F

uel injection has come a long way in the past 30 years.

Where once the carburettor ruled the engine, now the
fuel injection system reigns. But while much is written
about the electronics and the power of the software used,
comparatively little is reported about the fuelling systems themselves
and how they are used.
Mention the words Fuel Injection to most and they will conjure
up an image of electronic boxes and digital systems but back in the
day fuel injection was never like that. For many years constant fow
mechanical systems were the nature of the beast. Instead of injecting
discreet amounts of fuel in response to an electronic pulse, these
systems continuously pump fuel into the intake manifold. That this
type of system is available even today says much about its effectiveness
and suitability for certain tasks.
The problem in fuelling any spark ignition engine is to introduce
the fuel as a vapour into the charge air of the engine in a combustible
form and at the optimum air to fuel
ratio. But before we launch into
the complexity of the task in the
context of fuel injection it is worth
looking at the principles behind
the pinnacle of mixing technology
for many years, the fxed-jet
carburettor.
The carburettor
When fuelling any variable
speed, gasoline engine, once up
to running temperature there are
four conditions that need to be
addressed to give adequate control
engine idle, progression, what
I will call normal running and
acceleration. Apart from these we
have issues such as cold start,
which every engine has to do at
some time or other, and hot re-
starts, which can be particularly
challenging for some applications.
But for all gasoline engines, even those for racing, those are the four
main areas of operation, during which the carburettor has to function
satisfactorily.
During normal running, air passes through an auxiliary venturi
placed in the engine intake air stream, and a fuel-air mixture is
pulled through by the partial vacuum thus created. The fuel is initially
metered by a main jet from the foat chamber, while the air in the fuel-
air pre-mix is regulated by an air-correction jet. In between, the air is
mixed into the fuel using emulsion tubes.
Without any correction of this nature, as the engine speed (and
hence airfow) increased, the fuel-air mixture entering it would tend
to move towards rich. While the main jet limits the amount of fuel
metered according to the depression created in the venturi, the air-
correction jets try to control this progressive enrichment and therefore
maintain a constant air-fuel ratio. The emulsion tube has a number
of holes at various heights along it that alter the primary fuel-air
mixing according to the level of fuel in the foat chamber, which itself
depends on the fuel demand coming from the engine.
In essence, therefore, although quite simple in its approach, the
internal workings of the fxed-jet carburettor are quite complex
and may take considerable fne tuning. Factor in enrichment for
acceleration, a separate circuit for engine idle and another when
just moving away from idle (progression) and you have a complex
instrument that can be temperamental.
30
Of all changes in engine technology
over the past 30 years, fuel injection
is arguably the most signicant, as
John Coxon explains
Picking the mixing
Figure 1 The xed jet carburettor
31
FOCUS : FUEL INJECTION
Lucas mechanical injection
Although it is perhaps hard to believe now, fuel injection systems
in the higher echelons of motor sport were normally mechanical
as recently as the early 1980s. One such system, still in regular use
every weekend at historic events, is the Lucas mechanical system.
Still recognised as one of the most sophisticated and easy-to-use
fuelling systems of its time, it uses a moving shuttle to meter the fuel to
individual cylinders [Figure 3].
The shuttle operates between a fxed stop and a movable stop to
meter the fow. A rotor geared to half engine speed and spinning
around the metering sleeve times the delivery according to transfer
port angle. With a constant fuel pressure of about 100-110 psi, the
sole function of the injector is therefore to atomise the fuel. So fuel
delivery at the normal wide-open throttle use of racing engines is
proportional to engine speed, consequently it is only an approximate
(but perfectly satisfactory) estimation of the fuelling requirement.
More than this, however, the system has a method of altering part-
throttle fuelling using a 3D cam profle mechanically linked directly to
the throttle. Crude by 21st-century standards, the system was popular
with engine builders because engine fuelling characteristics could be
changed very easily with only limited test-bed running. Nevertheless,
the fact that fuelling was timed to inject just at the correct time
minimised fuel losses through the exhaust valve and gave surprisingly
good fuel economy.
Although an electric fuel pump was needed for starting, once it was
running the engine would idle very easily with negligible bore wash.
Furthermore, the design of the fuel injection nozzles produced little or
no dripping on engine shutdown, preventing fuel from slowly dripping
into the engine and potentially hydraulicing with disastrous results
the next time the engine was cranked. But perhaps most important is
the fact that throttle response was more or less instantaneous, which
partly explains why drivers often preferred this system to any other
contemporary designs in its heyday [Figure 4].
The introduction of a feedback loop, whereby any slight deviation
from the desired air fuel ratio is corrected, is also particularly
challenging.
With these shortcomings in even the most sophisticated carburettors,
it is little wonder that engineers have looked to other solutions that
physically inject the fuel.
Development of the frst gasoline injector systems goes as far
back as that of the carburettor itself, and even until comparatively
recently they were predominately mechanical. But the introduction
of air pollution legislation spurred the development of a more precise
fuelling technology thats essential for three-way catalyst control.
In response to signals from the intake manifold and engine speed,
fuel was injected directly into the intake manifold via a solenoid-
controlled injector. Early systems were extremely expensive and time
consuming to set up, so fuel injection on road vehicles was initially
ftted only to executive vehicles and expensive sports cars.
However as emission legislation became more widespread, systems
were developed that were mechanically-hydraulically controlled,
continuously injecting fuel into the intake manifold in a very similar
manner to that of a carburettor. As emission control legislation became
tougher these systems were gradually replaced by fully digitally
controlled electronic systems but even so it was the mid eighties
before fully programmable systems became the norm in Formula One.
For a long time top level motorsport relied upon purely mechanical
systems. The most prolifc of these at the top level was the Lucas
system [Figure 2].
t
Figure 2 The Lucas mechanical fuel injection system
Figure 3 The Lucas metering/timing system
Figure 4 The wide open throttle fuelling from the Lucas system is very much a compromise.
Minimum fuel for best torque (MBT) is derived from dyno running and the fuel delivery rate
selected as the best t selected to avoid running too weak or too rich at any one particular WOT
condition. Note how the engine runs very weak at less than 2000 rpm. Fortunately race engines
dont run full load at these speeds
32
the pump speed by 50% will
increase its output by a similar
amount. In practice, however,
at very low as well as very high
speeds, the effects of internal
leakage, pumping friction losses
and simple clearance issues
mean this may not be the case.
But in essence, when run directly
off the engine via some kind of
mechanical drive, the fuel delivery
will be proportional to engine
speed.
To tailor the fow more precisely,
a main bypass jet is introduced
to the return feed going back to
the fuel tank. The larger this jet the greater the return feed and the
less the fuel going to the engine. This is the most basic adjustment in
a constant-fow fuelling system and, when supplemented by a small
poppet valve and spring, the additional restriction will help maintain
the fuel pressure at low engine speeds and idle. At higher engine
speeds, when the engine might be experiencing a loss of volumetric
effciency, the fuel curve may also need to be restricted by introducing
a high-speed bypass valve. Similar to the main bypass valve assembly
the addition of a poppet and spring assembly together with a jet is
used to alter the position at which the fuel is leaned off (see Figure
6). Normally set to function somewhere around 500-1000 rpm above
peak torque, clever adjustment of this system, together with a richer
main jet, can get closer to the ideal fuelling curve necessary for
maximum power all through the engine speed range.
Constant-ow injection systems
Predating the Lucas system but still very popular even today are
constant-fow designs. Simple and rugged, such systems are easily
tuneable and avoid all the complexities associated with carburettor
tuning. Indeed, in some circumstances, the absence of a carburettor
foat chamber made this kind of system the natural selection. For
instance, where high-g loads are experienced on the track, when
cornering or moving in a straight line, the fuel level in the foat
chamber can be quite erratic. Since the quality of the fuelling depends
very much on the precise fuel level in the chamber, any undue
alteration in the level can have a deleterious effect.
Constant-fow systems of this type use a mechanical pump to control
the supply of fuel to the injection unit according to the engines rpm.
This variable fow generates a back-pressure in the fuel system against
the fxed orifces of the main bypass jet and nozzle, while idle and
part-load conditions are moderated using a barrel valve assembly.
Fuel metering is achieved by sensing the engine speed and throttle
angle. The speed is sensed using a positive displacement pump,
generally of the gear-rotor variety which, when used within their
designed operating envelope, have theoretically linear fow rate
characteristics according to the shaft speed. In other words, increasing
FOCUS : FUEL INJECTION
t
Figure 5 Kinsler constant ow schematic
Figure 6 The high speed bypass circuit can enable closer fuelling to the ideal by allowing a rich
main jet and then a high speed circuit to follow the engine requirement
Figure 7 Constant ow nozzle
RET_ADTEMP.indd 1 18/3/10 11:41:04
34

effciency (as a result of the fuel vaporising and displacing air) is
greater than the beneft for combustion, this option is probably best
forgotten. As a rule, many race engine manufacturers try a number of
injector positions before signing off any new engine design.
When it comes to fuel control, however, digital fuel injection can
take a number of different directions. The frst and simplest is very
similar in some ways to the earlier mechanical systems. Monitoring
only the engine speed and throttle angle can give the basis for
a very simple and highly effective fuel control system, and this
method is sometimes referred to as Alpha-N. Since gasoline engines
are very tolerant of variations in air-fuel ratio from 6% rich to
3% lean with only small changes to the power delivered such a
system will outperform even the best mechanical system. But day-
today variations in atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature
will change the density of the intake air so, since electronic
components are not expensive, more sophisticated methods have
been developed.
By substituting throttle angle as an approximation of airfow for a
calculated value derived from the gas laws, the actual airfow can
be inferred from pressure and temperature measurements inside
the intake manifold. Known as the Speed-Density method, if the
volumetric effciency is therefore known at all the engine operating
conditions of engine speed and manifold air pressures, a much more
accurate calculation of the airfow rate and hence air-fuel ratio can
be produced.
For the ultimate in control, air fow meters have been developed
to measure the actual fow rate of the air passing into the engine.
Designed around hot wire, hot flm or bubble technology, these are
best positioned away from the heavily pulsing airfow and, as such,
when used, they tend to be found upstream of the throttle in the cold
air feed pipe that leads to the entrance of the air plenum. With so many
spec engine formulae today, where no modifcation to the engine or its
systems is allowed, this is an increasingly familiar option.
Injector sequencing
In a typical port-injected four-cylinder engine, once the appropriate
injector pulse width had been calculated, all four injectors could be
fred at once. This would deliver the appropriate amount of fuel to
each cylinder. In practice though we tend to inject all four cylinders
At wide-open throttle, once the fuel has passed through the barrel
assembly it will go directly to the nozzles in each intake tract before
being sprayed into the intake air stream [Figure 7]. Much like the
carburettor, however, to improve vaporisation with naturally aspirated
engines the fuel is mixed with a small amount of air immediately
before delivery. This air is usually bled from the clean side of the
manifold nearer the intake.
For part-throttle operation the barrel valve comes into play.
Connected directly to the throttle assembly using a mechanical link,
when the throttle begins to close so does a spool in the barrel valve.
At wide-open throttle the passageway through the barrel is effectively
a large notch cut in the side of the spool and all the fuel fows directly
to the nozzle, unrestricted. As the throttle is closed this spool rotates,
and the ramp ground onto the side reduces the passageway to restrict
the fow of fuel to match the engines reduced air requirement. This
opening will be at a minimum at engine idle.
At about half throttle another port is opened that leads to a
secondary bypass valve, and from here back to the fuel tank. At an
opening of about 40-20 this port is progressively opening and takes
the excess fuel back to the tank. This secondary bypass valve normally
has a higher pressure than the main bypass system so that when the
engine returns to idle, this poppet valve closes and allows the spring
and poppet valve in the main jet to regulate the idle fuel pressure.
Once mastered, injection systems of this type are easily set up and
are still very popular, although they do need day-to-day fne tuning
to compensate for changes in atmospheric pressure and ambient
temperatures.
Electronic fuel injection
The sophistication, simplicity of build and ease of calibration
makes modern electronic fuelling systems the only option for many.
Electromagnetic fuel injectors injecting gasoline fuel at anywhere up
to 100 bar (about 1450 psi), and sometimes under closed-loop control
and fully integrated with an ignition system incorporating knock
control, would seem to be about as close to the ideal fuel management
in the traditional port-injected gasoline engine as you can get.
But advances in modern diesel engine technology, particularly
common rail systems, has ensured that a whole new technology of
direct injection is being developed for the gasoline engine such that in
another ten years port injection for the gasoline engine may be a thing
of the past. For the time being, however, manifold-injected or port-
injected systems call them what you will are the most commonly
available.
Single-point systems were advocated briefy in the early days of
electronic injection. But because they combined the cost of fuel
injection with the air-fuel ratio distribution problems of the carburettor
they were rejected in favour of the multi-point system, and are now a
long-forgotten dead end in automotive history. These days virtually all
injection systems use at least one, possibly two injectors per cylinder,
injecting the fuel as close as possible to and in many cases onto
the back of the intake valve.
In racing engines the fuel can also be injected centrally into the
bellmouth of the intake runner, although when the fall in volumetric
Figure 8 Typical port fuel injector
35
FOCUS : FUEL INJECTION
with only half the amount needed once every engine revolution (that
is, every 360 crank degree).
Sometimes referred to as the batch-triggered method, any fuel
that doesnt enter the cylinder during the inlet valve opening period
will remain in the intake port until the next cycle. Its not necessarily
as bad as it sounds, as this fuel will have time to take in heat from
the manifold wall and surroundings and vaporise in time for the next
valve opening event, giving a more homogenous mixture. The longer
injection periods of this method also means that smaller injectors can
be used, giving better overall fuel metering control [Figure 8].
The other option is sequential injection. In this case each injector
is fred according to the intake valve events on its corresponding
cylinder. Fired only to coincide with the induction stroke, sequential
systems seem to give better control over batch fred systems but do
need larger injectors to inject the fuel into the engine in the shorter
time frames available. Logically, in competition engines, injection
must have been fully completed by the time the intake valve closes
but in on-road applications at part throttle, injection is more usually
completed immediately before the intake valve opens. Whatever the
intended use, sequential systems have to vary the pulse width and
adjust the start of injection (SOI) to fulfl the above conditions, so this
needs to be freely programmable in any control system.
In terms of out-and-out performance, there is little to choose
between batch-fring and sequential systems. Sequential systems will
inevitably give better driveability and fuel economy through more
precise control of the fuel, but if engine performance is your only goal,
the simplicity of batch-fring may be the best choice. As an alternative,
some might say compromise, a group-fring or semi-sequential method
may be used.
On a traditional four-cylinder engine, therefore, instead of triggering
all injectors at once, the cylinders would be grouped into pairs with
each pair injected on alternate revolutions. So on our typical 1-3-4-2
fring cycle, cylinders 1 and 3 could be fred together, followed by 2
and 4 on the next revolution. This arrangement allows the injection to
be selected as a function of the engine operating point and minimises
the incidence of fuel hanging around in the port/manifold for long
periods.
Direct injection
In the past 10-12 years, spurred on by growing fuel economy and
emissions legislation worldwide, engineers have at last been able to
prove the benefts of injecting the fuel directly into the combustion
chamber. Referred to as gasoline direct injection, GDI, or sometimes
DFI (Direct Fuel Injection) or even DISI (Direct Injection Spark
Ignition), this technology is slowly fnding its way into the race engine
business. Well call it simply DI.
Although banned in Formula One, there cant be any serious vehicle
manufacturer that doesnt have a DI programme of some sort such are
the potential benefts. Unlike port injection, however, the challenges
of producing a combustible mixture using DI are signifcant, and the
fuel has to be both metered and formed into an homogenous mixture
in a much shorter time than any of the methods already mentioned.
For true DI operation, the fuel needs to be injected wholly within
the induction stroke and after the exhaust valve closes before
compression, to ensure full atomisation in advance of combustion
and remember, an engine running at 11,000 rpm has a maximum
injection period of only 1.5 ms!
When other combustion modes are used, for example stratifed, lean
combustion when operating at part load (for example running in the
pit lane), the fuel might be injected much later in the cycle and during
the compression stroke.
But whatever the timing of injection, the task is to provide the fuel
fow to match that of the fow of intake air and its distribution within
the cylinder. Injecting against compression pressures means the
injector will therefore need to work at much higher pressures than its
port-mounted alternative.
Injector types
Setting aside for the time being their method of mounting and whether
they are for port or direct systems, injector nozzles fall into three types
pintle, disc and ball.
Owing much of its heritage to diesel technology, the pintle nozzle
consists of a tapered needle sitting in a tapered seat. When energised
this needle is withdrawn, allowing the pressurised fuel to discharge.
Popular with early OE manufacturers because of concerns over
injector fouling with other designs, these have largely been superseded
by disc or ball varieties.
The disc type injector eliminates the pintles armature and the
solenoid acts directly on a fat disc through the core of the injector
body. This disc rests on a seat with an orifce in it, through which the
fuel is injected. Lighter and with a better response than the ball type,
this design results in less build-up of deposits and hence a longer
service life.
Used by GM but now a favourite with Bosch the ball type injector
mechanism uses the same solenoid operating technology as the pintle
but also has a ball and socket arrangement to seal the orifce and
control injection more precisely. Designed with multiple holes for a t
Figure 9 Bosch direct injector (Courtesy Bosch Engineering GmbH)
36
range of spray angles and patterns,
injection rates can be much
quicker than other designs.
On the electrical side, pulse-
width modulated (PWM) injectors
tend to come in two categories
depending on the impedance of
the solenoid windings. Since the
injector driver circuit is part of the
ECU electronics it is important to
match these to the correct type of
injector if the injector is to work as
it should and the circuit not fail.
These two injector driver designs
are peak and hold and saturation.
Peak-and-hold drivers generally
work with low-impedance
injectors. Typically in the 1-4
band, the full battery voltage
is applied across the solenoid windings until the current reaches a
level where the solenoid moves the injector to its maximum opening
position, after which the current is reduced for the rest of the pulse.
Because of the low impedance, the switching currents will be high
and, since heat generated is proportional to the square of the current,
the heat to be dissipated within the driver circuit will also be high
[Figure 11].
Saturation drivers, by contrast, have much higher impedance
windings, typically 10-17 or lower with a ballast resistor, and the
injector driver is fully on during the full injector pulse width. With the
resulting lower currents, the heat build-up will be much less but the
speed of response will suffer.
Since many low-pressure motorsport systems rely on normal
production-based components, most injectors for motorsport are
based around saturation technology, despite their (slightly) poorer
FOCUS : FUEL INJECTION
performance. But because the high-pressure injectors in DI and high
pressure port-injected systems need to be able to open and close
rapidly, they use peak-and-hold driver technology.
The precise differences between a high-pressure port injector and a
direct injector suitable for Bosch DI installations are only application-
specifc. While the direct injector may require a long, narrow nose
for reasons of packaging in and around the combustion chamber,
modern high-pressure injectors are based around the same 12 V
electromagnetic, 200 bar maximum pressure, architecture.
While fuel injector fuel-feed positions can be either bottom feed
sometimes referred to as gallery feed or top feed, the self-venting
capability of top-feed units tends to make them most suited to
motorsport applications.
The fuel circuit
Fuel systems for injected engines are usually divided into high
and low pressure. Any system where the fuel line pressure into the
injector is 10 bar or less is generally considered to be low pressure.
Consequently, anything above that, whether direct or port injected,
is considered high. In reality, few low-pressure systems work above
8 bar, whereas high-pressure systems can be 50, 100 or now even
200 bar, although current Formula One fuel systems are limited by
regulation to 100 bar.
In most OE vehicle fuel systems the pump will almost invariably
be in the fuel tank itself. Better fuel pick-up and modular designs
with fewer joints to leak may have advantages in this business but in
competition, for reasons of ease of access, the separate in-line pump is
still king.
In these low-pressure systems the fuel line pressure is typically
between 3 and 4 bar (45-60 psi), but because of the need to inject fuel
more quickly in some designs, injectors are often rated up to 8 bar.
Pumps to deliver these pressures at the fow rates required are usually
of a roller cell design. When much higher pressures are needed this
type of pump will be used as a lift pump to prime the fuel system
of another, mechanically-driven unit that takes its drive from the
camshaft.
Early Bosch high-pressure pumps for frst-generation DI systems
consisted of three-barrel type pumps driven off an eccentric camshaft
lobe, and equally spaced around the cam. Delivering 50-120 bar,
these have now been replaced by pumps up to 200 bar using a single
pump piston [Figures 14 and 15].
In the case of low-pressure systems, for many years OE vehicle
manufacturers would pump the fuel directly into the injector fuel rail,
with any surplus fuel being diverted back by the pressure regulator
Figure 10 Cross-section of Bosch
EV14 port injector (Courtesy Bosch
Engineering GmbH)
Figure 11 Peak and hold injector characteristics Figure 12 Saturation injector characteristics
Figure 13 Low pressure pump
37
to the fuel tank. This had the dual advantages of sending any vapour
vented from the injector back to the tank and re-circulating the fuel to
minimise the threat of fuel vapour forming in the frst place. With one
side of the invariably mechanical regulator connected to the intake
manifold pressure, the actual pressure difference across the injector
would remain constant at all times. Thus the pulse width so calculated
would be based on this constant pressure difference across the injector.
Instead of placing the regulator at the far end of the fuel rail, later
low-pressure systems repositioned it together with a pressure sensor
in the fuel tank immediately next to the fuel pump and flter assembly.
With this approach, only the fuel to be injected into the engine was
delivered to the fuel rail, any excess being returned directly to the
tank. With no reference to the manifold pressure, this has to be taken
into account when the injector pulse width is being calculated.
Systems of this type are called returnless and have led to another
development, referred to as demand-controlled. Similar to the
returnless system, demand-controlled systems pump only the fuel
needed for use by the engine. The pressure to the fuel rail is controlled
directly from the engine ECU working to closed-loop control with the
pressure sensor in the rail. Although a pressure relief valve is installed
for safety reasons, a conventional pressure regulator is no longer
needed, and the delivery volume to the rail is controlled by changing
the voltage to the pump. This is undertaken by a clock-operated
module triggered from the engine ECU.
Giving better metering precision and having the ability to increase
the fuel pressure under conditions such as hot starts preventing the
formation of fuel vapour, demand-controlled systems can also extend
the operating range of injectors for turbocharged applications. But
despite the many advantages to OE vehicles of the returnless system,
most low-pressure motorsport systems still rely on a recirculating fuel
line incorporating a return fuel line back to the tank.
For gasoline direct systems and high pressure port-injected
variations a low-pressure electric pump is used to supply the fuel
from the tank to the intake of the high-pressure, mechanical pump
at a minimum of 6 bar. Beyond this the fuel can either be sent to the
injectors using a continuous delivery at constant pressure, with the
fow rate controlled by the speed of the piston, or a demand-controlled
system whose fow rate and pressure can be controlled by a separate
function from the ECU.
Piezoelectric injectors
One of the latest innovations in fuel injection technology is the
introduction of the piezoelectric injector. Developed for diesel engine
applications, these fast-acting units are excellent at creating a greater
number of pulses essential to control the rate shaping combustion
process in a modern diesel engine. But their size and weight, as well
as the fexibility of the spray patterns that can be created, make it
most unlikely that the technology will be seen in gasoline-fuelled
motorsport in the near future.
In summary
So there you have it, the simple mechanical systems through to the
far more complex fully electronic digital versions. While the former
still have a role to play the latter with their almost infnite possibilities
are much more exacting. With advanced fuel injection you will, of
course, need some form of engine controller. Fortunately there must be
dozens of suitable systems on the market today, one of which will be
ideally suited to your requirements, whatever they are.
Moreover, any system capable of running a sequential port injection
system will also be capable of DI. However, getting the fuel spray
pattern to match the airfow characteristics in the combustion chamber
is another matter. n
Figure 14
High-pressure
mechanical fuel pump
(Courtesy Bosch
Engineering GmbH)
Figure 15 High-pressure pump cross-section.
(Courtesy Bosch Engineering GmbH)
Figure 16 2008 Porsche LMP2 engine
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UK 8 EACH
EUROPE 9.60 (~11
e
) EACH
USA/CANADA 10 (~$15) EACH
RoW 10.40 EACH