of the parenthesis for remarks made by the
audience, and we often see the use of brackets to
enclose the writer's own words. The distinction is
shown in the following sentence, supposed to be
taken from the report of a speech : Mr. President,
PUNCTUATION. 193
the time has come (here a voice interrupted the
speaker) when we shall no longer be in bondage
[Hear ! Hear
!]
to those errors which have ruled
our past. [Good ! Good
!]
The time has come
(cheers), etc.
60. Parenthesis marks do not take the place of
punctuation. All the other marks which would be
needful if the parenthesis were omitted must be
used with it. Illustrations are given below of the
position of other points with regard to the paren-
thesis mark.
(a) William (he was always careless of his com-
pany) soon got into trouble in London. Here the
omission of the parenthesis would leave a sentence
which would demand no punctuation. There is,
consequently, none used with the parenthesis.
(b) If you are ill, William, (I judge from your
face that you are) you can go home. Here the
omission of the parenthesis would leave a sentence
containing an independent nominative which should
be cut off by commas. It is so cut off.
(c) If ever you see
John
again (and who knows
but you may do so
?),
tell him, etc. Here the omis-
sion of the parenthesis would leave a dependent
clause which would have to be cut off by a comma;
as the parenthesis is connected with the dependent
sentence, the comma is placed after the parenthesis.
parenthesis mark,
THE BRACKET.
61. The bracket is employed to enclose the
words of some person other than the writer. These
words can have no grammatical connection with the
sentence. Its principal use is to enclose correc-
tions or additions made by one writer to the words
of another. The bracket is frequently used by
editors to indicate that the words enclosed are
probably not the words of the author.
62. In dictionaries the bracket is employed to cut
off certain parts of the statement made about a
word.
In printing plays, the bracket is employed to cut
off the stage directions.
In lines of poetry which are too long for the
space, the extra words are put at the end of the
line, above or below, and cut off by a bracket.
63. The statement of the use of other punctua-
tion marks with the parenthesis will apply to their
use with the bracket.
bracket.
64. THE CARET.The caret (Latin caret, it
is lacking) is employed to call attention to the fact
that a word has been omitted. The word is inserted
PUNCTUATION. 195
to
above the line; as, He is coming town soon.
The same mark has a valuable use in prosody.
65. THE DIURESIS.The diaeresis is em-
ployed over either of two vowels to show that it
does not make one syllable with the vowel by its
side
;
as, coordinate.
66. THE HYPHEN.The hyphen is em-
ployed to make compound words
;
as, work-horse,
etc. There is some tendency to omit the hyphen
and to form single words of the compounds, but
this can probably never take place with such words
as forget-me-not, etc. The cardinal numbers show-
ing tens and units
;
as, twenty-one, ninety-nine, are
commonly written with the hyphen. The mark
would have disappeared from them long ago if it
had not been saved by the fact that few of the hasty
writers, who do so much to destroy the niceties of
words, take time to write out numerals at all, but
commonly express them by figures.
67. The hyphen is employed when part of a word
ends one line and the rest has to be carried to the
line below. In this case the word should be divided
so as not to part a syllable.
68. The hyphen has no little value, as a diacritical
mark, to determine the sense of words with which
it is used. Compare the phrases, much-valued
china and much valued china, many-tinted clouds
and many tinted clouds.
69. THE CONTINUATION.A line of
periods placed after an incompleted sentence marks
the break in it and is suggestive of what should
follow; as, Drowsily the little lips murmured,
"
Our
Father which art
"
and the baby fell asleep.
70. THE CEDILLA.The cedilla is employed
to give to the letter c, when it occurs before a, o, u,
the sound of s. The sign is written under the letter
and is employed in only a few words
;
as, garcon,
etc.
71. Besides the above there are numerous other
marks found in printed matter. These, however,
have no use in punctuation, as is really the case
with some of those already mentioned. (See cedilla,
caret, etc.)
Following is a list of these additional marks :
The tilde
(~)
written over n gives the Spanish
sound ny as in canon.
The breve (u) and macron
(-)
mark syllables as
short or long.
The accents
;
acute
('),
grave
('),
circumflex
(^)
direct pronunciation or inflection of the voice.
The index
(b^~)
points out something important.
The brace
({)
unites several things to be consid-
ered together.
PUNCTUATION. 197
The paragraph
(If)
is found in old books to mark
the beginning of a paragraph.
The double comma
(,,)
is used to continue a word
immediately above it.
The reference marks : star
(*),
dagger
(}),
double
dagger
(J),
section
(),
parallel line
(||),
are used to
mark notes for reference. Where notes are numer-
ous, figures are commonly employed.
INDEX.
Sec.
A, An . 47
Absolute Nominative . . 31
Abstract Noun 1,6
Active Voice . . . ... 12, 94
Adjective, 45, 48, 60, 62,
96,
101-102
Adverb, 31, 63-64, 66-73,
89, 100, 102
Adverbial Objective ... 31
Alms 6
Analysis . 34,etc
Antecedent 40, 41,
95
Anticipative Pronoun . . 39
Any 50
Apposition ....... 31
Article 47, 97
Artificial Gender .... 2
Attributive Adjective . . 45
Auxiliary Verb 25
Barring 78
Be 25, 27, 30
But 40
By 94
Can 25,
27
Cardinal 48
Case 4, 7,
42
Clause 43-44, 111
Cognate Object. 31
Collective Noun
1,
103
Common Gender .... 2
Common Noun 1
Comparison of Adj ective,
1,
54-57
Comparison of Adverb . 1, 67
Sec.
Comparative Degree,
54,
62, 72, 98
Complement 62
Complex Sentence
(p. 15) 114
Compound Noun ... 6, 50, 60
Compound Pronoun ... 40
Compound Sentence
(p. 15) 114
Concerning 78
Conjugation . . . . 1, 24,
27-29
Conjunction
1,
85-89
Conjunctive Adverb . . 66
Coordinating Conjunc-
tion 85
Context 6
Correlative 87
Declension
1, 7,
10
Defective Verb 25
Definite Article 47
Degrees of Comparison .
54-57
Demonstrative Adjective 48
Demonstrative Pronoun, 38
Dependent Clause
(p. 15) 111
Direct Object 31, 94
Direct Narration .... 113
Distributives 48
Do 25, 27,
30
Dozen 51
During . . . 78
Each other 49
Eaves 6
Ellipsis 91
Else 50
Emphatic Conjugation . 30
Etymology 32
INDEX. 199
'EC.
Excepting
78
Exclamations 1,
82-84
Feminine Gender ....
2
Finite Verb . . . 13
Future Perfect Tense . .
16-17
Future Tense 15, 17
Gender
2
Gerund
103
Grammatical Gender . . 2
Grammatical Predicate . 108
Grammatical Subject . . 107
Have 25, 27
Idiom

. 91
Imperative ...... 13, 30,
32
Impersonal Verb .... 26
Indefinite Adjective . . 48, 96
Indefinite Article .... 47
Independent Nominative 31
Indicative , 13, 30
Indirect Object 31, 94
Indirect Narration . . . 113
Infinitive 13, 92
Inflection 1
Pronoun 36
Interjection 1,
82-84
Interrogative Adjective . 48
Interrogative Adverb . . 66
Interrogative Conjugation 30
Interrogative Pronoun . 37
Intransitive Verb .... 19, 31
Irregular Comparison . . 55, 68
Irregular Construction . 91
Irregular Verb 22, 27
It 39
Its 36
Limiting Adjective . . .
45-46
Logical Predicate .... 108
Logical Subject 107
Masculine Gender ... 2
Sec.
Material Noun 1
May 25, 27
Mood 11, 13
Must 25, 27
Natural Gender 2
Need 103
Negative 30
Neuter Gender 2
No, None ......... 50
Nominative Absolute . 31
Nominative Case 7, 8, 10, etc
Nominative Independent 31
Notwithstanding .... 78
Noun 1, 31, 90
Number
4, 6, 11, 18
Numeral 48, 51
Object 31, 94
Objective Adverbial . . 31
Objective Case . 7, 8, 10, 80, 94
Of . . 94
One, Another 49
Ordinal 48
Own 59
Pair 51
Paradigm 7
Parsing 33-34, etc
Participle 30, 103
Particle 1
Parts of Speech .... 1
Passive Voice
12, etc
Past Participle 103
Past Perfect Tense . . .
16-17
Past Tense 15, 17, 30
Person
'
Nouns) 4-5
Person (Pronouns) .... 5
Person (Verbs) ... 11, 18, 28
Personal Pronoun . . . . 36, 95
Personification 2
Phrase 61, 69
200 PRIMARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Sec.
Plural Number 6,
10
Positive Degree 54
Possessive Case . 7, 9, 10, 31. 93
Potential Mood 13, 30
Predicate . . 11, 32,
106
Predicate Adjective . 45, 62, 96
Predicate Noun 31,
92
Preposition . . . . 1, 9, 31, etc
Present Participle . 30, 92, 103
Present Perfect Tense .
.16-17
Present Tense .... 15, 17, 30
Principal Clause . ...
(p. 15)
Principal Parts of Verb . 23
Principal Verb 25
Progressive Conjugation 30
Pronominal Adjective .
48-50
Pronoun, Anticipative . 39
Pronoun, Demonstrative 38, 48
Pronoun, Indefinite ... 48
Pronoun, Intensive ... 36
Pronoun, Interrogative . 37, 48
Pronoun, Personal . . .36, 95
Pronoun, Reflexive ... 36
Pronoun, Relative . . 40-41, 95
Proper Noun ..... 1,6
Proposition 11, 32
Qualifying Adjective . . 45, 52
Rather 68
Redundant Verb .... 25
Reflexive Pronoun ... 36
Regarding .... . . 78
Regular Comparison . 54-56, 67
Regular Construction . . 91
Regular Verb 22, 28
Review 10, 34, etc
Sec.
Relative Adverb .... 66
Respecting 78
Relative Pronoun .... 40
Responsives 65
Riches 6
Save 78
Sentence
(p.
15) 32,
41
Shall 25,
27
Simple Adverb
66
Simple Sentence .... (p. 15)
Singular Num er .... 6,
10
Subject . 11,
31-32, 92, 103, etc
Subjunctive Mood . 13, 86,
104
Subordinating
Conjunc-
tion
85
Superlative Degree,54, 62, 73, 99
Strong Words
6
Syntax
31-32, 91,
etc
Tense 11,
14-15
That
40
The
47
There
39
To
95
Touching
78
Transitive Verb
19
Unipersonal Verb .... 26
Variables
88-90
Verb
11, 19, 89,
103
Voice
H-12
Weak Words
6
What
40
Which
40
Who
40
Will 25,
27
Yes, No
65
DEC 19 1899
LIBRARY
OF
CONGRESS
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232
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such new words as are demanded by the advance in the

Present, Past and

Present Tense, Past Tense and

Present Perfect Tense, Past

i. e., whether it is subject or direct object, etc.

All men are mortal.

All must die.

longest ; and adjectives of more than one

more beautiful, super-

When the noun

soonest; or, Posi-

more rapidly, Superla-

most rapidly. The use of comparison in

(a) By prefixing a preposition, a=on, be=by, to a

(a) Co-ordinating Conjunctions are those which join

1. A noun ; as, I saw

"fruit whose mortal taste," etc.

1. Two nominatives; as, This is what he is=the person

1. An adjective : as, The rich man died.

(a) the commander

(b) the British army under

(a) The commander of the Americans.

(a') the, adjective limiting com-

(b) The British army under Cornwallis.

armydirect object of captured.

(b) those measures to

(a) Theadjective limiting king.

(b') at the condition

(b) Those measures to fill it which were suited to his

measuresdirect object of took.

(a') those adjective lim-

(b") itdirect object of to

(b") to his needsprepo-

O minstrel Harp, still must thine accents sleep ?

and cabbage. The general was energetic, accom-

-The dash is often employed to

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