1

Vehicle layouts and some simple vehicle

structures
Topics covered in this
chapter
The types of forces to which a vehicle structure is
subjected
Unitary construction
Chassis-built vehicles
Front- and rear-wheel drive and the layout of these
systems
Passenger protection e crumple zones and side impact
bars
Vehicle shape e air resistance
Pros and cons of front- and rear-wheel-drive systems
End-of-life vehicles and methods of disposal
Light vehicles
The term light vehicle is generally taken to mean
vehicles weighing less than 3 tonnes. These are vehicles
such as cars, vans, and light commercial vehicles.
Various types of light vehicles are shown in Fig. 1.1.
Most of these vehicles are propelled by an internal
combustion engine but increasing concern about
atmospheric pollution is causing greater use of electric
propulsion. Vehicles that incorporate an internal
combustion engine and an electric motor are called
hybrid vehicles.
Vehicle structure
Figure 1.2 shows some of the forces that act on a vehicle
structure. The passengers and other effects cause a down-
ward force that is resisted by the upward forces at the
axles. The vehicle structure acts like a simple beam
where the upper surface is in compression and the lower
one in tension. When the loading from side to side of the
vehicle is unequal the vehicle body is subject to a twisting
effect and the vehicle structure is designed to have
torsional stiffness that resists distortion through twisting.
There are basically two types of vehicle construction:
one uses a frame on to which the vehicle is built; the
other is called unitary construction where the body
and frame are built as a unit to which subframes are
added to support the suspension and other components.
The frame is normally made from low-carbon steel
that is formed into shapes to provide maximum strength;
box and channel sections are frequently used for this
purpose. The frame shown in Fig. 1.3 has a deeper
section in the centre area of the side members because
this is where the bending stress is greatest. In areas
where additional strength is required, such as where
suspension members are attached, special strengthening
supports are tted.
Unitary construction
Most of the vehicle structure is made from steel sections
that are welded together to provide a rigid structure
which is able to cope with the stresses and strains that
occur when the vehicle is in use. In most cases the mate-
rial used is a deep-drawing mild steel that can be readily
pressed into the required shapes. An example of unitary
construction is shown in Fig. 1.4. In some cases, the
outer panels are made from plastics such as Kevlar
(Fig. 1.5), which has excellent strength and resistance
to corrosion.
Body panels are normally lined with sound-deadening
material which is either sprayed, or glued, on to the
inside. In order to protect body components against
rust and corrosion, they may be galvanized, or treated
with some other form of protection.
Passenger protection
In addition to providing the strength required for normal
motoring conditions, vehicles are designed to protect the
occupants in the event of a collision. Two areas of vehicle
construction are particularly related to this problem:
1. Crumple zones
2. Side impact protection.
2011 Allan Bonnick and Derek Newbold. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
Crumple zones
A vehicle in motion possesses kinetic energy. Because
energy cannot be destroyed, some means has to be found
to change its form. Under braking conditions, the
kinetic energy is converted into heat by the friction in
the brakes e this heat then passes into the atmosphere.
When involved in a collision the kinetic energy is
absorbed in distorting the vehicle structure e if this
distortion can take place outside the passenger compart-
ment, a degree of protection for the vehicle occupants
can be provided. The front and rear ends of motor cars
are designed to collapse in the event of a collision; the
areas of the bodywork that are designed for this purpose
are known as crumple zones (Fig. 1.6). At the design
Van
People carrier
SUV
Saloon
Hatchback
Pickup truck
Fig. 1.1 Types of light vehicles
Vehicle structure
Bending effect
Twisting effect
Twisting effect
Fig. 1.2 Forces acting on vehicle structure
2 A Practical Approach to Motor Vehicle Engineering and Maintenance
Cross members
Suspension mounts
Box section side members Front
Rear
Fig. 1.3 A typical vehicle frame
Radiator grill panel
Wing valance
Bulk head
A Pillar
Sill
Floor panel
Cant rail
B Pillar
C Pillar
Fig. 1.4 Features of a unitary construction body
Boot lid
made from
Kevlar
Fig. 1.5 Kevlar body panel
Fig. 1.6 Crumple zone e impact test at the British Transport
Research Laboratory (TRL)
Image Courtesy of StaraBlazkova at the Czech language Wikipedia
Vehicle layouts and some simple vehicle structures 3
and development stages, and prior to introduction into
general use, samples of vehicles are subjected to
rigorous tests to ensure that they comply with the stan-
dards that are set by governmental bodies.
Side impact protection
In the event of side impact, a degree of protection to
occupants is provided by the bars that are tted inside
the doors (Fig. 1.7).
Vehicle shape
A considerable amount of engine power is consumed in
driving a vehicle against the air resistance that is caused
by vehicle motion. The air resistance is affected by
a factor known as the drag coefcient and it is depen-
dent on the shape of the vehicle.
Air resistance 5 C
d
3 A 3V
2
, where C
d
is the drag
coefcient, A is the frontal area of the vehicle, and
Vis the velocity of the vehicle relative to the wind speed.
The way in which engine power is absorbed in over-
coming air resistance is shown in the graph in Fig. 1.8.
Streamlining
The efciency of the streamlining of a vehicle body is
a major factor in reducing the drag coefcient; other
factors, such as recessing door handles and shaping of
exterior mirrors, also contribute to a lowering of drag.
Another factor that contributes to the lowering of drag
is the air dam that is tted to the front of a vehicle
(Fig. 1.9); this reduces under-body turbulence.
End-of-Life Vehicles Directive
The End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV) Directive aims to
reduce the amount of waste produced from vehicles
when they are scrapped. Around two million vehicles
reach the end of their life in the UK each year. These
vehicles are classed as hazardous waste until they
have been fully treated.
What does the directive mean?
The directive requires ELV treatment sites to meet
stricter environmental standards.
The last owner of a vehicle must be issued with
a Certicate of Destruction for their vehicle and
they must be able to dispose of their vehicle free of
charge. Vehicle manufacturers and importers must
cover all or most of the cost of the free take-back
system.
It also sets higher reuse, recycling and recovery
targets, and limits the use of hazardous substances in
both new vehicles and replacement vehicle parts.
Strengthening member
Tubular protection bar
Fig. 1.7 Side impact protection (Toyota)
Rolling assistance
45
Speed [km/h]
90
P
o
w
e
r

l
o
s
s

[
k
W
]
Transmission
Aerodynamic
DHAS
Fig. 1.8 Power used against air resistance
4 A Practical Approach to Motor Vehicle Engineering and Maintenance
Who implements the directive?
In the UK, the directive is implemented through
ELV Regulations issued in 2003 and 2005, and
through the Environmental Permitting (EP)
Regulations 2007.
The 2003 regulations deal with information require-
ments, certicate of destruction requirements, and
restricting the use of hazardous substances in new vehi-
cles. The 2005 regulations cover recycling targets and
free take-back for ELVs.
The 2007 regulations extended the treatment
requirements in the UK to all waste motor vehicles
(including coaches, buses, motor cycles, goods
vehicles, etc).
Authorized Treatment Facilities
Authorized Treatment Facilities (ATFs) are permitted
facilities accepting waste motor vehicles, which are
able to comply with the requirements of the End-of-Life
Vehicle (ELV) and Environmental Permitting (EP)
regulations.
In the UK, most local authorities have vehicle recy-
cling companies that are authorized to deal with ELVs:
Vehicle recyclers must dismantle vehicles in an
environmentally responsible manner and achieve
between 75% and 85% recycling targets.
The vehicle owner must dispose of their unwanted
vehicle in a legal and responsible manner by using an
Authorized Treatment Facility.
Layout of engine and driveline
Front-wheel drive
The majority of light vehicles have the engine at the
front of the vehicle with the driving power being trans-
mitted to the front wheels.
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 1.10 the engine and
transmission units are placed transversely at the front of
the vehicle, which means that they are at right angles to
the main axis of the vehicle.
Some of the advantages claimed for front-wheel drive
are:
Because the engine and transmission system are
placed over the front wheels the road holding is
improved, especially in wet and slippery
conditions.
Good steering stability is achieved because the
driving force at the wheels is in the direction that
the vehicle is being steered. There is also
a tendency for front-wheel drive vehicles to
understeer, which can improve driveability when
cornering.
Passenger and cargo space are good because there is
no need for a transmission shaft to the rear axle.
Possible disadvantages are:
Complicated drive shafts are needed for constant-
velocity joints.
Acceleration is affected because load transfer to the
rear of the vehicle lightens the load on the drive axle
at the front.
The turning circle radius is limited by the angle
through which a constant-velocity joint can
function.
Front-engine rear-wheel drive
Until reliable mass-produced constant-velocity joints
became available, the front engine and rear drive axle
arrangement shown in Fig. 1.11 was used in most light
vehicles.
In the layout shown in Fig. 1.11 the engine is
mounted in-line with the main axis of the vehicle.
The gearbox is at the rear of the engine and power is
transmitted through the propeller shaft to the drive
axle at the rear. The gearbox, propeller shaft, and rear
axle make up what is known as the driveline of the
vehicle.
The advantages of a front-engine rear-wheel drive
arrangement are:
Fig. 1.9 An air dam (DuPont)
Fig. 1.10 Typical front-wheel-drive arrangement
Vehicle layouts and some simple vehicle structures 5
The front axle is relatively simple.
Acceleration and hill climbing are aided because
load transfer to the rear of the vehicle retains traction
at the driving wheels.
Possible disadvantages are:
Reduced space for driver and front passenger
because of the bulge inthe oor panel that is requiredto
accommodate the gearbox and clutch housing.
The raised section known as the propeller shaft
affects available space throughout the length of the
passenger compartment.
Long propeller shafts can cause vibration problems.
Rear-engine rear-wheel drive
Figure 1.12 shows an arrangement where the engine is
mounted transversely at the rear with the drive being
transmitted to the rear axle.
The advantages claimed for the rear-engine layout are:
Short driveline because the engine, gearbox, and nal
drive can be built into a single unit.
A preponderance of weight at the rear of the vehicle
gives improved traction during hill climbing and
acceleration.
Possible disadvantages are:
A tendency to oversteer.
Difculty accommodating liquid cooling of the
engine.
Difculty accommodating the fuel tank in a safe zone
of the vehicle.
Space for luggage is reduced.
Difculty steering in slippery conditions.
Four-wheel drive
In this system the engine power is transmitted to all four
wheels of a light vehicle. In the arrangement shown in
Fig. 1.13(a), the engine is placed at the front of the
vehicle. Power to the front wheels is provided through
the gearbox to the front axle and from the gearbox to
the rear axle via the propeller shaft.
Permanent drive to all four wheels (Fig. 1.13(a) and
(b)) poses certain difculties with braking and steering
that require the use of sophisticated electronically
controlled devices. A common approach to four-wheel
drive makes use of an additional gearbox that is known
as the transfer gearbox. This additional unit allows the
driver to select four-wheel drive when driving conditions
make it benecial and for cross-country work the transfer
gearbox provides an additional range of lower gear ratios.
The advantages claimed for four-wheel drive are:
Better traction in all conditions.
Wear of tyres and other driveline components is more
evenly shared.
Possible disadvantages are:
Increased weight and initial vehicle cost.
Increased maintenance due to the complexity of
transmission systems.
Increased fuel consumption.
Possibly difcult to accommodate anti-lock braking
systems.
Fig. 1.11 Front-engine rear-wheel drive
6 A Practical Approach to Motor Vehicle Engineering and Maintenance
Self-assessment questions
1. What happens to a motor vehicle that has reached
the end of its useful life?
2. Find out the names of the Authorized Treatment
Facilities in your area.
3. What percentage of a vehicle is recycled? What
happens to the steel that is reclaimed when
a vehicle is scrapped?
4. Examine a manual for a vehicle that you work on
and describe the features that the design
incorporates to protect the occupants in the event
of a collision.
5. Write a few notes to describe why you think that
four-wheel drive vehicles are now popular for use
as family cars.
6. What is meant by the term oversteer. Why do you
think that a rear-engine vehicle may be more prone
to oversteer than a front-engine vehicle?
7. What is the purpose of an air dam?
8. What measures should be taken to protect
paintwork when a vehicle is being worked on?
9. In which position on vehicle panels is soundproong
applied?
10. If the speed of a vehicle is doubled, by what factor is
the air resistance increased?
11. What features of vehicle design affect the drag
coefcient?
12. Which part of a four-wheel drive transmission
system permits the four-wheel drive to be
engaged?
13. In which positions on a vehicle are the side impact
protection bars tted?
14. Make a list of the external parts of a motor car that
are made from plastic.
15. What methods of joining body panels are used in
modern vehicle construction?
16. What materials and methods are used to prevent
water entering the interior of a car?
17. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the type of
engine mounting that is used to attach an engine to
a vehicle frame.
Gearbox
Transfer box
Visco clutch and 60/40 diff
Front engine with 60/40 differential
and visco clutch
Transverse engine with
transaxle
(b)
(a)
Fig. 1.13 (a) Optional four-wheel drive. (b) Permanent four-wheel
drive
Fig. 1.12 Rear-engine rear-wheel-drive layout
Vehicle layouts and some simple vehicle structures 7