PUNCTUATION

The full stop.

1. to mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation.
Rome is the capital of Italy.
I was born in Australia and now live in Indonesia.
The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people.
2. to indicate an abbreviation
I will be in between 6 a.m. and 7 p.m.
Note Dr and !r and !rs and !s do not ta"e a full stop nor do most abbreviations
ta"en from the first capital letters such as !A #hd $NN
3. special case - three dots
%ften you will see a sentence concludin& with three dots. This indicates that only part
of the sentence or te't has been (uoted or that it is bein& left up to the reader to
complete the rest of the sentence.
The Lord)s #rayer be&ins* )%ur +ather which are in ,eaven...)
3. fullstop after a single word
-ometimes a sin&le word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after
the word as you would in any other sentence.
./oodbye..
.,ello..
Note This is often the case when the sub0ect is understood as in a &reetin& or a
command such as .-top..
The colon.
To introduce an idea.
It is used to introduce an idea that is an e'planation or continuation of the one that
comes before the colon. The colon can be considered as a &ateway invitin& the reader
to &o on. ,ave a loo" at these e'amples
1ou are left with only one option #ress on until you have mastered it.
There is one thin& you need to "now about coleslaw it loo"s and tastes li"e slurry.
In the above e'amples you have some idea of what will come after the colon. It is
important to note that the clause that comes before the colon can stand alone and
ma"e complete sense on its own.
If the initial clause cannot stand alone and ma"e complete sense* you should not use a
colon.
To introduce a list.
1ou need to ta"e care2 many people assume that a colon always precedes a list. This is
not the case. 1ou can use a colon to introduce a list as lon& as the phrase before the
colon can stand alone and still ma"e sense.
3hat comes before the colon can stand alone too.
,ave a loo" at these e'amples
The potion contained some e'otic in&redients snails) eyes* bats) ton&ues and &arlic.
The ma&ic potion contained sesame seeds* bran fla"es and coleslaw.
In the first sentence* the clause precedin& the colon has a sub0ect and a predicate and
ma"es complete sense on its own )The potion contained some e'otic in&redients.) In
the second sentence a colon should not be used* as the clause that would precede it
would not ma"e sense alone )The ma&ic potion contained).
To introduce quoted material.
It can also be used after a clause introducin& (uoted material. ,ave a loo" at this
e'ample.
The director often used her favourite (uotation from !onty #ython )I wasn)t e'pectin&
the -panish In(uisition.)
If the colon precedes a (uotation* you should be&in the lan&ua&e of that (uote with a
capital letter.
Adding emphasis to an idea.
4sin& a colon can add emphasis to an idea. +or e'ample* consider the followin& two
sentences
The one thin& man"ind cannot live without is hope.
There is one thin& that man"ind cannot live without hope.
5oth sentences are &rammatically correct* but the second ma"es the point a little more
forcefully.
The semicolon.
n complicated lists.
The semicolon can be used to sort out a complicated list containin& many items* many
of which themselves contain commas.
,ave a loo" at this e'ample
In the meetin& today we have #rofessor 3ilson* 4niversity of 5arnsley* Dr 3atson*
4niversity of 5arrow in +urness* $olonel $ustard* !etropolitan #olice and Dr !able
-yrup* /enius /eneral* 4niversity of %ta&o* New 6ealand.
In a situation such as this* only the mi&hty semicolon can unravel the mess.
In the meetin& today we have #rofessor 3ilson* 4niversity of 5arnsley2 Dr 3atson*
4niversity of 5arrow in +urness2 $olonel $ustard* !etropolitan #olice and Dr !able
-yrup* /enius /eneral* 4niversity of %ta&o* New 6ealand.
In most lists a comma is enou&h to separate the items. In a complicated list li"e the
one above* it is perfectly acceptable to use the semicolon to ma"e the list more
understandable.
!eparating closel"-related independent clauses.
The semicolon is also used to connect two closely7related independent clauses. ,ave a
loo" at this e'ample
Terry always slept with the li&ht on2 he was afraid of the dar".
The two clauses here are closely connected but the lin" has not been made e'plicit.
They could have been separated by a full stop.
Terry always slept with the li&ht on. ,e was afraid of the dar".
They could have been connected by a con0unction.
Terry always slept with the li&ht on because he was afraid of the dar".
Terry always slept with the li&ht on* as he was afraid of the dar".
In this instance we have chan&ed the second clause into a dependent clause2 it is
directly dependent on the first clause.
If you are &oin& to use a semicolon to connect two clauses* it is very important that
the two clauses are both independent. That means that each clause has to be able to
stand alone and ma"e complete sense without the other. If either one cannot stand
alone* a semi7colon cannot be used.
The comma
1. To separate the elements in a list of three or more items.
The potion included &obstoppers* chewin& &um* bran fla"es and coleslaw.
,is favourite puddin&s were ice apple pie* rhubarb crumble* and 0elly and ice cream.
In this sentence it is acceptable to use a comma after the word crumble in order to
indicate that the 0elly and ice cream is considered as a sin&le item in the series. There
are occasions where it is definitely needed in order to avoid unnecessary confusion.
2. #efore certain con$unctions.
A comma should be used before these con0unctions and* but* for* nor* yet* or* so to
separate two independent clauses. They are called co7ordinatin& con0unctions.
-he was a fantastic coo"* but she would never be as &ood as her mother7in7law.
,e hated his nei&hbours* so he never invited them round.
A common mista"e is to put the comma after the con0unction.
It is not usually necessary or indeed correct to use a comma with the con0unction
)because).
3e all had to move to hi&her &round because the floodwaters were risin& (uic"ly.
-he really didn)t feel hun&ry because she had already eaten a hearty lunch.
,owever* there are occasions when a )because clause) needs to be set off with a
comma in order to avoid any confusion of meanin&.
I "new she would not be hun&ry* because my sister wor"s in a restaurant and had
seen her eatin& a hu&e meal earlier in the day.
In this e'ample the reason for the person in (uestion not bein& hun&ry is nothin& to do
with the sister)s wor"in& in a restaurant as mi&ht be indicated if the comma were
omitted.
3. To separate introductor" elements in a sentence.
4se a comma to separate introductory elements in a sentence from the main part of
that sentence.
/iven the appallin& weather conditions* !ichael was luc"y to survive the storm.
As the ni&ht drew to a close* the clubbers wandered home.
,avin& mastered the use of the colon* it is important to ma"e it wor" for you in your
writin&.
If the introductory element of the sentence is very short* it is permissible to omit the
comma. If the introductory phrase is more than about three words* the comma is
recommended.
-hortly we will be leavin& for the port.
After his nap -am felt a lot better.
After a deliciously lon& nap in his hammoc"* -am felt a lot better.
If a brief introductory phrase* however short* is li"ely to mer&e with the rest of the
sentence and confuse the reader* the comma is re(uired.
Inside the house was a total mess.
Inside* the house was a total mess.
4ntil the summer lectures will ta"e place in the main buildin&
4ntil the summer* lectures will ta"e place in the main buildin&.
The comma is also re(uired if the introductory phrase* however short* appears to
modify the meanin& of the sentence.
-adly* the whole buildin& was be&innin& to crumble.
%n the other hand* the new e'tension loo"ed fantastic.
%. To separate parenthetical elements in a sentence.
A comma is used to set off parenthetical elements in a sentence. The parenthetical
element 8also "nown as an aside9 is part of the sentence that can be removed without
chan&in& the essential meanin& of the sentence.
-arah* the most intelli&ent pupil in the class* was always late for school.
The pyramids* one of the wonders of the ancient world* lie 0ust outside $airo.
If you are usin& a comma to do this* it is important that the aside is opened and closed
with a comma. A common mista"e is to omit the second comma.
If the parenthetical element in the sentence is closely identified with the sub0ect the
comma may not be necessary.
,is wife :ill was a hi&h flyer in the city.
:ill* his wife* was a hi&h flyer in the city.
&. To separate direct speech or quoted elements from the rest of the
sentence.
$ommas are used to separate direct speech or (uoted elements from the rest of a
sentence. 4se a comma to separate the (uoted material from the rest of the sentence.
.That house there*. he whispered* .is where I &rew up..
./ive me the money*. he snarled* .unless you want to meet your ma"er..
Note that a comma is not always needed in direct speech if another punctuation mar"
serves to separate the (uoted element from the rest of the sentence. Loo" at the
followin& e'ample
./ive me the money;. he snarled.
Ta"e care to avoid the comma splice. Loo" at the followin& e'ample
.That ca"e loo"s delicious*. she said. .3here can I &et the recipe<.
.That ca"e loo"s delicious*. she said* .3here can I &et the recipe<.
The two (uoted elements are separate sentences and as such need to be separated by
a full stop. A comma alone is not enou&h.
'. (ommas are used to separate elements in a sentence that express contrast.
,e was first attracted by her money* not her stunnin& loo"s.
-he is intelli&ent* not pretty.
,e thou&ht the buildin& was enormous* but u&ly.
). (ommas are used for t"pographical reasons to separate dates and "ears*
towns and counties etc.
,is home was in -treatham* =ast London.
!y father was born on !arch >?* >@A@.
+. (ommas are used to separate several ad$ectives.
The old* ramshac"le* dilapidated house had a charm of its own.
That rather dull7loo"in&* badly7dressed* clumsy man is actually a university professor.
As a &eneral rule* if you can put the word )and) or )or) between the ad0ectives* then the
comma is appropriate. If you cannot* the comma should be omitted.
The little old house was in a beautiful wood.
The comma splice.
The comma splice is one of the most fre(uent mista"es made when usin& a comma.
The comma splice occurs when a comma is used to connect two independent clauses.
In this e'ample the two clauses ma"e sense on their own. $onnectin& them with a
comma is incorrect
:im usually &ets on with everybody* he is an understandin& person.
If you have two independent clauses that need to be separated* you have several
choices
1ou can ma"e them into two sentences usin& a full stop. This is probably the easiest
solution but may not be the best in terms of style or developin& your ar&ument.
:im usually &ets on with everybody. ,e is an understandin& person.
1ou can use a semicolon. -emicolons should not be overused but can be very
powerful when used in the correct situations. In our e'ample* usin& a semi7colon
su&&ests a lin" between the two clauses without statin& that lin" specifically. This can
be a powerful tool in developin& a convincin& ar&ument.
:im usually &ets on with everybody2 he is an understandin& person.
1ou can introduce a con$unction to connect the sentences. 5y doin& this* you ma"e
the connection between the two more e'plicit.
:im usually &ets on with everybody because he is an understandin& person.
:im usually &ets on with everybody* as he is an understandin& person.
The h"phen ,--
All words consisting of self combined with a noun.
self7e'pression
self7confidence
self7consciousness
n ad$ectives that have been formed b" combining two words.
nineteenth7century history
self7paced learnin& e'ercises
off7the7pe& suits
old7furniture salesman
Ta"e care to use the hyphen only in situations where the hyphenated word is used as
an ad0ective as in the above e'amples. $ontrast these two e'amples
,e was an old7furniture salesman. 8The furniture is old9
,e was an old furniture salesman. 8The salesman is old9
Tumultuous events too" place in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
3e have several verbs in =n&lish that consist of a verb and a preposition. ,ave a loo"
at these verbs and the nouns that can be formed as a result
to hold up ... This is a hold7up.
to wash up ... /o and do the washin&7up.
to tell off ... The tutor &ave him a &ood tellin&7off.
The dash 8779
The dash is lon&er than a hyphen.
The dash can be used to set off parenthetical elements* when those elements
themselves contain internal forms of punctuation. 4se the em7dash in these situations.
$onsider the followin& sentences
!y friends* #aul* 5arry* -teve and ,omer* all love rhubarb crumble.
!y friends7#aul* 5arry* -teve and ,omer7all love rhubarb crumble.
The dash should not be used to set off parenthetical elements when a comma would
do 0ust as well. There needs to be a &ood reason to use the dash. The em7dash can
also be used in direct speech to si&nal a brea" in thou&ht or a shift in tone.
)3hat on earth can I do7*) Alan 0umped up and ran to the door.
)I)ve 0ust as"ed you to7oh what was I tellin& you<)
The en7dash 8the em7dash)s sli&htly slimmer cousin9 is used for indicatin& the space
between dates in a chronolo&ical ran&e.
The -econd 3orld 3ar 8>@?@7>@AB9 was one of man"ind)s dar"est hours.
The apostrophe
(ontractions
%ne use of the apostrophe is in contracted words. The apostrophe is used to indicate
that a letter or letters hasChave been removed. If you follow this rule then it will avoid
confusion about where the apostrophe should be.
,e is D he)s
I am D I)m
Do not D Don)t
They have D They)ve
It is D It)s
I would D I)d
Let us D Let)s
-he has D -he)s
3ho is D who)s
$ontracted forms are very common in spo"en lan&ua&e but should not be used in a
formal academic essay. In formalCacademic writin& you must use the full*
unabbreviated form.
$layton does not find any evidence that densely amnesiac patients show reduced
performance on other measures of wor"in& memory.
There is no doubt that successive presidents of the 4nited -tates have found difficulty
in balancin& pressures from home and abroad.
The only place they could le&itimately appear is in (uotations.
.I)m drownin&;;. he shouted.
The apostrophe showing possession.
If the possessor is a sin&ular noun* an 7)s is added to the end of the noun. This is true
for both proper nouns 8people and places be&innin& with a capital letter9 and common
nouns 8other nouns9. ,ere are some e'amples of the apostrophe at wor" showin&
possession
,e found himself lost in !adrid)s windin& streets.
I cannot understand Tim)s point of view.
The buildin&)s foundations were very unstable.
The poet)s wor" was hi&hly re&arded around the world.
If the possessor is a plural noun endin& in s* simply addin& an apostrophe after the
final s indicates possession.
The teacher was always losin& her pupils) boo"s.
The mon"s) meals were served in a cold and damp dinin& room.
I can never understand the politicians) obsession with spin.
As you can see* the positionin& of the apostrophe ma"es a bi& difference to the
meanin& of the sentence. !a"e sure when addin& the apostrophe that it indicates your
intended meanin& very precisely.
The monk's meals were served in a cold* damp room. 8one mon"9
The monks' meals were served in a cold* damp room. 8lots of mon"s9
If the plural noun does not end in an s* the addition of 7)s shows possession.
The children)s boo"s lay on the table.
The men)s boots were lined up outside the door.
The women)s race will ta"e place before the children)s race.
If the possessor is a sin&ular noun that happens to end in an 7s* there is some debate
about whether the apostrophe is simply added after the 7s or whether an 7)s is needed.
It appears that both are acceptable. 3hichever you decide to use* ma"e sure you are
consistent. The university =n&lish department)s style &uide recommends that proper
nouns that end in 7s form their possessive form by addin& 7)s.
,ave you seen :ames) boo"<
,ave you seen :ames)s boo"<
The e'ceptions to this rule are proper nouns that are Latin or /ree" in ori&in.
%dysseus) adventures spanned many miles and many many years.
#ytha&oras) theorem has baffled &enerations of school children.