ENGG1006 - Engineering for Sustainable Development

ATMOSPHERE AND AIR POLLUTION

Dr. Kaimin Shih

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

Office: Rm. 5-26, Haking Wong Building • Phone: 2859-1973 • E-mail: kshih@hku.hk

PROGRESS & OUTCOMES

1
Atmospheric Environment

2
 Importance of Atmosphere

• A blanket which nurtures life

on the Earth and protect it from
the hostile environment of
outer space.

Protect us from hostile environment…

• Absorbs cosmic rays & (some)

meteorites

• Allow sun radiation only in the

range of 300-2500 nm for
photosynthesis. Prevent
harmful UV, and temperature
fluctuation by IR.

3
 Importance of Atmosphere

• A blanket which nurtures life

on the Earth and protect it from
the hostile environment of
outer space.

• The source of carbon dioxide

(CO2) for plant photosynthesis,
of oxygen (O2) for respiration,
and of nitrogen (N2) for life
molecules.

Atmospheric Composition

O2: 20.95% N2: 78.08%

Major

CO2: Ar:
0.035% 0.934%

Minor

Ne: 1.818×10-3%, Kr: 1.14×10-4%, He: 5.24×10-4%, Xe: 8.7×10-6%, trace gases

4
 Stratified reactions in the atmosphere

[O] >> [O2], O2+, O+, NO+

Highly rarified gas (O) absorbs

very energetic (<200nm) light

O2+, NO+

No radiation-
absorbing species

O3
Absorption of UV (200-330nm)
by O3: O3 + hv = O2 + O

N2, O2, CO2, H2O, ...

Surface reflecting (radiating) heat

Weather and Climate

 Short term variations in the state of the atmosphere

are described as "Weather
Weather", and defined by 7 major
factors:
- Temperature - Precipitation
- Clouds - Atmospheric pressure
- Winds
- Humidity
- Horizontal visibility

 Longer term variations defined by above same factors

are described as "Cimate
Cimate".

5
 Air Mass Movement

[DRY] [WET] Air Current

(by temperature)
-10oC -6oC
----- -----
km km
Dry
Moist
Adiabatic
Adiabatic
Lapse
Lapse
Rate
Rate
Wind
(by pressure)

Global
Scale of Study
Regional

(Microclimate !?)
S
ca
le

6
 Microclimate
• A local atmospheric zone where the climate differs from the
surrounding area

• Area: As small as a few square feet (for example a garden bed)

or as large as many square miles (for example a valley).

• A particularly marked effect is the induction by urbanization

• Factor examples:

- North- or south-facing slopes

- Urban or rural areas

- Vegetation type and density

- Height (topography)

Agriculture in " The Lost City of Incas"

(Machu Picchu, Peru. EL. 2350 m)

Climate is a function of
"Region"
Region and "Time“.
Time
• For example, monsoons in India, Africa, South America, North
America,...

In India, from May to August, monsoon rains fall in India, Bangladesh, and Nepal.

Hot (July, India)

Cold & Dry Moisture

Himalayan
Mt. Moisture from Ocean

N S

7
 “Atmospheric Activities”:
One of the most important influence on earth's
environment and its development

2009 Typhoon “Morakot”

(August 08 landed in Taiwan)

Mission for Future Engineers -

Scientific analysis and accurate prediction of

environmental systems to safeguard our sustainable development !

Air Quality

8
 Not only the mass movement, the quality of air also
strongly affects our sustainable development.

Beijing on a day after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right).

SOMG ?

SMOG = Smoke + Fog

Smog is a problem in a number of cities and
continues to harm human health.
* NewsHour: Hong Kong Air Pollution (6:36)

Types of Source

„ Stationary Sources (power plants, smelters,…)

¾ Sulfurous Smog

„ Mobile Sources (vehicles, trains, aircrafts, ships,…)

¾ CO, NOx, Volatile Organic compounds (VOCs)
¾ Resulting in photochemical smog

The peak values of sulfurous smog and photochemical smog pollutants

have been dramatically decreased in many developed countries.
However, the new challenge is the mortality due to the long-term exposure
at low concentration !!

Estimates place current excess deaths caused by air pollution (small

particles) at several tens of thousands per year in U.S..

9
„ In the past few decades - “6 Criteria Pollutants”

¾ CO, NOx, SO2, O3, Pb, and particles (PM10 and now PM2.5)

¾ Sulfurous and photochemical smog problems

¾ Outdoor air pollutants – the focus of the scientific and political

efforts for the last 50 years!

„ More recently, a growing list of hazardous air pollutants

¾ Many indoor pollutants (where we spend ~90% of the time)

¾ Modest improvement can greatly increase the public health

Air Quality Index (AQI)

„ Good (0-50): No health impacts are expected in this range.

„ Moderate (51-100): Unusually sensitive people should consider reducing prolonged or heavy
exertion.
„ Unhealthy for Sensitive Group (101-150): Active children and adults, and people with lung
disease, such as asthma, should reduce prolonged or heavy exertion outdoors. The general
public is not to be affected.
„ Unhealthy (151-200): Everyone may begin to experience health effects. Members of sensitive
groups may experience more serious health effects.
„ Very Unhealthy (201-300): Air quality in this range triggers a health alert, meaning everyone
may experience more serious health effects.
„ Hazardous (301-500): Air quality in this range triggers health warning of emergency conditions.
The entire population is more likely to be affected.

10
 Criteria Pollutants

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

„ Over 2/3 of the mass of all the pollutant emissions in US

¾ Colorless, odorless, tasteless, poisonous gas
¾ Due to Incomplete combustion:
‡ Low oxygen supply
‡ Low combustion temperature Usually these will get better

‡ Insufficient residence time control at stationary sources

‡ Insufficient chamber turbulence

For example,
power plants produce < 1% of overall CO emissions in
spite of consuming ~30% of overall fossil fuel.

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 Over 80% of total CO emission are from transportation sector, and
almost all of the CO in urban area comes from motor vehicles.

„ Emission decreased by 41% from 1983-2002, due to

¾ Tightening emission controls
¾ Drop of old cars on the road

Why it is bad ?
‡ CO is an asphyxiant, interfering the blood’s ability to carry O2.
‡ Hemoglobin has a higher affinity for CO than for O2.
‡ Even small amount of CO can seriously reduce the O2 conveyed.

Nitrogen Oxides and Ozone

„ NOx = NO, NO2, NO3, N2O, N2O3, N2O4 and N2O5

¾ Thermal NOx: Air (N2 + O2) + Heat (1000K) → NOx
¾ Fuel NOx (dominant): Oxidation of N in fuel → NOx
z Natural gas: none
z Coal: some as 3% wt

„ Species and reactivity:

¾ 95% of anthropogenic emission is NO (colorless with no adverse health
effect)
¾ However, NO → NO2 (very easy and NO2 is irritating, brown color)
¾ Reversed by: NO2 + sunlight → NO + O
Chain reaction: O + O2 → catalyzed by organic matter → O3 (Ground Ozone)

12
 Traffic
progresses
o
Morning Sun
traffic light
n p+q

Smog over Los Angeles. The brownish

color is due to photochemical smog
absorption of blue light.

n N2 + O2 → 2 NO
o 2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2
p NO2 + hv → NO + O
ˆ O3 + NO → NO2 + O2 is very strong, So, as
q O2 + O + M → O3 + M
long as there is [O3], [NO] doesn’t rise.
O3 + NO → NO2 + O2
ˆ The effect of VOCs should also be included.

Particulate Matter
Solid or liquid matter dispersed in the air usually classified by size:

ˆ PM10: 2.5 - 10μm particles, “coarse fraction”,

settling faster, impact limited area near source.
ˆ PM2.5: < 2.5μm particles, “fine fraction”, settling
slower, longer atmospheric lifetimes.

Bacteria size: 0.1 - 10 μm

™ Particle < 0.1μm: With Brownian motion and eventually coagulate to

grow to large size particle.
™ Particles > 10μm: Usually settle with velocity of 20 cm/min.

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 Particle and Respiratory System

Upper Respiratory System

[Remove > 10 μm particles]
Trapped by hairs and sneezed
out, or by mucus and
swallowed (or coughed out).

Lower Respiratory System

[May (or may not) be damaged by
smaller particles (why?)]

In & out, or stay?

PM2.5 PM10

0.5 μm 10 μm

Will go in the lower Small enough to Trapped by upper

respiration system, reach lung, and respiratory system
but the majority may large enough to be (Defended)
also come out deposited there by
together with air sedimentation
(No deposition) (Lung damaged!!)

( 2- 4 μm)

Most effective for sedimentation

14
 Oxides of Sulfur
„ 86% of 15 million anthropogenic annual SOx emission from
combustion fossil-fuel at stationary sources
¾ 1-6% sulfur in coal. Either chemically bounded or physically trapped, and
can be removed some by pulverizing or washing.
¾ Natural gas has significant H2S, but can be removed to negligible amount.

„ ~5% of the SOx emission from vehicles

¾ Less than a few % in petroleum and after refining - < 1ppm

Acid Rain:
SO2 + OH• → HOSO2•
HOSO2• + O2 → SO3 + HO•
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

Rain pHs in US showing the acidic rain in eastern US due to larger coal consumption

15
 Synergistic Effect of Particles and SO2
Particle SO2

Soluble, so likely
Irritating as an
to be adsorbed in
foreign object
the passage

Reach deeper in the

lung to cause damage

Environmental Effects
of Acid Rain

Trees killed in the Great Smoky Mountains Marvelous lion statues at the Acropolis.
(Directly damage to affect the ability to extract CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 (soluble) + CO2 + H2O
nutrients, or leach more Al from soils to interfere the
nutrients uptake )

16
 Lead
„ Early mostly due to gasoline additives, tetraethyllead Pb(C2H5)4
¾ As an octane booster in gasoline (the higher the less engine
detonation (kick) and thus more efficient)
¾ Due to its poisoning effect for vehicle’s exhaust catalytic
converter, most all fuels became unleaded in early 1900s*.
¾ Usually settling in the immediate vicinity of the source

* Except in some developing countries, and the fuels for aviation and nonroad vehicles

„ Used in Paints:
¾ White paint - Pb(CO3)2(OH)2: used to be widely in interior paints.
Potential inhalation and ingestion dangers (sweet, especially
dangerous to children)
¾ Red-paint – Pb3O4: still used for outdoor metal protection

„ Airborne Particles
¾ Deposit on soil, vegetable leafs, water to cause ingestion
danger

Lead Poison: behavior change, brain damage, and even death

Air 1μg/m3 ↑, blood level 1-2 μg/dL ↑.

Unleaded fuel: dropped from 16 to 3 μg/dL (need to be < 10-15 μg/dL)

17
 Motor Vehicle Emissions

Vehicle Emission & Growth

„ In US, transportation accounts for a significant fraction of all the

criteria pollutants , except for SOx.
¾ From cars and trucks, and it emits right in the middle of crowded
& urban population.
„ In many other vehicles-fast growing countries, the vehicle growth
rate may outstrip the population growth rate
¾ Leading urban congestion and very unhealthy air quality

Estimated Problems:
400,000 Respiratory Attacks
50,000 Infant deaths
Oil Import from Middle East

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 Emission from Vehicle Engines
Otto Cycle (Four-Stroke Cycle, ~1880)

Nicholas Otto (1831-1891)

German Engineer,

Exhaust Fuel

Two-Stroke Cycle (Clerk Cycle, 1881)

Dugald Clerk (1854-1932)

Scottish Engineer,

Exhaust
Fuel

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Which one may produce more
air pollutants?
Exhaust Fuel
Two-stroke cycle

‡ Mix of fresh fuel when

exhaust was pushed out
‡ Two-stroke engine needs
lubricant oil in fuel to lubricate
the moving parts (four-stroke
one can be with separated
lubricant oil circulation) Four-Stroke Cycle

Exhaust
Fuel

Two-Stroke Cycle

How emission can be controlled?

‡ How was the emission
limitation in 1960s?
Only
OnlyCOCOandandHC
HCwere
were
controlled,
controlled,sosomanufactures
simply just changed the
manufactures simply just
Air/fuel ratio.
changed the Air/fuel ratio.

‡ Clean Air Act

Amendment in 1970?

Allthree
All threeCO,
CO,HC,
HC,andand
NOx
NOx pollutants,
pollutants, andthe
and thus thus
introduction of catalytic
the introduction of
converter.
catalytic converter.

Rich Lean

20
 Control by Catalytic Converter

„ Three-way Catalytic Converter

¾ Handling CO, HC and NOx
¾ CO & HC → CO2 & H2O;
NOx → N2 & O2
¾ Air/fuel ratio must be maintained within a
narrow range (14:8 – 14:9) in order to
function well.
¾ No lead in gasoline, please!
It will destroy the catalysts quickly. This is also one of
the reasons why banning the use of tetraethyllelead
as a octane booster in gasoline. This also
significantly reduces the global lead pollution in air.

¾ Other “poisoning” substances

Sulfur, Zinc, Manganese, Silicone, and Phosphorus

Cleaner Gasoline

„ Temperature Factor – must formulate the fuel to:

¾ Reduce the volatility to reduce evaporation at hot environments
¾ Vaporize the fuel to facilitate the start at cold environments
„ Add more oxygen (oxygenates, 2% wt) to reduce CO emission:
¾ Add Ethanol or Methyltertiarybutylether (MTBE)
¾ MTBE is preferred due to less volatile, but it is non-biodegradable
¾ Leaking of MTBE causes drinking water problem, and potential
health hazard (not fully assessed yet).
¾ California banned the use in 2003 (& or '?)

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 Stationary Sources
Emissions

Stationary Sources

„ Responsible for 90% of SOx and ~50% of NOx and PM10

¾ Most of them are coal-fired electric power plant
„ Three broad approaches:
¾ Increase the efficiency from fuel to energy
¾ Increase the efficiency of energy used
¾ Use less polluted fuel

ALL three approaches have made progress, and drive the efficiency of modern coal-
fired power plant to ~40% (starting from 5% of Edison’s original plant a century ago)

„ Three approaches to reduce emission:

¾ Precombustion control: Cleaner coal or pretreatments
¾ Combustion control: Better burner for less NOx (and SOx)
¾ Postcombustion control: Higher capture efficiency units

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 Coal-fired Power Plant

Will be ~40% of whole

construction cost and consume
~5% of power generated.

Stationary Sources: Sulfur Dioxide

„ Flue-Gas Desulfurization
(Scrubber; FSD)
¾ Either wet (water + CaCO3 or CaO) or dry
(CaO) type.
~90%
CaCO3 + SO2 + 2H2O = CaSO3•2H2O +CO2
~95%, but CaO + SO2 + 2H2O = CaSO3•2H2O
more expensive

¾ Expensive! ~US$200 million overall for a

large power plant
6
¾ Energy consumption! ~5% of the energy
produced by the power plant it serves 1. Mist eliminator
2. Divider plate
¾ Maintenance! Corrosion, scaling, 3. Circulation pump
plugging,… issues 4. Spray nozzle
5. Exhaust gas inlet
6. Removed as sludge

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 Stationary Sources: Controlling NOx Emission

„ Low Excess Air Technology

¾ Control to minimum air for complete combustion
¾ Retrofitted at a modest cost, yielding 15-50% lower emission

„ Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) [Postcombustion Control]

¾ 4NO + 4NH3 + O2 → 4 N2 + 6 H2O
2NO2 + 4NH3 + O2 → 3 N2 + 6 H2O
¾ Estimated 90% removal. Widely used in Europe and Japan, but
only recently applied to high-sulfur flue gas in US.

Stationary Sources: Particle Control

„ Cyclone Collector

¾ Most commonly used

¾ For large particles (removing 90%+

of > 5μm particles)

¾ Efficiency drops significantly for

small particles (of greater concern of
human health)

¾ Although not meeting standards, it is

an inexpensive and maintenance
free precleaner

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 Particle Control
„ Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

¾ For small particles (removing 98%+

of < 1μm particles)

¾ Consisting of vertical wires charged

to ~100,000 V, placed in between
two grounded collector plates.

¾ Strong electric field ionizing gas

molecules

¾ Huge amounts of negative ions and

electrons will attach on particle and
be moved toward grounded plates

¾ Particles fall by gravity or flushed

liquids

Particle Control
„ Baghouse (Fabric Filtration)

¾ A major competitor of electrostatic

precipitator with rising popularity

¾ Suspending thousands of upside-

down bags with up-flow gas for being
filtrated

¾ Approaching 100% efficiency of 1μm

particles and substantial quantities of
0.01μm

¾ Disadvantages: more expensive,

larger size, no corrosive chemicals
or moist allowed, fire/explosion risk.

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 Indoor Air Quality

Indoor Pollutants

„ Same as ambient air

¾ Combustion, cook, heat water (CO, NOx, respirable particulates,…)
¾ Cigarette smoke (CO, benzene, particles,…)
¾ Photocopying machines (ozone)
¾ Building materials (formaldehyde)
¾ Paint containing lead (toxic dust)
¾ Household stuff (VOCs)
„ Unique pollutants
¾ Asbestos, radon gas, biological pollutants,…

2% reduction in emissions of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) would be equivalent to

eliminating all the coal-fired power plants in U.S.（Smith, 1993b).

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Air we breathe:
Homes
Mostly inside of building
Offices, other work place
Air quality control: Construction materials
Air filtration and ventilation systems

Sick-building syndrome

Nearly 25% of U.S. office workers

perceive air quality problems
in their work environments,
and 20% believe their work is
impaired by reactions to indoor
pollution.
(Kreiss, 1990)

Exposure Assessment
TEAM (Total Exposure Assessment Methodology):
Consider both pollutant emission & time of exposure.

Actual exposure:
ETS vs. coal-fired powder plants

(a) Benzene emissions are mainly due

to car exhaust and to industry.
(b) Benzene exposures are
overwhelmingly due to cigarettes.

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Reduce hazards air pollution: home

¾ Floor mat ---

reduce outside pollution into home

¾ Less dry cleaning ---

reduce tetrachloroethylene

¾ Exhaust fans ---

reduce particulate, PAH, chloroform

¾ Combustion products (CO) ---

vent

¾ VOCs (paints, cleaning fluids) ---

seal before storage

¾ Smoke ---
outside

Engineer’s TOOLBOX…

for our Sustainable Development…

28
 An Indoor Air Quality Model

Rate of increase Rate of pollution Rate of pollution Rate of decay

in the box entering the box leaving the box in the box

Rate of increase Rate of pollution Rate of pollution Rate of decay

in the box entering the box leaving the box in the box

dC
V S + CaV CnV KCV
dt
dC
V = ( S + CanV ) − CnV − KCV
dt

V = volume of conditioned space in building (m3)

n = number of air changes per hour (h-1; ach)
S = source emission rate (mg/h)
C = indoor concentration (mg/m3)
Ca = ambient (outdoor) concentration rate (mg/m3)
K = pollutant decay rate reactivity (1/hr)

29
 dC
V = ( S + CanV ) − CnV − KCV
dt

Steady State Solution:

dC/dt = 0

CV (n + K) = S + CanV

( S / V ) + C an
C= = C (∞ ) or S = C (∞ )V (n + K ) − CanV
n+K

Predict the final Find out the emission

concentration of indoor intensity (rate) of
pollutant (when the system pollution source.
reaches equilibrium).

dC
V = ( S + CanV ) − CnV − KCV
dt

Non-Steady State Solution:

Divide the whole equation by “V”, and rearrange the equation as:

dC First Order Linear Differential Equation:

+ ( n + K )C = S / V + Ca n
dt dy
+ P( x) y = Q( x)
dx
This integration can be solved* as:

⎡ ( S / V ) + C an ⎤
C (t ) = ⎢ [
⎥⎦ 1 − e
− ( n + K） t
]
+ C ( 0) e − ( n + K ) t
⎣ n+K
C(0) = Initial concentration in the building
Pollutant doesn’t decay. Initial indoor
concentration is 0.

If K = 0, Ca= 0, and C(0) = 0,

⎛ S ⎞
C (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ 1− e(− nt
)
Outdoor (ambient) ⎝ nV ⎠
concentration is negligible.

* By integration table. Further details attached after lecture slides.

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 EXAMPLE: Release of Formaldehyde from Plywood
Formaldehyde (HCHO) is used in making plywood, which is largely used as
indoor building or furniture materials. High concentration of formaldehyde is
toxic, allergenic, and carcinogenic. Quality plywood releases formaldehyde
with slower rate and doesn’t cause the its indoor concentration to harmful
level (0.1 mg/m3).
A standard size (20 m2) of plywood floor made by HighTech Materials Ltd.
has been installed for two hours in a testing room with a 46.0 m3 volume and
an air change rate of 0.25 h-1, the concentration of formaldehyde reaches 0.2
mg/m3.
Initial formaldehyde in the room is 0, and the outdoor formaldehyde level is
negligible throughout the run. Treating formaldehyde as a conservative
pollutant, find the rate at which that floor releases formaldehyde. Will the
same size of that plywood product safe to be used in part of the floor of a
small apartment with 120 m3 of space having 0.4 h-1 when the release
reaching steady state?

Harmful level of formaldehyde is (0.1 mg/m3) !

After 2 hours…

C(0) = 0

Ca = 0 Test Room (46 m3)

Formaldehyde:
0.2 mg/m3
Air Change Rate: 0.25 h-1

At Steady State…

C(0) = 0
Ca = 0
Apartment (120 m3)
Air change
Rate: 0.4 h-1 Formaldehyde ? mg/m 3

31
V = 46 m3, n = 0.25 h-1, t = 2 h, C(t) = 0.2 mg/m3,
Assume K = 0, Ca= 0, and C(0) = 0,

⎛ S ⎞
C (t ) = ⎜ (
⎟ 1− e
− nt
)
⎝ nV ⎠

nVC (t ) 0.25 / hr × 46.0m 3 × 0.2mg / m3

S= = = 5.84mg / hr
1 − e − nt [ ]
1 − e −0.25 / hr×2 hr

V = 120 m3, n = 0.4 h-1, t = ∞, C(t) = 0.2 mg/m3,

( S / V ) + C an
C= = C (∞ )
n+K
Assume K = 0 and Ca= 0,

S 5.84mg / hr
C (∞ ) = = = 0.12mg / m 3 > 0.1 mg/m3
nV 0.4 / hr × 120m 3
Unfortunately, It is NOT safe to use this product.

ENGG 1006: Engineering for Sustainable Development

Dr. Shih’s Regular Office Hours

QUESTIONS, learning HELP, or more DISCUSSION ?

(1) In person
September 7, 14, 21, 28 (Mondays) 5-7pm at Haking Wong Building
Room 5-26

(2) Via phone or e-mail

Call 2859-1973 or e-mail for appointment

Kaimin Shih
(PhD, Stanford University)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

Office: Rm. 5-26, Haking Wong Building • Phone: 2859-1973 • E-mail: kshih@hku.hk

32
* This part is not within our course learning outcomes.

dC
Process of Solving* Non-Steady State Equation: V = ( S + CanV ) − CnV − KCV
dt

dy (1)
A typical First-Order Linear Differential Equation: + P( x) y = Q( x)
dx
If we can add an integrating factor, R, in the equation (1) to make it become:

dy d dy dR
R + RPy = ( Ry ) = R + y = RQ (2)
dx dx dx dx

If equation (2) can be true, this condition needs to be satisfied:

⇒ ln R = ∫ Pdx R = e∫
dR Pdx
= RP Therefore ⇒ dR
= Pdx ⇒
dx R

e∫ + e∫ Py = Qe∫
P dx dy Pdx Pdx
Substitute this R into equation (2) : (3)
dx

yR = ye ∫ = ∫ Qe ∫
Pdx Pdx
Integrate both sides of equation (3) by dx: dx + A

y = ( ∫ Q ( x)e ∫ dx + A)e ∫
P ( x ) dx − P ( x ) dx
Rearranged as:

A is a constant produced from integration and will be obtained through the information of initial condition.

dC
For using in the case of + ( n + K )C = S / V + Ca n
dt
We can let C = y = C(t); t = x; P(x) = n+K; Q(x) = S/V + Can

y = ( ∫ Q ( x)e ∫ dx + A)e ∫
P ( x ) dx − P ( x ) dx
The standard solution

can now be written as:

+ Ca n ) e ∫ dt + A)e ∫
S ( n + K ) dt − ( n + K ) dt (4)
C (t ) = ( ∫ (
V
after integration:
S +C n
C (t ) = ( V
a
e( n + K )t + A)e− ( n + K )t (5)
n+K

When t = 0 (Initial condition), equation (5) becomes:

S +C n S +C n
A = C (0) − V
a
C (0) = V
a
+A so ⇒ n+K
n+ K

Substitute A into equation (5), the solution becomes:

⎡ ( S / V ) + C an ⎤
C (t ) = ⎢ ⎥⎦ 1 − e [
− ( n + K） t
]
+ C ( 0) e − ( n + K ) t
This is the one you used for
indoor air quality model.
⎣ n+K

33