Instrumentation, Instrumentation,

Control & Industrial Control & Industrial

Practice Practice
Topic 8
Control system
instrumentation
Sensors - Terminology
Dr H Bandulasena
Topic 8
Last time we saw:
Actuator system (control valve)
Various control valve constructions
Linear motion control valves
Rotary-motion control valves
Closure type based on safety consideration
Air-to-close (fail open)
Air-to-open (fail closed)
2
Air-to-open (fail closed)
Installed valve characteristics is nonlinear (different from
uninstalled characteristics)
Sizing procedure for control valves
Objectives for today:
Understand the role of measurements
Familiarize with terminology used in
sensor technology
Understand the difference between
accuracy and precision
3
accuracy and precision
Outline of the Lecture
Introduction in transducer and
transmitters
Sensor terminology
4
Measurement devises - Importance
If we can measure it, we can
control it
We need to be able to see
5
We need to be able to see
the process variable in order to
control it we need sensors.
instruments are always
incorrect
Transducer and transmitter
A transducer is a device that translates one form of energy to another.
Eg. Pressure transducer
P
V
6
general configuration of a measurement
transducer; it typically consists of a
sensing element combined with a
driving element (transmitter).
V
Sensor, Transmitter and Transducer
Sensor: A device that receives and responds to a signal or
stimulus
Transmitter: Part of the transducer that produces an
amplified, standardized instrument signal. The most
common standardized forms are either 4-20 milliamps
(electric signal) or 3-15 psi (pneumatic signal).
7
(electric signal) or 3-15 psi (pneumatic signal).
Radio and hydraulic signals are also used, though they are
not as common because of inherent problems such as radio
signal interference and leakage of hydraulic systems.
However, radio signals commonly are used when sensors
and transmitters are great distances (on pipelines, for
example) from control centres.
Transmitters are generally designed to be direct acting.
Sensors types
Active sensors Self generate an
electrical output signal (e.g.
thermocouples)
Passive sensors require an external
power source to provide an electrical
output signal (e.g. thermister)
8
Sensor Terminology
Range: The range of a sensor is the maximum and
minimum values of applied parameter that can be
measured.
Response time: The amount of time required for a
sensor to completely respond to a change in its input.
9
sensor to completely respond to a change in its input.
Accuracy: How close the sensor comes to indicating the
actual value of the measured variable?
Precision: How consistent the sensor is in measuring
the same value under the same operating conditions over
a period of time?
The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship
between input physical signal (such as temperature,
pressure) and output electrical signal (voltage).
The sensitivity is generally the ratio between a small
Sensitivity
Sensor Terminology
The sensitivity is generally the ratio between a small
change in electrical signal to a small change in
physical signal. As such, it may be expressed as the
derivative of the transfer function with respect to
physical signal. E.g. units: Volts/Kelvin.
An ideal sensor will have a large and constant
sensitivity
10
Sensor Terminology
Dead band: The range through which an input can be
varied without initiating an observable response in a sensor
Costs: What are the costs involved - not simply the
purchase cost, but also the installed/operating costs? purchase cost, but also the installed/operating costs?
Installation problems: Are there special installation
problems, e.g., corrosive fluids, explosive mixtures, size and
shape constraints, remote transmission questions, etc.?
11
Range
Example:
temperature sensor
12
temperature sensor
Electronic transmitter adjusted range
Measurement:
range: 100 500 F
Span=500-100=400 F
Transmitter:
13
Range 4 20 mA;
Span = 20-4 = 16 mA
Example 50% of the measurement = 300 F transmitter
output 12 mA
Steady-State Gain (K) = Change in Output / Change in
Input that caused output change sensitivity
Our example: Gain = 0.04 (16 divided by 400 )
Pneumatic transmitter adjusted range
Class Exercise
Measurement:
range:
span:
Transmitter:
14
Transmitter:
Range:
Span:
What is the transmitted signal for the measurement P
measured
=140 PSIG?
Calculate the steady state gain
Calibration
A sensor or an instrument is calibrated by applying a number of
known physical inputs (standards) and recording the response of the
system
* The transfer function Mathematical function which represents the
relation between a physical measurement (stimulus) and the system
response (electrical output signal). E.g. V=a+bT
15
Physical input
S
i
g
n
a
l
o
u
t
p
u
t
* linear transfer function
y = c+ m.x
c - output signal when the stimulus is zero
m - slope or line gradient
x - stimulus intensity.
Note that, c and m are constants, and y (output) varies according to x (input).
Transfer function
16
* Nonlinear Transfer Function
Sensors with internal characteristics variation not proportional to the physical
parameter variation ( nonlinear behaviour - sensitivity is not constant)
exponential
logarithmic
x
a y
a>=0 and a 1
x b a y ln
Accuracy versus Precision)
(shooting at a target)
Not accurate or Precise Precise but NOT accurate
17
Accurate and NOT Precise
Accurate AND Precise
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy: is the closeness of a measurement (or a
set of observations) to the true value
Higher the accuracy, lower the error
Precision: is the closeness of multiple observations
or repeatability of a measurement
Refers to how close a set of measurement are to
18
Refers to how close a set of measurement are to
each other
Absolute Error = e = | true indicated value |
Relative Error = absolute error / true value
%Accuracy = [1 (e / true value)] x 100
How Accurate is the Measurement ?
There is always some uncertainty in measurements
Uncertainty: A likely bound on the error
The application dictates the required accuracy:
19
Significant consequences
Core temperature of a nuclear reactor vs.
outdoor temperature
Functionality
Measurement of lens curvature on eyeglasses
vs. curvature of a wide-angle mirror
Class Exercise Fired heater
20
Class Exercise Fired heater
21
Precision
Precision Error: is a measure of the random variation
found during repeated measurements
A system that repeatedly indicates the same wrong
value upon application of a particular input,
22
value upon application of a particular input,
would be considered very precise, regardless of
its accuracy
b) Relative standard deviation (RSD)
a) Estimated standard deviation (s)

1
2

N
x x
s
i
x
i
= individual determination
= mean value of determinations
N = number of determinations
Precision
x
23
b) Relative standard deviation (RSD)
x
s
RSD
c) Coefficient of variation (CV)
100
x
s
CV
100
x
s
P
r
o
c
e
s
s
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
Precision & Bias Error
True or known value True or known value
Average measured value Average measured value
Test Bias Error Test Bias Error
Precision Scatter Precision Scatter
24
P
r
o
c
e
s
s
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
Time
Measured data Measured data
Bias Error: is the difference between the average value and the
true value
To determine the bias error, one normally requires the average error
to be determined by means of repeated measurements
Instrument Repeatability
A sensor repeatedly calibrated under identical conditions, will
show some variations. Repeatability is the measure of this
variation and is normally described by the standard deviation
(s) of the data.
25
%e
R
max

e
R
max
r
o
100
(output range = r
o
)
Nonideal instrument behaviour
26
Hysteresis
Deadband
Hysteresis Error
The hysteresis error can be quantified by:
%e
e
h
max
100
27
%e
h
max

h
max
r
o
100
(output range = r
o
)
Linearity
Many types of sensors have linear
input/output behavior, at least within a
narrow range of inputs. The sensor thus
follows an input/output relation like
y
L
(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x.
These will often be marketed as linear,
and the only calibration data you get is
28
and the only calibration data you get is
the slope of the input/output relation (a
1
)
and the zero input value (a
0
). For these
types of sensors, the deviation from linear
behavior should be reported in the
specifications. This deviation can be
calculated: e
L
(x) = y(x) - y
L
(x).
The spec is usually the percentage error
relative to full scale, or
%e
L
max

e
L
max
r
o
100
(output range = r
o
)
Class exercise
The output voltage V of a temperature sensor shows a
nonlinear characteristic curve. The transfer function is
given by the following equation:
Is the sensitivity of the sensor the same in the whole
c bT aT V
2
29
Is the sensitivity of the sensor the same in the whole
operating regime?
What is the maximum sensitivity of the sensor
In which operating regime one should avoid using the
sensor?
Assuming that the characteristic curve above is a perfect
fit what would be the maximum linearity error if a linear
calibration curve would be used?
Zero and Sensitivity Errors
Variations in the linearity parameters a
0
and a
1
are
called zero errors and sensitivity errors, respectively.
Zero errors are handled rather easily by measuring the
zero input response before measurements are started.
These two errors are often sensitive to temperature
fluctuations in electronic equipment.
y
L
(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x
30