2003 Lockheed Martin Corporation, All Rights Reserved.

Experimental and Analytical Studies of Residual Stress Field Evolution

and Fatigue Crack Growth at Cold Expanded Holes

Dale L. Ball
Mark T. Doerfler
Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company
1 Lockheed Blvd.
Fort Worth TX 76108

Ref: Ball, D.L. and Doerfler, M.T., Experimental and Analytical Studies of Residual Stress Field
Evolution and Fatigue Crack Growth at Cold Expanded Holes, 2003 USAF ASIP Conference, Savannah
GA, Dec. 2003.

Abstract

The process of cold expanding holes in metallic components in order to extend their
fatigue life is now widely used throughout the aircraft industry. Numerous experimental
and analytical programs over the past three decades have not only demonstrated how
effective the process can be at extending fatigue life, but have also shed considerable
light on the mechanics of both the cold expansion process and the growth of fatigue
cracks in the resulting residual stress fields. In spite of the progress that has been made,
however, there are a number of hole-cold-expansion related phenomena that have not
been well characterized experimentally. In addition, the fatigue and fracture analysis
community has yet to adopt a standard, mechanics-based method for modeling the
growth of fatigue cracks at cold worked holes. This document describes recent
experimental work aimed at 1) evaluating two new residual stress measurement
techniques and 2) measuring the effects of compression loading on the effectivity of cold
work induced life extension. Mechanics-based models, both for the formation of residual
stress fields (due to the cold expansion process) and for the subsequent evolution of these
stress fields (due to service loading, particularly compression overloading) are discussed.
A method for incorporating the results from these models into a fatigue crack growth
analysis is described and then applied to the cold expanded hole problem. Finally, results
from these models are compared with experimental data.

Background

The hole cold working process primarily involves the radial expansion of the hole by
drawing an oversized, tapered mandrel through it. In the split-sleeve process [1], a
2
lubricated sleeve is placed on the mandrel prior to drawing the mandrel through the hole.
This is done both to protect the hole bore surface and to reduce the force required to pull
the mandrel. It has the added benefit of minimizing the out-of-plane deformation caused
by transverse motion of the mandrel. The process is designed such that the major
diameter of the mandrel plus the sleeve thickness is sufficiently larger than the initial
diameter of the hole so as to cause permanent plastic deformation around the hole when
the mandrel is pulled through. At the completion of the expansion process (i.e., after the
mandrel and sleeve have been removed), the elastic material surrounding the hole and the
plastically deformed region attempts to return to its original shape. In so doing, it
compresses the annulus of plastically deformed material around the perimeter of the hole.
It is this force exerted on the plastic annulus that produces a compressive residual stress
field around the hole. It is very important to note that this is a self equilibrating stress
field the compressive residual stresses in the plastic annulus are balanced by tensile
residual stresses in the surrounding elastic body. It is also very important to note that if
there is no surrounding elastic material, then these residual stresses will not be produced.
Or if there is insufficient surrounding elastic material, then their magnitude will be
reduced. The compressive residual stresses at the hole perimeter reduce the local stresses
at this location when the component is subjected to remote tension. It is this reduction in
local stresses that can induce significant increases in fatigue crack growth life.

Over the past thirty years a variety of experimental programs have been conducted by
LM Aero which have either addressed hole cold working exclusively, or have at least
included the process as one of the structural aspects being studied. The majority of these
have been funded by specific aircraft programs and thus have tended to focus on
verification of life improvement ratios for the geometries, materials and loadings specific
to each program [2-3] [4-12] [13-14]. In addition, a small number of research studies
have been conducted in an effort to address the mechanics of cold expansion and of crack
growth in residual stress fields. These have been designed to be more generally
applicable and hence have been based on generic conditions [15-18]. More recently,
LM Aero has conducted programs aimed at the development of analytical tools capable
of predicting fatigue life extension as a function of significant cold work process and
control point specific geometric, material and loading parameters [19-23].

In the current study, a series of experiments aimed at characterizing both the initial, cold-
work-induced residual stress field and the subsequent, overload-modified stress fields
were conducted. Two emerging technologies which are able to detect cold expansion
effects and which may be able to characterize cold-work-induced residual stress or strain
profiles in aluminum were investigated. One was the photon induced positron
annihilation technique (PIPA); developed, patented and marketed by Positron Systems,
Inc., Boise ID (PSI) [24], and the other was the meandering winding magnetometer
(MWM) method; developed, patented and marketed by JENTEK Sensors, Inc., Waltham
MA (JSI) [25]. All of the specimen preparation, hole cold expansion and fatigue testing
were performed by Fatigue Technology Inc., Seattle WA (FTI).

This study also addressed the further development of fatigue crack growth models that
have been under development at LM Aero for a number of years. These models use
3
closed form calculated residual stress profiles as the initial condition from which a cyclic
elastic-plastic response analysis is conducted. In this way both cold work process
induced and service loading induced features of the response / residual stress profiles are
incorporated in the analysis. Stress intensity factors are calculated based on these cycle-
by-cycle results using new Greens functions which were developed during this program.
Once the cyclic SIF values are available, crack growth rates are found using standard
da/dN vs. K relationships and crack growth life is found by repeating these calculations
and incrementing the crack size until failure occurs.

Experimental Program

The current experimental program was designed as an extension of an earlier LM Aero
program [17] [19]; the same material, hole geometry and expansion levels were used.
The program consisted of two parts 1) evaluation of new non-destructive evaluation
(NDE) techniques for the detection of cold expansion effects and possibly the
characterization of residual stress or strain fields, and 2) generation of fatigue crack
growth data for cracks at cold worked holes.

Detection of Cold-Expansion Effect

Photon induced positron annihilation is an NDE technique that can be used to detect
relative changes in microstructure due to plastic deformation and/or fatigue [24]. The
technique uses a linear accelerator to inject high energy photons either directly into the
material to be inspected, or into a positron source material (PSM). These photons have
sufficient energy to knock a neutron out of the nuclei of a small number of atoms in the
target. It is the decay of the resulting isotopes that produces the positrons. When the
target is the actual part to be inspected, positrons are produced in the bulk material. This
process is referred to as photon induced positron annihilation (PIPA). When the target is
a PSM, the PSM is placed in contact with the part to be inspected and the positrons then
migrate from the PSM into the surface of the part. This process is referred to as
distributed source positron annihilation (DSPA). In both cases, the positrons, because of
their positive charge, migrate to vacancies / dislocations in the crystal lattice. Eventually,
they annihilate with low momentum electrons, and the gamma spectrometry response of
the annihilation is measured. See Fig. 1. For the aluminum plates used in the current
program, the PIPA measured response was indicative of the bulk (through the thickness)
material state, while for DSPA, the response indicated surface condition only (to a depth
of 1 to 2 mm).

Relative differences in dislocation density can be quantified because the energy of the
annihilation gamma radiation is different in a damaged area than in a non-damaged area
(511 keV versus all other energy levels see Fig. 2). The measured response is reported
in terms of an S (or shaping) parameter. In the current program, differences in
dislocation density (and therefore S parameter) were assumed to be the result of
differences in degree of plastic deformation alone. However, the measured response is
apparently affected by lattice dilatation as well. At present, it is not possible to
distinguish what part of the signal is due to which effect.
4

Two 2124-T851 plate specimens, each with nine holes, were manufactured and processed
by FTI. The holes were cold worked to expansion levels of 0% (no cold work), 2.1%,
3.1%, 3.8%, 4.2%, and 5.2% per the standard split-sleeve process [26] [27]. Each hole
was reamed after cold expansion. Note that three holes in each plate were cold worked to
the same level.



Figure 1. Photon induced positron annihilation process,
Positron Systems, Inc. developed and patented technology [24].




Figure 2. S parameter analysis,
Positron Systems, Inc. developed and patented technology [24].


5
S parameter measurements were taken at each of the holes in both plates using the PIPA
process. As shown in Fig. 3, the data indicate that there is a well defined relationship
between the expansion level and PIPA measured S parameter. As the expansion level
increases, the amount of plastic deformation increases and the measured S parameter
increases.
PIPA (bulk) S-Parameter
vs. Cold Expansion Level in
2124-T851 Aluminum Plate
0.546
0.548
0.550
0.552
0.554
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Applied expansion (%)
P
I
P
A

S
-
p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r

Figure 3. PIPA S-parameter results
volumetric measurements across full range of cold expansion.


Similar measurements were taken using the DSPA process. See Fig. 4. It was suggested
that the high S parameter result at 3.14% expansion was due to PSM positioning, and that
process improvements should minimize such variation. The majority of the surface
measurements were taken inside the hole, but some measurements were taken on the
surface of the plate. The larger range in S parameter values for the latter measurements
indicate the potential for greater sensitivity when measuring on the surface than when
measuring inside the hole.

The second NDE technology investigated during this study was the scanning meandering
winding magnetometer array (MWM-Array) eddy current sensor with a GridStation
system [25]. This technology is also capable of measuring plastic deformation. JENTEK
used high-resolution imaging MWM-Arrays (see Fig. 5) to scan both sides of the plate
specimens. The MWM-Arrays provide directional measurements of electrical
conductivity and as shown in separate tests, are sensitive to changes caused by cold work.
Scans were performed both parallel to the rolling direction (i.e. longitudinal grain
direction) and perpendicular to the rolling direction. Initial measurements were taken at
multiple frequencies while subsequent measurements utilized only two frequencies in
order to obtain results more quickly.

6
DSPA (surface) S-Parameter
vs. Cold Expansion Level in
2124-T851 Aluminum Plate
0.540
0.542
0.544
0.546
0.548
0.550
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Applied expansion (%)
D
S
P
A

S
-
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
DSPA base metal
DSPA inside hole
DSPA adjacent to hole

Figure 4. DSPA S-parameter results
near-surface measurements across full range of cold expansion.


Figure 5. Photograph and schematic of thirty-seven element FA28 MWM-Array sensor,
JENTEK Sensors, Inc. developed and patented technology [25].
7
Results of the MWM-Array scanning of the plate specimens are presented in Fig. 6. The
MWM Feature is a computed parameter that was calculated at JENTEK by averaging
the signatures of three holes cold worked to the same expansion level. The two parallel
scans indicate that the technique has the ability to distinguish between different levels of
cold expansion. It was not clear why the perpendicular scan did not indicate a similar
trend; no difference would be expected between parallel and perpendicular scans for an
isotropic material with no significant residual stresses prior to cold work and uniform
plastic deformation. It is likely that the actual material had some degree of anisotropy
caused by prior processing, e.g., rolling, and may have had significantly varying residual
stresses prior to cold work. Further investigation will be required to understand whether
these differences could have produced variations in plastic deformation around a hole that
would explain the observed trends.
MWM Feature vs
Cold Expansion Level in
2124-T851 Aluminum Plate
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Applied Expansion (%)
M
W
M

F
e
a
t
u
r
e
scan parallel to grain, 1
scan parallel to grain, 2
scan perpendicular to grain

Figure 6. MWM-Array scanning results cold worked holes.


Measurement of Initial, Cold-Work-induced Residual Strain Profiles

In previous studies [17] [18], direct measurement of cold-work-induced residual stress
profiles in 2000 series aluminums proved to be problematic. Historically, the method of
choice for such measurements has been X-ray diffraction, but for the aluminum alloys of
interest for the F-16, the scatter introduced by grain size and texturing effects has made it
impossible to obtain precise, quantitative information. The PIPA and DSPA technologies
were evaluated during this test program to determine if better results could be obtained.

The test coupons required for this portion of test program were manufactured by FTI;
these specimens were also used during the fatigue crack growth portion of the program.
The specimen consisted of a dog bone design with a single 5/16 diameter hole in the
center, see Fig. 7. The hole in each specimen was cold worked to a nominal 4.0%
applied expansion level. Table 1 lists test specimen information.
8

As listed in Table 1, eight specimens were subjected to PIPA and DSPA measurements
after being cold worked. The hole in every specimen was subjected to the same level of
expansion (4% nominal). DSPA measurements were performed inside the hole and at
various distances from the hole on the surface of the specimen. A reference S parameter
measurement was taken on undeformed material away from the hole; the measured
reference value (average of two readings) was 0.5473. For each of the DSPA readings
either in or in the vicinity of the hole, the difference between the measured S-parameter
and the reference S-parameter was normalized with respect to the reference S-parameter


CL (sym)
CL (sym)
CL (sym)
CL (sym)
0.125 (T/2)
0.125 (T/2)
0.250
11.0
5.500
3.0 3.00
1.500
(W/2)
1.500
(W/2)
1.750
3.500
Grain Direction
1.0
Ref
R = 4.06(4 plc)
(no mismatch in runout typ.)
R = 2.125 (4 plc.)
(no mismatch in runout typ.)
0.500
Sleeve Gap

Figure 7. Test specimen for modified residual stress distribution tests
and cyclic fatigue tests.

Table 1. Modified residual stress distribution test matrix.
S
p
e
c
i
m
e
n

I
D

C
o
l
d

w
o
r
k
e
d
?

(
C
x
)

P
I
P
A

/

D
S
P
A

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t

a
f
t
e
r

C
x
?

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

l
o
a
d

a
p
p
l
i
e
d
?

P
I
P
A

/

D
S
P
A

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t

a
f
t
e
r

l
o
a
d
?

2A no no yes no
2B no no yes no
3A yes yes no no
3B yes yes no no
4A yes yes yes yes
4B yes yes yes yes
5A yes yes yes yes
5B yes yes yes yes
7A yes yes no no
7B yes yes no no


9

ref , p
ref , p p
*
S
S S
S

= (1)

The results of these measurements are shown in Fig 8. The readings taken on the surface
of the plate are shown with a horizontal bar to indicate that the spatial resolution of the
reading is limited by the physical size of the PSM and by the fact that the detected
annihilations are from positrons that have diffused away from the point of introduction
into the plate. These aspects of the process place rather significant limitations on the
utility of DSPA for the quantification of strain or damage profiles at geometric details.

Normalized DSPA S-Parameter Change
for 4% Cold Expanded Hole in
2124-T851 Al. Plate, ref Sp=0.5473
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x/R
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
-
p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
3A
3B
4A
4B
5A
5B
7A
7B
edge of hole
surface readings, spatial resolution
approx. 0.10 in.
in-hole
readings

Figure 8. Normalized DSPA S-parameter results
near-surface measurements at 4 locations in and near cold worked holes.


While it does appear that the PIPA or DSPA S-parameter may be used directly as a bulk
damage index, for cold worked hole applications it would be beneficial if a relationship
between the S-parameter and some calculable mechanical response could be found. To
this end, a 3-D (solid) FEM of the test specimen was developed and used to calculate the
elastic-plastic stress-strain response at a cold worked hole. (This model will be discussed
in more detail below.) The cold expansion process was modeled by subjecting the hole
perimeter to a radial (in-plane) expansion and then release. The hole post-ream process
was then simulated by removing the appropriate thickness of material from the hole
perimeter. The calculated stresses and strains along a radial line on the plate surface,
extending from the hole center to the edge of the specimen were used to calculate the
various plastic strain increments. Since the S-parameter is assumed to be a measure of
dislocation density and since it is not directionally dependent, it was postulated that the
equivalent plastic strain, which is a scalar quantity, could be correlated with it. The
equivalent plastic strain was calculated as
10

( ) ( ) ( )

+ +
2
p
y
p
x
2
p
y
p
x
2
p
y
p
x
p
e
d d d d d d
3
2
d (2)
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2
p
xy
2
p
xy
2
p
xy
d d d 6
(

(
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +

As shown in Fig. 9, by considering only the DSPA measurements taken on the plate
surface and by plotting the results at the approximate mid-point of the measurement
position a rough correlation was found. Note that this a very preliminary finding and that
it does not account for any contribution that lattice dilatation (residual stress) may make
to the S-parameter. This could explain why the origins on the equivalent strain and S-
parameter scales are offset.
4% Cw and Post Reamed Hole
2124-T851 Al. Plate
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0 1 2 3 4
x/R
e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

p
l
a
s
t
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
-0.006
-0.004
-0.002
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
-
p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
equiv plastic strain inc
DSPA S parameter

Figure 9. Comparison between normalized DSPA S-parameter
And FE calculated equivalent plastic strain at the surface of a 4% cold worked hole.


Measurement of Overload Modified Residual Stress

The benefit of cold expansion to fatigue life is caused by the region of compressive
residual stress near the hole. This residual stress field can be altered, however, by
subsequent tensile or compressive overloads. A tensile overload can reinforce the
compressive residual, while a compressive overload can reduce or even eliminate the
residual stress. As shown in Table 1, four test specimens were subjected to a
compressive overload after cold working. The -25 ksi gross stress applied to each
specimen was sufficient to cause additional yielding around the hole, and therefore the
initial residual stress distribution resulting from cold working was modified. Anti-
buckling supports were utilized during load application to ensure that buckling did not
11
occur. Additional PIPA and DSPA measurements were then taken to determine if
changes in the residual stress and/or strain fields could be detected.

As shown in Fig. 10, there was a marked difference between the DSPA S-parameter
readings taken before the compression overload and those taken after. Three of the four
data sets seem to indicate an increase in S-parameter in the region between 0.5 and 1.0
radii away from the hole. At present, it is not clear how these changes relate to changes
in the residual stress or strain fields; further study (more data) will be required. (Similar
results were found for bulk (PIPA) measurements at the hole.)

Normalized DSPA S-Parameter
for 4% Cold Expanded Hole in
2124-T851 Al. Plate, ref Sp=0.5473
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x(mid)/R
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
-
p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
before 25 ksi compression
after 25 ksi compression
edge of hole
spatial resolution:
approx. 0.10 in.
specimen 4A

Normalized DSPA S-Parameter
for 4% Cold Expanded Hole in
2124-T851 Al. Plate, ref Sp=0.5473
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x(mid)/R
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
-
p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
before 25 ksi compression
after 25 ksi compression
edge of hole
spatial resolution:
approx. 0.10 in.
specimen 4B

Normalized DSPA S-Parameter
for 4% Cold Expanded Hole in
2124-T851 Al. Plate, ref Sp=0.5473
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x(mid)/R
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
-
p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
before 25 ksi compression
after 25 ksi compression
edge of hole
spatial resolution:
approx. 0.10 in.
specimen 5A

Normalized DSPA S-Parameter
for 4% Cold Expanded Hole in
2124-T851 Al. Plate, ref Sp=0.5473
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x(mid)/R
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
-
p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
before 25 ksi compression
after 25 ksi compression
edge of hole
spatial resolution:
approx. 0.10 in.
specimen 5B

Figure 10. DSPA Normalized S-parameter results
Before and after application of one 25 ksi compression stress cycle.


Constant Amplitude Fatigue Crack Growth

A series of constant amplitude fatigue crack growth tests were conducted in which the
effects of a single compression overload and of fully reversed loading on cold work life
improvement were investigated. Twelve tests were performed using specimens machined
from 1.75 inch thick 2124-T851 aluminum plate stock. The specimen design was the
same as that used for the modified residual stress measurement portion of this task (Fig.
7). As shown in Table 2, tests were performed with and without cold working and with
and without the compression overload, allowing a number of comparisons to be made.
Half of the specimens were cold worked to a 4% nominal applied expansion per the
12
standard split-sleeve process. Prior to fatigue cycling, a 0.01 inch through-thickness
EDM notch was installed in one side of each hole. All of the tests were performed by
FTI and were run to failure (defined as separation into two pieces). In all tests, crack
length was measured optically at regular intervals.

Table 2. Constant amplitude fatigue crack growth test matrix,
Smax=25 ksi in all cases.
S
p
e
c
i
m
e
n

I
D

C
o
l
d

w
o
r
k
e
d
?

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

l
o
a
d

a
p
p
l
i
e
d
?

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o

1A no no 0.1
1B no no 0.1
2A no yes 0.1
2B no yes 0.1
3A yes no 0.1
3B yes no 0.1
4A yes yes 0.1
4B yes yes 0.1
6A no no -1.0
6B no no -1.0
7A yes no -1.0
7B yes no -1.0



Figure 11 presents a comparison of three tests performed at a stress ratio of R=0.1 (no
compression) and a maximum stress of 25 ksi. Two of the specimens were cold worked
to a 4% level of applied expansion while the other one was not. The fatigue lives of the
two cold worked specimens were 5 to 7 times as long as the life of the non-cold worked
specimen.

In assessing the impact of a compressive overload, the objective of this study included
not only the attempt to characterize changes in the residual stress and strain fields at the
hole, but also the evaluation of the effect on fatigue crack growth. Four of the constant
amplitude, R=0.1 test specimens were subjected to a single compressive stress cycle (-25
ksi), two cold worked and two non-cold worked. (The EDM notches described above
were installed after application of the single compressive load).

As shown in Fig. 12, for the non-cold worked condition, application of the compressive
overload caused a slight acceleration in crack growth rate and, therefore, a slight
reduction in crack growth life. However, for the specimens with cold worked holes, the
compression overload had a significant impact on fatigue life see Fig. 13. The two tests
that included the 25 ksi compressive stress (specimens 4A and 4B) had about half of the
life of the two tests that did not (3A and 3B). Test 1B is presented for comparison, and
from that result it can be seen that while the compressive load applied to specimens 4A
and 4B significantly reduced the advantage of cold expansion, it did not completely
eliminate it. The life improvement ratios dropped from 5 to 7 down to about 2.5.

13
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000
N (cycles)
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
i
n
c
h
)
1B: not coldworked
3A: coldworked
3B: coldworked

Figure 11. Constant amplitude fatigue crack growth results
effect of cold working (R=0.1).

0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000
N (cycles)
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
i
n
c
h
)
1B: no compressive load
2A: compressive load
2B: compressive load

Figure 12. Constant amplitude fatigue crack growth results
effect of one compressive cycle on non-cold worked holes (R=0.1).


The results of the four fully-reversed (R=-1.0) fatigue tests are presented in Fig. 14.
Since these tests had the same maximum stress as the R=0.1 tests but a much lower R, the
resulting fatigue lives were much shorter. The existence of the compression loading
14
reduced the benefit of cold expansion. The fatigue lives of the cold worked specimens
were approximately 2 times as long as the lives of the non-cold worked specimens.


0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000
N (cycles)
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
i
n
c
h
)
3A: no compressive load
3B: no compressive load
4A: compressive load
4B: compressive load
(1B: not coldworked)

Figure 13. Constant amplitude fatigue crack growth results
effect of one compressive cycle on cold worked holes (R=0.1).

0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
N (cycles)
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
i
n
c
h
)
6A: not coldworked
6B: not coldworked
7A: coldworked
7B: coldworked

Figure 14. Constant amplitude fatigue crack growth results
effect of cold working (R= -1).


15
Variable Amplitude Fatigue Crack Growth

The effects of compression were also studied for variable amplitude spectrum loading.
Eight specimens were machined from 1.75 inch thick 2124-T851 aluminum plate stock
(with the same configuration as the constant amplitude tests, Fig. 7) and subjected to
either a tension only spectrum or a combined tension / compression spectrum. Half of the
specimens were cold worked to a 4% nominal applied expansion per the standard split-
sleeve process [26] [27]. Prior to fatigue cycling, a 0.01 inch EDM notch was installed in
one side of each hole. Table 3 presents the test matrix for the variable amplitude tests.

Table 3. Variable amplitude fatigue crack growth test matrix.

S
p
e
c
i
m
e
n

I
D

C
o
l
d

w
o
r
k
e
d
?

S
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

8A no 1
8B no 1
9A no 2
9B no 2
10A yes 1
10B yes 1
11A yes 2
11B yes 2
Spectrum 1: tensile stresses only (clipped at 0.0 ksi)
Spectrum 2: tensile and compressive stresses (not clipped)


Spectrum information is presented in Fig. 15 and Table 4. The stress histories were
based on wing root bending moment for a fighter aircraft [28] modifications were made
in order to include a larger number of compressive cycles. Both spectra were shifted by -
4 ksi and edit truncated at 15% of maximum spectrum stress (MSS). Spectrum 1 stresses
below 0 ksi were then clipped. All tests were continued to failure (defined as separation
into two pieces). In all tests, crack length was measured optically at regular intervals.

The variable amplitude loading tests were initially run with MSS=30 ksi. Results from
these tests are presented in Fig. 16 where two different effects can be seen. First, cold
working (at 4% applied expansion) clearly extended the fatigue lives of the specimens
the two non-cold worked specimens failed at 6,600 and 13,000 flight hours, while the
cold worked tests still contained small cracks after 20,000 flight hours. A second effect
evident from Fig. 16 is that of clipping on the fatigue lives. Two of the tests (specimens
8A and 10A) were loaded with spectrum #1 that only included tensile loads (i.e., all
compressive loads had been clipped). The effect upon the cold worked specimens cannot
be clearly seen because the tests ran out, but the expected effect on the clipped tests is
clear.

16
Spectrum 2 (tension and compression)
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
1 18 35 52 69 86 103 120 137 154 171 188 205 222 239 256 273 290 307 324 341 358 375 392
Flight
S
m
i
n

&

S
m
a
x

(
k
s
i
)
Spectrum 1 (tension only)
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
1 18 35 52 69 86 103 120 137 154 171 188 205 222 239 256 273 290 307 324 341 358 375 392
Flight
S
m
i
n

&

S
m
a
x

(
k
s
i
)

Figure 15. Spectrum information variable amplitude tests (for MSS=30 ksi).

Table 4. Spectrum information (normalized) variable amplitude tests.
Spectrum 1

(tension only)


Spectrum 2

(tension and
compression)
Flights 406 Flights 406
Cycles 20,308 Cycles 22,545
Hours 500 Hours 500
S
MAX
1.000 S
MAX
1.000
S
MIN
0.0 S
MIN
-0.568
S
MEAN
0.117 S
MEAN
0.028
S
RMS
0.200 S
RMS
0.225
Std. dev. 0.163 Std. dev. 0.223



Because the lives of the cold worked specimens were so long, the maximum spectrum
stress was increased to 40 ksi for the next set of tests. Fig. 17 presents results from these
tests. Results were similar to the tests with the less severe loading, although the effect of
clipping on the cold worked specimens is more clearly seen. The existence of
compressive stresses in the load history significantly reduced fatigue lives during testing.
This was a result of larger stress amplitudes, and it was also likely due to modification of
17
the beneficial residual stress field as fatigue cycling progressed. For both the clipped and
unclipped spectra, cold working was seen to extend fatigue lives.

0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0 2,500 5,000 7,500 10,000 12,500 15,000 17,500 20,000
N (flight hours)
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
i
n
c
h
)
8A: no c/w, clipped
9A: no c/w, not clipped
10A: c/w, clipped
11A: c/w, not clipped

Figure 16. Variable amplitude fatigue crack growth results
effect of cold working (MSS=30 ksi).
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
N (flight hours)
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
i
n
c
h
)
8B: no c/w, clipped
9B: no c/w, not clipped
10B: c/w, clipped
11B: c/w, not clipped

Figure 17. Variable amplitude fatigue crack growth results
effect of cold working (MSS=40 ksi).

18
Model Development

One of the primary objectives of this study was to further develop selected mechanics-
based models for the growth of fatigue cracks in cold work induced residual stress fields.
The models utilize previously developed, closed form solutions for both the formation of
residual stress fields (due to the cold expansion process) and the subsequent evolution of
these stress fields (due to service loading, particularly compression overloading). During
this study, methods for the calculation of stress intensity factors based on these stress
fields using Greens functions were further developed. Finally, both the stress and SIF
models were incorporated into a fatigue crack growth analysis algorithm which was then
applied to the cold expanded hole problem.

Estimation of residual and response stress distributions

Since it is the residual strain and stress fields introduced by the cold expansion process
which so dramatically influence crack growth life, the first step in the model development
process must be a formal treatment of these fields.

The most rigorous characterization of cold work induced residual strain and stress
distributions requires fully three-dimensional, non-linear finite element analysis (FEA).
In the current study, a 3-D solid finite element model of the open hole coupon (Fig. 18)
was built. An analysis of the cold expansion process was performed (using ABAQUS
[29]) by subjecting the perimeter of the hole to a uniform, radial expansion. Note that
while the plate model was three-dimensional, the loading was two-dimensional; neither
the mandrel nor the transverse motion of the mandrel were modeled). The plate material
was taken to be 2124-T851 aluminum with modulus of 10400 ksi, Poissons ratio of 0.33,
yield strength of 57 ksi and strain hardening exponent of 4.59. The analysis assumed
kinematic hardening with a bi-linear stress-strain curve. The calculated residual stresses
along a line from the hole to the edge of the plate, at both the plate surface and the mid-
plane, are shown in Fig. 19.

Since it is not practical to develop a detailed finite element model every time a cold
worked hole is to be analyzed, it is desirable to have a reasonably accurate and compact
closed form solution. In virtually all closed form treatments of interference fit and / or
cold work, the process is treated as the two dimensional radial expansion of an
axisymmetric, thick walled cylinder. In this study, the plane stress solution of Wanlin
[30] and the plane strain solution of Wang [31], along with adaptations to account for
elastic behavior of the insert (mandrel or bushing), were utilized. For the typical problem
of a hole near the edge of a plate, the geometry is taken to be that of an annulus with
inner radius, r
a
, equal to the radius of the hole and outer radius, r
b
, equal to the edge
distance, thus axisymmetry may be assumed. See Fig. 20. A plane polar coordinate
system is fixed at the center of the hole with the z-axis along the axis of the hole (i.e. in
the plate thickness direction). In both cases, only the radial displacement caused by the
insertion of an oversized elastic mandrel or bushing is considered.

19

Figure 18. ABAQUS V6.3-2 3D FEA model of dogbone specimen
(xy, xz, & yz symmetry).
Residual Tangential Stress at 4% Cw Hole
3D Elastic-Plastic ABAQUS FEA
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/R
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
mid-plane
surface
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59

Figure 19. Residual Tangential Stress Profiles for Open Hole
Test Coupon, Calculated Using 3D FEA.
20

rb
ra
rd
rc
Reverse
yield
boundary
Elastic
plastic
boundary


Figure 20. Region Around Hole at Edge of Plate
Modeled As Thick Walled Cylinder.


Analytically, the cold working procedure is treated as a two step process. The first step
(loading) is the radial expansion corresponding to the insertion of the mandrel. As the
displacement at the mandrel/plate interface (u
a
) increases, an annulus of plastically
deformed material develops around the perimeter of the hole. The outer radius of this
annulus (the elastic-plastic boundary), r
c
, continues to increase as u
a
is increased. The
second step (unloading) is the radial contraction corresponding to the removal of the
mandrel. For both the plane stress and plane strain solutions, a kinematic hardening rule
is assumed. (The stress at which plastic flow begins in compression is dependent on the
prior tension flow stress, i.e. the Bauschinger effect [32].) During unloading, a second
annulus will form around the hole in which the plate material experiences reversed
yielding; that is yielding in compression. The radial distance to this second elastic-plastic
boundary is r
d
. The plane stress solution provides a better representation of the state of
affairs at the surface than the plane strain solution does, particularly in so far as
calculated strains are concerned. This is of vital importance since for most experimental
techniques it is surface strain that is the measured quantity; residual stresses are then
inferred. However, in the interior of the plate, plane strain conditions may develop,
particularly for thick plates. A detailed presentation of these solutions, along with a
discussion of their implementation in software is given in [21].

In reference [21], the closed form solutions were evaluated by comparing calculated
residual stress profiles with experimental and finite element results. As indicated earlier,
because of grain size and texturing effects, only qualitative agreement was achieved
between the various models and the XRD data. In the current study, the closed form
results were again compared with finite element data. As shown in Fig. 21, the closed
form results for the open hole test coupon compare very well with the average of the
surface and mid-plane results from the 3D FEA.

21
Now, if the fatigue loading on a component with a cold worked hole is sufficiently
benign, then the cyclic response will be predominantly elastic. Under these conditions,
the total response may be found simply by superimposing the residual stress distribution
with the applied (cyclic) stress distributions. In an elastic analysis, it is assumed that the
cold work induced residual stress profile is not altered by subsequent loading. However,
for nominal or severe loading, it is often the case that service loads will cause repeated
plastic deformation, which in turn will significantly alter the residual stresses. Under
these conditions, some form of cyclic plasticity analysis is required in which the initial
residual stress and strain profiles define the initial condition from which the cyclic,
elastic-plastic response calculations are made.


Residual Tangential Stress at 4% Cw Hole
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/R
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
2D EP closed form soln.
3D EP FEA, avg of surface and mid-plane results
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59

Figure 21. Comparison of Closed Form vs. Finite Element Calculated
Tangential Residual Stress Fields due to the 4% Cold Expansion of a
0.284 inch Hole in a 3.0 inch Wide 2124-T851 Aluminum Plate.



In the current study, the approximate elastic-plastic response algorithm developed in [33]
was utilized. In this approach, the response stress and strain distributions are calculated
at each load point using generalized forms of either Neubers rule [34] or Glinkas
equivalent strain energy density method [35] [36] to estimate the response stresses and
strains. The analysis is based on the equivalent stress, which is written in terms of the
three components of the principal stress and back stress. With this formulation, both
kinematic hardening and the so called memory effect are captured in the analysis. The
elastic-plastic response algorithm utilizes the material cyclic stress-strain curve [37] [38].
For the material studied in this program, 2124-T851 aluminum plate, the cyclic stress-
22
strain data and corresponding Ramberg-Osgood equation were given in [39]. These data
are shown in Fig. 22.

The importance of the inclusion of non-linear response was demonstrated by analyzing
the test coupons that were subjected to a 25 ksi compression overload after cold working.
As shown in Fig. 23, an elastic analysis of the response (i.e. superposition of residual and
applied stress distributions), clearly does not produce realistic results, where as the
approximate elastic-plastic analysis does. As shown in Fig. 23a, when the -25 ksi load is
applied, significant reverse yielding occurs at the side of the hole. This is evidenced by
the fact the magnitude of the elastic-plastic response is so much lower than that of the
elastic response in the vicinity of the hole. When the specimen is unloaded, we find that
the reverse yielding has removed much of the beneficial, compressive residual stress.
See Fig. 23b. And when subsequent tension loading is applied, the response distribution
is clearly different than it would have been had the compression overload not been
applied, Fig. 23c. When the material response is non-linear, the stress distribution at each
load point is dependent on the prior load history.

2124-T851 Aluminum Plate
Longitudinal, Lab Air
0
20
40
60
80
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
true strain
t
r
u
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
data
equation
Ramberg-Osgood Equation:
modulus: E=10400 ksi
flow stress: o
=45 ksi
coefficient: =5.277e-4
exponent: n=11.358

Figure 22. Cyclic Stress-Strain Data and Corresponding Ramberg-Osgood
Equation for 2124-T851 Aluminum Plate.


An assessment of the quality of the elastic-plastic response approximation was made by
comparing the estimated response stress profiles with those found by 3D, elastic-plastic
FEA (ABAQUS). As shown in Fig. 24, the approximate solution tends to over-predict
the extent to which the cold work induced residual stresses are removed. While it is clear
that the approximate solution needs refinement, it should be noted that some of the
differences between the results are due to differences between material constitutive
relations (bi-linear vs. power law hardening) and modeling technique (load redistribution
vs. no load redistribution).
23

-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/R
s
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
elastic-plastic analysis
elastic analysis
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y =200 ksi
significant reverse yielding
occurs at egde of hole
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y =57 ksi
n=4.59

a) Plate Subjected to -25 ksi Remote Compression
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/R
s
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
residual stress after -25 ksi overload
initial, Cw induced residual stress
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
reverse yielding removes
much of Cw induced
residual stress distribution
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59

b) Plate with Compression Load Removed
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/R
s
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
elastic-plastic analysis
elastic analysis
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
benefit due to Cw on
subsequent tension loading
is reduced
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59

c) Plate Subjected to 25 ksi Remote Tension

Figure 23. Comparison Between Elastic and Elastic-Plastic Calculated
Tangential Stress Distributions at Open, 4% Cold Worked Hole
in a Plate Subjected to 25 ksi Remote Tension
24
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/R
s
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
2D EP closed form
3D EP FEA, avg of mid-plane & surface results
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59

a) Plate Subjected to -25 ksi Remote Compression
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/R
s
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
2D EP closed form
3D EP FEA, avg of surface & mid-plane results
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59

b) Plate with Compression Load Removed
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
0 1 2 3 4 5
x/R
s
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
2D EP closed form
3D EP FEA, avg. of surface & mid-plane results
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y =200 ksi
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y =57 ksi
n=4.59

c) Plate Subjected to 25 ksi Remote Tension

Figure 24. Comparison Between 2D Closed Form and 3D FEA (ABAQUS)
Calculated Tangential Stress Distributions at Open, 4% Cold Worked Hole
in a Plate Subjected to 25 ksi Remote Tension
25
Similar results on the effect of compression overloads were reported by Armen, Levy and
Eidinoff [40].

Stress intensity factor solution development

With the residual strain and stress fields defined, a damage or fracture parameter that is
dependent on those fields must be calculated. The stress intensity factor (SIF) is by far
the most commonly used parameter. For a crack growing either completely or partially
within a residual stress field the SIF is generally calculated using either the weight
function [41] [42] or Green's function [43] technique (both of which rely on the principle
of superposition). While the two methods are closely related, from an application point
of view, they are distinct. The weight function method, as defined by Beukner and Rice,
requires knowledge of the crack opening displacement profile for some reference loading
condition. The Greens function method, on the other hand, is based on the bodys
response to a unit point load (hence the term Greens function). In general, given an
arbitrary stress distribution and the Greens function for the crack / geometry being
analyzed, the corresponding SIF is found by integrating the product of the normalized
stress distribution and the Greens function over the crack area.

K
I y
GdA
A
=

(3)

where
y
is the component of stress producing mode I crack face displacement. The
Greens function approach was utilized in this study.

The two crack configurations considered in this study were a through thickness crack and
a quarter-elliptical corner crack at a hole in a finite with and thickness plate. SIF
solutions for these cases were initially developed in an earlier study [21] [22] and
modified during the current program. For a single through thickness crack, the SIF is
written as


1 FW GFT I
c S K = (4)

where the expressions for
GFT
is based on the Greens function given by Shivakumar
and Forman [44] and
FW1
is a finite width correction. For a quarter-elliptical corner
crack it is


1 FW 3 2 T GFC I
c S K = (5)

In this case, the expression for
GFC
was developed based on 3-D FEA as described in
[21] and [22].
T
,
2
,
3
are boundary correction factors for a corner crack at a hole in a
plate and were given by Newman and Raju [45] and, again,
FW1
is a finite width
correction.

26
Fatigue crack growth analysis

Finally, in order to permit the calculation of fatigue crack growth life at cold worked
holes, the hole expansion and response stress distribution calculation algorithms and the
SIF calculation algorithms discussed above were utilized in a detailed, cycle-by-cycle
crack growth model [46]. In this model, the initial residual stress and strain profiles
(such as those induced by cold work) were used to define the initial condition from which
the cyclic, elastic-plastic response calculations are made. The calculated SIFs were either
used directly to calculate crack growth increments, or they were used in a preliminary
crack closure model to determine effective SIFs, which were then used to calculate
growth increments. In either case, the growth increment was found using the Forman
crack growth rate equation. The overall analysis is carried out on a cycle-by-cycle basis
and consists of the following primary steps:

1) calculate response stress (elastic-plastic),
2) calculate response SIFs (both the x- and z- directions),
3) calculate effective SIFs,
4) calculate the crack growth rates and crack growth increments in each direction,
5) increment the crack size
6) repeat process (steps 1 thru 5) until failure, i.e. until crack size or SIF reaches
critical value.

When plastic deformation (notch plasticity) occurs, the elastic-plastic response stress
distribution will not be the same as the elastic distribution. Likewise, SIFs calculated
based on the elastic-plastic response will not be same as those based on the elastic
response. For cycle-by-cycle fatigue analysis, the process of calculating the response
stress distribution and then the response SIF is repeated from turning point to turning
point. As a result, the response distribution at each point includes the effect of prior
plastic deformation. This would include, of course, the plastic deformation caused by
cold expansion.

It is important to note that since the response stress distributions are estimated for an
uncracked cross-section, they do not reflect the influence of the crack. This obviously
places a restriction on the range of crack sizes for which the over-all crack growth model
can be used: the quality of the approximation decreases with increasing crack size. This
also means that the estimated response distributions contain no information about crack
closure. As a result, the minimum response SIF is not corrected for closure; it is based
strictly on the response stress distribution at the cycle minimum.

In an effort to overcome this second limitation, the preliminary crack closure model given
in [47] was used in the current study. This model is based on the simple stress ratio
dependent closure model developed by Newman [48]. The closure factor is given as

( ) [ ]

+
+ + +
= =
R A A
R A R A R A A , R max
K
K
C
1 0
3
3
2
2 1 0
max
open
f

0 R 2
0 R
< <

(6)
27
where
( )
( ) 1 C 2
1
ref
c
2
ec ec 0
ec
plc
S
F
2
cos C 2 . 0 C 48 . 0 535 . 0 A
+
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = for Sref/plc<1
(7)

( ) 1 C 2
ref
c 0
ec
plc
S
F 1 A
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
= for Sref/plc>1 (8)

( )
plc
S
F C 142 . 0 344 . 0 A
ref
c ec 1
= (9)


3 1 0 2
A A A 1 A = (10)

1 A A 2 A
1 0 3
+ = (11)

C
ec
is the constraint index defined such that C
ec
=0 indicates plane stress while C
ec
=1
indicates plane strain. Sref is the effective reference stress from the SIF calculation. It is
found as


i G
max
ref
F F c
K
S

= (12)

Finally, plc is the cyclic proportional limit and F
c
is a fitting parameter that essentially
scales the ref-to-plc ratio and allows the overall crack growth analysis model to be
tuned when correlating to test data.

Example calculations showing the dependence of the closure factor on stress ratio, R, at
various ref-to-plc ratios are shown in Fig 25(a) and 25(b) for plane stress and plane strain
conditions respectively.

As indicated above, the fatigue crack growth life algorithm operates on a cycle-by-cycle
basis with the response SIFs for a given cycle being determined based on the response
stress distributions. Effective SIFs are then found using the modified closure model,
specifically:


res max f open eff min
K C K K

= = (13)


res max eff max
K K

= (14)

As in standard, LEFM-based fatigue crack growth analysis, in the current analysis,
fatigue crack growth rate is based on SIF range and SIF ratio. These values are found
simply as

28

eff min eff max eff
K K K

= (15)


eff max eff min eff
K / K R

= (16)

-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
-2 -1 0 1
stress ratio, R
c
l
o
s
u
r
e

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

C
f
Sref/plc=0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Modified Newman Closure Model
Cec=0 (plane stress)
1.2

(a) plane stress
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
-2 -1 0 1
stress ratio, R
c
l
o
s
u
r
e

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

C
f
Sref/plc=0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Modified Newman Closure Model
Cec=1 (plane strain)

(b) plane strain

Figure 25. Ratio of Crack Opening Stress to Cycle Maximum Stress
as a function of Cycle Stress Ratio.
29
For each load cycle, the crack growth rate, da/dN, is found using the Forman equation
[49].

( )
( )
eff F eff
F
eff F
K K R 1
n
K C
dN
da

= (17)

Note that stress ratio dependence is incorporated via the (1-R
eff
) term in the denominator
and that the growth rate acceleration due to incipient failure (region 3) is predicted when
K
eff
approaches (1-R
eff
)K
F
. A typical set of da/dN data along with the corresponding
Forman equations is shown in Fig 26. Separate equations are defined two K segments
and constants C
F
, n
F
and K
F
are defined for each segment.

2124-T851 Al. Plate, L-T
Sump Tank Water
1.E-08
1.E-07
1.E-06
1.E-05
1.E-04
1.E-03
1.E-02
1 10 100
K (ksi*(in)^1/2)
d
a
/
d
N

(
i
n
/
c
y
c
l
e
)
R=0.1
R=0.3
R=0.5
Forman Eqn., R=0.1
Forman Eqn., R=0.3
Forman Eqn., R=0.5

Figure 26. Example Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Dataset and
Corresponding Two Segment Forman Equation


One very significant difference between the current elastic-plastic fatigue crack growth
analysis method and traditional, LEFM-based methods, is the fact that Kmin-eff can be
negative. It is thus necessary to treat R effects when calculating crack growth rate. In
[50] Chang proposed an adaptation of the Walker fatigue crack growth rate equation [51]
to account for R induced crack growth rate acceleration. His model was based on the
proposition that the growth rate at a negative stress ratio is equal to some constant times
the growth rate at a stress ratio of zero (for the same K
eff
).


0 R 0 R
dN
da
A
dN
da
= <
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
(18)
30

For the Walker / Chang model, the acceleration factor is found as

( )
q n
2
w
R 1 A + = (19)

The observed crack growth acceleration that occurs at negative stress ratios may be
attributed to a reduction in plastic wake height which in turn results in a reduction in
crack opening stress.

A similar crack growth rate acceleration model was developed for the Forman equation in
[52]. Again assuming


0 R 0 R
dN
da
A
dN
da
= <
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
(20)

we may write


( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) R F R
F
R F
K K R 1
n
K C
A
dN
da
+ +
+

= (21)

In this case the acceleration factor is defined as


( ) 1 n
) R (
eff
F
R 1
R 1
A

+ (
(

= (22)

where is the acceleration effectivity. may be used to further 'collapse' or 'spread' the
da/dN curves in the negative stress ratio regime when the data indicate that a value other
than unity is required. When R>0, R
eff
=R and A=1, so the equation reduces to the
Forman equation. When R<0, R
eff
=0 and A>1 (assuming n
F
-1>1). Note that =1 does
not indicate the absence of acceleration, it indicates the acceleration provided by the
Forman equation alone.

Once a crack growth rate is determined, the corresponding crack growth increments are
known (since N=1 for a cycle-by-cycle analysis). Starting from the prescribed initial
size, the crack size is increased by the calculated crack length / depth increment at each
cycle. This calculation is repeated until one of several events occurs. If the calculated
SIF exceeds the fracture toughness of the material, then failure is indicated. At this point,
the accumulated number of cycles represents the predicted crack growth life. Prior to
actual failure, the crack may transition from one configuration to another. The transition
events considered in the current program include:

31
Semi-elliptical transitions to quarter-elliptical (one tip reaches a surface before the
other)
Semi-elliptical transitions to through-thickness (both tips reach the surfaces at the
same time)
A quarter-elliptical transitions into a through thickness crack

Note that the transition of a semi-elliptical into a quarter-elliptical is possible because the
SIF formulation permits the crack to be eccentrically located with respect to the plate
surfaces.


Model demonstration and evaluation

The overall fatigue crack growth model was evaluated by conducting a series of analyses
and comparing the results with experimental data. The geometric and material
parameters used for the analyses are summarized in Table 5. It should be pointed out that
the only data required for this model that is over and above that normally required for a
traditional fatigue crack growth analysis is the cyclic stress-strain curve for the material
being analyzed.

Table 5. Open Hole Test Coupon Analysis Parameters.
MODEL
geometry code HA (open hole in a plate)
Width 3.0
hole radius 0.156
edge distance 1.5 (centered hole)
Thickness 0.25
MATERIAL
Title 2124-T851 Aluminum Plate, L-T
Environment HHA
E 10400 ksi
0.33
Fty 57.0 ksi
Cyclic proportional limit 36.0 ksi
Ramberg-Osgood eqn.
flow stress,

45.0 ksi
Coefficient, 5.277E-04
exponent, n 11.358
K-thresh @ R=0 1.5
Gamma 0.
Forman eqn, 0<K<90
Coefficient, C 8.409E-08
exponent, n 3.4269
Coefficient, Kf 60.0
acceleration effectivity, 1.0
KIc 26 ksiin
Kc 45 ksiin

32
Stress Intensity Factor Analysis

When the residual SIF for a through thickness crack due to 4% cold work is
superimposed with the SIF due to the applied (bypass) stress, the result is as shown in
Fig. 27. The beneficial impact of the compressive residual stress distribution in the
vicinity of the hole is evident. Note, however, that as the crack becomes longer, it will
move into the influence of the equilibrating tensile residual stress field. Similar
calculations were made using the new corner crack Greens function model. Again, it is
clear that as long as the crack is within the residual compressive well, the effective SIF is
significantly reduced. See Fig. 28.

-20
0
20
40
60
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
c/(b-R)
S
I
F

(
k
s
i
*
S
Q
R
T
(
i
n
)
)
SIF due to applied stress alone
Total SIF with 4% Cold Expansion
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
S
A
=25 ksi
S
A
=2.5 ksi
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59

Figure 27. SIF for a Through Thickness Crack at Hole in a Plate
Subjected to Remote Tension With And Without 4% Cold Expansion.


Fatigue crack growth analysis

Some of the phenomena observed in the Phase 1 tests of the current program were a
direct result of the occurrence of notch plasticity at the hole. A series of FCG analyses
were attempted in order to further evaluate the overall model. In the first problem set, the
results of the CA-1 tests were contrasted with those of the CA-2 tests. Recall that the
CA-1 specimens were subjected to R=0.1 constant amplitude loading only, while the CA-
2 specimens were subjected to an initial, -25 ksi compression overload. One would
expect that the application of the compression overload would cause the formation of a
slight tensile residual at the side of the open hole (cause an increase the local mean
stress). This in turn would lead to an acceleration of crack growth rate. As shown in Fig.
29, this phenomenon did occur in the tests and it is also captured in the EPFCG model.
33

-20
0
20
40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
a/t
S
I
F

(
k
s
i
*
S
Q
R
T
(
i
n
)
)
SIF due to applied stress alone
Total SIF with 4% Cold Expansion
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
S
A
=25 ksi
S
A
=2.5 ksi
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59
SIF at c (phi=5)

a) length direction
-20
0
20
40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
a/t
S
I
F

(
k
s
i
*
S
Q
R
T
(
i
n
)
)
SIF due to applied stress alone
Total SIF with 4% Cold Expansion
Steel Insert
E=30000 ksi
=0.33
y
=200 ksi
S
A
=25 ksi
S
A
=2.5 ksi
2124-T851 Al Plate
E=10400 ksi
=0.33
y
=57 ksi
n=4.59
SIF at a (phi=80)

b) depth direction

Figure 28. SIF for a Corner Crack at Hole in a Plate Subjected
to Remote Tension With And Without 4% Cold Expansion.

34
In the next problem set, the fatigue crack growth behavior at a cold worked hole is
contrasted with that at a non-cold-worked hole. In this case the CA-1 test, and the
corresponding analysis, are compared with the CA-3 results. The hole in the CA-3
specimens was subjected to a 4% cold expansion. As shown in Fig. 30, this resulted in
about a 5 to 7 fold increase in life. (The life of specimen CA-3B was shorter than that of
CA-3A apparently because of significant cracking at the opposite side of the hole.) The
analytical results shown are not strictly consistent with those shown in Fig. 29. It was
necessary to increase the closure fitting parameter, Fc, to achieve the life prediction for
the cold worked hole. At this point, the closure behavior of cracks growing from cold
worked holes has not been studied, and it is not at all clear whether simple closure
models can be applied in these circumstances.

Finally, the effect of a 25 ksi compression overload, applied after hole cold working, was
studied in with the CA-4 specimens. As shown in Fig. 31, the application of this load
clearly reduces the effectiveness (in terms of life extension) of the cold-work induced
residual stress field. The stress analysis results presented above clearly indicated that the
application of a compression overload to a specimen with an open hole, can remove
much of the cold work induced residual. Since the crack growth model accounted for this
change in the local stress distribution, the calculated crack growth life was reduced
significantly. (It was again necessary to tune the Fc parameter to achieve this result.)

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 5000 10000 15000
cycles
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h
,

c
test, CA-1B
analysis CA-1
test, CA-2A
test, CA-2B
analysis CA-2
Through Crack at
Open Hole (HA1)
W=3.0
R=0.156
b=1.5
t=0.25
2124-T851 Al. Plt.
Constant Amplitude Loading,
Smax=25 ksi, R=0.1

Figure 29. Comparison of Predicted vs. Measured Crack Growth for
Specimens Tested with 25 ksi Constant Amplitude Spectrum.
35
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
cycles
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h
,

c
test, CA-1B
analysis, CA-1
test, CA-3A
test, CA-3B
analysis, CA-3
Through Crack at
Open Hole (HA1)
W=3.0
R=0.156
b=1.5
t=0.25
2124-T851 Al. Plt.
Constant Amplitude Loading,
Smax=25, R=0.1

Figure 30. Comparison of Predicted vs. Measured Crack Growth for
Cold Worked and Non-Cold-Worked Specimens Subjected to
Constant Amplitude, Smax=25 ksi, R=0.1 Loading.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
cycles
c
r
a
c
k

l
e
n
g
t
h
,

c
test, CA-1B
analysis, CA-1
test, CA-4A
test, CA-4B
analysis, CA-4
test, CA-3A
test, CA-3B
analysis, CA-3
Through Crack at
Open Hole (HA1)
W=3.0
R=0.156
b=1.5
t=0.25
2124-T851 Al. Plt.
Constant Amplitude Loading
Smax=25, R=0.1

Figure 31. Comparison of Predicted vs. Measured Crack Growth for
Cold Worked and Non-Cold-Worked Specimens Subjected to Constant
Amplitude Loading With and Without Compression Overload.

36
Conclusions

The viabilities of two emerging NDE technologies for the assessment of cold expansion
were evaluated. Both photon induced positron annihilation and meandering winding
magnetometer arrays were clearly and reliably able to detect the presence and degree of
cold expansion.

Photon induced positron annihilation was evaluated for its ability to quantify residual
stress and/or strain profiles in the vicinity of a cold worked hole. It was shown that the
DSPA S-parameter exhibited some position-dependent variability in the region of the
hole; however, it was not clear how that data could be related to stress or strain profiles.
It seems likely that further development of this technology will be required before such
quantification will be possible. The primary reasons for this are limitations on spatial
resolution of S-parameter measurements and the inability to discriminate lattice damage
from lattice dilatation effects.

The effects of compression loading on cold work effectivity were characterized using
constant amplitude tests. Constant amplitude tests with tension-only loading indicated a
cold work life improvement ratio of about 5 to 7. When a compression overload was
applied once at the beginning of the test, the life improvement ratio dropped to about 2,
clearly indicating that compression overloads can cause reverse yielding, which in turn
can reduce or even eliminate the cold work benefit. Similarly, life improvement ratios
for fully reversed (R=-1) constant amplitude loading were not as high as those for R=0.1
loading.

A preliminary model for the growth of fatigue cracks at cold expanded holes has been
developed. This model includes the ability to calculate cold work induced residual strain
and stress fields in closed form. It can then use those fields as the initial state from which
either elastic or elastic-plastic, cyclic response calculations are made. The response stress
distribution for each cycle is used to calculate a response stress intensity factor, using the
Greens function approach. Greens function models for both a through thickness crack
and a corner crack at the hole were obtained. The model was used with limited success to
simulate some of the cracking behavior observed in the constant amplitude tests. The
will require further development, however, before it can be reliably used for production
analyses. Specifically, the role of crack closure during growth from cold worked holes
must be examined in detail (experimentally) and either existing closure models must be
modified or new ones must be developed in order accommodate the highly compressive
local environment.


Acknowledgements

The technical activity reported herein was performed under Delivery Order 0003 of
USAF contract F42620-01-D-0058 - F-16 Aircraft Structural Integrity Program (ASIP) -
Common Tasks - SOW Paragraph 3.1.4.6. The technical monitor for the contracting
agency, the Ogden Air Logistics Center (OO-ALC/YPVS) was Mr. Robert McCowin,
37
whose support for this activity is gratefully acknowledged. In addition, the authors
would like to thank the following individuals for their contribution to this effort: Ms Joy
Ransom of Fatigue Technology Inc., for the preparation of the test specimens and the
performance of the fatigue tests; Mr. Scott Ritchie and Dr. Doug Akers of Positron
Systems, Inc. for the PIPA and DSPA NDE of the specimens; and Dr. Neil Goldfine and
Dr. Vladimir Zilberstein of JENTEK Sensors, Inc. for the MWM-Array NDE of the
specimens.

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