ES2331 Engineering Communication Required tutorial notes

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COMMUNICATION AND RESEARCH ETHICS

ETHICAL COMMUNICATION

All forms of communicationincluding listening and speakinghave an ethical dimension
(Johanessen et al 2008; DeVito 1997). DeVito explains that ethical communication concerns
the rightness or wrongness of both speakers and listeners behavior. He suggests the
following principles for ethical speaking: truthfulness, knowledge and preparation,
audience-centeredness, understandability, and accountability. For ethical listening, he
suggests that communicators observe honest hearing and responding. The following is an
extract that discusses guidelines in ethical speaking and listening from his book Elements
of Public Speaking (1997). The principles are contextualized in public speaking situations,
but they can very well be applied in interpersonal and group communication situations.

SPEAKER ETHICS

The standards applied here grow out of the assumption that each person has a right
to make his or her own choices. Each person has a right to the information and the
knowledge necessary to make informed choices. Of course, it is assumed that the
individual is intellectually and emotionally capable of making reasoned and
reasonable choices. It is further assumed that these choices will not restrict or
prevent other persons from making their choices. Thus, we cannot always grant the
freedom of choice to young persons or to mentally ill persons. We cannot grant the
drunken driver the freedom to drive since this restricts the freedom of others to
drive in relative safety. Mothers and fathers, doctors and psychiatrists, and judges
and law enforcement officers may have to prevent the exercise of some individual
choices. Five guidelines prove useful in evaluating the ethics of the public speaker.
These guidelines are, at the same time, the ethical responsibilities of a public
speaker. As you review these guidelines, think about your own ethical standards and
behaviors.

Truth

Present the truth as you understand it. Your audience has a right to expect that you
speak the truth as you know it. Obviously, you should not lie, but you should also
avoid misrepresenting the truth because it might better fit your purpose. Avoid
distorting information (no matter how small) because in undistorted form it might
not be as useful. Further, be truthful about the sources of your materials. Failure to
properly credit sources can lead you to commit plagiarism, even though you have no
intention of deceiving anyone. It is also unethicaland illegalto defame another
person. We defame (or commit defamation against) another person when we falsely
attack his or her reputation, causing damage to it. We call such defamation libel
when done in print or in pictures, and slander when spoken. So, be careful of your
facts, especially when talking about another person.



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Knowledge and Preparation

If you speak on a specific subjectas a teacher lecturing or as a political candidate
debatingprepare yourself thoroughly. Be so informed, so knowledgeable, that the
audience will be able to get the information they need to make reasoned and
reasonable choices.

Audience Centered

Have the audience's interests in mind. This is not to say that you should not speak
out of personal interest; speakers should never exploit their audiences. If a speaker
asks an audience to listen to a speech and to do certain things, it should be for their
ultimate benefit. It would be unethical, for example, to persuade an audience to
take up arms in a self-destructive war or to buy homes in a flood zone. It would be
unethical to ask an audience to donate money to an embezzling organization. [In the
US as in other countries, it] is also unethical (and illegal) to create what is legally
termed a clear and present danger (Verderber, 1991). This injunction, which derives
from a US Supreme Court decision (Oliver Wendell Holmes presiding in Schenck v.
U.S. 1919), prohibits speech that is potentially dangerous to the welfare of the
people and the country. Causing people to riot or to commit illegal acts may actually
prove illegal if it can be determined that the speech posed a clear and present
danger.

Understandable

Closely related to preparedness is understandability (Jensen 1970). As a speaker, you
have an obligation to make your speech understandable to your audience. In talking
above the level of the audience, for example, you prevent the audience from clearly
understanding what you are arguing or explaining. In talking in oversimplified terms,
you can fool your audience into thinking they understand what they really do not.
Each of these approaches is unethical because it prevents the audience from
learning what they need to learn to make informed choices.

Accountability

Part of the ethical responsibility you have as a public speaker is to be accountable for
everything you say. Although you may say virtually anything (with notable
exceptions already mentioned), you have an obligation to take responsibility for
what you say. Communication researcher Jon Hess (1993) suggests that you should
do the following because as a speaker you'll be held accountable for your comments:

If you're not sure if certain information is correct, tell your audience. They
have a right to know.
Make clear when you are using facts and when you are using your own
opinions. Both are important, but the audience should know which is which.
Avoid misleading the audience in any way. Fooling the audience or
encouraging them to believe what is not true is unethical.
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ETHICAL LISTENING

Because public speaking is a two-way process, both speaker and listener share in the
success or failure of the interaction. And both share in the moral implications of the
public speaking exchange. Two major principles govern the ethics of listening.

Honest Hearing

Give the speaker an honest hearing. Avoid prejudging the speaker before hearing
her or him. Try to put aside prejudices and preconceptions so you can evaluate the
speaker's message fairly. At the same time, try to empathize with the speaker. You
don't have to agree with the speaker, but do try to understand emotionally as well as
intellectually what the speaker means. Then accept or reject the speaker's ideas on
the basis of the information offered, and not on the basis of some bias or incomplete
understanding.

Honest Responding

Just as the speaker should be honest with the listener, the listener should be honest with
the speaker. This means giving open and honest feedback. In a learning environment such as
your public speaking class, it means giving honest and constructive criticism to help the
speaker improve. It also means reflecting honestly on the questions the speaker raises.
Much as the listener has a right to expect an active speaker, the speaker has a right to
expect an active listener. The speaker has a right to expect a listener who will actively deal
with rather than just passively hear the message.

REFERENCES

Johannesen, R. L., Valde, K.S., & Whedbee, K.E. (2008). Ethics in human communication, 6
th

ed. Long Grove (IL): Waveland Press.

DeVito, J. A. (1997). The elements of public speaking, 6
th
ed. USA: Addison Wesley.

RESEARCH ETHICS

Extract A

Interviews, like all evaluation methods, have ethical standards to follow. Due to the
personal, conversational nature of interviews, five basic ethical issues should be considered
as you plan:

1. Confidentiality Because the respondent is sharing personal information, explain
how you intend to use the data provided. Be honest with the level of confidentiality
you can promise. Keep respondent confidentiality at the forefront when you analyze
the data.

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2. Informed Consent By agreeing to an interview, the respondent is giving you
consent to obtain data from him or her. Obtaining consent is critical when
considering how you wish to use the data. If you wish to use a quote or testimonial,
receive permission to use the individuals name or ask if it can be stated
anonymously. Depending on the topic, you may want to consider obtaining consent
in written format.

3. Risk Assessment Consider all potential risks of the interview and include them in
the informed consent. Although the interview may very well be an informal
conversation where two people are just talking about a specific topic, it is
important to consider the consequence of using the data collected, especially if its
use can incur negative ramifications to the respondent.

4. Promises/Reciprocity What is the benefit to the respondent? It is important to
consider what the benefits will be for individuals who take time to provide you with
information. Will they or the community they live in benefit in some way from the
results? Will they receive a copy of the final report, thank you card, etc.? If you
promise something, keep it.

Adapted from the text: Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, Patton, M.Q. (1990)
Prepared by Ed Minter, Regional Evaluation Specialist, Local Program Evaluation. Univ of Wisconsin-Extension,
Program Development & Evaluation. March 2003 http://www.uwex.edu/ces/tobaccoeval/pdf/EthicsInt.pdf

Extract B

Thematizing The purpose of an interview study should, beyond the scientific value of the
knowledge sought, also be considered with regard to improvement of the human situation
investigated.

Designing Ethical issues of design involve obtaining the subjects informed consent to
participate in the study, securing confidentiality, and considering the possible consequences
of the study for the subjects.

Interview Situation The personal consequences of the interview interaction for the
subjects need to be taken into account, such as stress during the interview and changes in
self-understanding.

Transcription The confidentiality of the interviewees needs to be protected and there is
also the question of whether a transcribed text is loyal to the interviewees oral statements.

Analysis Ethical issues in analysis involve the question of how penetratingly the interviews
can be analyzed and of whether the subjects should have a say in how their statements are
interpreted.

Verification It is the researchers ethical responsibility to report knowledge that is as
secured and verified as possible. This involves the issue of how critically an interviewee may
be questioned.

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Reporting There is again the issue of confidentiality when reporting private interviews in
public, and of the consequences of the published report for the interviewees and for the
groups they belong to.

Source: Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews- Learning the Craft of Qualitative Research Interviewing.
Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage, p. 63.