Reconstructing late Holocene palaeoenvironments in Bangladesh:

phytolith analysis of archaeological soils from Somapura Mahavihara site

in the Paharpur area, Badalgacchi Upazila, Naogaon District, Bangladesh
A.K.M. Masud Alam
a, b,
*
, Shucheng Xie
a
, Lynley A. Wallis
c
a
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Lu Mo Road 388, Wuhan 430074, PR China
b
Department of Natural History, Bangladesh National Museum, Shahbagh, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
c
Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 March 2008
Received in revised form 29 August 2008
Accepted 29 September 2008
Keywords:
Phytoliths
Archaeology
Bangladesh
Palaeoenvironment
Paharpur
Late Holocene
El Nino Southern Oscillation
a b s t r a c t
Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction based on phytolith analysis of late Holocene-aged soils in and
around the Somapura Mahavihara archaeological monastery site in the Paharpur area, Badalgacchi
Upazila of Naogaon District in northwestern Bangladesh was undertaken. Results indicate ve climate
zones marked by alternatively cool and temperate events. The phytolith assemblages of Zones 1, 3 and 5
are clearly characterized by a higher proportion of Pooideae phytoliths. The climate indices for these
zones are all greater than 50, indicating cooler climatic conditions. In contrast, the phytolith assemblages
of Zones 2 and 4 are typied by a higher proportion of Panicoideae phytoliths; their climate indices are
42 and 44, respectively, indicating the presence of a warmer, more temperate climate. In general, the
dominance of grasses over broad- leaved trees throughout the sequences suggests that generally cool to
temperate and dry conditions with some cyclical variability persisted around Paharpur and the
surrounding region throughout the Pala Dynasty from AD 730 to 1080. The question of whether these
shifts in vegetation might be linked with El Nino Southern Oscillation events, and whether these might
in turn have cultural responses, is raised.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction is a fundamental compo-
nent of any archaeological research project. Since the publication of
a seminal paper by Rovner (1971), palaeoenvironmental recon-
structions using phytolith analysis have made increasing contribu-
tions to our understanding of both archaeology and palaeoecology.
Phytoliths (also known as plant opals or opaline silica) are siliceous
microfossils that form through the process of silica precipitation in
and/or between the cells of living plant tissues. They occur in many,
though not all, plant families but are especially abundant and
diverse in the grass family (Poaceae), assuming shapes diagnostic of
the grasses in which they are found (Twiss et al., 1969; Blackman,
1971; Clifford and Watson, 1977; Brown, 1984; Piperno and Pearsall,
1998; Piperno, 2006). Owing to their differing morphologies, in
some cases grass phytoliths can be indicative of either the C3 or C4
photosynthetic pathway and can therefore be used to help establish
palaeoclimatic conditions (Twiss et al., 1969; Tieszen et al., 1979;
Livingstone and Clayton, 1980; Twiss, 1992, 2001; Wu et al., 1992);
C3 grasses are dominant in cool regions with high latitudes or
elevations, while C4 grasses tend to occur in semi-arid to arid, sunny
and warm regions.
Beyond their morphological variability, the other strength of
phytoliths lies in their durability; being inorganic in nature they are
not broken down by bacteria such as are many other microfossils.
They are stable across a wide pH range (39) and preserve well in
both wet and dry, as well as alternating wet and dry conditions
(Piperno, 2006). Hence, unlike organic plant remains, they do not
rely on exceptional conditions for survival and are therefore
widespread in sediments and soils.
As a consequence of their abundance, durability and diagnostic
morphologies, phytoliths have been increasingly used to recon-
struct aspects of Late Quaternary palaeoenvironments in numerous
sediment types, including loess (Lu and Wang, 1991; Lu et al., 1996;
Madella, 1997; Blinnkov et al., 2002); lake muds (Carter, 2002;
Thorne, 2004); sand dunes (Horrocks et al., 2000; Boyd, 2005);
tephra sequences (Sase et al., 1987; Parr, 1999; Lentfer et al., 2001),
and coastal plain sequences in addition to other sediment types
(Fredlund and Tieszen, 1997; Carter and Lian, 2000; Prebble and
Shulmeister, 2002; Lu et al., 2002; Abrantes, 2003; Piperno and
* Corresponding author. State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral
Resources, China University of Geosciences, Lu Mo Road 388, Wuhan 430074, PR
China. Tel.: 88 01924778532.
E-mail addresses: akm.masudalam@gmail.com (A.K.M.M. Alam), xiecug@
163.com (S. Xie), lynley.wallis@inders.edu.au (L.A. Wallis).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Archaeological Science
j ournal homepage: ht t p: / / www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ j as
0305-4403/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.038
Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 504512
Jones, 2003; Charles and Isabel, 2005). However, their reliability as
palaeoenvironmental indicators in soils has been less well studied
(but see for example Kelly et al., 1991; Piperno and Becker, 1996;
Alexandre et al., 1999; Prebble et al., 2002; Stro mberg, 2004;
Stro mberg et al., 2007). Similarly, numerous studies have been
reported on phytoliths extracted from archaeological sediments
and artefact surfaces (e.g. Bowdery, 1998; Barboni et al., 1999; Grave
and Kealhofer, 1999; Kealhofer et al., 1999; Mercader et al., 2000;
Piperno et al., 2000; Wallis, 2000, 2001; Vrydaghs et al., 2001;
Ishida et al., 2003) but the analysis of phytoliths recovered from
archaeological soils is less common (Rovner, 1971; Pearsall, 1978;
Lewis, 1981; Delhon et al., 2003; Sullivan and Kealhofer, 2004).
Similarly, owing to a lack of locally based researchers, our
existing knowledge about the Holocene climatic history of Ban-
gladesh is limited (but for exceptions see Ahmed, 1993; Choudhury,
1994); hence there is an urgent need for further study to better
understand and forecast El Nino teleconnections in the region
(Glantz, 2000: 23).
This paper presents the results from a study of phytolith
assemblages recovered from the late Holocene-aged archaeological
soils of the world heritage listed Somapura Mahavihara archaeo-
logical monastery site located in Badalgacchi Upazila of Naogaon
District, northwestern Bangladesh. In addition, the palae-
oenvironmental data thus obtained is compared with local clay
mineralogical data (Alam et al., 2008) and global palaeo-tempera-
ture curves proposed by Warrick and Ahmad (1996), and the
question of whether the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has
affected the patterning observed raised.
2. Study site location
The Somapura Mahavihara (meaning large monastery)
archaeological site is located in northwestern Bangladesh, and is
arguably the most important and the largest known Buddhist
monastery south of the Himalayas. The site is situated in the
village of Paharpur, Badalgacchi Upazila of Naogaon District,
between latitudes 25

1.79
0
25

1.95
0
N and longitudes 88

58.50
0

88

58.70
0
E (Fig. 1). Paharpur is situated in the monsoon region
with a summer dominant rainfall, lying just north of the Tropic of
Cancer. The climate of the area is generally warm and humid,
though based on rainfall, humidity, temperature and wind pres-
sure four seasons are recognized: (a) pre-monsoon, (b) monsoon,
(c) post-monsoon and (d) winter. The maximum daily tempera-
ture ranges from 37

C to 39

C and the minimum from 7

C to
10

C. Rainfall is very light from November to February, increases
somewhat in March and April and continues uniformly at about
250 mm/month during the monsoon months June to September.
In May and October the rainfall average decreases to approxi-
mately 130 mm/month. The total average rainfall for the year is
5080 mm.
The Paharpur region is well-drained by numerous small,
entrenched meandering streams and rivers. Approximately 4.5 km
to the west of Somapura, the Old Jamuna River ows from north to
south, maintaining a meandering course, forming many oxbow
lakes. The traces of relict watercourses are detectable from the air
and mostly run in a northsouth direction, although an eastwest
arm appears to have extended laterally just south of the monastery
(Chowdhury, 2003).
The Somapura Mahavihara site is currently surrounded by rich
alluvial farmland with small open elds that are intensively culti-
vated, though small pockets of natural vegetation persist in some
areas. Articial cultivation platforms and homestead areas are used
for growing vegetables and bananas, fruit trees and Betel leaf (pan).
Mixed forest, scrub and replanted Gajari (Assam Sal) and Sal
(Shorea robusta) occupy patchy areas of the higher ridges of the
Barind terraces.
3. Archaeological background
The archaeological ruins of the Somapura Mahavihara monas-
tery were discovered by Buchanan Hamilton who visited the site
between 1807 and 1812 whilst surveying for the East India
Company (Sanday et al., 1983) and the rst excavations were con-
ducted at the site later in the 19th century by Sir Alexander Cun-
ningham (1879). The ruins were placed on the Bangladesh List of
Protected Monuments in 1919, and inscribed to the World Heritage
List in 1985.
The site is extensive, covering approximately 10 km
2
(10 ha). It
occupies a quadrangular court measuring ca. 274 m on each side,
with high enclosure walls ca. 5 m thick and between 3.6 and 4.5 m
high. This gigantic establishment is dominated by a central shrine
with 177 surrounding monastic cells and is conspicuous by its lofty
height and unusual architectural design (Alam, 2003; see Fig. 2).
The site lies surrounded by a slightly elevated terrace, meaning the
area remained ood-free throughout historic times, a feature which
it is thought may have been an important factor in allowing the Pala
Empire to ourish.
The chronology of the occupation sequence at Sompura Maha-
vihara has largely been established on the basis of excavations
undertaken from 192728 and 193334 (see Dikshit, 1938). With
the support of UNESCO, the Department of Archaeology of the
Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Bangladesh subsequently completed
further excavations from198182, 198485, 198889, and 199091,
which have further contributed to our understanding of the
sequence of events at the site. Such excavations have revealed that
Somapura Mahavihara was occupied predominantly by the Pala
Dynasty from the middle of the 8th century through to the early
12th century. Dharmapala, the second Pala monarch who ruled
from about AD 770810, founded Somapura Mahavihara in the
second half of the 8th century. Towards the end of the 9th century
the Palas were defeated by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, but roughly
a century later the Pala Dynasty ourished once more. In the 11th
century, the Pala again suffered a setback and were devastated by
war, though towards the end of the century prosperity returned
once more. In the 12th century the Senas, who were followers of
Hinduism, replaced the Palas, and from this time onwards the
human use of Somapura Mahavihara gradually declined before the
monastery was permanently abandoned (Sanday et al., 1983).
The site sits on the PleistoceneHolocene aged Barind Clay
Residuum (Alam et al., 1990), which is the largest Quaternary
physiographic unit of the Bengal Basin and comprises slightly
elevated landform terraces within the alluvium. The underlying
sedimentsdknown as the PleistoceneHolocene Madhupur Clay/
Barind Claydare considered to be marineestuarine deposits
(Brammer, 1996). The Barind Clay Residuum is a strongly iron-
stained, clay-rich unit of weathered alluvial sediment that is
compact and resistant to erosion. In the study area it consists of two
zones: an upper zone comprising a grey to yellowish brown
mottled clayey silt/silty clay, with a lower zone of red and
brownish-yellow mottled clayey silt; the amount of sand increases
gradually with depth. Both zones feature abundant pottery frag-
ments, brick chips and plant roots, and are described as archaeo-
logical soils belonging to the Holocene epoch.
4. Materials and methods
4.1. Sampling
The archaeological soils of Somapura were sampled in May 2006
and later in August of the same year. For the collection of samples
two trenches (labelled Trench 1 and Trench 2), were excavated from
the surface to the rst occupation level of the monastery. Trench 1
is located in the vicinity of the northern outer wall of the monastery
A.K.M.M. Alam et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 504512 505
(near the main entrance of the monastery), has a maximum depth
of 1.50 m below surface, and the lower and upper zone of the
Barind Clay Residuum is clearly present. Trench 2 is located in the
vicinity of the eastern inner wall of the monastery and reached
a maximum depth below surface of 1.38 m (see Fig. 3), and reveals
the upper zone of the Barind Clay Residuum. Samples for phytolith
analysis were mostly collected from Trench 1 at regular intervals of
5 cm, while charcoal samples for radiocarbon dating were collected
from Trenches 1 and 2 at depths of 67 cm and 138 cm below
surface, and 10 cm and 95 cm depth, respectively.
4.2. Phytolith extraction techniques
Fifteen soil samples were processed using phytolith extraction
procedures as described by Wang and Lu , 1993 at the Key
Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology in China
University of Geosciences. Samples were air dried at room
temperature and then crushed with a mortar and pestle and
subsequently sieved through a 100 mm mesh (0.154 mm) to remove
root fragments and the gravel fraction. Approximately 10 g of each
soil sample was then placed into sterile beakers. Organic matter
was removed using 30% hydrogen peroxide, followed by a 10%
hydrochloric acid wash to remove any carbonates present. The
samples were then rinsed four times with distilled water in order to
remove clay particles and to return the suspension to a neutral pH
(pH 7).
Residual samples were transferred to test tubes and 5 ml of zinc
iodide heavy liquid (adjusted to a specic gravity of 2.35 to ensure
phytoliths would oat) was added. The samples were then
centrifuged to separate the phytoliths from the heavier mineral
Fig. 2. Photograph showing the archaeological ruins of the Somapura Buddhist monastery, Paharpur, Naogaon District, Bangladesh.
Fig. 1. Location map. (A) General map of Bangladesh (after Khan, 1991). (B) More detailed viewof the Paharpur study area showing the location of Trenches 1 and 2 fromwhich soil
samples were collected (based on an ASTER FCC image).
A.K.M.M. Alam et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 504512 506
fraction. The suspended phytoliths were poured into clean test
tubes and rinsed three times with distilled water. This was followed
by a 5% acetic acid wash to remove any remaining carbonates. The
phytolith fractions were then rinsed again with distilled water and
centrifuged, before being rinsed with absolute alcohol and trans-
ferred to vials for long-term storage. Phytoliths were mounted for
viewing on slides using glycerin, covered with cover slips and
sealed with parafn. The studies were then examined using a Zeiss
stereomicroscope at 400 magnication.
4.3. Phytolith identication and quantication
No modern phytolith reference database was available for the
study region and it was beyond the scope of this project to develop
one. In the absence of a regional phytolith database, the archaeo-
logical phytoliths were identied, described and classied
following Twiss (Twiss et al., 1969; Twiss, 1992, 2001) classication
scheme supplemented by published keys including Mulholland and
Rapp (1992), Pearsall and Elizabeth (1992), Fredlund and Tieszen
(1994), Kealhofer and Piperno (1998), Pearsall (2000), Lu and Liu,
2003, Wallis (2003) and Piperno (2006). Phytolith descriptions are
based on the new phytolith code of terminology (IPCN) (Madella
et al., 2005). The number of phytoliths counted ranged from445 up
to 595 per slide in order to identify at least 250 short-cell mor-
photypes per sample. Phytoliths with unrecognizable shapes were
counted and listed in the unidentied category. Sponge spicules
and microcharcoal were also recorded and are included in the
graphs as percentages of the overall assemblage.
Short-cell phytoliths were separated into two main categories:
those coming fromthe Pooideae (predominantly C3 grasses) versus
those derived from the Panicoideae (predominantly C4 grasses)
sub-families. The Pooideae-types are characterized by trapeziform
sinutes and trapeziform polylobates (Mulholland and Rapp, 1992;
Twiss, 1992; Wang and Lu , 1993; Fredlund and Tieszen, 1994;
Pearsall, 2000; Lu and Liu, 2003; Piperno, 2006). It should be noted
that these phytolith morphotypes have also been described from
the intercostal zones of the epidermis of Chloridoideae and Pan-
icoideae grasses, but are generally produced therein only in small
amounts and hence are considered relatively reliable indicators of
the Pooideae (Brown, 1984; Mulholland, 1989; Barboni et al., 1999).
The Panicoideae-type subfamily is indicated by the presence of
distinctive bilobate and polylobate morphotypes (Brown, 1984;
Mulholland and Rapp, 1992; Twiss, 1992; Pearsall, 2000; Piperno,
2006).
Other grass morphotypes identied in the phytolith assem-
blages included those from the epidermis long-cells, hair cell
mesophyll and bulliform cells, including the forms elongate
smooth, elongate echinate, scutiform hair cell (point-shaped type),
cuneiform (fan-shaped) bulliforms and parallelepipedal (square/
rectangular shaped) bulliforms (Twiss et al., 1969; Pearsall and
Elizabeth, 1992; Twiss, 1992, 2001; Wang and Lu , 1993; Lu and Liu,
2003; Piperno, 2006; Barboni et al., 2007).
4.4. Climate index
In Twiss (Twiss et al., 1969; Twiss, 1992, 2001) classication of
grass phytoliths, the division and classication of Festucoid (Pooid),
Panicoid and Chloridoid type phytoliths generally correspond with
different climates. For example, Panicoid-type phytoliths are
mainly produced by C4 grasses that predominantly grow in warm
and humid areas. C4 grasses also produce Chloridoid-type phyto-
liths, but these grasses are typical of warm semiarid or highly
seasonal regions well beyond the limits of the study area. Pooid-
type phytoliths are produced dominantly by C3 grasses that
ourish in cool seasons and climates in high latitudes or elevations.
Hence, changes in the relative abundance of Panicoid versus Pooid
phytolith types throughout a section can be used to infer past
climatic change (cf. Gu et al., 2007). For the purposes of this anal-
ysis, after comprehensively considering the different photosyn-
thetic pathways in plants phytolith morphotypes were divided into
two groups: The cool group includes Pooid-type morphologies (i.e.
trapeziform polylobates, trapeziform sinutes), elongates (both
smooth and echinate) and point-shaped (scutiform hair cell) phy-
toliths; in contrast, the warm group morphologies include Pani-
coid-type shapes (i.e. bilobates and polylobates), cuneiform
bulliforms and parallelepipedal bulliform. The ratio of cool to warm
group phytoliths is used here as a climate index, calculated as:
Climate=temperature index Ic

Cool group phytoliths

Cool group phytoliths warm group phytoliths
100
Subsequently, high values are suggestive of a cooler climate
(allowing more C3 grasses with an optimum temperature range of
between 18 and 23

C to inuence the phytolith assemblage), while
resulting low values are indicative of a warmer climate (allowing
more C4 grasses with an optimum temperature range of between
32 and 35

C to inuence the phytolith assemblage) (see Table 1).
5. Results
5.1. Dating
Four charcoal samples were analyzed for
14
C in the Quaternary
age dating laboratory of Peaking University, Beijing. The
14
C age of
Fig. 3. Lithological description of Trench 1 and 2 sections, respectively.
Table 1
Climate index value calculated from relative percentages of warm and cool group
phytoliths (after Twiss, 1992, 2001)
Index value Temperature
20 Warm
30 Temperate
40 Temperate
50 Cool
60 Very cool
70 Very cool
A.K.M.M. Alam et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 504512 507
each charcoal sample was converted into a calibrated calendar age
by OxCal software version 3.10 (Bronk-Ramsey, 2005) using cali-
bration curve of IntlCal04 (Reimer et al., 2004). The results of
the OxCal calibration of the measured
14
C age are summarized in
Table 2. The radiocarbon dates thus obtained t well with the
known occupation history of the site based onwritten records, with
archaeological sediment accumulation appearing to commence
during the middle of the 8th century AD coincident with the rst
construction of the site.
5.2. Phytolith assemblages
Phytoliths were plentiful and well preserved in all 15 samples, as
were other siliceous microfossils such as sponge spicules from
aquatic organisms. While phytoliths are known to be transported
via wind and water vectors, it is assumed in this case that the
assemblages are predominantly the result of in situ decay and
therefore are representative of local vegetation and by proxy local
climatic conditions. It is assumed the sponge spicules have been
deposited through the periodic ooding of the landscape.
The major plant groups represented in the samples are Poaceae
and broad-leaved trees. Poaceae phytoliths include short cells,
long cells, bulliform cells, hair cells, Pooid-type morphotypes
(trapeziform polylobates and trapeziform sinutes) dominate the
assemblages, followed in much lower relative frequency by the
Panicoid-types (bilobate and polylobate). Broad-leaved trees are
indicated by two characteristic types, platelets polygon (polyhedral
plate-like) and globular granulate (spherical rugose), abundant in
deciduous trees and subtropical-tropical regions, respectively
(Wang and Lu , 1993; Kealhofer and Piperno, 1998; Piperno, 2006).
The phytolith assemblages can be divided into ve major zones
on the basis of the dominant types and climate index. These ve
zones and the relative percentages of phytolith assemblages are
presented in Figs. 4 and 5 and described below.
Zone 1 (15095 cm belowsurface): Charcoal samples fromthis
zone yielded ages of AD 730 and 850 at 138 and 95 cm below
surface, respectively. Poaceae phytoliths dominate the samples
from this zone (69%), whereas broad-leaved tree phytoliths repre-
sent only 8%. Among the Poaceae phytoliths, bulliform cells (29%)
and Pooideae-types (23%) are the most common. Scutiform haircell
and long cell phytoliths have percentage values close to 8%, while
Panicoideae-type phytoliths (reecting warm and humid climatic
conditions) are absent in the lower part of this zone, but present in
very low quantities in the upper part. In contrast microcharcoal
accounted for approximately 22% of the overall assemblage, and
sponge spicules about 0.2%. The climate index value is relatively
high throughout this zone, averaging ca. 57, reecting the presence
of a cool climate.
Zone 2 (9570 cm below surface): This zone is also dominated
by Poaceae phytoliths with a slight decrease to about 64%, while the
less dominant broad-leaved tree types increase in percentage
values to about 11%. There are slight increases in microcharcoal and
sponge spicule quantities relative to Zone 1. Within the Poaceae
morphotypes, bulliform cells increased (to ca. 36%) while Pooi-
deae-types decreased (to about 14%). Long cell phytoliths showed
values similar to those of Zone 1, but the relative abundance of
scutiform haircell decreased to 6%, while Panicoideae-type phyto-
liths slightly increases to about 0.4%. The climate index decreased to
about 44 and 41 at 87.5 cm and 77.5 cm depth below surface,
respectively, reecting the existence of a more temperate climate.
The climate index value of 41 at 77 cm depth is the lowest
encountered in the whole section.
Zone 3 (7045 cm below surface): Poaceae phytoliths
increased (to 66%) and broad- leaved trees decreased (to 9%) in
comparison to quantities in Zone 2. Microcharcoal fragments
slightly decreased in relative abundance. Among the Poaceae
phytolith types, bulliform cells decreased and Pooideae-types
increased to about 30% and 20%, respectively. Scutiform haircells
show a slight reduction in value (7%), while long cell and Pan-
icoideae-type phytoliths showed values similar to those of Zone 1.
Sponge spicule frequency is little lower (about 0.8%) than that
witnessed in Zone 2. The climate index value increased to about 53,
reecting the presence of a cool climate.
Zone 4 (4535 cm belowsurface): This zone is also dominated
by Poaceae phytoliths (63%) with a low content of broad-leaved
trees (10%). Microcharcoal increases in relative abundance. Bulli-
form cells increase and Pooideae-type phytoliths decrease to ca.
34% and 13%, respectively. Scutiform hair cell abundance decreases
to about 5% whereas long cell and Panicoideae-type phytoliths
increase in relative abundances to approximately 10% and 0.3%.
Sponge spicule frequency is much higher (3%) in this zone. The
temperature index value decreases to about 44, reecting
a temperate climate.
Zone 5 (355 cm below surface): Charcoal samples from this
zone yielded ages of AD 915 and 1080 at 67 and 10 cm depth below
surface, respectively. Poaceae phytoliths increase slightly in abun-
dance to about 64%, while broad-leaved tree phyotliths decrease to
about 8%. Microcharcoal decreased in relative abundance. Bulliform
cells decreased to about 31% while Pooideae-type, scutiform hair
cell and long cell phytoliths all slightly increased to about 14%, 6%
and 13%, respectively. The relative abundances of Panicoideae-type
phytoliths decreased to about 0.25% of the total assemblage.
Sponge spicule frequency is relatively lower (about 2%) than that
observed in Zone 4. The climate index increases to about 51,
reecting the presence of a cool climate.
6. Discussion and conclusions
A great strength of phytolith analysis is that it allows the
reconstruction of past oral communities and interpretation of the
environmental conditions and changes they represent, particularly
in respect to the different grass communities present. The majority
of the phytolith assemblages recovered from the Holocene
archaeological soils of Somapura are dominated by Poaceae phy-
toliths with a generally small contribution frombroad- leaved trees.
Among the Poaceae, Pooideae-type and bulliform cell phytoliths
dominate, followed in relative frequency by elongate and point-
shaped (scutiform haircell) types, with much lower relative
frequencies of the Panicoid-types (bilobates and polylobates). The
phytolith assemblages from Zones 1, 3 and 5 are characterized by
a higher proportion of cool group Poaceae types (36%), while warm
group Poaceae type phytoliths represented only 30% of the
Table 2
Radiocarbon dates from Trenches 1 and 2, Paharpur archaeological site, Bangladesh
Lab. No. Trench Depth below
surface (cm)
Material
dated
Radiocarbon age
(
14
C yr BP)
Calibrated age (cal yr AD)
(95.4% probability, 2s)
BA 06800 1 67 Charcoal 1105 45 AD 915 (8101020)
BA 06801 1 138 Charcoal 1295 40 AD 730 (650810)
BA 06802 2 10 Charcoal 960 40 AD 1080 (9901170)
BA 06803 2 95 Charcoal 1175 40 AD 850 (720980)
A.K.M.M. Alam et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 504512 508
assemblages in these zones. The diagram of phytoliths and climate
index shows that all of these three zones are constantly dominated
by Pooid, scutiformhair cell and long cell phytoliths and the climate
indexes are all higher than 50 indicating cool climatic conditions
(Fig. 5). In contrast, patterning in the phytolith assemblage related
to Zones 2 and 4 are effectively reversed, typied by a high
proportion of warm group type phytoliths (ca. 35%) while cool
group type phytoliths comprised only approximately 28% of the
assemblage. These two zones are dominated by bulliformcells with
low climate indices of 42 and 44, respectively, indicating the
presence of a generally cool, temperate climate. Furthermore, as
mentioned earlier it is evident that Pooid-type phytoliths are
signicantly more abundant than the Panicoid-types in all samples
(Fig. 5). Characteristically, the presence of Pooid grasses are indic-
ative of cool climatic conditions, while Panicoid grasses are adapted
to warm and wet environments. Because Panicoid phytoliths occur
in such low frequencies throughout the Somapura Mahavihara
sequence, it suggests that there was not an especially warm or wet
environment present at any time. Similarly, the abundance of
grasses over broad-leaved trees is supportive of the idea that
generally consistently dry conditions prevailed throughout the Pala
Dynasty from AD 730 to 1080.
Thus, the result implies that generally cool to temperate and dry
conditions persisted around Paharpur and the surrounding region
throughout the Pala Dynasty from AD 730 to 1080 with minor
uctuations through warmer and cooler periods. This scenario is
consistent with the clay mineralogical data from the same soil
samples as reported by Alam et al. (2008). Alam et al. (2008) have
shown that the dominant clay mineral in the Somapura sequences
is illite, with smaller amounts of kaolinite and chlorite. These
minerals are interpreted as having formed under generally cool to
temperate and dry climates.
While the late Holocene is known to have featured much less
climatic variability than the preceding early Holocene and Pleis-
tocene periods, it has experienced some signicant shifts charac-
terized by a trend towards increased aridity and heightened
variability after ca. 3000 BP (e.g. Whetton et al., 1990; McGlone
et al., 1992; Allan et al., 1996). The geographical features and loca-
tion of Bangladesh mean it is particularly susceptible to the effects
of ENSO in the late Holocene. During El Nin o events the sea-level
pressure gradients in the southeaster Pacic weaken, accompanied
by a decrease in the strength of trade winds, resulting in reductions
in rainfall to Bangladesh during El Nin o years while La Nina years
are associated with increased rainfall and oods (see Ahmed, 1993;
Choudhury, 1994; Shaman and Tziperman, 2005). Also of climatic
relevance during the late Holocene period was the occurrence of
the Little Ice Age (beginning somewhere between the 13th century
and 16th centuries and nishing in the mid-19th century AD),
when the global average temperature was probably about 0.5

C
cooler than that prevailing at the beginning of the 20th century
(Warrick and Ahmed, 1996; see Fig. 6). The effects of this climatic
event are best documented in Europe, though there is evidence that
it was in fact a global phenomenon (Grove, 1988).
Using Fig. 6 as a starting point it suggests that during the period
from the early 8th to the late 10th century, there was a slightly
cooler climate than at present (up to 0.5

C cooler). Then towards
the end of the 11th century, average temperatures increased by
approximately 0.75

C meaning it was up to 0.25

C warmer than at
present. This warming trend within a generally cool temperate
regime continued, and in the early 12th century (AD 1100) the
Fig. 4. Relative abundances of major phytoliths versus depth.
A.K.M.M. Alam et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 504512 509
temperature increased slightly more to ca. 0.5

C warmer than
present. Interestingly, as far as can be ascertained from the
archaeological and radiocarbon evidence, there is no indication of
the Pala Dynasty having persisted in the Paharpur region after the
late 11th and/or early 12th century.
As Choudhury (1994) has pointed out, extensive famines in
Bangladesh in the historical period have been shown to be strongly
correlated with El Nino events (e.g. the 1770, 1943, 1974 and 1982
famines), typically as a result of reduced rainfall causing crops to
fail, with the situation exacerbated by severe ooding associated
with the transition into La Nin a years. Such events cause massive
reductions in agricultural productivity and production, leading to
widespread poverty, migration and social unrest. As alluded to in
Section 3, the Sompura Mahaviharan site has experienced a series
of changes in occupation with social upheaval and changes in the
ruling powers; likewise, the phytolith analysis documents a series
of changes in local vegetation patterns and by inference local
climatic conditions. To what degree these changes in the archaeo-
logical records can be argued to be causatively linked with the
climatic variability in the late Holocene, particularly the effects of
the ENSO, is unknown, but is an interesting possibility that is
worthy of further study.
In summary, the phytolith assemblages of the late Holocene-
aged archaeological soils from Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur
in northwestern Bangladesh are dominated by large quantities of
grass (Poaceae) phytoliths with a small contribution from broad-
leaved trees. The corresponding climate indices suggest generally
cool to temperate and dry conditions persisted in this region
throughout the Pala Dynasty from 730 to 1080 AD, with periods of
uctuating warmer and cooler periods. The emerging climatic data
based on the phytolith assemblages are consistent with the global
palaeo-temperature curve during this period, and may be related to
Fig. 5. Relative abundances of grass subfamilies and results of climate index versus depth.
Fig. 6. Past changes in global temperature for the last 1000 years. (Courtesy: Warrick and Ahmed, 1996).
A.K.M.M. Alam et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009) 504512 510
the ENSO phenomena. Furthermore, the data presented here are in
close agreement with the clay mineralogical data from Paharpur.
However, because of our limited understanding of phytolith
production patterns in modern soils and vegetation of Bangladesh,
the general conclusions drawn from this study must be considered
preliminary. Nevertheless, this study is signicant as it represents
the rst phytolith research conducted in Bangladesh and serves as
a starting point for further detailed investigations of the extensive
Somapura Buddhist monastery site.
Acknowledgments
This research was undertaken as part of a Ph.D. by the primary
author, supported by the Chinese Government Scholarship
Program through the China Scholarship Council (CSC), The Peoples
Republic of China. The authors are deeply grateful for this support,
as well as for additional nancial support provided by NSFC (grant
no. 40525008) for conducting eldwork and some of the laboratory
work in Bangladesh. The authors are also indebted to the Foreign
Student Ofce, China University of Geosciences for their logistic
support. The authors also gratefully acknowledge the cooperation
and support fromthe respective authorities of Bangladesh National
Museum, Department of Archeology, Bangladesh Space, Research
and Remote Sensing Organization (SPARRSO) and Department of
Geology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Thanks are due to Dr.
Sifatul Quader Chowdhury, Professor of Geology Department,
Dhaka University for providing help in the eld and Dr. Gu Yan-
sheng, Associate Professor, School of Environmental Studies, China
University of Geosciences for his assistance with the phytolith
analysis. Last but by no means least, the authors are grateful to
the unknown reviewers and the Editors for their critical reading
of the manuscript; as always any errors in interpretation remain the
responsibility of the authors.
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