Chemistry of Meat Tissue

C - C - N - C - C
HerbertW. Ockerman
H H
BY
HERBERTW.OCKERMAN
DEPARTMENTOFANIMALSCIENCES
THEOHIOSTATEUNIVERSITY
AND
THEOHIOAGRICULTURAL
RESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENTCENTER
FirstEdition- March1969
SecondEdition- August1969
ThirdEdition- March1970
FourthEdition- October1970
FifthEdition- May1971
SixthEdition- February1972
SeventhEdition
-February1973
EighthEdition-
May1975
NinthEdition-
February1980
TenthEdition-
August1983
EleventhEdition-July1996
Copyright1969byHerbertW.OckermanA113510
Copyright1980byHerbertW.OckermanTX451-409
Copyright1983byHerbertW.OckermanTX1-189-138
Copyright1996byHerbertW.Ockerman
INDEX
PageNumber
INTRODUCTIONTOCHEMISTRY (Chapter1) 1
References 5
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY (Chapter2) 6
Elements 10
Valence Types 11
Electrovalence 12
Covalence 13
Valence 13
Valence OfSomeCommonElementsAndGroupsOfElements 14
SummaryOfTheConstruction OfMatter 16
References 17
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (Chapter3) 18
ComparisonOf InorganicAndOrganic Compounds . . . . 19
Valence 2 0
TypesOfHydrocarbons 22
Isomerism 23
Alkane Series 24
AlkaneSeriesTable 25
Unsaturation 26
Groups 27
References 3 0
POLARVS.NON-POLAR (Chapter4) 31
References 34
WATER 35
Temperature UnderPressure 37
Requirements 37
BoundWater 3 9
WaterActivity 3 9
Sewage 41
Hardness 42
TemporaryHardWater 43
Permanent HardWater 4 7
RemovalOfUnwanted Substances 50
ChlorineDosage 50
Detergent 53
WettingAgent 54
Cleaner Ingredients 54
WaterQuality Standards 56
References 57
CHEMISTRY OFFAT (Chapter 6) 59
Fat SolubleMaterial 59
Triglyceride 59
MonoglycerideAnd Diglyceride 63
FattyAcids 64
Saturated FattyAcidAndUnsaturated FattyAcid . . . 64
INDEX (continued)
CisvsTrans
FormulasOfFattyAcidsFoundInFood
FattyAcidsPresentInFatsAndOils
ChemicalReactionOfFats
Oxidation
Hydrogenation
Saponification
Cholesterol
Interesterification
Mono-diglycerideManufacture
Hydrolysis
Bleaching
Deodorization
Spattering
StearineManufacturing
RuminantVs.Non-RuminantFatMetabolism
Hardness
OrderOfDeposition
FatCell
DistributionAndUsefulness
Pre-EmulsifiedFat
PercentFatInFoodProducts
References
FATOXIDATION (Chapter7)
FatOxidationCycle
Antioxidant
Synergist
Chelators
OxygenScavenging
MechanicallyDe-bonedMeat
References
CHEMISTRYOFPROTEINS (Chapter8)
AminoAcids
Monoaminomonocarboxylic
SulfurContainingAminoAcids
MonoaminodicarboxylicAcid (AndAmides)
BasicAminoAcids
AromaticAminoAcids
Heterocyclic
PeptideBond
Denaturation
EssentialAminoAcids
ClassificationOfProteins
SimpleProtein
Albumins
Globulins
Glutelins
li
PageNumber
66
67
69
71
71
72
74
75
78
79
80
81
82
83
83
83
85
85
85
86
86
87
88
90
91
95
96
96
96
96
97
98
100
100
101
. . . . 101
102
102
103
104
105
107
108
108
108
108
108
INDEX (conti nued)
PageNumber
Prolamins 109
Albuminoids 109
Protamines 109
ConjugatedProteins 109
Nucleoproteins 109
Phosphoprotein 109
Chromoproteins 109
Glycoprotein 109
Lecithoproteins 109
DerivedProteins 109
Proteoses 109
Peptones 109
Peptides 109
ProteinSolubility 110
Sarcoplasmic Ill
Myofibrillar Ill
Stroma Ill
ChemicalReactionsOfProtein 112
Hydrolysis 112
FormationOfASalt 112
Oxidation 112
PrecipitationOfProteinsFromSolution .. 113
Coagulation 113
ColorReactions 113
ProteinAsStructuralMaterial 114
MuscleBanding 115
RedAndWhiteFiber 116
EnzymesAsProtein 119
Nucleoproteins 120
PercentProteinFoundInFood 221
ApproximateAminoAcidComposition (percent)Of
SomeProteins 123
References 126
ZWITTERION&SOLUBILITY (Chapter9) 128
IsoelectricpHRange 128
SaltAddition 131
HotBoneingandPre-Salting 133
PhosphateAddition 134
References 137
ENZYMES (Chapter10) 138
Nomenclature 138
ClassificationAndExamplesOfEnzymes 140
Hydrolytic 140
CoagulatingEnzymes 140
FermentingEnzymes 140
OxidizingEnzymes 140
DeaminizingEnzymes 140
INDEX ( cont i nued)
Page Number
RateOfReaction 140
Temperature 140
pH 141
SurfaceArea 142
EndProducts 142
Activators 142
Coenzymes 143
Inhibitors 143
References 144
PIGMENTS (Chapter11) 145
MyoglobinInAnimalTissue 149
MyoglobinQuantity 149
StructureOfHeme 149
6Carotene 151
References 152
MEATCOLOR (Chapter12) 153
FreshMeat 153
FreshMeatColorChanges 155
Dehydration 156
CuredMeatColor 156
CuredMeatReactions 163
FactorsEffectingCuredColorDevelopment 164
OffColors 164
Reddening 165
LightColorInPork 166
DarkCuttingBeef 166
Iridescence 166
Greening 166
InteriorDiscoloration 167
References 168
ASH (Chapter13) 170
MineralsFoundInFood 170
RoleOfMineralsInLivingTissue 170
SaltInMeat 171
MechanicallyDebonedMeat 172
AdvantagesOfMechanicallyDebonedMeat 172
DisadvantagesOfMechanicallyDebonedMeat 172
PercentAshInFoods 174
PercentMineralElementFoundInFoodOnAFreshBasis175
HumanDailyRequirement 178
References 179
CARBOHYDRATE (Chapter14) 180
FunctionAndUse 180
ClassificationOfTheImportantCarbohydrate . . . . 181
MonosaccharidesOfSimpleSugars 181
Pentoses 181
Hexoses 181
iv
INDEX (conti nued)
Page Number
DisaccharidesOrDoubleSugars 181
Sucrose 181
Maltose 181
Lactose 181
TrisaccharidesOrTripleSugars 181
PolysaccharidesOrManySugars 181
Pentosane 181
Hexosans 181
Pectins 181
FormulasForCommonSugars 182
SweetnessOfSugar 185
Metabolism 186
TheLevelsOfCarbohydratesFoundInFood 187
Sucrose 188
Dextrose 190
CornSyrup 191
Sorbitol 191
MicroorganismThatBreakDownCarbohydrates 192
References 193
pH (Chapter15) 194
pHRange 195
ComparisonOfLogAndLinearScales 196
pHAndHydrogenIonConcentration 197
MeasurementofpH 200
NormalpHValues 201
References 204
POSTMORTEMCHANGESINpH (Chapter16) 205
References 208
VITAMINS (Chapter17) 209
WaterSolubleVitamins 209
FatSolubleVitamins 209
PercentVitaminLossInMeatProcessing 212
VitaminContentOfMeat 213
HumanDailyRequirement 216
References 217
TROUBLESHOOTINGPROCESSINGDEFECTS (Chapter18) 218
ProcessedMeat 218
EmulsionProducts 218
FatAndJellyProblems 218
Casing,Stuffing,CookingAndSlicingProblems . 222
CuredColorAndColorStability 226
FlavorProblem 234
MicrobiologicalProblems 234
FreshPorkSausageProblems 239
Color 239
CasingProblem 241
v
Page Number
FermentedAndDriedProductProblems 242
LiverSausageProblem 246
SolidTissueProcessing 247
SlicingAndTextureProblems 247
TissueColorProblems 249
CuringProblem 254
MicrobiologicalProblem 255
AllProducts 256
References 265
FOODADDITIVES (Chapter19) 267
Curing 267
Salt 267
SaltProcurementAndProcessing 272
Sweeteners 273
ArtificialSweeteners 273
FunctionOfSweeteners 274
Nitrite 277
NitriteLevels 281
Nitrosamine 282
Nitrate 277
NitrateLevels 286
NitriteAndNitrateProduction 287
ReducingCompounds 289
CureAccelerators 294
Lactate 297
SodiumBicarbonate 298
Phosphates 298
SodiumHydroxide 312
Water 313
Binders 314
Breading 314
CuringPickle 316
EmulsionProduct 317
Salt 317
Sugar 320
Nitrite 320
Nitrate 320
ReducingCompounds 320
CureAccelerators 320
Phosphates 320
IceAndWater 322
Binders 324
Cereal 324
Flour 325
MilkProducts 329
Gelatin 331
YeastProtein 331
Gums 331
Mustard 331
vi
INDEX (continued)
PageNumber
Blood 331
SingleCellProtein 332
FunctionOfAdditives 332
FlavoringAgents 335
HydrolyzedPlantProtein 336
MonosodiumGlutamate 337
SodiumSulfoacetateDerivativeOfMono-And
Diglycerides 338
Smoke (NaturalAndLiquid) 338
CornSyrupSolids 346
Sorbitol 347
DriedYeast 348
Nucleotides 349
Spices 349
Specification 366
SpiceCharacteristics 367
Paprika 368
Mustard 368
SpiceProperties 370
ColoringMatter 372
StarterCulturesAnd/OrAddedAcid 377
DriedSausage 380
Semi-DrySausage 380
NewSausage 380
IntegralCutsWithPrimalTexture 381
MechanicallyDebonedMeat 382
RenderedFat 382
Antioxidants 382
Synergists 386
Solvents 388
AntiFoamingAgents 388
EmulsifyingAgent 388
AcetylatedMonoglycerides 388
DiacetylTartaricAcidEstersOfMono&
Diglycerides 389
Glycerol-Lacto,Stearate,Oleate,Or
Palmitate 390
Lecithin 394
MonoAndDiglycerides 394
Polysorbate80 394
PropyleneGlycolMono&DiestersOfFats&
FattyAcid 395
Polysorbate60 396
Stearyl-2-LactylicAcid 396
StearylMonoglyceridylCitrate 397
SorbitanMono-Stearate 397
FlavoringAgents 398
RefiningAgents 399
RenderingAgents 399
V l l
INDEX (continued)
PageNumber
Tenderizers 399
PapainProduction 401
FicinProduction 402
BromelinProduction 402
Preservatives 404
BleachingAgents 408
AnticakingAgent 408
CrystallizingAgent 409
IodizedSalts 409
Gums 409
Miscellaneous 412
Gases 412
Rays 414
Singeing 415
Catalysts 415
WrappingMaterial 415
Casings 419
CelluloseCasing 419
CollagenCasing 427
ClothBags 429
Stockinettes 429
NaturalCasing 430
GlycerolAndPropyleneGlycol 433
Pallet 434
Label 434
Lubricants 436
HogScaldingAgents 436
DenudingAgents 439
CoolingAndRetortWaterTreatment 439
DefrostLiquid 444
FilterAir 444
Residues 444
SoilClassification 445
MaterialsUsedInMeatPlant 447
MechanicalCleaningAids 448
Detergents 449
Sanitizers 453
TrolleyCleaning 457
References 458
HEATING (Chapter20) 461
Cooking 461
ReasonForCooking 462
PhysicalAndChemicalChangesOnCooking 462
EffectOfHeatingOnMeatTissue 462
HeatingRate 463
Tenderness 463
NutritiveValue 464
Color 465
ProteinCoagulation 466
viii
INDEX (conti nued)
Page Number
EmulsifyingCapacity 466
Flavor 466
Juiciness 466
Label 467
SausageManufacturing 467
SausageCookingSchedule 469
LiverCook 474
LoafCook 475
HamCook 475
Semi-DrySausageProcessingSchedule 476
DrySausageProcessingSchedule 476
HamCookRate 476
BaconCook 478
CornedBeefCook 478
FishCook 479
Turkey 479
RelativeHumidity 479
Chilling 481
FatsAndOil 481
Drying 482
Scalding 482
Poultry 483
Hogs 484
Canning 485
Pasteurization 485
CommerciallySterile 485
References 488
COOLING (Chapter21) 489
Freezing 489
Preservation 489
FreezingRate 489
FastFreezing 490
SlowFreezing 490
FreezingCurve 491
StorageTemperature (Freezing) 491
FreezingHotCarcasses 492
Oxidation 492
RecommendedStorageTime 493
Thawing 493
DripLosses 494
WaterHoldingCapacity 494
DestructionOfTrichina 495
FreezerBurn 495
Color 495
BoneDarking,Poultry 496
Flavor 496
SaltPenetration 496
FreezerWrap 496
Thawing 497
ix
INDEX (continued)
PageNumber
SpecificHeat 497
Chilling 500
Condensation 501
ColdShortening 502
Cutting
5 0 2
Grinding 502
Packing 502
LiverSausage 502
References 504
MEATHANDLINGEQUIPMENT (Chapter22) 505
Grinder 505
FreshPorkSausage 505
Chopper 506
Grinder 506
Stuffing,Linking,Packaging 506
Pre-rigorFreshPorkSausage 506
Emulsification 507
SilentCutter 507
SilentCutter-Emulsifier 508
Grinder-Mixer-Emulsifier 508
Stuffing 508
METHODOFANALYSIS (Chapter23) 509
Sampling 509
Moisture 509
Drying 509
VacuumDrying 510
AzeotropicDistillation 510
Titration 510
Fat 510
QuantityOfFat 510
MeltingPoint (MP)OfFat 513
IodineNumber 514
SaponificationNumber 514
RefractiveIndex 515
FreeFattyAcid (FFA) 515
PeroxideValue 516
AOM 516
FattyAcidSeparation 516
Titer 517
SpecificGravity 518
ConstantsForFatsAndOils 519
Protein 521
Ash 522
Salt 523
NitrateAndNitrite 524
HorseMeat 524
EmulsifyingCapacity 525
WaterBindingCapacity 526
Page Number
Calories 526
ColorAndReflectance 527
Sensory Panel 528
Juiciness 529
Tenderness 529
WaterAndSewage 53 0
Permanganate 53 0
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 53 0
Suspended Solids 53 0
Stockyards Waste 532
SlaughterhouseAndPackinghouse Waste 533
Packinghouse Waste 534
CompositionOfPoultry Plant-Waste 534
References 535
APPENDIX 536
ComparisonOfInchesAndMetric SystemOfMeasurement 536
ComparisonOfCentigradeAndFahrenheit Temperature
Scales 537
ComparisonOfEnglishAndMetric SystemOfMeasuring
Weight 538
ComparisonOfEnglishAndMetric SystemOfMeasuring
Liquid 539
Muscle Construction 540
Muscle ContractionAndRelaxation 541
EMF Series 542
XI
XITRODUCTIOM
1
INTRODUCTIONTOCHEMISTRY
Thescienceofchemistryincludesthefollowingsteps:
1. Identificationorcompositionofmaterials.
2. Separationofmaterials.
3. Transformingmaterialsofonekindintoanother.
The question every student ponders as he approaches a
chemistrycourseiswhyshouldIstudythissubject? Thisfeeling
isreinforced bytherumorhe/shehasheard thatchemistry isa
course. Toaddfueltothefire,theyhaveseendramatic
experiments inwhichonedropofliquid changesthecolorofan
entirevat;softmaterialsarechanged intoclubs;orabubbling
andsteamingbrewshowswondrouspowers. He/sheisconvincedthese
experiments are performed by special people with special or
mysterious gifts and that they could not, in fact should not,
understandthem.
Youhavebeenmisled! Likeitornot youareachemical
everythingyoutouch,see,smell,eat,orbreathe isachemical.
Whystudychemistry? Becauseyoucan'thelpit. Fromchemistry
there isno escape. Whenyoubreathe,achemical process take
placeandthevenousbloodiscombinedwithoxygenandchangedinto
reusable blood. Certainly you don't have to understand the
chemicalprocessinvolvedtotakeadvantageofbreathingbutyour
doctor had better understand these processes ifyou are having
difficultybreathing.
2
A quality control food inspector isrequired to make many
decisions based on chemical reactions and the greater his
understandingofthesereactions,themoreintelligentwillbehis
judgment. Almost every decision you make in life will have
chemical repercussions and,therefore, aknowledge of chemistry
willoftenaidinmakingtherightdecision. Yourchoicetobuya
peninsteadofapencilisbasedonthefollowing:
1. Youreyesanalyzethetwoobjectsanddecidethatoneis
woodwithagraphitecenterandtheotherisplasticwith
aliquiddyecontainedinthecenter. Youhaveidentified
thematerialsandthefirststepinchemistryhasbeen
accomplished.
2. Whenyouseparatedthepenniesfromthedimestopayfor
thepen,theanalyzingstephastakenplaceandis
followedbyseparationofthetwomaterials (thesecond
stepofchemistry).
3. Astheinkleavesthepenitcombineswiththepaperand
driesandchangesfromaliquidtoasolidandthethird
stepofchemistrywhichisthetransformationofmaterial
hastakenplace.
Eventhemostsimpletasksarechemical innature. Ifthe
chemistryisunderstoodthenmoreintelligentdecisionmaybemade.
Alistingofonlyafewofthemorecommonchemicalreactions
thatoccureverydaywouldinclude:
1. Burningofwood.
2. Verylittlelatherfromsoapinhardwater.
3. Dyeingtextiles.
4. Digestionoffood.
5. Makingofglass.
6. Combustioninacarengine.
7. Risingofcream.
8. Cookingoffood.
9. Souringofmilk.
10.Eggsstainingsilver.
11.Dissolvingofsugarincoffee.
12.Chemicalwavingofhair.
The chronological history of chemistry may be outlined as
follows:
1. AstronomyandMathematics earlytime earliest
sciencefieldsstudied.
2. TechnicalChemistry prehistoric manlearnedto
usefire,copper,gold,andbronze.
3. 3,000-4,000B.C. lead,tin,iron,glass,tanned
leather,dyedtextiles,smelting,preparationof
medicinesfromplantandanimalsources,mortar,enamels
andpaintswereused.
4. 1500B.C. metallicalloys,glazedceramicproducts,
andhydraulic (settingunderwater)cementwasused.
5. 9thtothe17thcentury chemistrywasconcernedwith
makinggoldandsilverfromcommonmetalsandlooking
foranelixiroflife(bothwithoutsuccess).
6. 15th-16thcentury startedtheeraofchemical
experimentation.
7. 1778 1stchemicaljournalpublished.
1792 1stchemicalsocietyorganized.
Chemistry is often divided for convenience into several
branchesandsomeofthemostpopulardivisionsareasfollows:
1. GeneralChemistry-introductiontothetotalchemical
area.
2. QualitativeChemistry-determinationofthepresenceof
acompoundinasample. (Doesthesausageproductcontain
cereal?)
3. QuantitativeChemistry-determinationofthequantityof
acompound inasample. (Howmuchnitriteispresentin
thebologna?)
4. InorganicChemistry-chemistryofcompoundsotherthan
carbon. (Example-Chemistryofsalt)
5. Organicchemistry-chemistryofcarboncompounds.
(Example-Chemistryoffat)
6. Biochemistry-chemistryoflivingtissueorrecently
livingtissue. (Example-Metabolism)
7. PhysicalChemistry-chemistryoftherelationshipbetween
physicalandchemicalpropertiesofacompound. (Example-
Thenumberofcaloriesproducedonburningoffood)
8. StructuralChemistry-chemistryoftherelationship
betweenstructureandchemicalproperties. (Example-
Determinationofstructureofaminoacidsandthereason
someareessential)
9. Radiochemistry-chemistryofradioactiveelements.
(Example-Followingaradioactivetracerthroughthe
body)
10.ColloidalChemistry-chemistryofmatterdispersedina
medium. (Example-Glue)
References:
Atkins,P.W.andBeraa,J.B.1992. GeneralChemistry.
W.H.Freeman,NewYork.
Bishop,M.L.,Duben-Engelkirk,J.L.,andFody,E.P.
1992. ClinicalChemistry:Principles,Procedures,
Correlations. J.B.LippincottCo.,Philadelphia.
Bogart,L.Jean. 1963. FundamentalsofChemistry. W.B.
SaundersCompany,PhiladelphiaandLondon.
Deming,HoraceG. 1947. FundamentalChemistry. JohnWiley
&Sons,Inc.,NewYork;Chapman&Hall,Limited,London.
Gates,B.C. 1992. CatalyticChemistry, Wiley,NewYork.
Morrison,R.T. OrganicChemistry. Prentice-Hall,
EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey.
Ovellette,R.J. 1992. IntroductiontoGeneralOrganicand
BiologicalChemistry. MacMillan,NewYork.
Leicester,HenryM. 1956. TheHistoricalBackgroundof
Chemistry. JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.NewYork;Chapman&
Hall,Limited,London.
Partington,J.R. 1964. AHistoryofChemistry. St.
Martin'sPress,NewYork.
Pauling,LinusC. 1948. GeneralChemistry. W.H.Freeman
&Company,SanFrancisco,California.
Ray,FrancisE. GeneralChemistry. J.B.LippincottCompany,
Chicago,Philadelphia,NewYork.
Routh,JosephI. 1958. 20thCenturyChemistry. W.B.
Snyder,C.H. 1992. TheExtraordinaryChemistryofOrdinary
Things. Wiley,NewYork.
INORGANICCHEMISTRY
Inorganicchemistryisthestudyofchemicalmatterotherthan
hydrocarbons(containscarbon)andtheirderivatives. Allchemical
matterissubdividedintounitsorbuildingblockscalledatoms.
Anatomisatinyparticlewhichistheconstructionunitof
allmatter. Theatomcannotbesubdivided,destroyedorcreatedby
conventional chemical processes. When atoms are chemically
combined they do so in definite numerical proportions forming
compounds. Fromtheslightlyinexcessof100knownelements (or
atoms) it is possible to form a wide variety (all matter) of
chemicalcompounds.
Althoughtheatomcannotbesubdividedeasily,itiscomposed
ofsub-units. Ithasanucleusandrotatingaroundthisnucleusin
orbit much like a small solar system are negatively charged
particles. Thenucleusmakesupmostoftheweightoftheatomand
iscomposedof:
Name Charge Weight
1. Proton-- positivelycharged--approximateweight
ofahydrogenatom.
2. Neutron-- uncharged (neutral)--approximateweight
ofahydrogenatom.
Thenucleusisthuscomposedof2typesofparticles --one
whichhasapositivecharge (proton)andonewhichhasnocharge
(neutron); therefore, thenucleus isalwayspositively charged.
These two particles for all practical purposes constitute the
weightofanatom.
Rotating around thispositively-charged nucleusisanother
particlecalledanelectron.
Name Charge Weight
3. Electron- - negativelycharged- -1/1837theweightof
ahydrogenatom.
Theelectronislightinweightandorbitsthenucleusatsuch
adistancethatmostoftheatomiscomposedofemptyspace.
Fornotationpurposesthefollowingshorthandwillbeusedto
diagramatoms:
nP
+
- nnumberofpositivelychargedproton.
nN- nnumberofunchargedneutron.
ne"- nnumberofnegatively-chargedelectron.
Thegeneralformulaforanatomisasfollows:
/
/
/ \ Mostof
1
Nucleus\ /
(MostoftheX /
weight) \ /
/
Anatomisgenerallyelectricallybalancedand,therefore,the
numberofelectronswillequalthenumberofprotons. Constants
thatcanbecalculatedforanatominclude:
Atomicnumber=Thenumberofprotonsorthenumberof
electronsofaneutralatom. This
determinesthephysicalandchemical
propertiesoftheelementoridentifies
theelement.
Atomicweight=Weightofanatomexpressedonascaleof
oxygenequals16. (Approximatelythenumber
ofprotonsplusthenumberofneutronsinthe
nucleus). If6.02x10
23
similaratomsare
placedonabalancetheywouldweighthe
numberofgramsequaltotheatom'satomic
weight.
Therefore,inaneutralatomthefollowingrelationshipsmay
beobserved:
electron (number)=atomicnumber
proton (number) =atomicnumber
neutron (number) =atomicweightminustheatomicnumber(or
minusthenumberofprotons)
Someofthemorecommonatomsmaybediagrammedasfollows:
Hydrogen
Helium
/ i
I
)
1
\2N J
I
i
\
\ y
& )
V
--^--'
A
Atomic Weight -1 Atomic Weight - 4
Atomic Number -1
Atomic Number - 2
Asmoreelectronsareaddedtothemorecomplexatomstheygo
intowiderorbits. Thefirstshell (ororbit)willonlyhold2
electrons,thenextshellcancontain8,thethirdshellwillhold
18andthe4thshell will contain32. Themaximum numberof
electrons maybe calculated as follows: Maximum numberof
electrons=2n
2
wherenisequaltothenumberoftheorbit. An
exampleisasfollows:
Carbon Oxygen
Atomic Weight - 12
Atomic Weight - 16
Atomic Number -6
AtomicNumber- 8
With some elements there are more than one typeof
constructionusedfortheatom. Theselesscommonly constructed
atomsarecalled isotopesandhavethesame atomic number (same
number of electrons orprotons) butdiffer inatomic weight
(different numberofneutronsinthenucleus). These compounds
behavethesamechemicallyastheirmoreconventionalcounterparts.
Anexamplewouldbethe 2formsofchlorine:
10
Common Chlorine
Heavy Chlorine
(Isotope)
e -
Atomic Weight -35
Atomic Weight -37
Atomic Number - 17
Atomic Number - 17
ELEMENTS
Ratherthanwritingthenameoftheelementseachtimethey
areused,anabbreviationorsymbolisoften usedtorepresent
them. Thissymbolisusuallythefirst,orfirstandsecondletter
ofthenameoftheelement. Thereareanumberofexceptionsto
thismethodofassigningsymbolsandtheyaregenerallyusedwhen
morethanoneelementstartswiththesameletter. Inthiscase
the Latin name fortheelement isused andthe abbreviation
correspondstothatname.Forexample,theLatinwordforironis
ferrumandthesymbolforironisFe(thefirstletterisalways
11
capitalized). Thereisinexcessof100knownelementsbutalarge
percentageofthemarerareandafewevenman-made. Alistofthe
morecommononeswiththeirsymbolsisasfollows:
Average
Atomic
Name
Symbol
AtomicNumber Weiaht
Aluminum
Al
13 27.0
Bromine
Br 35 79.9
Calcium
Ca 20 40.1
Carbon
C 6 12.0
Chlorine
Cl 17 35.5
Copper (Cuprum)
Fluorine
Cu
F
29
9
63.5
19.0
Hydrogen
Iodine
H
I
1
53
1.0
126.9
Iron (Ferrum) Fe 26 55.9
Magnesium Mg 12 24.3
Manganese Mn 25 54.9
Nitrogen N 7 14.0
Oxygen 0 8 16.0
Phosphorus P 15 31.0
Potassium (Kalium) K 19 39.1
Silicon Si 14 28.1
Sodium (Natrium) Na 11 23.0
S 16 32.1
Sulfur
Theabovenon-integeratomicweightsindicatethatthisisan
averageweightforthenormallyoccurringmixturesofisotopes.
VALENCETYPES
Whentwoatomscombine toformamolecule,they combinein
specificratios. Theatomsthatwillcombineandtheratiosthat
willresult inthesecombinationsarenormallydeterminedbythe
electronconfigurationintheoutershells. Ifanatomonlyhasa
fewelectronsintheoutershell,itwillnormallydonateorshare
these with an atom that needsafewelectrons toobtain amore
stableconfiguration. Thenumberofelectronsthatanatomwill
12
donate,accept,or1/2thenumberitwillshare,(oritscombining
capacity)isreferredtoastheatom'svalence.
Electrovalence (Polar):
Whenatomscombinebyelectrovalence,anelectronisdonated
byoneatomtoanother.-Initially,theatomswereneutralbutwith
thegainorlossofanelectrontheybecomechargedandarenow
called ions. Theatomthathasgivenupanelectronnowbecomes
positive and is electrically attracted to the atom that has
acceptedtheelectronbecauseitisnowanegativeion. Anexample
ofthistypeofunionisasfollows:
>
*-. -.-*
Neutral Sodium Atom
NeutralChlorineAtom,,-
Sodium
e
*$*
Positive Sodium
Chloride
Ion
Negat i ve Chl or i ne i on
13
Thistypeofbondisverycommonininorganicchemistry.
Covalence (Nonpolar):
Whentheforcetodonateoracceptanelectronbetweenatoms
isnotstrongenoughtheelectronsareoften sharedandthisis
calledcovalence. Thistypeofbondingisoftenusedincarbon
compounds (organicchemistry). Anexampleisasfollows:
\ e "
rCarbon
6(
r
V
Atom
HycTrogen
Atom
1
J
Shared Electrons
Ethane Molecule
Valence:
Thechargecarried (numberofelectronsgainedorlost)byan
ionoritscombiningpoweriscalledvalence. Thevalenceofsome
commonatomsorcommonlycombinedgroupofatomsareasfollows:
14
VALENCEOFSOMECOMMONELEMENTSANDGROUPSOF ELEMENTS
Monovalent (Valenceof 1)
Positive
Ammonium NH
4
+
Copper (Cuprous) Cu
+
Hydrogen H
+
Potassium K
+
Silver
Ag
+
Sodium Na
+
Divalent (Valenceof 2)
Calcium Ca
++
Copper (Cupric) Cu
++
Iron (Ferrous) Fe
++
Magnesium Mg
++
Zinc Zn
++
Trivalent (Valenceof 3)
Aluminum Al
+ + +
Neaative
Bicarbonate
Bromide
Chlorate
Chloride
Hydroxide
Hypochlorite
Iodine
Nitrate
Nitrite
Perchlorate
Permanganate
Carbonate
Oxide
Sulfate
Sulfide
Sulfite
Thiosulfate
Phosphate
HCOj"
Br'
C1O
3
"
Cl"
OH"
CIO"
I"
N0
3
"
N0
2
"
cio
4
"
MnO
4
"
CO3"
0""
SO
4
""
S""
SO3""
s
2
o
3
-
PO-"
Iron (Ferric) - Fe
++
15
Intheprecedingtableafewoftheelementshavemorethan
one valence number and this means they can combine with other
elements in more than one way. Other elements have only one
valencenumberandalwayscombineinthesamefashion.
Theelementscombineindefiniteratiostoproduceamolecule,
themolecularsymbolissimplyacombinationoftheelementsymbol
showing the number (subscript) of each atom used to make the
compound. Thenumberprecedingthemolecularformulaindicatesthe
numberofmolecules. Forexample:
Name Formula
Explanation
SodiumChloride NaCl
1Atomofsodiumcombinedwith1
atomofchlorine.
Water H
2
0
2Atomsofhydrogencombinedwith
1atomofoxygen.
SulfuricAcid H
2
SO
4
2Atomsofhydrogencombinedwith1
atomofsulfurand4atomsof
oxygen.
SodiumNitrite
NaNO, 1Atomofsodiumcombinedwith1
atomofnitrogenand2atoms
ofoxygen.
2NaNO, 2Moleculesofsodiumnitrite.
2Moleculesof 2HC1
2Moleculesofhydrogenchloride(2
HydrogenChloride
atomsofhydrogenand2atoms
(Inwatercalled
ofchlorine)
HydrochloricAcid)
Themolecularweightofamoleculeisdeterminedbyaddingthe
atomicweightoftheatomsrepresentedinonemolecule;for
example: H
2
SO
4
2 x 1 . 0 = 2.0 forHydrogen.
1x32.1 = 32.1 forSulfur.
4x16.0 = 64.0 forOxygen.
98.1 Molecularweight
forsulfuricacid.
16
a
o
C L
JJ.9
+1 ^
o
^^
a
o
O
ly
^
0)
W
U
as
a) ao
H
H
H
s
o
o
a
14-!
o
a; aj
a
o
o
4
8
O
a
3
is
S
o
S
o
II
H
U
'a?
O
U
O
.a
.I
to
W
-li
W
<
ID
H
to
G
O
3
5
to
CM
O O
r
G
0
nn
o
o
a
"o
E |
N
u
t
17
References
Barrett,J. 1991. UnderstandingInorganicChemistry. Ellis
Horwood,NewYork.
Block,P.,Powell,W.H.1990. InorganicChemicalNomenclature.
AmericanChemicalSociety,Washington,D.C.
Bogert,L.Jean. 1963. FundamentalsofChemistry. W.B.Saunders
Company,PhiladelphiaandLondon.
Deming,Horace G. 1947. Fundamental Chemistry. .JohnWiley&
Sons,Inc.,NewYork;Chapman&Hall,Limited,London.
Gilreath,EsmarchS. 1958. FundamentalConceptsofInorganic
Chemistry. McGraw-HillBookCompany,Inc.NewYork-Toronto-
London .
Miessler,G.L.andTerr,D.A.1992.InorganicChemistry.
Prentice-Hall,EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey.
Moeller,Therald. 1952. InorganicChemistry. JohnWiley&Sons,
Inc.,NewYork-London.
Nentwig, J. and Morgenstern, K. 1992. General and Inorganic
ChemistryMadeEasy. VCH,NewYork.
Owens,S.M.andBrooker,A.T.1992. AGuidetoModernInorganic
Chemistry.Wiley,NewYork.
Ray,FrancisE. 1947. GeneralChemistry. J.B.Lippincott
Company,Chicago,Philadelphia,NewYork.
Routh,JosephI. 1953. 20thCenturyChemistry. W.B.Saunders
Sharpe,A.G.1992. InorganicChemistry. Wiley,NewYork.
Thorne,P.C.L.andE.R.Boerts. 1954. InorganicChemistry.
OliverandBoydLtd.,EdinburghandLondon;Interscience
PublishersInc.,NewYork,N.Y.
Uvarov,E.B.andD.R.Chapman. 1951. ADictionaryofScience.
PenguinBooksLtd.,Harmondsworth,Middlesex.
TI
ORGANICCHEMISTRY
Carbon is the primary element in the realm of organic
chemistry. All plants and animals and their products contain
carbonandareincludedinthisfield. Thiselementhastheunique
property ofcombiningwith itselfto formthemajor skeletonof
organiccompounds. Therefore,carboncompoundscanbeextremely
large in size and complex. This wide variety of possible
combinations results inmanymoreorganic compoundsthanmaybe
foundintheinorganicfield.
Almostallorganiccompoundscontainhydrogeninadditionto
carbon. Most also contain oxygen and sometimes nitrogen.
Frequently,theycontainsulfur,phosphorus,chlorine,bromineand
iodine. Thelinebetweenorganicandinorganicisnotasclearcut
as any compound containing a carbon atom. By tradition, the
following compounds eventhoughthey containcarbon areusually
consideredinorganic.
1. Carbondioxide
2. Carbonmonoxide
3. Carbonicacid
4. Carbonates
Whenorganicarecomparedwithinorganiccompounds,thefollowing
general statements may be made concerning the two types of
compounds:
18
19
COMPARISONOFINORGANICANDORGANICCOMPOUNDS
INORGANIC
Variouscombinationsof90+
elements
Electrovalentbonds
Fewercompoundsthanorganic
Lessatomspermolecule
Lowermolecularweight
Valenceofsomeelementsvary-
Normallywatersoluble
Ahightemperaturerequiredto
breakbonds (non-combustible)
Highmeltingpoint
Non-volatile
Electrolytes (conducta
current)
Rapidrateofchemical
reaction
Normallyodorless
Isomerismnotusuallyfound
ORGANIC
Composedchieflyofonly9
elements.
Covalentbonds
Morecompoundsthaninorganic
Morecomplexmolecules
Highermolecularweight
ValenceisalwaysC=4,H=l,
and0=2
Notusuallysolubleinwater;
usuallysolubleinorganic
solvents
Lowertemperaturesrequiredto
breakbonds (combustible)
Lowermeltingpoint
Volatile
Non-electrolytes
Slowerrateofreaction
Frequentlyhasanodor
Isomerism-common
20
Valence:
Carbonhas4electronsinitssecondshell.
N\ Carbon
i
e
e
(Valence of 4)
\
I
To obtain a more stable outer shell, carbon needs to gain 4
additionalelectrons (Valenceof4).Sinceitisuncommonforan
atom to gain or lose 4 electrons, carbon contains a stable
configurationbysharingelectrons (covalence)withotheratomsor
withothercarbonatoms. Hydrogenoftensharesitssingleelectron
withcarbon.
\ Hydrogen
i
* (Valence of 1)
\
Oxygennormallyshares2electronswithcarbon;or,oneelectron
eachwith2carbonatoms;or,oneelectronwithacarbonatomand
21
onewithahydrogenatom.
(Valenceof2)
Theelectronconfigurationof4hydrogenatomseachsharingtheir
oneelectronwithasinglecarbonatomwouldappearasfollows:
Shared
Electrons
Hydrogen
HydrogenV.__
*' Hydrogen
Methane (CH
4
)
22
Thiscompoundiscalledmethane(CH
4
)anditsstructuralformulais
usuallysimplifiedandwrittenasfollows:
Single bond or
A single bond is
pair of shared
represented in this
electrons
formula by a straight
lineanditrepresentsa
pair of shared
electrons.Thisisacovalencebond (sharedelectrons)asaremost
bondsinorganicchemistry.
TypesofHydrocarbons;
Inadditiontocarbonformingstraightandbranchedchains
thesecompoundsmaytaketheformofclosedrings. Asummaryof
theformswhichcarbonandhydrogenmaytakeisasfollows:
Hydrocarbon
(Contains only C&H)
C- - C-
"I..
Aliphatic
I I I
Cyclic "
c
\ . ;
c
-
-C-C-C-
(Open chain)
I I I
(Closed ring)
Saturated Unsaturated
Aromatic Alycyclic
(No double (Contains
(Ex.
(Propertiesof
bonds)
double or benzene)
bothopen&
H H H triple bonds)
closed ring)
I I I
-C-C-C-
- C- - C-
I I I I
I I I
H H
J! '-c- C- C-C-C-C-
I I Q-.
s
c- i
H H H
-C=C-
-c-
-C=C-
23
Isomerism: (Greekmeaningbuiltofthesameparts)
Ininorganicchemistrygenerallytheatomscombineinonlyone
wayforeachempiricalformula(showsratioofatoms) . Thisisnot
the case with organic chemistry particularly with the larger
molecules. Forexample,oneempirical formulamay have several
structural formulas (shows ratio and attachment of atoms) and
consequentlyseveraldifferentchemicalproperties. Anexampleis
asfollows:
Name Formula
Butane C
4
H
10
(Empirical formula)
Normal (straight
V 5 x V
chain butane)
H-C-C-6-C-H
H H H H
H H HH
Iso-Butane
H H H
I I I
H-C-C-C-H 1
I<
H IH
H-C-H
H
AnotherexamplewouldbeanempiricalformulaofC
2
H
6
O. Two
differentstructuralformulascanbewrittenusingthesebuilding
blocksandtheyare:
24
Ethyl alcohol Methyl ether
n v T
H-C-C-O-H H-C-O-C-H
H H H H
Examplesofapairofisomersinthemeatareaareascorbic
acidandisoascorbicacid (structuralformulamaybefoundinthe
FoodAdditivesSection).
AlkaneSeries:
Whenacompoundiscomposedof:
1. Onlycarbonandhydrogen,
2. Allofthebondsaresingle,and
3. Thecompoundformsachainratherthanaring,
thenthecompoundissaidtobelongtothemethaneseries(paraffin
series) or is called an alkane in chemical nomenclature. An
examplewouldbeOctane.
H H H H H H H H
^
A
IIIIIIII
O c t a n e H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
H H H H H H H H
Noticethat allcarbonatomshave4bondsandthatallhydrogen
25
atoms have 1 bond. The s er i es of al kanes having from 1 t o 20
carbons i s as fol l ows:
ALKANE SERIES
Name
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
Undecane
Dodecane
Tridecane
Tetradecane
Pentadecane
Hexadecane
Heptadecane
Octadecane
Nonadecane
Eicosane
Formula (C
n
H
2n
,
2
)
CH,
C
3
H
8
C
4
H
10
C
5
H
12
C
7
H
16
C
8
H
18
C
9
H
20
C
10
H
22
C
11
H
24
C
12
H
26
C
13
H
28
C
H
H
3 0
C
15
H
32
C
16
H
34
C
17
H
36
C
18
H
38
C
19
H
40
C
20
H
42
Inthis
series
formula
differs
from
theone
preceding
itby
onecarbon
andtwo
hydrogen
atoms
(CH
2
)
Notice that the prefix indicates the number of carbons
26
presentinthecompoundandthelast3lettersinallcasesare-
ane. Unfortunately, some ofthe compounds in addition to
scientificchemicalnamesalsohavecommonnameswhicharequite
oftenused.
Unsaturation:
Inadditiontosingle bonds theremaybedoubleortriple
bondsbetweencarbonatomsasfollows:
-c=c-
Double bond Triple bond
Sharing 2 pair Sharing 3 pair
of electrons of electrons
Thedoubleandtriplebondsarelessstablethanthesinglebonds
andarecalled unsaturated. Adoubleortriple bond couldbe
substitutedinbetweenany2carbonsinthepreviousalkaneseries.
Ifthecompoundcontains Seriesiscalled Generalfamily
1doublebond - Alkene (Olefin) C
n
H
2n
1triplebond - Alkyne (Acetylenefamily)
c
n
H
2n
_
2
27
Exampleofcompounds:
Example of compounds
Typeof bond
HH
Ethane
1 1
H-C-C-H
Alkane Single
1 1
1 1
HH
Ethene
(Etyylene)
H H
\>C?
Alkene Double
/
n
\
n
Ethyne H-CEC-H Alkyne
Triple
(Acetylene)
Groups;
Inadditiontocarbonandhydrogenthereareotheratomsand
groupsofatomsthatmaybeattachedtothecarbonskeletontoform
compounds. Thesegroups,ingeneral,aremuchmorereactivethan
thecarbonatomsandgenerallygivethecompounditscharacteristic
chemicalbehavior. Afewoftheimportantatomsandradicalsare
asfollows:
28
Atom N
Symbol Name f
C Carbon
H Hydrogen
O Oxygen
N
Nitrogen
P
Phosphoru
S
Sulfur
Cl Chlorine
Br Bromine
1
Iodine
Group Carboxyl
Hydroxyl
Amino
Aldehyde
Carbonyl
Amide
Ester
Organic Radical
umber
bonds
4
1
2
3
s 5
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
Symbol
&bonds
i
-C-
i
H-
-O-
- N-
i
=
p
- S-
-Cl
-Br
-1
-C-O-H
*o
-O-H
/H
-N
^H
-C-H
\ >
-C-
II
o
-C-N-H
-c-o-
II
o
-R
Nameof
group
Ether
Acid
Alcohol
Basic
Aldehyde
Ketone
Amide
Ester
29
Thesegroupsmaybeattachedtothecarbonskeletontoformother
compounds. Anexampleis:
Ethyl Alcohol
H H
l
H-C-
C-OH
H
i
H
I
I
\
---hydroxyl group
30
References
Brewster,RayQ. 1948. OrganicChemistry. Prentice-Hall,Inc.
NewYork.
Burrell,RobinC. 1936. OrganicChemistry. McGraw-HillBook
Company,Inc.NewYorkandLondon.
Burrell,RobinC. 1947. OrganicChemistry-ForStudentsof
BiologicalSciences. BurgessPublishingCompany,
Minneapolis,Minn.
Cheronis,NicholasD. 1941. OrganicChemistry. ThomasY.Crowell
Co.,NewYork.
Conant,JamesB.&AlbertH.Blatt. 1950. FundamentalsofOrganic
Chemistry. TheMacmillanCompany,NewYork.
Cram,DonaldJ.andGeorgeS.Hammond. 1959. OrganicChemistry.
McGraw-HillBookCompany,Inc. NewYork-Toronto-London.
Fessenden,R.J.andFessenden,J.S. 1990. OrganicChemistry.
Brooks/Cole. PacificGrove,California.
Morrison,R.T.andBoyd,R.J. 1992. OrganicChemistry.
Prentice-Hall,EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey.
Nentwig,J.,Kreuder,M.andMorgenstern,K. 1992. Organic
ChemistryMadeEasy. VCH,NewYork.
Pauling, Linus. 1948. General Chemistry. W.H. Freeman and
Company,SanFrancisco,California.
Solomons,T.W.G.1990. FundamentalsofOrganicChemistry. Wiley,
NewYork.
Streitwieser,A.,Heathcock,C.H.andKosower,E.M. 1992.
IntroductiontoOrganicChemistry. MacMillan,Toronto.
Wade,L.G.1991. OrganicChemistry. Prentice-Hall,Englewood
Cliffs,NewJersey.
Wertheim,E. 1942. IntroductoryOrganicChemistry. Blakiston
Company,Philadelphia.
POLARvs.NON-POLAR
Solventsaresub-dividedintopolarandnon-polarcategories.
Apolarcompoundis acompoundinwhichonesectionofthemolecule
isoppositely chargedwithrespecttotherestofthemolecule.
Totallythemoleculeiselectricallyneutral. Thismeansthatthe
chargesarenotevenlydistributedthroughoutthemoleculeandthis
iscausedbythesharedelectrons (covalent)beingclosertoone
atom than theyaretotheother atomorbythetransferofan
electron (electrovalence). Apolarcompoundwouldtendtoalign
itselfinanelectronic(DC)field. Anexampleof apolarcompound
iswater.
HI
O
H
Water
Molecule
1P Shared Electrons
Water Molecule
Inthiscasethehydrogen-oxygensharedelectronsareclosertothe
oxygenthantothehydrogenand,therefore,theoxygenendofthe
moleculeisnegativelychargedandthehydrogenendispositively
31
charged. Thetotalmoleculeiselectricallyneutral.
Anon-polarcompoundnormallyhasasymmetricalstructureand
thecharges areevenly distributed throughout themolecule. An
examplewouldbeethylether:
Polar compounds
H
H H
H
such as water will
H
-c-
1
c-
0
1
_p_
1
1
c-
H
dissolveioniccompounds
(electro-valence) and
H H
p o l a r c o v a l e n t
compounds. The first
category includesalargemajorityoftheinorganiccompoundsand
thesecondcategorysomeoftheorganic. Anexampleofdissolving
anioniccompoundinawatersolutionwouldbeasfollows:
Also non-polar liquids will likewise dissolve non-polar
compounds.
This subdivision of compounds into polar and non-polar
categoriesaffordsaconvenientwayofseparatingmanymixtures.
Inmeat,forexample,thefollowingcompoundscanbecategorized:
Fat Non-polar
Protein Portionsslightlypolar
Minerals Mostarepolar
Water Polar
Nitrite Polar
Sincethescalefrompolartonon-polar isacontinuousone
andcompoundsmayfallanywhere inbetweenthefollowing general
classifications,someofthemostcommonsolventsaresummarizedas
32
O-
Salt in Solution
follows:
VeryPolar
Water HydrogenPeroxide
Polar
Acetone Alcohol
LiquidAmmonia
Non-Polar
Chloroform Ethylether
VeryNon-Polar
Benzene CarbonTetrachloride
Petroleumproducts
Therefore, ethyl etherwhichisanon-polar compound would
makeagoodsolventtoextractfat(non-polar)frommeattissue.
34
References
Brewster,RayQ. 1948. OrganicChemistry. Prentice-Hall,Inc.,
NewYork.
Cheronis,NicholasD. 1941. OrganicChemistry. ThomasY.Crowell
Co.,NewYork.
Conant,JamesB.andAlbertH.Blatt. 1950. Fundamentalsof
OrganicChemistry. TheMacMillanCompany,NewYork.
McGraw-HillBookCo.,Inc.NewYork-Toronto-London.
Deming,HoraceG. 1947. FundamentalChemistry. JohnWileyand
Sons,London.
Gomez-Puyou,A. 1992. BiomoleculesinOrganicSolvents. CRC
Press,BocaRaton,Florida.
Ouellette,R.J. 1992. IntroductiontoGeneral,Organicand
BiologicalChemistry. MacMillan,Toronto.
Pauling,Linus. 1948. GeneralChemistry. W.F.FreemanandCo.,
SanFrancisco,California.
Routh,JosephL. 1953. 20thCenturyChemistry. W.B.Saunders
Co.,PhiladelphiaandLondon.
Yalkowsky,S.H. ,Banerjee,S. 1992. Aqueoussolubility. Mercel
Dekker,NewYork.
id)
ITS
id)
Water
Wateristhemostcommon (wateroricecovers3/4ofthe
earth'ssurface)andmostimportantliquidatman'sdisposal.
Althoughitisoftenoverlookedinstudyingtheconstituentsof
food,itusuallyisthelargestportionofafoodproduct. For
example,thevariousfooditemswouldcontainthefollowing
approximatepercentageofwater:
Plants Animals
Food Average% Food Average%
Moisture Moisture
Plants 80 Animals 66
Vegetables 90 Muscle 73-76
Fruits 85 Sausageproduct 50-65
Potatoes 76 Sausage(semi-dry) 30
Wheat 14 SaltedPork 8
Bread _ 30-40 Bacon 20
MeatAnalogs Turkey
SpunVegetables -55-62 Breast 72.5-75.5
Protein (Tempteinl Thigh 74.0-78.3
Chicken,broiler 77
Fishmuscle 80
Liver 76
Bone 10-40
Blood 79-80
Milk 87-88
Eggs 74
Dehydratedmeat 4
Waterisnotonlythelargestportionofmuscletissuebut
itisalsoaddedtomeatproductsasfollows:
1. Inabrinetodistributethecuringingredients.
2. Insausagetocooltheproductduringchopping.
Waterisalsoremovedfrommanyproducts. Forexample,
semi-driedsausageshouldbedriedtoremove15%ofthemoisture
35
36
anddryfermentedsausageshouldbedriedtoremove25to30%of
themoisture.
Waterisalsothemajorsolventusedincleaningfood
equipmentandestablishments.
Waterhasthefollowingphysicalproperties:
1. Freezesat32F(0C)-onfreezingitexpandsinvolume
approximately 1/10andwillburstsealed containers
(waterpipes)anddisruptfibersinfrozenflesh. Slow
freezingallowsthecrystalstogrowtoalargesizeand
ismoredestructivetotissuethanfastfreezing. Since
iceislessdensethanwateritfloatsontopofwater
whenitfreezes.
2. Theboilingpointofwateris212F (100C)atsealevel
(atmosphericpressure14.7lbs/sq.in.). Asthe
altitudebecomeshighertheatmosphericpressureis
reducedandboilingtakesplaceatalowertemperature.
Forexample,at10,000feettheatmosphericpressure
dropsto10.16lbs/sq.in.andwaterboilsat194F. If
itisessentialtocookproductsattemperaturesabove
212Fthismaybedoneinaclosedsystemunder
pressure.
37
Thefollowingtemperaturesareobtainedunderpressure:
Gauge
1
Temperature (F) Temperature(C)
Pressure
lbs./sq.in.
0 212 100
5 227 108
10 239 115
15 250 121
20 259 126
25 267 130
30 274 134
35 281 138
40 287 141
45 292 145
50 298 148
60 307 153
70 316 158
80 324 162
90 331 166
100 338 170
1
zerogaguepressure=anabsolutepressureof14.7lbs./sq.in.
Waterisneededforallbiologicalactivityandthequantityis
usuallyconsiderablyhigherthaniscommonlyexpected. For
example,thefollowingquantitieshavebeenreported:
For Quantity
Averageman-averageconditions 2.5-4.5qts./day
Plantgrowth 300-400lbs.ofwater/lb.
drymatter
38
Ameatprocessingplant'swaterrequirements:
Animal Slaughterhouse Packing Stockyards Tanning
type House
Cattle 400gal/animal 2,000gal 160gal/acre 400gal/hide
/animal
Hogs 150gal/animal 700gal
/animal
Chicken 5-13gal
/animal
1qt/birdmin.
inscalding
0.5gal/bird
min.in
chilling
Turkey 30gal/bird
1gal/birdin
chilling
Waterusageinasmallplant:
Washingcarcass,floorandequipmentduringslaughter 31%
Cleaningslaughterandinedibleoffalrooms 13%
Cleaninglivestockpens 6%
Cleaningcarcasscoolers 1%
Cleaningfabricationrooms 11%
Cleaningremainderofplant 4%
Employeeneeds 15%
Unaccountedusage 16%
Waterisobtainedbydrinkingliquidoritisincorporated
intofoodandisreleasedonmetabolismofthefood. Thebody
alsorecyclessomeofthewatersupplytoreducethetotalintake
requirement.
Moistureisnormallydetermined infoodbydryingatan
elevatedtemperatureuntilnofurtherlossinweightisobtained.
Thelossinweightisreportedaspercentmoisture. Thistotal
moistureinmuscletissueisusuallysubdivided intofreeand
boundwaterasfollows:
39
1. Boundwater-waterabsorbed (heldbyelectrical
chargeofmolecule)bythecolloidsoflivingcells
(primarilyprotein). AspHapproachestheisolectric
pointsomeoftheboundwaterisconverted intofree
water.
2. Freewater-waterthatisnotanintegralpart
ofthecellbutiscontainedwithinit. Freewateris
lostfromthetissue (i.e.drip)mucheasierthanbound
waterandusuallycarriessolubleproteinswithit.
Muscletissuehasthewaterfractiondividedintoanaverage
of79%freewaterand21%boundwater.
Thelocationofwaterwithinthemuscletissuehasbeen
estimatedasfollows:
1. 70%withinthemyofibrils (sub-unitsofthemuscle
fiberormusclecell)
2. 20%inthesarcoplasma (withinthefiberbetweenthe
myofibrils)
3. 10%intheconnectivetissue
Wateractivity (ajisthekeyfactorintheeffectsof
wateronthemicrobiologicalstabilityinfood. Thewater
activityortheequilibriumrelativehumidity (E.R.H.)dividedby
100maybedefinedasfollows:
a =E.R.H./100=P/P
o
a
w
=wateractivity
P =partialpressureofwater
infood
P
o
=saturationpressureof
waterataspecified
temperature
40
Raoult'sLawstatesthatthewateractivityofanideal
solutionisequivalenttothenumberofmolesofwaterdividedby
thetotalnumberofmolesinsolution.
a = 55.5moleswater/Kg
#ofmolesofsolute+55.5molesofwater
Thewateractivityoffreshmeatis0.99whichiscloseto
theoptimumformicroorganismgrowth. Ifthewateractivityis
reducedbelowtheoptimum itwillincreasethelagphase,
decreasetherateofgrowth,anddecreasetheamountofcell
substancesynthesized. Eachmicroorganismhasitsownrangeof
growth. Mostbacteriahaveaminimuma
w
valueof0.90,molds
0.85to0.60andyeasts0.91to0.88. Thereforerapidspoilage
willoccurbetween1.0and0.92andspoilagecanoccurinfoods
withaa
w
valuebetween0.85and0.92butitisnotlikelythat
bacteriawillcausefoodpoisoning. Somespoilagemayoccurina
a
w
of0.85to0.80inafewweeksbutgenerallytheproductis
consideredtobestablewithoutrefrigeration,andspoilageis
greatlydelayedata
w
valueof0.70andat0.65 feworganismwill
grow. ThepHalsoinfluencesthea
w
effectonmicroorganisms.
Itispossibletoproducevinegarpackedsausagewithahigha
w
thatisshelfstableatunrefrigeratedtemperatures.
Surfacedryingreducesthewateractivitybyevaporationof
moistureandmigrationofsaltstothesurface. Freezingalso
41
concentratesthesaltintheremainingliquidwater. Curedhams
havetheira
w
valueloweredbytheaddedcuringsalts.
Wateractivityisusuallymeasuredbymeasuringtherelative
humidityoftheatmosphereinasealedcontainerthatisin
equilibriumwiththefood. Therelativehumidityismeasured
withahydrometer. Othertechniquesincludeexposingfoodtoa
varietyofcontrolledatmospheres (differentrelativehumidities)
todeterminethepointwheretheproduceneithergainsorloses
weight.
Lowerlimitsformicrobiologicalgrowthof:
1. Bacteria: 35%moisture
2. Yeasts: 25%moisture
3. Molds: 15%moisture
Waterissuchanexcellentsolventitisrarelyfoundina
purestate. Evenrainwatermaycontainsomeoxygen,nitrogen,
carbondioxide,anddustwhichhasbeendissolved.
Theotherextremeissewagewhichwouldcontainthe
following:
1. Nitrogencompounds
a. Nitricacid
b. Nitrousacid
c. Ammonia
d. Organicmatter
2. Chlorine (highlevelsmayalsobefoundinareas
closetotheseacoastorsaltdeposits).
3. Bacteria
42
Mostofthesechemicals (excludingbacteria)areatlevels
thatwouldnotnormallybeconsideredtoxicbutanexcessof
thesecompoundswouldindicatethepossiblepresenceofmore
harmfulsubstanceswhichcouldbecarriedinwiththesewage.
Levelsofthechemicalsinsewagearenotpresetsincetheywill
varyfromareatoareadependingonthechemicalcompositionof
thesoil.
Thedeparturefromwhatisconsiderednormalinanareafor
cleanwaterismoreimportantthantheactuallevelofthese
chemicals. Surfacewaterdissolvescompoundsasitcomesin
contactwiththesoil. Ifitpicksupquantitiesofmagnesium,
calcium,chloride,sulfuricacidorironitisknownashard
water. Thismeansthatquantitiesofsoapmustprecipitatethese
chemicalsbeforealatherwillbeobtainedwiththesoap. Hard
watercontainsmineralsanditmakesitmoredifficultto
dissolvecuringingredientsandoftenscumswillform. Meat
discolorationduetoiron,copperandnitriteinwaterareoften
encountered.
Thedegreeofhardnessisexpressedinoneofthefollowing
ways:
1. Degreeofhardness=lgrain (.002 oz.)calcium
carbonate (orequivalentin
othersalts)/gallonofwater.
2. Partsofcalciumcarbonate/100,000partsofwater.
3. Partsofcalciumcarbonate/1,000,000partsofwater
(ppm).
Onedegreeofhardness=1.77partsper100,000=17.7ppm.
43
Ifwatercontainsthefollowingdegreesofhardness,itis
describedas:
Deqree ppm Description
0-3 0-50 - very soft
3-7 50-120 - soft
7-13 120-220 - moderately hard
13-25 220-425 - hard
over 25 over425 - very hard
Seawatercontainsapproximately 3.5%mineralmatterof
which3/4 is salt. Whendeepwellsareusedas asourceof water
andthewatertableis low,thehardnessofwaterincreases.
Undertheseconditionsenoughnitriteandnitratemaybe inthe
waterto discolor (gray)freshsausage. Hardnessisbrokendown
intotwotypesas follows:
1. Temporary hardwater-loseshardnessonheating.
Thiswatercontainscalciumbicarbonateand/or
magnesiumbicarbonate (usually60%of hardness).
Uponheating,thesechemicalsarerenderedinsoluble
andthisis thecauseof scaleinboilers (100ppm
willquicklyformfilmsin heatingequipmentand
200ppmwillcauserinsingproblems-- oftenan
acidrinseis requiredto preventwaterspottingand
dullappearanceto equipment).
Anexample:
heat I
A
CaCO
3
J- I + + H
9
( Ca(HCO
3
)
2
H
2
0 +CQ?
Calcium Calcium
Bicarbonate Carbonate
(Soluble) (Insoluble)
44
Chemicaladditivescanbeusedtoconvectthesewater
solublechemicals (responsibleforwaterhardness)intoinsoluble
precipitateswhichmayberemovedbysettlingorfiltering.For
example:
Calciumbicarbonateremovalbyaddingtheexactrequired
quantityoflime.
CaO+H
2
O>Ca(OH)
2
Lime or Calcium
Calcium Hydroxide
Oxide
Ca(OH)
2
-)2CaCO
3
J+
Calcium
Hydroxide
CalSium
Bicarbonate
Calclum
/CAIHUI
A
\ Carbonate
(Soluble)
(Insoluble)
45
CalciumCarbonatesettlesasasedimentormaybefiltered.
Magnesiumbicarbonateis a2stepreactionandrequiresmore
limebecausemagnesiumcarbonateisslightlysolublebut
magnesiumhydroxideisinsoluble.
Mg(HCO
3
)
2
+Ca(OH)
2
MgCO
3
- 2H
2
O
i
Magnesium
Bicarbonate
(Soluble)
Calcium
Hydroxide
Magnesium
Carbonate
(Slightly Soluble)^! k
Calcium
Carbonate
(Insoluble)
MgCO
3
Magnesium Calcium Magnesium Calcium
Carbonate Hydroxide Hydroxide Carbonate
(Insoluble) (Insoluble)
46
Aluminumsulfateisusuallyaddedtospeedupthesettling
process. Thealuminumsulfatecombineswithabasicsubstance
suchassodiumcarbonateandformsaluminumhydroxide,an
insolubleflocculentprecipitate. Asthisprecipitatesettlesit
causescalciumcarbonateandmagnesiumhydroxidetosettlemore
rapidly.
AySQj )
3
+ 6Na
2
CO
3
+ 6H
2
O
- 3Na
P
SO
4
+ 6NaHCO
3
Alum or Soda ash or
Auminum Sodium Sodium
Aluminum Washing soda
Hydroxide
Sulfate Bicarbonate
Sulfate or Sodium
(Insoluble)
Carbonate
Iflimeisusedratherthansodiumcarbonatethenaluminum
hydroxideisstilltheendproduct.
AI
2
(SO
4
)
3
<> 3Ca(OH) -2AI(OH) 11
3CaS0.
L 0
4
Aluminum Limeor Aluminum
Calcium
Sulfate Calcium Hydroxide Sulfate
Hydroxide (Insoluble)
47
Inthisreactiontheslightlysolublecalciumsulfatewouldneed
toberemovedatalaterstage.
2. Permanenthardwater-doesnotlosehardnesson
heatingbutisprecipitatedwithcertaindilute
alkalies. Thiswatercontains:
a. Calciumsulfateorcalciumchloride,or
b. Magnesiumsulfateormagnesiumchloride,or
c. Ferroussulfateorferrouschloride
Ifover150ppmispresentrinsingproblemswillresultand
chainlubricationwillbemorecritical.
Chemicalsareoftenaddedtothewatertoconvertthe
solublesaltsintoinsolubleprecipitates (softening)andthese
areremovedbyfiltrationorsettling.
Calciumsaltsareprecipitatedbyaddingsodaash:
CaSO
4
+ Na
2
CO
3
->CaCO
3
^+ Na
2
SO
4
Calcium ^^^^. Calcium
Sulfate ^ ^ Carbonate \j
(Soluble) I (Insoluble) Sodium
Soda ashor Sulfate
Washing soda,
Sodium
C arbonate
48
Magnesiumsaltsareprecipitatedwithlimeandsodaashin a
2stepreaction.
MgSO
4
+Ca(OH)- > M p )
2
J + CaSO
4
Magnesium Calcium Magnesium
Calcium
Sulfate Hydroxide Hydroxide
Sulfate
(Soluble) Made from (Insoluble)
(Soluble)
Lime &Water
CaSO
4
Na
2
CO
3
-
-c
aC(
X
Na
2
SO
4
Calciu
m ji
c
ale
1U
m Sodium
Sulfate
1I
Carbonate Sulfate
(Soluble) (Insoluble)
Soda ash o r
Sodium
C arbonate
Thebaseexchangemethodofsoftening (Zeoliteprocess)is
popularbecausethezeolitecanberegeneratedandreused. There
areseveraltypesofnaturalorsyntheticallyproduced zeolites
differing intheirbaseions (Na,HorMg). Zeolitesoftens
calciumandmagnesiumsaltsbythefollowingtypeofreaction:
49
Na
2
O-AI
2
o
3
-(Si o
2
)
x
( H
2
o)
x
+ Ca(HCO
3
)
2

SodiumZeolite
Calcium
Bicarbonate
(Soluble)
)
X
' (H
2
O)
X
2NaHCO
3
Sodium
Calcium Zeolite
Bicarbonate
Causes no
hardness problems
Regeneration of zeolite is as follows:
CaOAI
2
0
3
- (SiO
2
)
x
-(H
2
O)
x
2NaCI -
CalciumZeolite
sodium
Chloride
(strong
solution)
2 2 3
O
2
)
x
- ( H
2
O )
x
+ CaCI
2
Cal ci um
Sodium Zeolite (orMg) salts
are t hen
d i schar ged
50
Othermethodsofremovingunwantedsubstancesfromwater
includethefollowing:
1. Distillation-thewaterisboiledandthesteamis
condensedinanothercontainer. Thisremovesthewater
fromtheminerals.
2. Boilingfor15minutesisoftenusedtodestroy
bacteria. Boilingalsoremovesdissolvedgases. Water
heatedto82Cisoftenusedtosanitizemeatequipment.
3. Additionofchlorinetowaterisoftenusedtokill
bacteria.
Chlorinedosageisdefinedasthequantityofchlorineadded
tothewaterduringchlorination. Thisamountcanbedivided
into2categories:
1. "Chlorinedemand"dependsonthechemicalsalready
presentinthewatersupplythatwillcombinewith
chlorineandmakeitunavailableasadisinfectant.
2. "Availablechlorine"(residualchlorine)isthechlorine
remainingafterthe"chlorinedemand"hasbeen
satisfied.Itisoftenfurthersub-divided into2
categories.
a. "Combined availablechlorine" (chloramines)is
formedfromthe"availablechlorine"andisactive
asadisinfectantbutatamuchslowerratethan
the"freeavailablechlorine"fromwhichitwas
formed.
51
b."Freeavailablechlorine"isintheformofhypo-
chlorousacidand/orhypochloriteions. Itisa
highlyactivedisinfectantandisthechlorine
remainingaftertheformationof"combined
availablechlorine".
TypicalLevelforaCityWaterSupply
"Chlorinedosageatplant" 4.5to11ppm average7.5ppm
"Chlorinedemand" 3.0to 8ppm average6.0ppm
Atstation Distribution
lines
"Availablechlorine" 1.2ppm 0.25to0.3
ppm
"Combinedavailablechlorine" 0.2ppm 0.05to0.1
ppm
"Freeavailablechlorine" 1.0ppm 0.2ppm
Chlorine
Use
(ppmormg/1)
0.1-0.7ppmavailable Citywatersupplies
0.5available Objectionabletaste
0.5available Minimuminreusedwatertocool
cannedmeatproducts
4-7ppmdosage Usualrecommended in-plant
chlorination
5ppmfreechlorine Watertreatment,meatplantin
Argentina
5-20ppmavailablechlorine InplantchlorinationinUK
10-20ppmdosage Clean-up-water
greaterthan20ppmdosage Causeseyeandnasalirritation
50ppmdosage Handrinse
200ppmdosage
Sanitizing
200ppmavailablechlorine
WaterimmersionchillinginUK
52
Whenchlorineisaddedtowateritreactsasfollows:
Hydrochloric Hypochlorous
Chlorine Water
Acid . Acid
Cl,
H
2
0 HCI
HOCI
(most toxic)
pH increases
I
(less toxic) Ex. 5to9
AspHincreaseshypochlorousacidismoredissociatedanda
reductionofbactericidalefficiencyistheresult.
SourcesofChlorine
Available
Name Formula Chlorine Use
Content
Chlorinated Mixtureof Pretreatmentof
Lime Ca(OCl)
2
; 24-39% waterpriorto
(Bleaching CaCl
2
filtration
Powder) Ca(OH)
?
,H
?
0
Calcium Mixedwithwaterprior
Hypochlorite Ca(OCl)
2
70% touse-Usedearly
(HTH, inwatertreatment
perchloron) andswimmingpools
Sodium
Chlorinationofsmall
Hypochlorite watersupplies
(Clorox, 3.5-6% Willmaintainsaniti-
Dazzle,Eau NaOCl zingproperties
deJavelle, approximately30
Hillex, minutesonequipment,
Purex) 1/2%solutioncanbe
usedforairspraying
Largescalewater
chlorination-gasis
ChlorineGas
ci
2
99% injectedintowater
orpremixedwith
waterandaddedto
watersupply
53
Highchlorine contentwill result inrapid corrosion,
increased soapuse,and reduced sudsand foam. Over 100ppm may
indicatetheneed for demineralization.
Iodine (25ppm forsanitizing;hasaresidual effect) and
Quats (200ppm -overnight, 1000ppm -onwall, little corrosion
andhasaresidual effect) arealsoused assanitizers inthe
meatarea.
Otherchemical propertiesofwater include:
1. Ability todissolveawidevariety ofsubstances makes
wateravery useful cleaning solvent.
2. Water+oxidesofmetalsorammonia >bases (alkali).
3. Water+oxidesofnon-metals acids.
4. Hydrolysis
Splitting
Complexmolecule+H
2
0 Simpler molecules
Reactionused often indigestion of food.
Detergent Ingredients
1. Alkalies (usuallywithapHabove 10;for smokehouse
pHbetween 12and 13;caustic soda,sodaash, sodium
metasilicate,trisodium phosphate)
a) Good forsaponification (willremove animal and
vegetable fats).
b) Will softenwaterbyprecipitation.
c) Sodium metasilicate inhibits corrosion.
2. Complex Phosphates andOrganic Sequestering Agents
a) Good sequestering action (tieupthehardness in
water).
54
b) Thecomplex phosphates softenwater, free rinsing,
peptizing, deflocculation, dispersion suspension,
and emulsification.
c) Organic sequestering agentsareused forhard water
control.
Wetting Agents (nosaponification value,nowater softening
value,good emulsification, good dispersion and good rinsing).
1. Anionic WettingAgents (most common)
a) Generally producehigh foamlevels.
2. Cationic Wetting Agents
a) Generally ratherpoorwetting agents.
b) Generally extremely effective asgermicides or
sanitizers.
3. Nonionic Wetting Agents
a) Excellent wetting agents -often combined with
anionic andcationicwetting agents because of their
cleaning effects.
b) Generally producemedium to lowtono foam.
Acids (usually with pHbelow 5;dissolving water scaleand rust)
1. Slightvalue forsomeproteins.
2. Ineffective against fatsand oils.
Corrosion Inhibitors (usedtocontrol corrosion of strong
caustics and acids).
Hvdrotope (used tohold ingredients together).
55
Solvents (addedtohelpremoveoils).
OpticalBrightness (addedtolaundryproductstoincrease
whiteness).
CLEANERINGREDIENTS
E S W D S P W R
m a e i u e a i
u
P
t s s
P
t n
1 o t
P P
t e s
s n i e e i r i
i i n r n z n
f f
g
s s i S
g
i i i i n o
c c o o
g
f
a a n n t
t t e
i i n
o o i
n n g
Ingredient
Acids
PoorPoorPoorPoorPoorFairGoodExc
CausticSoda PoorExc PoorPoorPoorPoorPoorPoor
ComplexPhosphates GoodPoorPoorExc Exc Exc Exc Exc
OrganicSequestrants PoorPoorPoorPoorPoorPoorExc Good
SodaAsh PoorGoodPoorPoorPoorPoorPX Poor
SodiumMetasilicate FairGoodPoorFairPoorPoorPX Fair
TrisodiumPhosphate FairFairPoorFairFairFairPX Fair
Exc-Excellent
PX-Poor,Precipitation
Foamreduceswaterusagebyincreasingcontacttime.
56
WATERQUALITY
PRIMARY STANDARDS
PARAMETER
STANDARD CONTAMINANT
LEVEL
Metals (ppb)
Arsenic
50
Barium 1000
Cadmium
10
Chromium
50
Lead
50
Mercury 2
Selenium
10
Silver
50
Pesticides (ppb)
Endrin 0.2
Lindane 4
Methoxychlor 100
Toxaphene 5
2,4-D 10
2,4,5-TP 10
Orqanics (ppb)
Trihalomethanes 100
Benzene 5
VinylChloride 2
CarbonTetrachloride 5
1,2-Dichloroethane 5
Trichloroethylene 5
p-Dichlorobenzene 75
1,1-Dichloeoethylene 7
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 200
Other
Coliform
Nitrate (ppm)
10
Turbidity (NTU)
1
Fluoride (ppm)
2-4
Hardness (ppm)
Sodium (ppm)
SECONDARY STANDARDS
Chloride (ppm) 250
Sulfate (ppm) 250
TDS (ppm) 500
Copper (ppb) 1000
Iron (ppb) 300
Manganese (ppb) 50
Zinc (ppb) 5000
Color 15
EH 7.0-10.5
MCL=MaximumContaminantLevel
ppb=Partsperbillion. NTU=NephelometricTurbidityUnit
ppm=Partspermillion. TDS=TotalDissolvedSolids
57
References
Bogert,L.Jean. 1963. FundamentalsofChemistry. W.B.
Borgstrom,G. 1969. PrinciplesofFoodScience.Collier-
McMillanCanada,Ltd.,Toronto.
Buckett,R.1990. SurfaceandColloidChemistry inNatural
WatersandWaterTreatment. PlenumPress,NewYork.
CommitteeonWaterResources.1991. GroundwaterCapacity.U.S.
G.P.0.Supt.ofDocs. Washington,D.C.
CommitteeonEnvironmentandPublicWorks.1992. Implementation
oftheSafeDrinkingWaterAct.U.S.P.0.Supt.ofDocs.,
Washington,D.C.
Hamm,R. 1963. DieMikrostrukterdesMuskelsundihreBeziehung
ZumWesserbindungsvermogendesFleisches.
Fleischwirtschaft.15,298.
Hodgman,CharlesD. 1962. HandbookofChemistryandPhysics.
TheChemicalRubberPublishingCo.,Cleveland,Ohio.
Kramer,AmihudandBernardA.Twigg. 1966. Fundamentalsof
QualityControl fortheFoodIndustry. TheAVIPublishing
Co.,Westport,Connecticut.
McPherson,William,Wm.E.HendersonandEdwardMack,Jr. 1946.
Chemistry. GinnandCompany,Boston,NewYork,Chicago,
London,Atlanta,Dallas,ColumbusandSanFrancisco.
MilesLaboratories. 1970. TempteinSpunVegetableProteinMeat
Analogs. MarschallDivision,Elkhart,Indiana.
Miller,E.W.1992. WaterQualityandAvailability. ABC-CLIO,
SantaBabara,California.
Mountney,GeorgeJ. 19S6. PoultryProductsTechnology. TheAVI
PublishingCo.,Westport,Connecticut.
Munasinghe,M. 1992. WaterSupplyandEnvironmentalManagement.
WestviewPress,Boulder,Colorado.
Parkes,G.D. 1939. Mellor'sModernInorganicChemistry.
Longmans,GreenandCo.,London,NewYork,Toronto.
Ray,FrancisEarl. 1947. GeneralChemistry. J.B.Lippinscott
Company,Chicago,Philadelphia,NewYork.
58
Rump,H.H.1992. LaboratoryManualfortheExaminationof
Water,WasteWaterandSoil. VCH,NewYork.
Wanty,R.B.1991. GroundwaterChemistry. U.S.Dept.of
Interior,Denver,Colorado.
Wertheim,E. 1942. IntroductoryOrganicChemistry. The
BlakistonCompany,Philadelphia.
CHEMISTRYOFFAT
Fat8olubleMaterial:
Foodcanbechemicallysubdividedintosixmajorcategories
whicharewater,protein,fat,carbohydrates,mineralsand
vitamins. Thefatisseparatedfromtheothercomponentsoffood
byextractionwithafatsolvent (non-polarsolvent). Themost
importantpropertyofafatsolventisthatitsmoleculesshould
notcontainastrongelectricalchargeonanyportionofthe
molecule.
Non-polar solvent Polar solvent Key
goodfat solvent poorfat solvent
H H HH
C- Carbon
II II
/
H
H-C-C-O-C-C-H
T
X| H
T
H- Hydrogen
AAAA
'
Nocharge
Charge
0 - Oxygen
ethyl ether
water
Examplesofgoodfatsolventswouldinclude: chloroform,ethyl
ether,carbondisulfide,carbontetrachloride,mostlongchain
alkanesandpetroleumether. Thesechemicalswouldextractfrom
foodaclassofsubstancescalledlipidsoretherextractable
material. Thisclassofextractedcompoundswouldincludethe
followinggroupofchemicals:
1. Triqlyceride-themajorportionofthetotalextract-
ablematerialandtheonethatiscommonlythoughtof
asfat.
59
60
2. Phospholipids-wouldincludesuchcompoundsas
lecithin,cephalin,andsphingomyelin.
3. waxes-wouldincludesuchcompoundsasbeeswax,
lanolin,spermaceti,spermoilandcarnauba.
4. Sterols-wouldincludesuchcompoundsascholesterol,
sitosterol,bileacidsandsexhormones. Sterolsare
foundinalloils.
lipids.
Cholesterolisfoundonlyinanimal
5. Fatsoluble
andK.
~wouldincludevitaminsA,D,E
Triglvoeridei
Thetermfatsandoilshasthesamegeneralcomposition-
thedifferencebeingthatfatsaresolidatroomtemperature
whereasoilsareliguid. Bothoftheseterms(fatsandoils)
normallyrefertotriglycerideswhichconstitutethemajor
portionoftheetherextractablefraction. Chemically,a
triglycerideisanesterofthreefattyacidsandglycerol.
Glycerolisconsideredthebackboneofthetriglyceridesandis
foundinalltriglycerides. Itiscomposedofa3-carbonchain
andattachedtoeachcarbonisanalcoholgroup. Itsformulais:
Glycerol
Key
H
= Carbon
H-C-OH O =Oxygen
H-C-OH H = Hydrogen
H-C-OH
-OH =Alcohol
H
group
61
Thefattyacidmoleculefoundinthefatofmostfoodcontainsan
evennumberofcarbonatomsandisstraightchainin
configuration. Itcontainsacarboxylgroup (acid)ontheend
carbonandonlyhydrogenatomsontheremainingcarbons.Its
formulaisasfollows:
Saturated Fatty Acid
Abbreviated formula
H
^C-R
C
I c ^ | | _
H
2
)n~C'
r
"'3
carboxyl aliphatic
Key
group
chain
Carbon
&: Oxygen
-H -
Hydrogen
-R -
alkyl group
n
even number
HO
Carboxyl group
Saturatedfattyacidscanbewritteninthefollowing
configuration:
Carboxyl
group
;C4(CH
2
)
n
-CH
3
or
HOOC-
O R
,OH
or
Carboxyl
CH
3
(CH
2
)
n1
-COOH
62
Three fatty acids are attached to the glycerol through an ester
bond to form a triglyceride.
The rules for attaching the fatty acids to the glycerol are
as follows:
1. Locate the three alcohols (-0H) on the glycerol molecule.
2. Locate the oxygen containing carboxyl group oneach fatty acid.
3. Ifthe group iswritten in the -COOH form then rewrite itin the
- C- OH form (also the HOOC-to HO- C- )
/ / / /
0 O
4. Rewrite each fatty acid starting with the carboxyl group and place
it next to the alcohol group ofthe glycerol. Proceed down the
fatty acid chain to the last group which should be~CH..
5. Remove the - OH groupfrom the fatty acid and a - H group from
the -OH ofthe glycerol. (For atotal of HO) .
6. Join the oxygen ofthe glycerol with the carboxyl carbon of the
fatty acid.
7. Repeat this procedure forthe other twofatty acids.
Theendresultofthisprocedureis asfollows:
Condensation
1st 2nd 3rd Tri- 3-
Glycerol fatty acid fatty acid fatty acid glyceride water
H-C-OH+ H O C - R V HO-C-R
2
+HO-C-R
HC-O-C-R
I
/ /
/
/
/
/
/
/ /
/ / /
H-C-OH
O
H-C-OH
HC-O-C-R
2
+3
H . /, - - V
/
O
HC-O-C-R
, 3
3
ester bond
63
Therefore,thebasicstructureofalltriglyceridesisasshown:
Triglyceride Key
H-<D-O-C-R
1
II
-C-OC-
1
//
0
- ester
linkage
0
H-C-O-C-R
2
II
0
H-C-O-C-R
3
R
1
, R* R
3
- alkyl group
of Individual
i
H
//
0
fatty acids
IfR
1
andR
2
andR
3
arethesame,thefattyacidsarethesameand
thetriglycerideiscalledasimpletriglyceride. If,however,
anyofthesegroups(R
1
,R
2
andR
3
)aredifferent,thenthe
structureiscalledamixedtriglyceride.
Ifonlyonefattyacidisattachedtotheglycerol,itis
calledamonoglyceride;and,ifonlytwoareattached,itis
calledadiglyceride. Bothmonoglyceridesanddiglyceridesare
usedasemulsifiersandstabilizersinthefoodindustry. They
aremanufacturedbyreactingtriglycerideswithanexcessof
glycerol.
Monoglyceride Diglyceride
H-C-OC-R
H-C-O-C-R
H-C-OH
H-C
:-O-C-R
1
H-C-OH &
1 H-C-OH
H
1 fatty acidand H
glycerol 2fatty acidsand
glycerol
64
FattvAcids:
The difference in triglycerides (fats and oils) canbe
attributed to the alkyl group of the fatty acids since the
remainderofthetriglyceridemoleculeremainsconstant. Inmost
fats(infood)thefattyacidchainlengthis4,6,8,10,12, 14,
16, 18and20carbonsinlengthandisastraight chain. This
chainmaybesaturatedorunsaturated. Thesaturatedchainwould
haveallsinglebondsbetweencarbonsandtheunsaturatedwould
have one or more double bonds between carbons. Their chain
configurationwouldbeasfollows:
Saturatedfattyacid(allsinglebondsbetween carbons)
H O
H H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
\ |IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
^C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
? IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Unsaturated fatty acid
H O
V
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
\IIIIIIII IIIIIIIII
c-c-oc-c-c-c-oc=C-C-C-OC-C-C-OC-H
O H H H H H H H I H H H H H H H H
double bond
Therecanbeoneormore (sometimes2,3or4)doublebondsinan
65
unsaturated fattyacid. Polyunsaturatedreferstoafattyacid
withtwoormoredoublebonds. Vegetablefatisnormallymore
unsuratedthanlardwhichismoreunsaturatedthanbeeftallow.
Thegreaterthenumberofunsaturatedfattyacidsandthegreater
thedegreeofunsaturationinthetriglyceride,thesofterthe
fat.Itsmeltingpointwillalsobelower.
Meltingpointisnotonlyimportantinspreadability,mouth
feelandshelfstabilitybutfatmustbeinaplasticstateto
formanemulsioninsausageproduction. Thereforethechopping
temperaturemayneedtobevarieddependingonthefatused.
Finalchoppingtemperature Fatused
68-73F Beefandmuttonfat
42-45F Kosherstyleproduct
58-62F Porkfat
50F Poultry
Preblendingholdingtemperatureof30to32Fisdesired
formaxiumproteinextraction. Fermentedproductsshouldbe
groundat28to30Ftopreventfatsmearing.
Coarseground (nonemulsion)processingshouldhaveafinal
grindingtemperatureof28-32Fbutmoretimeisneededinthe
smokehousetoraisethetemperatureofthisproductcomparedto
productswithhigherfinalchoppingtemperatures.
Liverproductsarechoppeduntiltheproductbubblesand
thenthefatisadded.
Increaseddoublebonds (increasedunsaturation)alsomake
thefatmoresusceptibletochemicalreactions. Oneofthemost
seriouschemicalreactionsisoxidationwhichwillcauseafatto
66
becomerancid. Thedoublebondrestrainsfreerotationaround
thetwocarbonsattachedtothedoublebondand,therefore,each
doublebondcanexistintwogeometricforms. Thesearecalled
theoisandthetransformandtheycanberepresentedas
follows:
Cis form
Trans form
(melting point 14 C.) (melting point 51 C.)
H
CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
\
C=
\ \
CH^CH^
(CHj)
7
-COOH H (CH^-COOH
Theacidsoccurringnaturallyareusuallyofthecisformbut
someareconvertedtothetransforminfatprocessingsuchas
hydrogenation. Thecisformhasalowermeltingpointandis
moresusceptibletooxidationthanthetransform.
Unfortunately,manyofthefattyacidswerenamedusing
commonnamesratherthancorrectchemicalnomenclaturebutthese
namesaresowidespreadthattheywillprobablybecontinued.
Thename,structureandmeltingpointofsomeofthefattyacids
foundinfoodareshowninthefollowingtableandthe
percentagesofthefattyacidsfoundintheediblefatsandoils
areshowninthenexttable.

67
4J
(0 (0
0)
a
p r4 +J
rH
3
(0
3
(0
XI
(3
X) 3
H H H H
^1
C
+*
| )
>H
c
H H H H to
nj
to
CT
1
4J
+J
O 0 0 0 -H
0*
-H
(0 (0 T3 C
<tH VH
0
a
H
c
JJ 4-> H ^ 1 1
C 0) ^1
3
0 U
3 3 3 +J
3
> i > i
-a
3 3
o
0) d) C
C C
P
o
r^ <-\
8
0
c
o
0 0
3 3 0
" " U
0
"0
O 0 O rH C
V
P
0 0 T)
H
0
n>
og H
a) c c
P3
u u u
3
VO
o a o
in
co
So
in
VO
i-H VO
H 0
o
c
i 1
rH
n in
0
(0
o
H
o
c
o u
> a
(0
0)
T3
<0 ia
H
o
c
O
H
o
H
o
c
o
o
at
o
o
c
H
P 0 0
o
o
c c c
H
(0 id (0
p p
o
a)
IC
H H
(0 ai
0 0
o
c
o
(0
e s
dl IQ
P C
10
in
M
o
o
w
H
4J X 4J
01 01 01 O
3
o
W 03
X
EH
X
a o o
o
X X X X
o
g
o
8 o o
u

o
o
o
o
o
8 8
o 00 <M
10
o
(0
<\J CM rsj ru rvj rsj ( M
to >
X
X
X X X
X X
X
5
T3
o u u o u u u u
If
o
x x
u
If
in
o
u o u u o
+J
-p
(0
<4H
T3
0)
o
H
0
O
o T3
H
c
(0 P H
H o
iH
)-l
3
to
u
0
X!
0 0)
u H
&
0
(0
>1
M (0
0)
3
0 ft
(0
3
p
(0
(0 (0
u u Pn
dc
03
u
w
o
68
P
m m
C <D
o o
O (fl
p
s
3
U
H
o
> 1
0)
H
B
C
c
- H
T3
3
H
u
H
3
XI
M
P
(0
H
T3
>,
rH
a)
-H
(0
s
c
(0
0^
c
H
0
3
t - \
0
c
H
0
c
ft)
<D
,Q
0
CO
P
<4H
in
I
H
H
1
in
I
u
o
H
c
a)
u
a>
T3
(0
a)
U
H
o
c
0)
u
<J)
T3
(0
P
U
O
u
H
o
a)
H
T3
(0
o
0)
T3
(0
P
U
O
I
(N
o
H
o
c
0)
H
(0
o
a)
3
+
o
o
in
CM
H
o
-H
o
a)
P
a)
3
(0
o
o
- H
Cd
I
rH
CO
in
II S
o
u
33 O
CJO
IM r^
<
is
u
1 <C
oc
u
u
r)
at
o
P
H
B
(0
X X
uo
H
0)
aTsT
uu
X
u
o
rl
a)
rH
o
c
s
fM
X X
uo
x
M
x~
uu
g
o
-H
c
a)
H
O
c
H
u 3
1
^11 g
xg
ox
u
H
c
o
T3
rH
X!
U
10
0
H
TJ
H
CM
d
i I
69
u
u
<
(0
a
-p
w
u
I
VO
CM
I
CM
<N
CM
I
CM
CO
00
I
m
co
in
o
i
CM
CM
CM
I
CO
in
CM
I
CM
in
co
CM
I
o
CM
vo
H
i
0 \
CM
co
I
I
CM
o
H
I
o\
PI
VO
CM
in
CO
i
> *
CM
CM
ro
1
in
CM
CO
CM
O
CM
ro
H
1
in
O
CO
1
H
CM
i-H
H
i
in
CO
CO
1
CTi
rH
i
CM
in
I
H
^*r ^
COCO
11
ON
H CM
o
CM
rH
I
co
o
I
I
o
I
o
00
1
CM
^*
1
H
CO
1
rH
tn
CM
1
VO
COvo
11
rHCO
U
o
o
u
in
o
co
I
in
o
I
o
o
o
a
n
O
(0
I
CM
CO
i
VO
i i
o
K
P
P
Q
(0
u
u
o
in
CM
I
in
CM
I
in
VO
co
I
CO
in
o
I
I
i
i
o
o
u
I
co
I I
a
o
m
p
(0
(0
w
+
U 3
a) ^> c <*>
+J O C
P- POr - I J- l
3 (0 0 -H O
c Q < o o u
C CP
o
-PT3
-Pfl)
O Q)
p
0)<* 3
H H ID
rH-H Q)
O O(X
(0
X)
H 0 -H
o w o
0 <*#> 0 O
rH 0) H +J
(0 0) J 3
EH Xt H B
<*<>
a)
P <M>
3 -P
O <0
pi *W
x; -P
10 rH U)
H-H >i
fci O O
70
u
Hi
CM
1
*
CM
CM
O
CO
o
CO
o
1
CO
CO
1
vo
o
1
IT)
in
CM
1
o
o
CM
1
CM
i n
co
I
o
H
o
c
CM
in
o
o
rH
C
rH
1
CO
co
I
o
I
o
I
CO
^" CO
I I
in H
o
id
o
u
m
in in
in
i-H
I
O
I
o
o
1
o
1
CM
1
i n
H
i
o
VO
1
CO
CO
1
CO
i
CM
i
in
i
in
I i
H
CO
1
i n
m
I
i n
i
i n
I
CO
CO
1
CO
CO
1
r>
rH
CM CN
11
r - oo CO VO
in
o
CO
r^ a\
HH
CM
> VO
CO
vo
*
i n
o>
*
0
01
|
VO
1
VO
VO
1
00
H
i n
I
H
co
I
r>
o
vo
1
VO
00
CM
1
VO
o
i n
i
* *
1
VO
o
f-t
1
i n
CJl
CO
1
VO
ooo
CO H
1 1
co r^
o>
H
o
CM CM CO * CM CO CO CM
in in CM
i i 1 1
CM
O\ 0
-
0
.
4
2
-
8
<nm
i i
CM *r
:
e
r
s
o
n
rH 0)
6
0
:
0
M P
c
3 3
<H> <N>
4-1 id
u
H
P
a>
<*> C dp <N>
c
0 0) X> 3 eW> 01 <*> O 00 P <M>
<*>0)
0
P 0 C
p
rH <M rH-P 0)
X! +>
a
P
PUr4 U<-\p
0) ^ i
H rH J r-l
>irH rH 0) rH+J 3P
Ol d111
a
ido H0 H0 0) i d rH -H 0)-H 0-H
Id 01 Id 3 oid
H--H >,
b
PQ
<wu 0O 0O
(0 r-l
o oa* o
coo
EHA EH B
h O O
71
ChwnicalRactiom
1.Oxidation -Theoxidationoffatsandoilsis important
because it lowers the quality of edible fats and oils but is
necessaryforthefilm-formingpropertiesofdryingoils. Gumming
offatinhightemperaturefryingiscausedbyadvanceoxidation.
Theexactchemicalreactionsofoxidationhavenotbeenentirely
elucidated. Oxidationiscausedbyacombinationofatmospheric
oxygenwiththedoublebondofafattyacidtoformperoxidethat
laterbreaksdowntoinertproducts.
Fatoxidation:
Products
Unsaturated
peroxide
with a
fatty acid
2
rancid
odor
-9-9-
H H
Therateofoxidationcanbedecreasedbythefollowing:
a. Decreasingtheunsaturationofthefat selecting
saturatedfatsorhydrogenationofunsaturatedfats.
b. Addingantioxidantstothefat~ Antioxidantsare
chemicalswhichwhenaddedtofatinsmallquantities
slowdown (retard)therateatwhichthefatbecomes
rancid. Propylgallate,butylatedhydroxyanisole,
72
andbutylatedhydroxytolueneareexamplesofapproved
foodgradeantioxidants. Vegetableoilshavemore
naturalantioxidants (0.05to0.1%)thananimalfat
(0.0005to0.003%)buttheaddingofadditional
antioxidantsismoreeffectiveinanimalthanvegetable
fat.
c. Protectingthefatfromatmosphericoxygenbyproper
packaging.
d. Removingallcontaminatingmetals (catalystsfor
oxidation)fromthefat. Tablesalt (sodium
chloride)shouldalsobeexcludedfromstoredfats.
e. Protectingthefatfromlight (catalystfor
oxidation).
f. Storageatacoldtemperature. (Howeveroxidation
willcontinueatareducedpaceeveninfrozentissue).
g. Maintainingthefatinamoisture-freestate.
2. Hydroqenation-Hydrogenationistheadditionofhydrogen
toanunsaturated fattyacidtoproduce asaturated fattyacid.
Theadvantagesofhydrogenationare:thefatbecomesharder,hasa
higher melting point and is more stable. Commercially, this
reactiontakesplaceunderpressureinthepresenceofacatalyst
(usually0.05to0.2%nickel)whichisremovedbyfiltrationafter
theprocessiscomplete. Structurally,itcanbeshownasfollows:
73
Triglyceride with an
unsaturated fatty acid
//
Catalyst
0
H-0-O-C-fl
1B0C) or
(356F)
I " 1
Pressure (0-50 PSI)
H-C-O-C-R Hydrogen
H "
0
Amore saturated
triglyceride: HH
H-C-O-C-R
H-C-O-C-R
H 1'
Lardflakes (maximumsaturation)areproducedfrom
hydrogenatedlardandthisproductmaybeadded (3-10%)to
unhydrogenatedfattoraisethemeltingpointofthemixture.
Selectivityofhydrogenationmeansthatthemostunsaturated
fattyacids (oneswithfourdoublebonds)wouldallbe
hydrogenatedbeforethefattyacidswiththreedoublebonds,
whichwouldbehydorgenatedbeforethefattyacidswithtwo
doublebonds,whichwouldbehydrogenatedbeforethefattyacids
74
withonedoublebond. Incommercialpractice,ahighlevelof
selectivityisobtainedbutthedegreeofselectivitydependson
thetemperaturesused.
Duringhydrogenation,thefatnotonlybecomesmore
saturatedbutthereispartialconversionfromthecistothe
transdoublebondconfigurationandbothofthesealterations
raisethemeltingpointofthefat.Somereportsindicatethat
transisnotasgood nutritionallyascis. Thetotalreaction
mightlookasfollows:
Animal tissue usually cis
M.P. Oxidation
H H
H
V V Satur-
_ c - c -
a t e d
1 1
Raises
less
susceptible
R R R R
H H R H
/ Catalyst, ^ \ /
C=C Trans
Raises
less
susceptible
\ * Heat, Pressure^
R R
/ \
H R
H H H H
C=C Cis Same Same
\ / \
R
R R R
MargarineproducedintheUnitedStatescurrentlycontainsfrom
18to47%trans-fattyacids.
3.Saponification-Saponificationis ahydrolysisreaction
inwhichthefat(triglyceride)issubdividedbytheuseof
alkali (NaOHorKOH)intoglycerolandthreemoleculesof a
75
metallicsaltofafattyacid (soap). Thisreactionwould
proceedasfollows:
Alkali:
sodium
3-Sodium salts of
Triglyceride hydroxide
Glycerol
fatty acids (soap)
H H
Na-O-C-R
1

H-C-O-CR'
H-OOH
o
//
O
|
+
Na-O-C-R
2
_V H-OOH+
II
H>-O-C-R
2
+ 3NaOH
II
"T 1 o
o
1
H-OOH
H-C-O-CR
3 1
Na-O-C-R
3
H
O
Soapsmadeusingsodiumhydroxide (NaOH)aregenerallysolid
soapsandthosemadeusingpotassiumhydroxide (KOH)areusually
liquidorpastesoapsorshavingsoaps. Higherlevelsof
triglycerideproducehardersoapswithaslowerrateofwear,
whilehigherlevelsofalkaligivebettersolubilityand
latheringcharacteristics. Inadditiontothecommercial
manufactureofsoapfromfatthisreactionisalsousedto
analyzefat. Alkaliisaddedtotheetherextractablefraction
offoodandaftersaponificationandwithwaterextractionthis
fractionisdividedintotheportionthatwillundergothe
saponificationreactionandtheportionthatdoesnot(non-
saponification). The"percentunsaponifiable"isoftenusedas
anestimateofthequantitiesofsterols,hydrocarbons,and
76
higheralcohols (allnon-saponifiable)inafat,andthe
percentageinseveralfatscanbefoundinthefollowingtable.
The"saponificationnumber"isdefinedasthemg.ofKOH
(potassiumhydroxide)requiredtosaponify1gramoffat. The
valuesforseveralediblefatsarealsoshowninthefollowing
table. Withthesevaluesestimatesmayalsobemadeofthe
averagemolecularweightofthefattyacidscontainedinthe
triglycerides.
ConstantsforFatsandOils
8
/
Saponification Unsaponifiable
FatorOil Value matter
Butterfat 210-235 ,3-0.6
Coconut 246-264 2-0.5
Cornoil(Maize) 187-193
1.3-2.8
Cottonseedoil 189-198 0.6-1.6
Lard 193-203 0.2-0.8
Oliveoil 185-196 0.4-1.3
Palmoil 195-205
0.2-0.8
Peanutoil 186-196
0.2-1.0
Soybeanoil 189-195
0.2-1.5
Tallowbeef 190-200
0.2-0.3
Tallowmutton 192-198
0.2-0.3
a
/Woodman,1941;Halliday&Noble,1943;Jacobs,1958;
Kirschenbauer,1960;USDA1963; Wood1990.
Cholesterolisthemajorportionoftheunsaponification
fractionofanimalfatanditsquantityisfairlylowinmeat
productsasshowninthefollowingtable. Thisquantityis
slightlyhigherinleanmeatthaninmarbledmeat.
77
Cholesterolcontentper100grams(exceptasnoted)
Food Treatment maofCholesterol
Milkskim (1cup)
Milkwhole(1cup)
Meatsandwich (includingbun)
Oyster
Salmon
Clams
Halibut
Tuna
Beef
Pork
Lamb
Fish
Rabbit
Chicken
Turkey (lightmeat)
Turkey (darkmeat)
Pork
Beef
Tripe
Veal
Herring
Veal
CheeseCheddar
Lamb
Veal
Crab
Crab
Shrimp
Shrimp
Tongue
Lard
Sweetbread
Butter
1Tbs.
Egg (1large)
Heart(beef)
Liver(beef)
Liver(calf)
Liver(pork)
Liver(lamb)
Wholeegg
Kidney
Brain
-
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Raw
Raw
Raw
Raw
Raw
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Raw
Raw
Cooked
Cooked
Manufactured
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Raw
Raw
Cooked
Raw
Rendered
Raw
Manufactured
Manufactured
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
Raw
Cooked
Raw
5
34
30-40
47
47
65
65
65
59-70
69-70
70-79
70
71
79-86
79
88
88
90
95
90
96
99
99
99-100
100
100
125
125
150-153
180
240
260
250
35
252
270
435
435
435
435
550
800
Morethan2000
78
4. Interesterification(Rearrangement)-Whenamixtureof
triglycerideisheatedwithasuitablecatalyst,thefattyacids
willberemovedfromtheglycerolsandrandomlyreattachedto
thesesameglycerols. Thisreactioncanbestructurally
illustratedwithtwotriglyceridesasfollows:
H H
Heat(110to160
o
C)or
I
(230 to320F)
H-O-O-C-R
a
H-O-O-C-R*
Catalystsuch as
0 0
sodiummethoxide,
sodiumethoxide,
H-O0-C-R
b
H-C-O-C-R
y
sodiumamide,
0 0
sodiumor sodium-
potassiumalloy
H-C-O-C-R
0
H-C-O-C-R
z
I "
I
"
H
H
H 0
o
I I
Fat from animal
H-C-O-C-RV H-C-O-C-R
a
II //
o O
H-C-O-C-R' H-C-O-C-R
II II
O O
Rearranged
H-C-O-C-R' H-C-O-C-R
b
I
O
H

79
Animalmetabolismdoesnotattachfattyacidstothe
glycerolsinacompletelyrandomfashion;therefore,this
reactionbyrandomlydistributingthefattyacidschangesthe
physicalpropertiesofthefat.
Lardhas atendencyuponcoolingtocrystallizeinlarge
crystalsandthistypeofcrystalhas acoarseappearance. Lard
inthiscrystallinestateisnotdesirableforcakebaking
becauseittendstoformemulsionswhichbreakeasilyandlose
air.
Rearrangementoflardtendstobreakupthetriglycerides
responsiblefortheformationofthesecoarsecrystalsand
createsalardthatismoresatisfactoryforcakebaking.
5. Mono-diglyceridemanufacture-Themanufactureofmono
anddiglyceridesisaspecialcaseofinteresterificationbetween
triglyceridesandaddedglycerol. Theendproductisusuallya
mixtureofmono-,di-andtriglycerides. Thereactionmaybe
expressedasfollows:
Triglyceride Glycerol
Diglyceride Monoglyceride
H H
H H
H-C >O-C-R H-C-OH

Catalyst-
H-C-O-C-R H-C-OH
//
|
sodium
1"
hydroxide 1 0
1
H-C ;-O-C-R
+ H-C-OH
H-C-O-C-R
II
232C o V
1
+ H-C-OH
1
1
//
1
0 450F
H-C-O-C-R H-C-OH
H-C-OH H-C-O-C-R
H
H
ft H
1
1
1 //
80
Monoanddiglyceridesareusedasemulsifiers. Theseproducts
alsolowerthesmokepointinshortening.
6. Hydrolysis-Infatdigestion,triglyceridesalso
undergoahydrolysisreaction. Alipaseenzymehydrolysesthe
triglycerideintoglycerolandthreefattyacidsasshown:
Triglyceride Water
Glycerol 3 Fatty Acids
H
I
H
I
H-C-O-C-R
1
II
H-C-OH
0
H-C-O-C-R *+ 3H,O
H-C-OH + 3H- O- C- R
1
or
0
R
2
orR
H-C-O-C-R
3
H-C-OH
I
H
H
Ifthisreactionoccurs(withorwithouttheenzymepresent)
priortothetimethefatisused,thefreefattyacidlevelis
raised,thesmoke,theflash,andthefirepointareloweredand
81
thequalityofthefatisreduced. Ifanimaltissueisstored
foraperiodoftimebeforerendering,thelipaseisstillactive
andcausesanincreaseinfreefattyacidvalues (FFA).
Microorganismscanalsoproducelipasetohydrolyzethe
triglyceridesandthemorecommontypesofmicroorganismswith
thisabilitywouldinclude:
Pseudomonas Alcaligenes
Achrombacter Serratia
Micrococcus
7. Bleaching-Inadditiontotriglycerides,processedfat
normallycontainsasmallquantityofotheringredientsthat
causetheproducttohaveanundesirablecolor. Thesecolor
producingproductscouldbesummarizedasfollows:
Color ProductResponsible
Yellowish-red Carotenoidpigment
Yellow Xanthophyll
Green Chlorophyllpigment
Brown Degradationproductsofproteinand
carbohydrates
Dark Freefattyacidreactionsand/or
metalreactions
Thebleachingoffatsandoilsisnormallyaccomplishedby
absorptionofthecoloredchemicalswithanabsorbent. The
efficiencyoftheabsorbentdependsonthesurfaceaffinity
betweenthecoloredparticlesandtheabsorbent. Absorbentsused
inthefatandoilindustryinclude:
82
Oilretained
Qty.used inabsorbent
Absorbent (%ofoil (%of Pigmentremoved
weight) adsorbent
weight)
Bleachingclays
(fuller'searth) Xanthophy11s,
Consistbasically 0.25to5% 20to25% Carotenoid
ofaluminum
silicates
Acidactivated 0.25to5% 40% Alkaline
clays pigments,
Chlorophyll
Activatedcarbon 0.25% Greaterthan Chlorophyll
40%
The absorbents aremixed with the oil at elevated temperatures
(160-240F)andaftercombination oftheabsorbentsandcoloring
ingredients the impurities areremoved by filtration. Although
this process improves the color of the fat, it reduces its
stability.
Meatfatsareoftenmixedwithdiatomaceousearthorfilter
aid which has no absorptive properties but which aids in the
filtrationofsuspendedproteinaceousparticlesandaclarification
ofthefatisachieved.
8. Deodorizationandsteamrefining (removaloffreefatty
acids)-Bothdeodorization andremovaloffree fattyacidsare
accomplishedbysteamdistillationandthisprocedureisbasedon
the difference in volatility of the triglyceride and the odor
producing compounds (or the free fatty acids). The pigment
83
caroteneisheatbleachableandisalsorenderedcolorlessduring
deodorization.
Thefreefattyacidlevelpriortodeodorizationofmeatfat
should notbe over1%and isnormally reduced to0.05% orless
usingthistechnique. Hightemperaturefryingoffoodsinaddition
togeneratingfreefattyacidsalsotendstovolatizethem.
9. Spattering -Whenwater ispresent infat,spattering
occurs. Whenheatisappliedthiscausesthevaporizationofthe
waterwhich,inturn,makesthefatbubbleandfoamandwhenthe
bubblesbreakthefatspatters. Emulsiontypeproductssuchas
margarineandbutterusuallyspattermorethanpurefats. Addition
offoodthatcontainswatertoacookingfatisoftenthesourceof
thewaterinafatoroil.
10. Stearinemanufacturing-Animalfatmaybefractionated
byloweringlardtemperatureto50F(10C)andtallowtemperature
to84-90F (29-32C)whichsolidifiesthefat. Itisthenplaced
incanvasclothandpressedwhichseparatestheoilportionfrom
thestearin.
RuminantVs.Non-ruminantFatMetabolism
Thedigestionandabsorptionoflipidsinaruminantanimal(4
stomachanimal;e.g.cattleandsheep)isquitedifferentthanin
a non-ruminant animal (single stomach; e.g. swine). In the
ruminant,themicroorganisms,particularly bacteria,hydrogenate
84
the unsaturated fatty acids that the animal consumed. These
hydrogenated fatty acids (particularly stearic) along withsome
microbial structural lipidspass intothesmall intestinewhere
theyareabsorbedbytheanimal. Theruminantalsosynthesizesa
muchlargerpercentofitsbodyfatfromacetatethandoesanon-
ruminantandthispathwayencouragesthebuild-upofsaturatedbody
fat. Thetypeofdietaryfatconsumedbyaruminant(e.g.cattle)
onatypicaldiet,therefore,hasverylittleinfluenceonthebody
fatofthisanimal. Incontrast,thedietary fathas amarked
influenceonthebodyfatofanon-ruminantanimal(e.g.swineand
poultry)sincethis fatisalteredvery littleinthedigestion
process,therefore,bodyfattendstobesimiliartodietaryfat.
Thebodyfatofbothchickensandturkeysarealsoinfluencedby
thefattyacidcompositioninthediet. Ifthepigisfedlittle
fat then they tend to synthesize a hard fat from other food
components;howevertheprimaryreasonforthedifferenceinbody
compositionbetweenaruminantandanon-ruminantisthefactthat
aruminantabsorbsandassimilatesfatsthatweremodifiedinthe
ruminantsuchas:
a) Dietaryunsaturatedfattyacidsthathavebeenhydro-
genatedbybacteria.
b) Fattyacidsderivedfrombacteriallipids,and
c) Amuchlargerpercentofthebodyfatissynthesized
fromacetate.
85
Hardness
Thehardnessoffatisusuallyinfluencedbythedegreeof
saturation. Themoresaturatedtheharderthefatandthehigher
choppingtemperaturenecessarytoachieveastableemulsionwhen
makingacomminutedproduct.
OrderofDeposition:
Asananimal isfattenedcertainareasofthebodyreceive
priorityforfatdepositionandtheorderisasfollows:
1. Caulandkidneyfat.
2. Betweenmusclesandinthesubcutaneouslayersoverthem.
3. Betweenmusclebundles-marbling.
Asananimalfattens,morefatisdepositedonthecarcassthanon
theoffalandthedressingpercentageincreases.
FatCell
Afatcellwouldhavethefollowingappearance:
rystal of Triglyceride
Cell Membrane
Nucleus
86
DistributionandUsefulness;
Fatsandoilsarefoundinmostplantandanimaltissue. In
plants,theyarepredominantlyfoundinthefruitandseedsofthe
plant;inanimaltissue,themajordepositsareundertheskinand
surroundingthekidney.
When consumed, fatsandoilsperform manymajorbiological
functionssuchas:
1. Tostorefoodreserves.
2. Touseinthestructureofcellularprotoplasm.
3. Tosupplynecessaryessentialfattyacids. (Linoleicacid
isessentialandcannotbesynthesizedbythebody.
Linolenicandarachidonicarealsoessentialbutcan
bederivedinthebodyfromlinoleicacid).
4. Asourceoffatsolublevitamins.
5. Asaconcentratedfood,tooxidizeandproduceenergy.
Pre-EmulsifiedFat
Fatthathasbeenpre-emulsified isoftenusedasasausage
ingredientinmanyEuropeancountries.
87
Averagepercentfatfoundinfood
FoodProduct
Animalsources %Fat
Beef (totalediblecarcass) 15-42
Retailmeatcuts(trimmed) 5-50
Sausages 14-35
Backfat 81-93
Belly (freshorcured) 40-70
Poultrybreastmeat
-raw
1.5-9cookedinoil- 6
Poultrydarkmeat
-raw
3-5cookedinoil- 9
Poultryskin
-raw
15-19cookedinoil-29
Poultrygiblets
-raw
3-4cookedinoil-11
Turkeybreast 0.7-1.1
Turkeythigh 1.4-3.8
Butter
82.5
Egg (totaledible)
10-11.5
Yolk 31
White 0.2
Fattyfish (Anchovy,Carp,
Eel, Herringsprat 1-20
Non-fattyfish(Cod,Haddock,
Halibut,Pike,Sole,Trout,
Tuna 0.4
Milk (whole) 3.5
PlantSources
Vegetables (most) 0.1-1.0
Fruit (most) 0.1-1.0
Olive 19
Peanuts 20-50
Soybeans 18-20
Margarine 85
Meatanalogs-spunvegetable
protein (Temptein) 10-18
88
References
AmericanHeartAssociation. 1991. AmericanHeartAssociationFat
andCholesterolCounter. Timebooks,N.Y.
A.M.I.F. 1960. TheScienceofMeatandMeatProducts. W.H.
FreemanandCompany,SanFrancisco,California.
Bailey,A.E. 1945. IndustrialOilandFatProducts. Inter-
sciencePublishers,Inc.,NewYork.
Eckey,E.W. 1954. VegetableFatsandOils. ReinholdPublishing
Corporation,NewYork.
Garton,G.R. 1967. TheDigestionandAbsorptionofLipidsin
RuminantAnimals. WorldReviewofNutritionandDietetics,
7:225.
Halliday,E.G.andI.T.Noble. 1943. FoodChemistryand
Cookery. TheUniversityofChicagoPress,Chicago,Illinois.
Jacobs,M.B. 1958. ChemicalAnalysisofFoodsandFoodProducts.
D.VanNostrandCompany,Inc.,Princeton,NewJersey.
Kirschenbauer,H.G. 1960. FatsandOils. ReinholdPublishing
Corp.,NewYork.
Lawrie,R.A. 1970. ProteinsasHumanFood. AVIPublishingCo.,
Inc.,Westport,Connecticut.
MilesLaboratories. 1970. TempteinSpunVegetableProteinMilk
Analogs. MarshallDivision,Elkhart,Indiana.
Mountney,G.J. 1966. PoultryProductsTechnology. TheAVI
PublishingCo.,Inc.,Westport,Connecticut.
Ockerman,H.W. 1985. QualityControlofPost-MortemTissue. The
OhioStateUniversity,Columbus,Ohio.
Schroder,C.R. 1992. FatisNotaFour-LetterWord. Chronimed
Publishing,Minneapolis,MN.
Peterson,W.H.,J.T.Skinner,andF.M.Strong. 1949. Elements
ofFoodBiochemistry. Prentice-Hall,Inc.,NewYork.
U.S.D.A.1975. CompositionofFood. Agr.HandbookNo.8Super-
intendentofDocuments,U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,
Washington,D.C. 20402.
89
Weiss,J.T. 1970. FoodOilsandTheirUses. AVIPublishingCo.,
Inc.,Westport,Connecticut.
Wood,J.D.andFisher,A.V. 1990. ReducingFatInMeatAnimals,
ElesvierAppliedScience,NewYork.
Woodman,A.G. 1941. FoodAnalysis. McGraw-HillBookCompany,
Inc.,NewYork.
1
FATOXIDATION
Deteriorationbyoxidationinmeatproductscanhaveamajor
effectonthefollowingmeatconstituents:
1. Triglycerides (fat)
2. Pigments (bothintheleanandfattissue)
3. Vitamins
Fatoxidationisnormallyconsideredthemostseriousofthemeat
oxidationproblem.
Deteriorationoffatproducesoff-flavorandodorandthis
conditionisknownasrancidity. Thecausesofthisdeterioration
maybesubdividedintothefollowing:
1. Directchemicalreactions.
2. Enzymaticreactions.
a. Indigenousenzymes.
b. Microorganismenzymes.
Ingeneral,therearetwotypesofreactionsthataremost
responsibleforfatdeteriorationandtheyare:
1. Hydrolysis-Hydrolysisisthesplittingoffattyacids
fromthetriglyceride.
Lipolytic
Triglyceride * glycerol +fatty acids
enzymes
Thesefattyacids (shortchain)arequiteoffensivein
milk.Incarcassfattheseendproducts (longchain)are
muchlessobjectionable.
2. Oxidation-Oxidationisthereactionofoxygenwiththe
doublebondsofthefattyacids. Thisreactionproduces
intermediatesknownashydroperoxideswhicharethen
transformedintoendproducts. Theseendsproductshave
averyoffensiveodorandflavor. Theendproductsareof
90
91
manychemicaltypesbutthetwomajorcategoriesareshort
chainaldehydesandshortchainacids.
Themoreunsaturated(doublebonds)orpolyunsaturated
(morethanonedoublebond)thefatthemoresusceptible
itistooxidation. Becauseoftheshortperiodoftime
itusuallytakesforranciditytodevelopprobablyonly
thepolyunsaturatedfatundergoanyappreciableoxidation.
Phospholipids (moreunsaturatedfattyacids)are
usuallyoxidizedfirstandthenneutrallipidsare
oxidizedlater.
Allofthechemicalreactionsoffatoxidationhave
notbeenelucidatedbutthefollowingseriesofreactions
havebeensuggested.
Unsaturated fatty acid
-I
End products(acids,
alcohols, aldehydes
ketone, etc.)
92
The chemicals with anunsaturated bond (* = free radical)
self-catalyzeoracceleratetheoxidativeprocessandthereforeit
isoftencalledautoxidation. Rancidityisusuallyobviouswhen
only0.05to0.10%ofthefathasbeenoxidized.
Thefollowingfactorsaffecttherateinwhichoxidationwill
proceedinfatorfattyfoods.
1. Degreeofsaturation-Thegreatertheunsaturationthe
fasteroxidationwillproceed.
2. Hydrogenation-Thisreactionreducesunsaturationand
consequentlyoxidation.
3. Non-ruminantcarcassfatismoresusceptibleto
oxidationthanruminantfat (example,porkvsbeef
andmuttonfat).
4. Leanpork;however,hasalowerphospholipidcontent
thanleanbeefandthislowerstherateofoxidation.
5. Younganimal'scarcassfatismoresusceptibleto
oxidationthanolderanimal'scarcassfat.
6. Musclewithlowquantityofintermuscularfat-These
muscleshaveagreaterquantityofmyoglobin [ferric
(Fe
+3
)whichpromotesoxidationmorethantheferrous(Fe
+2
)
form].Theyalsohavemorephospholipidswhichisa
pro-oxidantandoxidationisincreased.
7. Oxidizedbrownpigments (Fe
+3
)speeduplipidoxidation.
8. Hemepigmentaccelerateoxidation;darkpoultrymeat
93
oxidizesfasterthanlightpoultrytissue.
9. Animalsonalowlevelofnutritionhavecarcassfatthat
ismoresusceptibletooxidationthananimalsonahigh
levelofnutrition.
10.Animalsfedunsaturatedfat (particularlynon-ruminants)
havecarcassfatwhichismoresusceptibletooxidation.
11.Tocopherolsinthedietare,toadegree,storedinthe
carcass (especiallypork,chicken,andturkey)andthis
compoundisanantioxidant. Thedepositionismuchmore
efficientinthechickenthanintheturkeyandtherefore
turkeyfatismuchlessstableinanemulsion. One
complicatingfactoristhatdietarysourcesoflinoleic
andlinolenic (bothunsaturated)acidsusuallyarealso
goodsourcesoftocopherol.
12.Ultravioletlightincreasesoxidationdrasticallyby
shorteningtheinductionperiod.
13.Ozonesincreaseoxidation.
14.Asstoragetimeincreasessodoesthedegreeofoxidation.
Loweringthetemperaturewillretardoxidationbutevena
frozenproductwillcontinuetooxidize. Thereforeitis
usuallyrecommendedthatfrozenmeatbestoredatleastat
0F(-18F).
15.Cookingacceleratesoxidation;lowtemperaturelongtime
istheworst.
16.Strongdisplaylightsincreasethespeedofoxidation
(shorterwavelengthistheworst). Oxidationcontinues
94
afterlightsourceisremoved.
17. Irradiationspeedsupoxidation.
18.Likemostchemicalreactions,hightemperatures
accelerateoxidation (10Cdoublesthe rate).
19.Naturallipasepromoteshydrolysisandisinhibited
byheatingabove60C (140F).
20. Goodwrapping, iceglaze,coveredwithsauceorliquid,
nitrogenpackagingorvacuumpackagingexcludeoxygen
andretardoxidation.
21. Grinding (moresurfaceareaandincorporatesair)
acceleratesoxidation.
22. Smokedepositsphenolicantioxidantsonthesurfaceof
meatandthesereduceoxidation.
23.Thebrowningreactionalsoproducessomeantioxidants
onthesurfaceofmeatproducts.
24.AnincreaseinpHinthemusclecausesareductionin
oxidation. Itisbelievedthataninhibitionofthe
reactionbetweenunsaturatedfatandmyoglobinis
responsibleforthisreduction.
25.Nitriteinterfereswithfatoxidationbydeactivating
hematincatalysts,and/oractsasafreeradical
acceptor.
26. Spices (i.e.rosemary,sage,mustard)arealsoanti-
oxidants (usuallynotasstrongasthepro-oxidanteffect
of salt).
27.Metals (example,ironandcopper)evenatlevelsbelow
95
0.01ppmactasoxidationcatalystsandincrease
oxidation.
28.Salt,particularlyathighconcentrations,accelerate
oxidation. Thisconcentrationeffectmayexplainthe
rapidoxidationoffrozenanddehydratedmeat.
29.Waterintheproductincreasestherateofoxidation.
30.Cisisomersaremoresusceptibletooxidationthan
transisomers.
31.Antioxidantsareaddedinsmallquantitiestoreduce
oxidation.
32.Reducingcompounds (ascorbicanderythorbicacid)andsome
phosphatesactasantioxidantsandarealsosynergistic
withreducingcompounds.
33.Hypochlorites (usedincleaning)maypromoteoxidation
(particularlyofpigments).
Proposed mechanism for the function of an antioxidant areaas
follows:
Antioxidant (Compoundwith anaromatic ring and ahydroxyl
group).
Primaryreaction
1. Hydrogenisdonatedtothefreeradicalbythe
antioxidant.
2. Anelectronisdonatedtothefreeradicalbythe
antioxidant.
Secondaryreaction
3. Chemicalcombinationoftheunsaturatedfattyacidto
96
thearomaticringoftheantioxidant.
4. Combinationofacomplexbetweenthelipidandthe
aromaticringoftheantioxidant.
Inpractice,acombinationofthereactionsprobablyoccurwiththe
antioxidantbeingoxidizedorinactivated.
SvnerqiBt
Improvesantioxidanteffectofphenolicantioxidants.
Normalconstituents
Certainaminoacidsactasantioxidants.
Phosphates
Interactwithproteins (certainaminoacids)and
reactwithmultivalentmetals. Protectagainst
warmedoverflavorandcolorfading.
Chelators (Ascorbic,citric,phosphoricacids,sorbitol,
polyphosphates)Formationofacomplexbetweenthe
acidandthemetal.
Oxygenscavenging (ascorbicacidanditssalts)
Antioxidantcombiningwithavailableoxygen.
Mechanically de-boned meat is particularly susceptible to fat
oxidationduetothefollowingreasons:
1. Warmprocessingtemperature.
2. Incorporationofbonemarrowfat.
3. Increasedsurfacearea.
97
References
AmericanMeatInstituteFoundation. 1960. TheScienceofMeat
andMeatProducts. W.H.FreemanandCompany,SanFrancisco
andLondon.
Cross,C.K.andP.Ziegi. 1965. AcomparisonoftheVolatile
FractionsFromCuredandUncuredMeat. J.ofFoodScience
30:610.
Lawrie,R.A. 1966. MeatScience. PergamonPress.,Oxford,
London,Edinburgh,NewYork,Toronto,Paris,Braunschweig.
Rose,R.A.1988.TheEffectofSodiumTripolyphosphateonLipid
OxidationinTurkeyBreastMSThesis,TheOhioState
University,ColumbusOhio.
St.Angelo,A.J.1992.LipidOxidationinFood.AmericanChemical
Society.Washington,D.C.
Vigo-Pelfrey,C.1990.MembraneLipidOxidation.CRCPress,Boca
Raton,Florida.
CHEMISTRYOFPROTEINS
Food asitischemically subdivided will yield a major
category called protein. Protein isthemost limiting food
constituentintheworldtoday. Thewordproteinisderivedfrom
aGreekwordandmeans"Iamfirst". Inadditiontocarbon(C),
hydrogen(H),andoxygen(0),proteinalwayscontainsnitrogen(N)
andusuallysulfur(S)and,insomecases,phosphorus(P).Protein,
ontheaverage,contains16%nitrogenandinanalysisthe
100
nitrogencontentisdeterminedandmultipliedby6.25[6.25 = ]
16
toyieldtheproteincontentofthesample. Proteinmoleculesare
extremelylargeinsizeandtheirreportedweightsincomparisonto
otherfoodchemicalsareasfollows:
1. Protein-6,000to200,000,000
2. Fats (triglyceride)-under1,000
3. Disaccharide-under1,000
Proteins areconstructed ofbuilding blocks called amino
acids. Theseaminoacidscontainthefollowing2groups:
Aminogroup
N
Carboxyl group-
Intheconstructionofanaminoacidtheaminogroupisattachedto
98
99
the a or number 2 carbon counting from the carboxyl group.
Therefore,thegeneralformulasforaminoacidsare:
R-C-C
TheRrepresentstheremainderoftheaminoacidchainandis
differentforeachamino acid. Theremainderofthemolecule
is the same for almost all amino acids. Of the amino acids
isolated from natural sources slightly in excess of 20 are
considered fairly common. They are divided according to their
chemicalstructureinto:
1. Aliphatic-straightchain
a. Monoaminomonocarboxylic -oneaminogroupandone
carboxylgroup.
b. Sulfurcontaining-containssulfur.
c. Monoaminodicarboxylic -oneaminogroupand2
carboxylgroups.
100
d. Basic-twoaminoornitrogencontaininggroups
andonecarboxylgroup.
2. Aromatic-containsaringstructurewiththering
containingonlycarbon.
3. Heterocyclic-containsaringstructurewiththering
containingnitrogeninadditiontocarbon.
Astructural formulaofseveralofthecommonaminoacidsalong
withtheirsourcesareshownasfollows:
1.Monoaminomonocarboxylic
Abbre-
viation
a.Glycine
f l l j - 0- OH
giy
H
/ N
H
b.Alanine
CKj-CH-C-OH
ala
c.Valine CH
3
CH
3
-CH-CH-G-OH
val
NH2O
d.Leucine CH
3
CHg-CH-CHa-CH-C-OH leu
NH
2
0
e.Isoleucine V ^
CHj-CHg-CH-CH-C-OH ile
NH
2
0
1.Serine ^
H
CH
2
-CH-C-OH
ser
NH-, 0
g.Threonin ^
H
CHj-CH-CH-C-OH
thr
M=Req.Man
R-Req. Ral
Sources Rich
G=Req.Growth In
hide,tendons
ligamenis
gelatin
silk fibroin
widelydistri-
butedin
nature;
silk fibroin
widelydistri-
M
buted
wool;egg
M
albumen
widely distri-
M
buted
silklibroin;
casein
librin
M
(blood clot)
101
2. Sulfur Containing Amino Acids
h. Cysteine
SH
CH
2
- gH- C- OH
NH
2
^j
CySH
i. Cystine (Oxidation Product of#h)
HO-C-CH-CH
2
-S-S-CH
2
-CH-C-OH
0 NH
2
NH
2
X
O
CyS-SCy
j . Methionine
CH3-S-CH2-CH2-CH-C-OH
NH
2
0
met M
3. Monoaminodicarboxvli^cid
&amines
k.AsparticAdd
H0- C- CH
2
- CH- O0H
asp
0 NH
2
1.Asparagine
0
NH
2
-C-CH
2
"CH"C-OH
0 NH
2
0
asn
rn. GlutamicAcid
HO-C-CHo-CH
?
-CH-C-OH
II
2
\ \
0 NH
2
0
glu
n. Glutamine
NH
2
-C-CHn-CH
3
-CH-C-OH
11 1 \v
0 NH
2
0
gin
presentinnature;
hardtoisolate
hair; insulin
casein
asparagus plants
plants; seeds
seeds; plants;egg
albumen; milk
casein;wheat
aliadin
plants; blood;
animaltissue
102
4. Basic Amino Acids
o. Lysine
CH
2
-(CH2)
3
-CH-^-OH
lys
M
NH
2
NH
2
0
p.Hydroxoline
CH-rCH-fCHX-CH-C-OH
hyl
I I ^
2
1 \\
NH
2
OH NH
2
0
q.Arginine
NH
r
C-NH-(CHp)3-CH-C-0H
arg
G
N-H NH
2
0
r.Histadine(couldalsobecyclicgroup)
CH=O-CH
2
-CH-C-OH
his R
N NH NH
2
0
\w
II. Aromatic Amino Acids
s.Phenylalanine
phe M
U y-CH
2
CH-C-OH
\ / NH
2
0
t. Tyrosine
HO- / N-CHgCH-C-OH
tyr
V If NH
2
^
gelatin;
hemoglobin
collagen;
gelatin
cell nuclei;
salmon eggs
hemoglobin
wide
distribution
casein
Also some I and Br substituted aromatic amino acids have been
found.
103
III. Heterocyclic (other atoms inrincôther than C)
u. Tryptophan
CH
2
-CH-C-OH
N
H
^H
v. Proline
CH
2
-CH
Z
CH
2
CH-O-OH
V
H
x. Hydroxyproline
OH
try
pro
small amounts
casein;
gelatin
CH
2
CH-C-OH
hyp
gelatin
H
Proteinmoleculesarebuiltbyjoiningaminoacidstogether. The
carboxylgroupononeaminoacidisjoinedtotheaminogroupof
104
thenextaminoacid.Thisconnectingbondiscalledapeptidebond
andisshownstructurallyasfollows:
Thesetwoaminoacidswouldthenbejoinedtoathirdandsoon
untilalongchainisconstructed.
H R O
H
1 | I I
Physical shape
N
c c
/ \
/
\ /
o.o. C N
c c
1 1
1 I I
1
J
1
H
1
R
1
O1
i
p . ptld bonds
Thislongchainmayformasinglecoilhelixormaypairupwith
anotherlongproteinchainandsomeweakbondsareformedbetween
the2chainstogiveatwistedladder-typeconstruction. (Double
coilhelix)
t o 1 II
R
1
\ /
N
> A
1 N I c
\ >
H
v
\
/
A
0
. / \. /
M
/
Physical shape
/
H
Y
\ / \ /
I I
N
C
c
H- <
H
II
o
:
bond ~
> yctogv tondi
1 bond"
H- C
0
H
R"
N
c
N
aura* t
/ \
/ \
II
/
1
\ / \
/\
/ >
/ '
\
\ /
,/N \")
\ / \
/
\ c
/
\J
\ / \
i
c K.
R'
0 H II
0
105
This protein configuration is called a right-handed helix or
spiral.Anothersuggestedproteinshapeisthepleatedsheetform
whichwouldlookasfollows:
Atthepresenttimeitisthoughtthatmuscleproteinshavethe
followingphysicalconfigurations:
MuscleProtein Configuration
PercentofProtein
Myosin doublehelix 38%
Actin doublehelix 13%
Denaturation
Theseweakbondsbetween chains (doublehelix)arenormallythe
firstplacethataproteinbreaks(i.e.denaturationuponheating).
Contractualproteinsthatareheatedandcoagulatedbecomefirmer
andharderandmuscletissuebecomeslesstender.
106
Fresh tissue
Denaturation
asp
Non-reversible breaking
ofweak bonds
Cooked tissue
Denaturation
continued
Breakingof
peptide bonds
N
V
NCoagulation
Precipitation*-
107
Collagen shrinks during dry heating causing meat to curl.
Uponmoistheatingcollagenisconvertedtogelatin (liquid)and
uponfurthercoolinggels.
Theusefulnessofproteinasafoodnormallydependsonits
aminoacidcomposition. Essentialaminoacidsaredefinedasamino
acidsthatareessentialfornormalgrowthandmaintenanceandthe
animalbodyisnotequippedtosynthesizesufficientquantitiesof
theseaminoacidsforitsneed. Therefore,aproteinisconsidered
adequate (efficient)ifitcontainsallthenecessaryaminoacids
intheproperratioforanimalmaintenanceandgrowth. Anexample
ofaproteinthatisunbalancediszeinproteinofcornanditis
limitedinlysineandtryptophane.
Essential Minimumdailyrequire- Gramsofaminoacid
amino mentsingramswhen inlOOg(approx.
acids adequatenitrogenis 1/4lb.)ofbeef
available tissue (16%protein)
Arginine requirementnot
established 1.06
Histidine requirementnot
established 0.46
Isoleucine 0.7 0.82
Leucine 1.1 1.34
Lysine 0.8 1.34
Methionine 1.1 0.37
Phenylalanine 1.1 0.64
Threonine 0.5 0.64
Tryptophan 0.25 0.18
Valine 0.8 0.91
Proteinsaregroupedaccordingtotheirphysicalandchemical
108
characteristicsandanoutlineofgenerallyacceptedclassification
isasfollows:
ClassificationofProteins:
Proteinsarenormallyclassifiedby:
1. Theirsolubilityproperties,or
2. Theircoagulationbyheating,or
3. Theirabilitytobeprecipitatedbyvarious
reagents. (i.e.,acidsandsalts).
Thisclassificationsystemisnotasclearcutoras
satisfactoryastheonesdevelopedforfatsorcarbohydratesbutit
isusefulindescribingthepropertiesofprotein.Theproteinsare
classifiedasfollows:
I. Simpleprotein-naturallyoccurringproteinsthatyield
onlyaminoacidsonhydrolysis(breakingofprotein
chainintosmallunits).
1. Albumins-solubleinwater.
-coagulatedbyheat.
Examples Source
eggalbumin (eggwhite) egg
lactalbumin milk
serumalbumin blood
leucosin wheat
myogen muscle
2. Globulins-insolubleinwater
-solubleindilutesaltsolutions
-coagulatedbyheat
Examples Source
myosin muscle
serumglobulin bloodserum
legumin legume
fibrinogen blood
3. Glutelins-insolubleinneutralsolventsorwater
-solubleindiluteacidsandalkalies
Examples Source
glutenin wheat
109
4. Prolamins-insolubleinneutralsolventsorwater
-solublein80%alcohol
Examples Source
gliadin wheat
zein corn
5. Albuminous-quite insoluble
-resistanttodigestion
Examples Source
collagen tendons,
c o n n e c t i v e
tissue
keratin hair,hide,horn
elastin ligaments&
arterialwalls
gelatin collagen
6. Protamines-stronglybasic
-solubleinwater
-notcoagulatedbyheat
Examples Source
salmine salmonsperm
II. ConjugatedProteins-naturallyoccurringproteinthat
containsanon-proteingroup.
Non-proteingroup Example
1. Nucleoproteins nucleicacid Incellnucleus,
yeast,wheatgerm
2. Phosphoprotein phosphoricacid Milkcasein
Vitellin Eggyolk
3. Chromoproteins coloredgroup Hemoglobins
4. Glycoprotein carbohydrate Mucinfromsaliva
5. Lecithoproteins Lecithin Fibrin (blood)
III. DerivedProteins-decompositionoralterationproductof
protein
1. Proteoses-solubleinwater
-precipitatedwithammonium sulfate
110
Peptones --solubleinwater
-notprecipitatedwithammoniumsulfate
Peptides --shorterpeptidechain
Thebuilduporbreakingdownofproteinsfromaminoacidshas
anumberofintermediatestepsandtheymaybelabeledasfollows:
Meatproteinsareoftendividedonthebasisofsolubility
intothosewhich are soluble inwater ordilute salt solutions
called sarcoplasmic proteins (200+typesofproteins including
myogen,globulins,myoglobin,enzymesofglycolyticcycle,proteins
ofmitochondria,microsomesandsarcoplasmicreticulum,DNA,RNA),
those which are soluble in concentrated salt solutions called
myofibrillar [10+typesofproteinofwhichapproximately50-80%
aremyosin (headwatersolublethetailisfatsoluble),actin15-
20%, tropomyosin 5-8%], and those which are insoluble in
concentrated salt solution called stroma proteins (mitochondria
structure,sarcolemmaandcollagen,reticulinandelastinfibersof
connectivetissue,aswellasmucopolysaccharides).
o
ro
i
o
CM
ID
I
in
4J
rH
0
in
ro
o
ro
in
us
i
o
in
dJ
H
XI
CD
r H
u
CQ
3
E
JH
dJ
XI
4H
LD
H
l
ro
H
in
in
CM
i
CTi
<D
i*vj
dJ
r H
U
CQ
3
E
o\
U
dJ
X!
,-
4-1
CM
1
CM
i
o
T)
dJ
J_)
rd
<D
E
o\
i n
ro
i
i n
CM
in
i
o
in
o
CM
I
o
C
rd
11
n
dJ
11
o
o\
ro
ro
i
CM
0)
4-1
CO
Q)
- CO O
0
P U U
3 to 0)
-H
CO
o
a
CO
a)
d)
O
4-1
4J U-l
6
D CO i-H X!
4-1 05 r-H O
HH d)H
J ft U O
U
rrj
4-) rH
O 3
rd U
U 0)
U r-l
C 0
0 E
U
> rd
~ 0)
E
o
O O 0 -r
4-> O
rH U
rd
CQ 4 J
rd
dJ d)
ii g
3
SH
O
00 CO T) 4-1
o
o
i n
<D
CO rH
C -H
H 4->
0) U
4J rd
0 U
U 4-)
ad
o
(U-H U
CO rd
u u -
O 3 CO
XI 4J 3
U O
Ai 3 ^
U U X!
O 4-> -H
CO
C
d)
Tl
- - rd
3= o
o -
rfi o
rH O
3 oo
O
0) i
CD
c
H
c c
H 0)
rH
Ti XI
0) I
C 4J
H >
CQT)
0 0)
U
CQ
4J
rd
0 O -H QJ
6 O >XI
o
xi -xi c
tno oi QJ
-H O -HXI
3H ^ MH 3
d
U SH
m a
4J Ti
X C
W rd
> 01
CU C
01"H
rd rH
CQ XI
3 E
rd 3
CQ 4 J
CM
O
4J
- d)
E -H
d) u
CO
CQ
3
CD
CO
4- 1 4- 1
u u
0 d)
ac
ac
3 O
en u
CQ M
CQ rd
d) O rH
> rl 3
-H U U
4-) d)
U - r H
d) co o
G 3 E
C O
o u xi
U Xl Ol
H -H
c
0 - -
4J d) T)
d) 3 d)
r H CQ ^ !
dJ CQ C
>! -H -H
CQ 4JrH
4J
rd
- Olo
>1 O
4J 0 ^
H 4J H
CO - ^
0 co o d)
U C 4J rH
CO JH X)
-H 3 T i 3
> 4J d) rH
4-> O
XI C rd CO
01d) dJ
-H OiXl SH
X rd d)
rH C 4J
- r H d) fd
4J o x; s
D
C
0
C
0
Ti 0
C 0
4-1 QJ "
-H C 0)
U -H d
-iHiH
4-1 0 i
CD U 0
(C a rl
r-\ 0
0) CD
<D-H .
rH (d 0
4J 4-> r l
4J C T3
H o:
iJ U J3
En
u
-H
E
CO
ro
rI
a
o
o
u
rd
rd
U
X!
rH
4-1
O
rd
E
0
4 J
CO
112
Proteinswillchemicallyreactinthefollowinggeneralmanner:
ChemicalreactionsofProtein:
1. Hydrolysis (splittingorbreakingproteinintosubunits)
Heat&
Protein+water -Peptidesand/oramino
Pressureor
acids
acidsor
alkalisor
enzymes
Formationofa salt (thisconditionisresponsibleforthe
bufferreactionintheblood;thisisalsothereason
protein-richfoodisusedtoneutralizegastricacidity
forulcerpatients.)
Protein NH
2
+ acid >Salt
Protein C-O-H
C-O-H+
+ base >Salt
\\
0
Oxidation:
Examples:
a. Burningoffood
b. Decayoforganicmatter- Initialdegradationof
proteinyieldspeptonesandpeptideswhichhave
abitterflavor. Furtherdegradationyields
freeaminoacidsandamineswhichhaveputridodors.
Proteolyticorganismsinclude:
Bacillus Proteins
Clostridium Pseudomonas
Micrococcus Streptococcus
c. Digestion
-NH
N
/ '
H
"2
food
amino
protein
acids
* Urea
e-o
oxidized CO
2
+ H
2
O
Sulfates
-i-
Phosphates
113
4. Precipitationofproteinsfromsolution.
Mosteffectiveprecipitatingcompoundsare:
a. Alcohol
b. Ammoniumsulfate
c. Magnesiumsulfate
d. Mercurysalts
e. Phosphotungsticacid
f. Tannicacid
g. Trichloracetic
h. Tungsticacid
5. Coagulation-changingfromaliquidtoasolidstate (usually
irreversible). Unfoldingofthechainorhelix.
Physicalandchemicalconditionsthatwillcausethisreaction.
a. Acid
b. Alcohol
c. Alkali
d. Heat-cooking
e. Drying-drysausagemanufacturing
f. Pressure
g. UVlight
Coagulationisaccompaniedby:
a. Dehydration (losingofwater)
b. ShiftinpH
c. Specificgroupsbecomemoreactive (Example-SH)
6. Colorreactions-usedtoidentifythepresenceofproteinor
sub-units. Mosttestsdependonthepresenceofaspecific
114
aminoacidorpartofanaminoacid.
a. Xanthoproteic test
Protein (modified phenyl Nitric acid ^
group; tyrosine, tryptophane) ^ yenow coior
b. Biuret test
Protein (with2amide groups) ^ violet color
|SJ_ copper sulfate
O
c. Millon test
Protein (phenyl group: tyrosine)
H e a t
> redcolor
mercury,
nitric acid
d. Hopkins Cole test
M
Protein (tryptophane radical)
M a
9
n e s l u m
^ violet color
glyoxyiate
e. Ninhydrin
Protein (free amino and Ninhydrin
w
.. .
free carboxyl group) * >
b l u e c o l o r
C
6
H
4
C(OH)
2
The greatest quantity of proteins in meat is found in the
structural material of the muscle. The muscle is constructed of
many sub-units such as:
Crosssectionofa
ork Chop
ertebrae
Connective tissue covering
Muscle bundle
Epimysium
Connective
Connective tissue covering called
tissue between
Perimysium
fibers is
endomysi
/ ^~Coverissarcolemma-thismaterial is not
Banded muscle connective tissue
fiber
115
Cross sectionalmuscletexture isdetermined by themuscle
bundlesizewiththesmallerbundlesbeingresponsibleforafiner
texture (largerbundles -coarser texture). Muscles capableof
finemovementhavesmallbundles(finetexture)andmusclescapable
ofgreatpowerhavelargebundles(coarsetexture). Marbling(fat
withinthemuscle)andbloodvesselswithinamusclearelocated
between the muscle bundles. Blood capillaries are also found
betweenthefibers.
Thebandedmuscle fiber isconstructed ofbanded sub-units
called myofibril. The cause ofthisbanding isthemyosinand
actinproteinmoleculesthatareassembledinauniformpatternto
permitthemuscletoshortenandlengthenwhenthemuscleismoved.
This movement is accomplished by sliding the actin and myosin
filamentstogether (and apart). Adiagrammatic sketchofthese
filamentsandthebandedareasarelabeledasfollows:
A <Q>
I dsotrooic) A (AnisotropiO

Actin
Myoain<doubleX1COx1.5u
(double)
<3OX x 2u : both sictos of Z firm)
Sareomar* Langtti (avaraio* -OO3mm)
116
The relative position of the thick and thin filament at
various stages of contraction is as follows:
Resting State Contraction ExtendedState
and Rigor
MortisState
Theaveragemusclefiberdimensionis reportedas:
FiberDiameter Sarcomerelencrth
Species inu
inmm Pre-riaor
30hr.Postmortem
Mature
Cattle
73.3 .07
2.3/i
.0023 1.4 to
2.3M
.0014to
.0023mm
MatureSheep 50.4 .05
MaturePigs 90.9 .09
Chicken 47.6 .05
Breast
Chicken Leg 44.3 .04
Fiberlength- rangesfrom1 to40mm.
Nucleuslength- rangesfrom8 to10M-
Binding ability which is extremely useful in sausage
manufacturingisusuallyintheorderofmyosin, actin-myosin
complexandthenactin.
Thereareat leasttwotypes(someresearchersclassifymore)
ofmusclefibersinaskeletalmuscle. Normallythemoreactive
musclesarecalledredmusclesandthelessactivearecalledwhite
musclesbutfibersofbothtypesare oftenmixedinmusclesand
117
theymaybeclassifiedasfollows:
RedFiber formuscle)
Sudan black Bpositive (lipid stain)
Contains more myoglobin (and more iron)
Fiber -smaller in diameter
Fiber -arrangement checkerboard -
most species
Fiber -inclumps that are surrounded
bywhite fibers (pig)
More mitochondria
Fiber -richin sarcoplasm
Wide Z-line
Surrounded bymany capillaries
(higher capillary tofiber ratio)
Slow-twitch contraction
Morebloodflowper unitmass
Containslessglycogen
Lesssoluble protein (sarcoplasmic)
More lipids
Lesssaturated lipids
Greater lipase activity
LowerATPase activity
Rate &total Ca
++
uptake lower
Lesscreatine phosphate
LessATP
More AMP
More RNA
More rapid protein turnover rate
Aerobic metabolism (oxygen required)
High oxidative enzyme (citric acid cycle)
activity
Muscle
psoas
soleus (nearly homogenous-red fibers)
trapezius
sartorius (60-70%red fibers)
pigsemitendinosus (axial)
White Fi ber (or muscle)
Sudan black Bnegative (lipid stain)
Contains lessmyoglobin (and lessiron)
Fiber -larger in diameter
Fiber -arrangement checkerboard -
most species
Inthe periphery of thebundle (pig)
Fewer mitochondria
Fiber -lesssarcoplasm
Narrow Z-line
Surrounded byfewer capillaries
(lower capillary tofiber ratio)
Fast -twitch contraction
Lessbloodflowper unit mass
Contains moreglycogen
More soluble protein (sarcoplasmic)
Lesslipids
More saturated lipids
Less lipase activity
Higher ATPase activity
Rate &total Ca
++
uptake higher
More creatine phosphate
More ATP
LessAMP
Less RNA
Less rapid protein turnover rate
Anaerobicmetabolism(nooxygenrequired)
High glycolyticenzymeactivity
Muscle
longissimus
brachioradialis (superficial portion-
75%white fibers)
gastrocnemius
adductor magnus
pigsemitendinosus (peripheral)
118
CROSSSECTIONOFAMUSCLE
Pig Muscle
OxMuscle
Musclemayberankedaccordingtopercentoffibercontent
White
lightportionofsemitendinosus
outsidebicepsfemoris
longissimus
gluteusmedius
rectusfemoris
serratusventralis
insidebicepsfemoris
darkportionofsemitendinosus
trapezius
Red
119
Enzymesareanotherproteinmaterialthatisquiteimportant
to the meat industry. By definition, enzymes are organic
catalysts. Theyareresponsibleforalmostallthereactionsthat
takeplaceintheliveanimalandagreatnumberofthereactions
thattakeplaceinthecarcass. Whenananimalisslaughteredthe
enzymeswill continuetofunctionaslongastheenvironmentis
favorable. Enzymes,ingeneral,areresponsibleformostofthe
tenderizationthattakesplaceduringtheagingofmuscletissue.
Plant enzymes such as papain, bromelin and/or ficin are often
injected intomuscletoincreasetenderization. Enzymeactivity
likethatofmostcatalystsincreaseswithtemperature. Enzymes,
sincethey areprotein innature,haveanoptimumandamaximum
temperature (unlikemostmetallic catalysts) atwhich theywill
function. Therefore, if enzyme activity is plotted versus
temperaturethefollowinggraphisobtained.
High
iOptimum temp.
h
Ul
5
N
Z
Ul
/ \
Low
Cold
Hot
TEMPERATURE
A
C
T
I
\
120
Nucleoproteinsarealsofoundinmuscletissue. Thesearea
specialtypeofproteinthatisresponsibleforourgeneticmakeup
andtheycontaintheactualblueprintfortheproteinsmanufactured
bythebody. Theyareclassifiedinto2categoriesasfollows:
Abbreviations Name Function
1. RNA - Ribonucleicacid - SynthesisofProtein
2. DNA - Deoxyribonucleicacid - Genetic
Bothofthesecompoundsareconstructedasachainwithsubunits
whichareeachconstructedof:
1. Protein-aringproteinstructurecontainingnitrogen
2. Phosphate
3. Sugar-riboseordeoxyribose
Thesechainsareformedintodoublecoilhelixandheldtogether
byhydrogenbondingasfollows:
Phosphate Ribose Phosphate Ribose Phosphate
Base Base
HydrogenBonds{
Base Base
Phosphate Ribose Phosphate Ribose Phosphate
Proteinisinitiallysynthesizedbyplantsfromnitrates
inthesoilandthisproteinisconsumedbyanimalsandusedfor
synthesisof:
a. Bodytissueincludingstructuralmaterial
b. Enzymes
c. Somehormones
d. Partsoftheblood
Thisbuildingofplantproteincanbediagrammatically
121
representedasfollows:
absorbed
Nitrate
through
rootsof
consumed
in
Plant
Animal
soil
growing
Protein
Protein
plants
Thequantityofproteinandtheaminoacidcompositionof
severalfoodsareshowninthenexttwotables.
Percent Protein Found in Food
Food Product
Animal Sources % Protein
Beefsteak _ 18.5-20.0
cooked 21-38
Sausages
_ 12-18
Sausages (dried) 24
Bacon 9-10
Salt pork _ 4
Back Fat _ 2
Dried Beef _ 34
Blood _ 18.2
Butter
_ 0.5-1.0
Poultry Light Meat
_ raw 18-22
cooked in oil 32
Poultry Dark Meat
_ raw 16-20
cooked in oil 30
Poultry Skin
_ raw 15-17
cooked in oil 28
Poultry Giblets
_ raw 17-19
cooked in oil 31
Turkey Breast
22.6-25.5
Turkey Thigh
_ 18.5-21.5
Egg (Whole)
11.0-14.8
Yolk 16
White 11
Ham 16-22
Liver 20, cooked 23
Kidney 15, cooked 25
Milk (whole) 3.3-3.5
Cheese, Cheddar Processed 23
Cottage Cheese 17
Fish 15-22
122
% Protein
Meat Brine
3 day cure 0.5-1.1
15day cure 0.7-1.4
Plant Sources
Apple 0.2-0.4
Corn (varies with moisture) 1.8-9.5
Potato 1.8-2.2
Wheat (varies with moisture) 11.0-12.4
Bread 8-9
Meat Analogs - Spun Vegetable Protein (Temptein) 16-23
Peanut Butter 26
123
ApproximateAminoAcidComposition (percent)ofSomeProteins
Alanine
Arginine
Aspartic
Cystine
Glutamic
Glycine
Histidine
Hydroxy-
glutamic
Hydroxy-
proline
Leucine-
isoleucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenyl-
alanine
Proline
Serine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
Beef
Muscle
6.4
6.6 -8.0
8.8
1.3-1.4
14.4
7.1
2.0-3.3
-
-
13.0-
16.0
8.4-
10.0
2.3-2.7
3.9-4.5
5.4
3.8
4.0-5.8
1.0-1.3
3.0-3.2
5.1-5.8
Chicken
Muscle
-
7.5
11.5
1.7
19.0
8.0
3.5
-
-
14.9
10.3
2.9
4.6
-
-
5.2
1.1
4.0
5.7
Flounder
Muscle
-
6.5
10.5
1.6
15.3
6.5
-
-
-
15.3
10.5
3.2
4.8
7.3
3.2
4.8
0.8
3.2
6.5
Egg
Albumin
2.2-6.7
5.7-6.0
6.2 -9.3
0.8-1.0
13.0-
16.5
0.0-3.1
2.4-2.8

10.7-
16.2
3.8-6.3
0.0-5.0
5.1-7.7
3.6

0.0-4.0
1.2
3.7-4.0
2.5-7.1
124
Milk
Casein Gelatin Collacren Elastin
Alanine 1.8 8.7- 11.0 10.0-10.5 21.3-
23.1
Arginine 3.8-5.2 8.2- 9.1 8.2 -9.2 1.2-1.3
Aspartic 4.1-4.2 3.4- 6.7 6.0 -7.1 1.1
Cystine 0.3 0.0- 0.2 0.3 0.3
Glutamic 21.8 5.8- 11.4 11.0-11.9 2.4-2.6
Glycine 0.4-0.5 25.5- 27.5 25.3-26.6 26.7-
27.0
Histidine 2.6-2.7 0.8- 0.9 0.3 -1.0 0.0-0.1
Hydroxy- 10.5 - - -
glutamic
Hydroxy- 0.2 14.1- 14.4 12.8-14.1 1.6
proline
Leucine- 8.7-9.7 5.0 -7.1 4.6 -5.6 12.6-
isoleucine 12.8
Lysine 7.6 4.5 -5.9 3.6 -4.1 0.5
Methionine 3.5 0.0 -0.9 0.8 -1.0
-
Phenyl- 3.9 1.4-2.2 2.0 -2.9 6.2
alanine
Proline 7.8-8.0 16.4- 19.7 13.0-14.7 12.8-
13.5
Serine 0.5 0.4- 8.2 4.2 -4.3 0.8-1.0
Threonine 3.9 1.4- 2.2 2.2 -2.5 1.1-1.2
Tryptophan 2.2
-
0.1
-
Tyrosine 6.5 0.0- 0.3 0.5 -1.0 1.2-1.5
Valine 7.9 0.0- 0.6 2.3 -2.7 17.0-
17.7
125
Horn Wheat Corn Soybean
Keratin Gliadin Zein Meal
Alanine 1.5 -2.5 2.0 9.8-13.4
-
Arginine 2.3 -10.7 3.2 1.8-2.0 14.4-15.0
Aspartic 2.5 -7.9 0.6 1.8 3.2
Cystine 6.8 -15.7 2.0 0.8 1.6 -2.6
Glutamic 13.8-15.0 43.0 31.3
-
Glycine 0.4 - 9.6
- - -
Histidine 0.6 - 1.0 1.4 0.7-1.2 4.5 -5.3
Hydroxy- - 2.4 2.5
-
glutamic
Hydroxy- - - - -
proline
Leucine- 11.9-18.3 6.1 22.0-26.1 24.7-26.1
isoleucine
Lysine 2.4 -3.6
-
0.0-2.0 12.1-12.6
Methionine 0.5 -2.2
-
1.4-2.2 2.4 -2.6
Phenyl- 3.0 - 4.0 2.4 7.1-7.6 9.5 -10.3
alanine
Proline 3.6 -8.2 10.0 9.0
-
Serine 0.9 - 6.8 0.1 1.0

Threonine 0.0 - 6.1
-
2.4-2.6 7.5 -8.6
Tryptophan
-
0.8 0.0-0.2 1.4-2.8
Tyrosine 3.7 -5.6 2.2 4.7-5.9 5.0 - 6.4
Valine 5.3 -5.7 3.3 1.9-4.0 9.3 -10.4
NLSMB,1964;AMIF,1960;Fruton&Simmonds,1958;Ray,1947.
126
References
AgriculturalandFoodResearchCouncil.1993.EnergyandProtein
RequirementsofRuminants.CABInternational,Oxon,UK.
AmericanMeatInstituteFoundation. 1960. TheScienceofMeat&
MeatProducts. W.H.FreemanandCompany,SanFranciscoand
London.
Brewster,RayQ. 1948.OrganicChemistry. Prentice-Hall,Inc.,
NewYork
Burrell,RobinCharles. 1936. OrganicChemistry. McGraw-Hill
BookCo.,Inc.NewYorkandLondon.
Cheronis,NicholasD. 1941. OrganicChemistry. ThomasY.
CrowellCompany,NewYork.
McGraw-HillBookCompany,Inc.NewYork-Toronto-London.
FoxP.F.andJ.J.Soucie.1989.FoodProteins.AppliedScience
Pub.NY,NY.
Fruton,JosephS.andSofiaSimmonds. 1958. GeneralBiochemistry.
JohnWiley&Sons,Inc. NewYork-London-Chapman&Hall,
Limited.
HudsonB.J.F.1083.DevelopmentsinFoodProteins.Applied
Science.EnglewoodNJ.
HuntTim.1983.DNAandRNAMakeProtein.ElsevierBiomedical
Press.NY,NY.
KinsellaJ.E.andW.G.Soucie.1989.FoodProteins.Am.Oil
Chemists'Soc.Champaign,111.
KrausBarbara.1975.DictionaryofProtein.Harper'sMagazine
Press.NY,NY.
Lawrie,R.A. 1970. ProteinsasHumanFood. AVIPublishingCo.,
Inc. Westport,Connecticut.
LundbladRogerL.1991.ChemicalReagentsforProteinModification.
CRCPress.BocaRaton,Fla.
127
McPherson,William. 1946. Chemistry. GinnandCompany,Boston,
NewYork,Chicago,London,Atlanta,Dallas,Columbus,
SanFrancisco.
Analogs. MarshallDivision. Elkhart,Indiana 46514.
Peterson,WilliamH. 1943. ElementsofFoodBiochemistry.
Prentice-Hall,Inc.NewYork.
Ray,FrancisE. 1947. GeneralChemistry. J.B.Lippincott
Company,Chicago,PhiladelphiaandNewYork.
SeranaLoroia.1994.DevelopmentofLow-FatGroundBeefPatties
WithWheyProteinConcentrates.PhDDissertation,TheOhio
StateUniversity.Columbus,Ohio.
Wertheim,E. 1942. IntroductoryOrganicChemistry. The
BlakistonCompany,Philadelphia.
WongShanS.1991.ChemistryofProteinConjugationandCross
Linking.CRCPress.BocaRaton,Fla.
PTI
ZWITTERION&SOLUBILITY
Thenetchargeandconsequentlythesolubilityofaproteinis
governedbythepHoftheprotein'senvironment. Theabilityof
themoleculetochangeitschargewhenthepHchangesisknownas
theZwitterioneffect. Theacidicandbasicgroupsoftheprotein
thatarenotinvolvedinbondingarethegroupsthatacquirea
charge. Whenthepositivechargesinaproteinareequaltothe
negative charges,theproteinhas aneutral chargeandthisis
knownasitsisoelectricpoint. Theisoelectricpointisdifferent
(atadifferentpH)foreach different typeofprotein.The
isoelectricpointofaproteinisthepointofminimumsolubility,
whenviscosityistheleast,whenwaterisleastabsorbedandwhen
particlesadheretothegreatestextent.
The structural changesintheproteinmoleculewhichoccur
withchangesinpHarediagrammatically illustratedwithanamino
acidformulaasfollows:
Isoelectric point
Acidic p H
minimum solubility
(Example: pH-4.
5) minimumwater Basic pH
Increasedwater
holding. (Example: (Example pH-7).
holding.
pH-5.5) (Usually Increasedwater
not pH-7). holding.
O H
H H
(fermentation) ' *
R C-c'
RCC
RC- C'
O
+H* 1 *
Q i H
,
9
n r \ j . LJ * 1 >X
N
H
/ \
H
"
n
>
H
s\
H (PC
V -H* H H
r-T H*
Positive
Neutral
Negative
Charge
Charge
Charge
128
129
%
B
o
u
n
c
Aminoacidsmaybeclassifiedasfollows:
AroinoAcidType GroupsinAminoAcids IsoelectricpHRange
acidic 2-carboxyl; l-amino 2.7- 3.2
neutral 1-carboxyl; l-amino 4.8- 6.3
basic 1-carboxyl; 2-amino
7.6-10.8
IfpercentboundwaterisplottedagainstpHfortheprincipal
muscleproteinsthefollowinggeneralcurvewillresult.
100
8 0
cooked meat
B
60
raw meat
>
4 0
/
2 0
f
0
3 4 5 6 7
pH
This curve indicates thattheultimate pH range ofmostmuscle
tissue is in the general range of its isoelectric point and
consequently itsminimumsolubility. Thisisoneofthereasons
forthedecreaseinwaterholdingcapacityasthemusclesgointo
rigormortis. Alsoduringrigortheactinandmyosinhavereacted
toformactomyosinwhichislessbrinesolubleandalsolowersthe
waterholdingcapacity.
Approximately70%ofthetotalwaterinthemuscleiswithin
themyofibrils (sub-unitsofthemusclefiber)andthisstructure
130
ismaintainedevenonhomogenization. Asthemusclecontracts(for
exampleonrigor)theactinandmyosinarepulledclosertogether
andthespacewithinthemyofibrildiminishesandthequantityof
waterthatitcanmaintain isreduced. Thenumberandtypeof
chargesonfibrillarproteinalsodeterminethespacebetweenthe
filaments and consequently theamount ofwater the fibercan
contain. Thefollowingexampleillustratesthisdiagrammatically.
pH4.5
pH7.0
Pluscharges repelling
Negative charges repelling
adjaoent rnyofibrils - leaving
adjacent rnyofibrils -leaving
spaoe forwater
" ' spaceforwater
Zero charges notrepelling
adjacent rnyofibrils -leaving i R"~CH"
less space forwater / |
/ V
H H
HH
0 1
repulsion
minimum of swelling
swelling Increases
swelling increases
131
Toincreasewaterholdingcapacitythetissueneedstoswell
andthisisaccomplishedeitherbyincreasingthepHabove5.4,or
bysaltaddition,orbyaddingpolyphosphatesand/orbylowering
thetemperature.
AdditionofSalt:
Additionofsalt (NaCl)tomeatlowerstheisoelectricpoint
(l.E.P.)towardtheacidendofthepHscale.
*-
- Meat * Salt
-
- Fresh meat
100
8 0
60
40
\
*
y
*
20
l.E.P.
/ <
~ l.E.P.
3 4 5 6 7
PH
Thisisaccomplishedbythechlorineion(Cl")binding withthe
positivechargesofthemuscletoastrongerdegreethanthesodium
ion(Na
+
)combineswiththenegativecharges. Muscletissuethat
initially wasatitsisoelectric point configuration (pH5.5,
neutralchargeonprotein)withtheadditionofsalthasatotal
negativechargeandthemyofibrilsarerepelledandwill retain
additionalwaterduetothenewconfiguration.
B
o
u
n
d
W
a
t
e
r
132
Fresh meal in rigor + salt at pH 5.5
(This pH is I.E.P. lor trash maat in rigor without salt)
(overall negative charge)
Below (moreacid)theoriginalisoelectricpointthetissue
initially had a positive charge but with the addition of salt
(Na*Cl")the chlorine ion (Cl")bindswithmost ofthe positive
chargesandtheoverallchargeontheproteinbecomesneutral(new
isoelectric point). Inthis statethemyofibrilsarenotheld
apartbychargesandthereislessspaceforwater.
Fresh meat in rigor + salt at pH 4.5
I.E.P. for meat and salt
(overall nocharge)
Little Water I Lack of repulsion
133
Strong bonding of a cation (+ ion) would result in the
oppositeeffect. AtapHof5.5orgreater(meatisoelectricpoint
and above) ifacation isstrongly absorbed, thewaterholding
capacity isdecreased,andtheprotein fibershaveaminimumof
swelling.
Saltuptoalevelof4-4.5%calculatedonthebasisoflean
meatwill increase thewater holding capacity. At highersalt
levels,thewaterholdingcapacitydecreases. Whensaltisdiluted
bywatertheinfluenceonwaterholdingcapacityismuchless.
Saltifaddedpriortorigorreducestheeffectivenessofthe
glycolysissystemandahigherpHisobservedatthecompletionof
rigorandthisalso increasesthewaterholding capacity ofthe
tissue. Saltalsoaidsintheextractionofprotein(bestat32F)
and consequently the binding properties of comminuted meat.
Advantages ofhotboning andpre-salting (2.75%)pre-rigormeat
are:
1. Betterwaterholdingcapacity
2. Lessshrinkage
3. Betterbinding
4. Increasejuiciness
5. Firmertexture
6. Brightercolor
7. Betteruseofvegetableprotein
8. Lowermicrobiologicalcount (lessthan15,000/g)
9. Betterpealability
10.Extendedshelflife
134
11.Lesschillingcost
12.Lessboningskill
13.Mechanicaldeboningworksbetteronhotbones.
AdditionofPhosphate:
Thereareseveraltheoriesonhowphosphateincreaseswater
holdingcapacityandtheyaresummarizedasfollows:
1. BasicreactingphosphatesincreasepH (maximum
of0.6pHunitbecausemeatissuchagood
buffer)oftissueawayfromthetissueisoelectric
pointandconsequentlythemuscleretainsmorewater.
Acidreactingphosphatesdecreasethewaterholding
capacityofmeatintheaceticrangebelowthe
isoelectricpoint. ThepHalterationalone,however,
doesnotexplainthetotalobservedchangeinwater
holdingcapacity.
2. Somephosphates (pyrophosphateandtripolyphosphate
canbehydrolyzedtopyrophosphate)arecapableof
breakingthebondsofbridgesformedduringrigor
betweenactinandmyosinallowingthefilamentsto
expandandretainmorewater. Thisliberatesmyosin
fromtheactin-myosincomplexandmyosinisamuch
betteremulsifierthanthecombinationofactin-
myosin.
3. Highlypolymerizedphosphates (Ex.sodiumhexameta-
phosphate)increasetheionicstrengthinthe
vicinityofthefilamentsandthisincreasesthe
135
waterretainingcapacity. Thisisaccomplishedby
thenegativelychargedphosphateanionsbeing
attractedtothepositivechargedsitesonthe
protein,whichcausedamorenegativechargeonthe
protein,causingproteinstorepel,openupand
retainmorewater.
4. Phosphates (Ex.hexametaphosphate)willbind(and
removetheactiveform)Ca**ions. Theseionsform
bridgesbetweenthefilamentsanddecreasethespace.
Withtheremovalofthesebindingbridges(Ca
++
)this
allowsthefiberstoexpandandretainmorewater.
5. Somephosphatescauseashiftoftheprotein
isoelectricpointtoalowerpHvalue.
Regardless of the exact mode of action,phosphates onthe
basic side of the isoelectric point cause an increase inthe
negative net charge on the proteins and a repulsion between
adjacentproteinmoleculessothatmorewatercanbecontainedin
thisproteinnetwork.
Theincreasedwaterholdingcapacityobtainedwithphosphates
is stronger in the presence of salt (NaCl) and the hydration
increaseswithincreasingsaltconcentration.
Electrophoresis is a method of separating protein by its
electrical charge. The protein isplaced inaD.C. electrical
fieldandtheproteinmigratestowardtheelectricalpolethatis
ofoppositecharge. Thelargertheproteinchargethefasterit
movesintheD.C.field. SincethepHchangestheproteincharge,
136
the pH must be specified and constant when comparing protein
migration. If amixture ofproteinswithdifferent charges is
placedinaD.C. fieldtheywillseparate. UnderthissetofpH
conditions,therelativestrengthofthechargecanbedetermined.
Iftheproteindoesnotmove,thepHusedistheisoelectricpoint
ofthisprotein.
137
References
AmericanMeatInstituteFoundation. 1960,1971. TheScienceof
MeatandMeatProducts. W.H.FreemanandCompany,San
FranciscoandLondon.
BradshawR.A.andM.Purton. 1990. Protein: Formand
Function. ElsevireTrendsJournal,Cambridge.
BratzlerL.E. 1992. FoodPreparationStudyCourse.Iowa
StateUniversityPress.
CreightonT.E. 1993. Proteins: StructureandMolecular
Properties. W.H.Freeman,NewYork.
Deman,J.M.andP.Melnychyn. 1971. PhosphatesinFood
Processing. A.V.I.PublishingCo.Inc.,Westport,CT.
L
1
ItalianJ.J. 1987. ProteinsStructureandFunction.
PlenumPress,NewYork.
ENZYMES
Enzymesaredefinedasorganiccatalystswhichareproducedby
livingcells(animal,plant,andbacterial)butareindependentof
thesecellsfortheiraction. Theyareglobularproteinsinnature
withalowmolecularweight(MW-13,000to1,000,000). Enzymeswill
onlycatalyzeaspecificreactionandconsequentlythereisagreat
numberofenzyme types. Thesubstanceanenzyme reactsonis
calledasubstrateandtheenzymeisnamedbytakingtherootword
ofthesubstrateandadding-"ase"toit.
Enzyme+Substrate , y Enzyme-Substrate Complex >Enzyme + End Proudcls
T L
Lipase + LipidsT>lipnca.lipiric ^ iip^ + Fatty Acid end Glycerol
t
(Emulsified
Unfortunatelysomeenzymeswerenamedbeforetheabovesystem
of nomenclaturewasestablishedandarestill knownbytheir
originalnames.
Originalnames Newnamingsystem
Pepsin Gastricprotease
Trypsin Intestinalprotease
Enzymes catalyzemostbiological reactionsandallow these
reactionstoproceedatbody temperature. Afewofthebody
138
139
biochemicalareaswhereenzymesfunctionare:
1. Digestion
2. Metabolism
3. Respiration
4. Musclecontraction
Thefollowingdiagrambrieflyoutlinesthepathwayoffoodin
thebody. Eachstepisagiantsummaryofnumerousreactionsand
almostallofthesereactionsarecatalyzedbyenzymes.
Complex food
d |
9
e s t l 0
% simpie
b u i l d i n
R, pôtien,
converting toa molec ;ules ^
f a t a n d
substance that
carbohydratss
can be absorbed and
utilized by the
body
oxidation
>
body <inergy
Enzymesarenormallyclassifiedbythetypeofreactionthey
catalyze and by the substrate with which they react.
Classificationsvarydependingonhowthereactionsarecategorized
andoneclassificationsystemwithafewexamplesisasfollows:
140
ClassificationandExamplesofEnzymes
Enzyme Substra
Hydrolytic
Splitcomple
ofwater
1. Carbohydrase:
a. Amylase Starch
b. Sucrase Sucrose
c. Lactase Lactose
2.Lipase Fats
3.Protease
a. Pepsin Protein
b. Trypsin Protein
II. Coagulatingenzymes-coagulationofprotein (solubleto
insolubleform)
1. Rennin Casein
III. Fermentingenzymes-causefermentation
1. Zymase Monosaccharide
IV. Oxidizingenzymes-controloxidationreactions
1. Catalase HydrogenPeroxide
2. Peroxidase OrganicPeroxides
V. Deaminizingenzymes-formammonia
1. Urease Urea
Therateofanenzymaticreactioniscontrolledbyanumberof
factorsandanoutlineofsomeofthemoreimportantonesareas
follows:
1. Temperatures-Normallya10Criseintemperature
141
willincreasethereactionrate2to3times (within
temperaturelimits). Eachenzymehas -
a. Anoptimumtemperature (bodyenzymes;
86-122F:coldbloodedanimals-enzyme
temperaturerangeiswider)-temperature
atwhichthereactionrateisthegreatest.
b. Maximumtemperature-temperatureatwhich
thereactionratestopsandtheenzymeis
irreversiblydenatured.
c. Minimumtemperature-temperatureatwhich
thereactionratestops-enzymeisnot
denatured.
If temperaturewasplotted against enzyme activitythe
followingtypeofgraphwouldresult. (Temperaturerangewillbe
differentforeachenzyme).
High
^ ^ Optimum
^r^ lemperature %
LU
Minimum
e f Maximum
^ J lemperalu
l_ow
Cold H o t
Temperalure
?
y
m
e
A
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
2. pH-ThepHwillalsoaffecttherateofreaction. The
variationinoptimumpHforindividualenzymesvaries
142
quitewidely. IfpHwasplottedagainstenzymeactivity
thefollowinggraphwouldresult. (pHrangewouldbe
quitedifferentforeachenzyme.)
High
Optimum pH
A
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
Uow
Basic
p H
Increasesurfaceareaforsubstrate-enzymecontact:
Reactionratescanbeincreasedbymixingandsub-
dividingparticles. Reactionratesmayalsobe
increasedwithinlimitsbyincreasingtheconcentration
ofsubstrateand/orenzyme.
EndProducts-Thenatureoftheendproductsmayalso
controltherateofreaction. Sincemostenzymatic
reactionsarereversibletheirforwardspeedisreduced
asendproductsareaccumulated. Itisnecessaryin
mostinstancestoremoveendproducts(Example,
absorptionofendproductthroughintestinalwall)to
assurethatthereactionwillgotocompletion.
Activators-Thesechemicalsarenecessaryformany
143
enzymaticreactions. Theyareinorganicinnatureand
usuallyfairlynon-specific. Examplesare:
a. ChlorineionCl"
b. MagnesiumionMg
++
c. CobaltionCo
++
d. NickelionNi
++
e. ZincionZn
++
6. Coenzymes-Aresimilartoactivatorsexcepttheyare
organicinnatureandmuchmorespecific.
7. Inhibitors (anti-enzymes)-Inhibitorsstopanenzymatic
reactionandafewprecipitatingagentsareasfollows:
a. Heavymetals
MercuryHg
++
SilverAg
++
LeadPb
++
b. Cyanides
c. Alcohol
d. Heat
e. Substanceswhichcomplexwithnecessarymetals.
Certainenzymesareproducedinaninactiveform
calledproenzymes (zymogens)andrequireactivation
beforetheycanfunctionascatalysts. Anexample
ofafewactivatingagentsare:
a. Inorganiccompounds
b. Otherenzymes
c. pH
144
References
andMeatProducts. W.H.Freeman&Co.,SanFranciscoand
London.
andCompany,PhiladelphiaandLondon.
Eisenthal,RobertandMichaelDanson. 1992. EnzymeAssays:
APracticalApproach. OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford
England.
InternationalUnionofBiochemicalandMolecularBiology. 1992.
EnzymeNomenclatures. AcademicPress. SanDiego.
Kuby,A.Stephen. 1991. AStudyofEnzymes. CRCPress,Boca
Raton.
Matthews,C.John. 1993. FundamentalsofReceptor,Enzymeand
TransportKinetics. CRCPress,BocaRaton.
Passonneau,V.Janet. 1993. EnzymeAnalysis:APractical
Guide. HumanaPress,Totowa,N.J.
andCompany,PhiladelphiaandLondon.
TR)
11
PIGMENTS
Pigmentsassociatedwithmuscletissuearecomplexproteins
(typicalproteinattachedtoanon-proteintypestructure)andthe
non-proteinportionofthismoleculeisresponsibleforthecolor.
Twosimilarpigmentsare involved inmuscleandtheyarecalled
myoglobinandhemoglobin. Bothhavearoleinrespirationandmay
beclassifiedasfollows:
Pigment Location Function
Hemoglobin blood Carriesoxygenfromlungsto
myoglobin
Myoglobin tissue Storesoxygenattissuecell
levelandcarriesittothe
mitochondria
Sincehemoglobinisassociatedwiththeblood,theratioof
thesepigmentsinmuscletissueisalteredtremendouslybybleeding
ananimal. Intheliveanimalapproximately 10%ofthepigments
may be found inmyoglobin (90%hemoglobin) but after bleeding
approximately95%(range85-97%)ofthepigmentsleftinthebody
canbefoundinthemyoglobin(5%hemoglobin;range3-15%). Organs
(i.e.heartandliver)containamoreextensivebloodsupplysystem
thanmuscletissueandafterbleedingretainalargerpercentageof
hemoglobin (50%oftotalpigment)thanthemuscletissue.
Chemicallythese2pigmentsareverysimilarandhemoglobinin
manywaysresembles4myoglobinmoleculescombined. Thefollowing
tablesummarizestherelationshipbetweenthese2pigments:
145
146
Hemoglobin Myoalobin
Molecularweight 4(16,000-17,000) 16,000-17,000
Hemegroups 4 1
Ironpermolecule 4 1
Oxygenbinding Same Same
equivalent/weight
Oxygenaffinitydueto Lower Higher
bindingofheme
Aminoacidunitsin 574 Approx.150
protein
Thequantityofmyoglobinpresentinanindividualmuscle
dependsonthefollowingfactors:
1. Muscleactivitywithinananimal (oxygendemand;shank-
moremyoglobin)
2. Exerciseofananimalincreasesmyoglobin
3. Castration (reducesmyoglobin)
4. Quantityandefficiencyofthebloodsupplyinthis
tissue (morebloodsupply-lessmyoglobinisneeded)
5. Availabilityofoxygen(Ex.,whale-myoglobinquite
high)
6. Ironindiet (reduceiron-reducemyoglobin)
7. Ageofanimal (older-moremyoglobin)
8. Species (asthespeciessizeincreasestheconcentration
ofmyoglobinincreases)
9. Environmentaltemperature (temperaturedecreases,
myoglobinincreases)
10.Feedofanimal
Feed Hemoglobin (beef)
Barley 0.291
Corn 0.325
Grass 0.458
H
U
<n tr>.C
c
0
H
P
S
SO -P
o n >is
o
o
o
Id
H
Q)
M
M -P
O-H >
O N-HT)
P O-P
>i U
O <d
0
10
o
I* 1
VO
dl
3
to
Q
rH
&
Q
d>
rH
d)
3
O
o
to
-iH
P
0)
H
0
P
c
d)
p
0
a
H
\
CP
E
O
to
3
in
(0
- H
P
to
3
E
c
0
0
B
0
*W
*O
d>
P
(0
c
-rH
0
H
CP
0
B
d)
0
H
A
O
rH
0*
0
X
o
E
d)
0
to
3
E
d)
3
to
to
rH
+J
vo
to n vo co
VO
n
r>
H
<N vo
H
fH
1
VO
co
in
I
VO
o
in
I
vo in
,_,
(N
1
VO
1
VO
rH
CM
rH
1
oo
0
*
to 0
H
c
id O
to
d)
H
+J
H
P
c
id
&
C
H
0
H
H
0
HH
d)
c
H
0
0*
0
c
0
d>
id
c
id
to
di
- H
0
d)
ft
(0
H
id
c
to to . .
d)
dl
3
vo
rH
+J
<d
d)
d)
P
H
r)
Jj
1
dl
H
3
EH
d)
d>
3
CN
p
id
d)
E
d)
- H
X!
1
0)
M
3
EH
+J
id
dl
E
dl
H
r]
j
^ ,
[j
+J
rH
3
O
cu
w
d)
vo
H
|I
id
d)
E
id
-o
i
p^
di
3
&H
10
X
d)
d)
*?
4J
id
di
E
id
o
i
i-i
3
EH
T)
d)
U
O
<4H
P
id
d)
E
^
(0
a
^,
î
p
r-H
0
1 1
H
-H
P
U
c
H
rH
id
o
c
p
(d
di
g ^.^
>-.
x -P
id >
1\
>iO
M id
-p
3
o
OH
T3
d>
U
U
0
4-1
-P
d)
E
tr*
H
i H
^ i
J-l
1i
^j
^ ^
3
0
OH
H
^
-rt
+J
0
(0
c
i-H
id
o
c
p
id
di
E
-P
r^
1^1
H
rH
^ ,
^1
+J
I
3
O
P-|
-H
11
o
id
t>1
id
P
c
dl
T)
dl
to
-P
H
f^ fl)
id
-iH
c
id
d) O
>; to
tH 3
n
e
w Q)
rH
X 10
t I Q.
o
OH
10
3
0)
4J
H
X! id
6
c
d) to ^ id
u 6 d) In
to - H J-I d)
3 to *-"O
6 10 rH
to o
id *- X
u c o
id 5 w..
Qrldlh
01
i
1
U
A
CQ 4-1
rd - H 4J
U T3 >
0 - H - H
P X 4->
>i 0 U
U rd
'
o
o
CN
o
o
r-
oo
oo
00 ID
H
X ) MH
o o
H
0 )
O
d) d)
i-H .
01 U CO
CN
6 --^ CQ CO
Hi oi 3 -H
ro
o
K E E 4-i
C
rH 'I I
00
i Q O
0 d) 0)
rH rH
01 01 U CO
U) ro (Ji o H cn
1J3 rH
I I
CN CN
\O \>
00
0 \ CQ CO
>i Ol 3 -rH
O O ^< (N CN
S E E 4J
E
H
rH
0 4H
a
0
U
U
0
Ch
V
- H
C
0
H
a.
^1
4J
M
y\
0
a
o
L0
1
o
LD
U
0
a
4J
u
CO
(L)
a
ro
d)
E
^
d)
d)
U
u
0
a
r H
0
y
0
a
Q)
0l
0
EH
r H
(0
(L)
c
CO 0
Q j j
E 4-1
rO 13
4J
(C
d)
E
r H
r H
m
d)
(L)
m
4J
<TJ
0)
E
S
0
u
0)
0)
4J
rS
d)
E
d)
d)
45
U
4H
d)
d)
X)
4J
U
rd
d)
W
4H
d)
d)
XI
d)
r j
01
c
o
0
u
X
u
u
0
u
c
0
4H
cu
d)
X)
n
i|
o
,
4J
MH
m
d)
CQ
^_l
0
d)
u
XI
01
0
0
4-1
0)
CO
rH
0
4J
c
rd
a
d)
r H
d)
r H
rd
D
i1
CQ
^^
r H
d)
d)
r H
rd
d)
CQ
CQ
4-1
rd
a;
^^
d)
?
4-1
H
4.)
r H
n3
r;
Oi
-rH
CQ
4J
r8
149
Chemicallymyoglobinisseparatedinto2portionsasfollows:
Featomandalarge
Proteinportion
ring (Porphyrin);
calledglobin
calledheme
Most (approximately95%)
Responsibleformeat
ofthemolecularweight
colorandmostofthe
andsize
oxygencarrying
properties
Pigmentationinpoultryisalsoreducedbythefollowing:
1. Extrafatinthediet
2. InadequateVitaminEindiet
3. Miloindiet
4. Fortifiedcod-liveroilinthediet
5. Meatscraps,fishmeal,andsoybeanoilinthedietcontaina
factorswhichreducespigmentationintheshanks
Yellownessofpoultryskinresultsfrom:
1. Xanthophyllsinthediet (soybeanoilisasource)
2. Geneticstrainsinbirds
3. PresenceofCoccidia(parasiticprotozoa-Eimeriaspp.-ofthe
intestine)
Thechemicalstructureofthehemeportionisasfollows:
4 Pyrrole
compounds
cyclic structure
amines
150
Thisportion(heme)ofthemyoglobinmoleculeissmallinsize
butisthesectionthatisalteredwhenmeattissuechangescolor.
Not all ofthebody iron isassociated with hemoglobinor
myoglobin andsomeof itisbound tothemyofibrillarproteins.
The functionofthisnon-heme iron iscurrently unknownandits
quantityhasbeenestimatedasfollows:
%oftotalironas %oftotalironas
heme (hemoglobinor non-hemeiron
myoglobin)iron
blood 97-99 1-3
porcinemuscle 32 68
bovinemuscle 71 29
This iron inmuscle tissue usually acts as a catalyst forfat
oxidation.
Fat colorcanvarywithspecies,breed, ageand feedofan
animal. Porkisusuallywhiteandbeefandsheepvariesfromwhite
toyellow. Yellowbeef fat isnormally associatedwithpasture
feeding or older animals or some of the dairy breeds (Channel
Islandparticularly)andisduetothepresenceofcaroteneinthe
fattissue. Whitefatisnormallyassociatedwithhigherquality,
due to the above reasons, even though yellow fat is not
discriminatedagainstincarcassgradingandisindistinguishable
inflavorfromwhitefat.
151
BCarotene (Vitamin A precursor)
Yellowfatinsheepisusuallyassociatedwithhighlevelsof
xanthophylls which seemstobeaheritable factor. Lutein and
flavoxanthinseemtobethechiefXanthophyllsintheyellowmutton
fat.
152
References
AmericanMeatInstituteFoundation. 1960. TheScienceofMeatand
MeatProducts. W.H.Freeman&Co.,SanFranciscoandLondon.
Borgstrom,G. 1968. PrinciplesofFoodScience. Collier-
MacMillanCanada,Ltd.,Toronto.
Dickerson,R.E.1983.Hemoglobin:Structure,Function,Evolution
andPhysiology.Benjamin/CummingsPub.Co.MenloPark,Calif.
Froning,G.W.,J.DaddarioandT.E.Hartung. 1968. Colorof
TurkeyMeat. PoultryScience47:1827.
Fruton,JosephS.andSofiaSimmonds. 1953. GeneralBiochemistry.
JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,NewYork,London,Chapman&Hall,
Limited.
Hamm,R.andK.Buennig. 1972. Myoglobin,HemoglobinandIronin
BovineandPorcineMuscle. 18thMeetingofEuropeanMeat
ResearchWorkers.
Kendrew,JohnC. 1961. TheThree-DimensionalStructureofa
ProteinMolecule. W.H.Freeman&Co.,SanFrancisco,
California.
Lawrie,R.A. 1953. MyoglobininRelationtoNineMonthsEnforced
InactivityinFowls. Nature171:1069.
Perutz,M.F. 1964. TheHemoglobinMolecule. W.H.Freeman&
Co.,SanFrancisco,California.
Schroeder,W.A.1980.TheChromatographyofHemoglobin.M.Dekker.
N.Y.,N.Y.
i;
MEATCOLOR
Meatcolorreactionsaregenerallydividedintofreshmeatand
curedmeatcategories.
FreshMeat;
When fresh meat is initially cut the myoglobin (muscle
pigment)colorisapurplishred. Onexposuretoair,anoxygen
moleculeisaddeddirectlytotheironportion(oxygenation)ofthe
myoglobin andyieldsoxymyoglobinwhichhasabrightredcolor.
Thisstepisoftencalled "blooming"inthemeattrade. Thisis
thereasonoxygenpermeablewrappingmaterial isusedwithfresh
meatandtheblockingofthisreaction(oxygenation)isthereason
vacuumpackagedmeathasadarkcolorwhenopened.
Uponfurtherexposuretooxygen,oxidationtakesplaceandthe
ironintheoxymyoglobinischangedfromavalenceof+2to+3and
thisyieldsmetmyoglobinwhichisabrownpigment. Dehydrationand
hightemperaturesacceleratethisreaction.
Upon cooking the globin portion of the meat pigment is
fragmentedandyieldsadarkbrowncookedcolor.
Furtheroxidationofmetmyoglobinyieldsoffcolormeatwhich
isoftengreen.
The color ofmeat is influenced by thecomposition ofthe
atmospheresurroundingthemeat. Theatmosphereisalteredbythe
biochemicalreactionscontinuinginthetissuewhichconsumeoxygen
andliberate carbondioxideandalsobythepermeability ofthe
wrappingmaterialwhichmayallowgasestopenetratethisbarrier.
Oxymyoglobinisfavoredbyhighconcentrationsofoxygenand
153
154
metmyoglobinbylowconcentrationsofoxygen. Inatissuesample
exposedtooxygenbothreactionstakeplace. Atthesurfacewhere
oxygen is available oxymyoglobin is produced and this pigment
extends inward until a point where oxygen pressure is lowand
metmyoglobin isformed. Beyondwhere oxygenhaspenetratedthe
pigmentismyoglobin.
Surtacs
ff"
oxymoglobin -red -oxygenated
meimyoglobin -brown -oxidized
myoglobin-purple reduced
Oxidation occuro facter at intermediate oxygen tenoion.
155
Fresh Meat Color Changes
Myoglobin (purplish red)
reduced
ferrous
N N
Globin Fe H
2
O
N N
Fresh cut meat color
oxygenotion;
blooming;
30-minute exposure toair;
oxygen permeable wrapping (5,000 mlO
2
ysqm/24hr/aim
at 75F 100%to 52% rhgradient)
.Low temperature increases oxygen availability-
Oxymyoglobin (bright red)
1. Low temperature reduces oxygen
ferrous
consuming reaction:
N N
a. biomedical meat reactions
Globin FeO- O
b. bacterial reactions
2. At low temperatures oxygen Is more
N N
soluble in tissuefluid.
Most desirable retail color
oxidation;
prolonged exposure tooxygen;
dehydration;
high temperature,
freezing;
acid;
salt;
ultra violet light (notaffected byvisible light)
some metals
Metmyoglobln (brown)
Cooked meat pigment
oxidized ferric ferric
N N
G l o b i n F e H O
* v 2
cooking
N N
/ \
+ 3
/
/ Fe- H
N N
N N
Stale meatcolor
Dark brown:
oxidation (usuallyto
pyrophin ring)
denatured globin;
browningof fat;
sugar &protein
production ofhydrogen
peroxide by greening
bacteria
production of hydrogen - e
1off-colored meat products
156
Lowering the temperature increases the depth of oxygen
penetrationbecauseitincreasesthesolubilityofthegasinmeat
tissueand reducesthebiochemical reactions (consume:0
2
)ofthe
tissue. Thepreviousdiagramschematicallyshowsthesereactions.
Dehydration;
Asmeatdehydrates,adarkreddishbrowncoloroccurswith
lossofmoistureandthisisduetotheincreasedconcentrationof
pigmentsonthesurface. Asthesurfacedries,interiormoisture
and itsdissolved pigmentsmigratetothesurfaceandthewater
evaporated causing an additional concentration of pigments. A
relativehumidityof85-90%isrequiredtopreventdesiccation.
CuredMeatColor:
Curedmeatcolordependsonthereactionofnitricoxide(NO)
withmyoglobintoproducenitrosomyoglobinwhichisapinkishred
pigment. To obtain nitric oxide, sodium or potassium nitrate
and/orsodiumorpotassiumnitriteareaddedtothecuringmixture.
Tobecomeeffectivethenitratemustfirstbereducedtonitrite
andthiscanbeaccomplishedbybacterialreactions.
Bacterial
Reduction
Sodium nitrate ( NaNOJ > Sodium nitrite (NaNC>2)
Usually by Achromobacter
and Micrococcus andtheir optimum pH is 6.5
157
Ascuringschedulesbecomesfasterthedirectadditionofnitrite
withoutnitrateisbecomingmorepopular.
Thenitrite (NaNO
2
)isconverted tonitrousacid (HNO
2
)and
finallytonitricoxide (NO)whichisagas. LowpH(particularly
below 4.6 if no added reducing agents are present), and other
reducing conditions intissue [protein sulfhydryl groups (-SH),
reducingcoenzymesandotherreducingsubstances]acceleratethese
reactionswhichpromotesthedevelopmentofcuredmeatcolorand
aidsinprotectingitfromfadingbylight. AreductioninpHby
0.2 to 0.3 will double the reaction rate. All lightsources;
incandescent(tungstenfilament),fluorescentandultravioletlight
haveequaleffect,provided intensityandexposureareequal,on
fadingofcuredmeatcolor.
Sodium Low pH Nitrous
LowpH Nitric
Nitrite
AôTbl?
Oxide
Gas
>
( HNO
2
)
Ascorbic (NO)
<
N a N
V Acid
Acid
The portion ofun-
dissociated nitrous
acid depends onpH:
HNO.
2
log
p k - pH, where pk is3.4
10 2
concentration of HNOpincreases roughly
10 fold for every unit fall of pH
158
The amount of ni t ri t e converted to nitric oxide also depends
on temperature:
Internal meat temperature
%Conversion
0-32F
0%
32-40F
10%
40-50F
25%
50-60F
38%
60-70F
50%
above 120F 0%
Nitrousacidinadditiontoproducingnitricoxidecanreact
withaminoandothergroupsinproteins. Example:
RCHNHgCOOH-
Collagen high in a Hydroxy acid
Q amino acids
or
vwv
ww
wyw
s
S-N=O oxidation $
t tt
H
+ N0
+N0J +N.I +N0l
H
Nitrogen S-N=O jeduction S
S dioxide
AAM
/wv\
vwOv
Cystine
rysteine on2 Nitroso thiol
peptide chains
Thisiswhynitritedisappearssorapidlywhenaddedtomeat
(40%ofquantityaddedafter1day;20%after9weeks)eventhough
onlyafractionofthisquantity(9%)isusedincolordevelopment.
Approximately 5%islostasagasduring processingand 35%
159
(increasesto65%after9weeksofstorage)canbefoundinwater
soluble meat extracts and bound to soluble and insoluble meat
proteins.
Therateofnitritedisappearance ishighlydependantonpH
andtemperatureandhasthefollowingrelationship:
log
10
(halflifeinhours)=0.65-0.025xtemp.(C)+0.35xpH
Nitrous acid (HNO
2
)breaksdowntoyield nitric acid (HNO
3
)and
nitricoxide(NO).
Nitrousacid >Nitricacid+Nitricoxide+W a t e r
3HNO
2
HNO
3
2NO H
2
O
Whenreducingagentsareaddedtotheproductthefollowing
acceleratetherateofnitriteconversiontonitricoxide.
1. DecreasingpH (rangefromatleast7to5).
2. Increasingtemperature (rangefromatleast0to95C).
3. Increasingtime (rangefromatleast0to72hours)
The nitric oxide then reacts with myoglobin to produce
nitrosomyoglobin.
Optimum
Myoglobin + Nitric Oxide Nitrosomyoglobin
(NO) PH 5.0-5.4
160
Thenitrosomyoglobin (alsocallednitricoxidemyoglobin)may
be oxidized to the undesirable brown pigment metroyoglobin. To
blockthisreaction,curedmeatiswrapped inoxygen impermeable
paper.
Ifoxygenispresentduringthecuringreaction,thefollowing
undesirablereactionmayoccur.
Sodium Nitric
Nitrite -
Oxide
(NO)
Nitric
*.Nitrogen
1
Oxide
Dioxide
2NO
2NO
n
Nitrogen Oxygen
gas gas
Myoglobin Nitrogen'
>Metmyoglobin
+
Nitrate + Oxygen
t
(2MygOJ
+
Dioxide
MygO
NO.
(NO,)
Ifoxygenisnotpresentthefinalresultsmaybethesame.
Sodium Nitrite-
Nitrous Acid
(NaNCy
(HNO,)
Myoglobin (Fe++) + Nitrous
0H"+ NO+Metmyoglobin (Fe+++)
Acid
(HNCfe)
161
Thesereactionsareoften seenintheinitialstagesofsausage
manufacturing priortothe formationofnitrosomyoglobin. This
oxidationreactionencouragesuncoilingofthedoublecoilhelix
andthusexposureofadditional-SHgroups. Thesegroupsactas
reducingagentsandencouragetheformationofnitrosomyoglobin.
Nitrogen dioxide may alsocombine withwater toyield the
following:
Nitrogen Dioxide + Water ^Nitric + NitrousAcid
2 NO
2
H
2 Acid HNO
2
HNO3
(Nitrate ion)
Thisreactionmayexplainhownitratesareformedinasystem
inwhichonlynitritewasadded. Itmayalsoexplainwhynitrite
ismoreinhibitorytomicroorganismswhenoxygenisabsentandwhen
reducingagentsarepresent.
ExcessiveuseofascorbateornitriteoralowpHcancause
nitrite burn in both cooked and uncooked products. Nitrogen
dioxide (NO
2
)reactswithnitrosomyoglobintogiveabrowncolor.
When vacuum choppers or stuffers are used they encourage the
following:
162
whichimprovescolorinthecomminutedproduct. Treatmentofcut
surfacewithascorbatefrequentlydelaysdiscoloration.
Asummaryofafewpossiblenitrogenreactions:
Reduction
NaNO
NaNO
2
HNO
HNO- + NO + H_0
3 2
HNO
2
0
2
\
low
NO,
N.
o
2
PH
Normallyaftercuring,heatisappliedtotheproductduring
smoking. At this time nitrosomyoglobin is converted to
nitrosomyochrome (alsocallednitricoxidedenaturemyoglobin)and
theglobinportionofthemoleculeisfragmentedandthecuredmeat
takesonabrightpurplishredcolor.
Thesereactionsmaybeshowndiagrammaticallyasfollows:
163
Cured Meat Reaction8
Myoglobin (purplishred) |Qxymyoglobin|
N N
\
2
/
Metmyoglobin (brown)
GlobinFe K,0
N N
/ \
\
+ 3
/
N N reducingcon-
GlobinFe H,0
Fresh cutmeat dition;ascor-
bicacid
/ \
nitricoxide:
N N
reducing conditions
Stalemeatcolor
hydrogenperoxide formed
bybacteriasuchaslacto-
oxidation: minimizedby
bacillusor leuconostoc;
oxygen impermeablewrap;
^.excessnitrite;bleach
reducing compoundssuch
[gray-green color]
asascorbate;accelerated
by light (to agreaterex-
tent thanfresh meat)of
560&630uwavelength;
temperature; lowpH;oxy-
gen; hydrogen peroxide
formedbybacteria
Oxidation (increasedby
increased oxygen tension
_andlight)
Nitrosomychrome
Nitrosomyoglobin
(bright purplishred)
(pinkishred)
N N
N N
Heat(120- 140F)
w
If pigmenlisnot
w
/-Fe-NO
A
formed atthistem-
A
Globin-Fe-NO
perature itwillnot
bind NO.
N N
N N
Globin denatures
Cured meat pigment
during cooking
164
Factorseffectingcuredcolordevelopment:
1. RapidloweringofpHwillresultinlowerresidualnitrite
andfastercuredcolordevelopment. Canalsocause
nitriteburn.
2. Choppingtemperatureof50-55Fforcomminutedproductand
45Fforacourseproductwillacceleratecolor
development.
3. Holdingpriortocookingwillresultinlowerresidual
nitriteandmorestablecuredcolor. Willalsoyielda
weakeremulsion.
4. Rapidcookingtoahigherinternaltemperature(160-170F)
willresultinhigherresidualnitriteandmorestable
color. Willalsousuallyresultinalowerbacterial
count.
5. Darkmuscles (moreredfibers)willyieldbettercured
colorthanlightmuscles (morewhitefibers).
6. Removalofoxygenfrombatterswillresultinmorestable
color.
7. Addingareducingcompoundwillreduceresidualnitrite
andproduceamorestablecolor.
8. Vacuumpackagingwillresultinamorestablecuredcolor.
OffColors;
Offcolorsareoccasionallyfoundinmeatproductsandmaybe
summarizedasfollows:
165
Reddeningoffreshmeatduringcooking;
1. Nitrites (unintentionalcuringreaction)-
a. Nitriteformingbacteria.
b. Packagingmaterialcontainingnitrite.
c. Vegetables (particularlycelery,beets,radishes,
onionsandlettuce)containingnitrite.
d. Contactwithcuredmeatorequipmentthathas
handledcuredmeat.
e. Nitriteinthewatersupply.
2. CarbonMonoxide (attachedtotheFeatomsimilartoNO
attachment)-
a. Carbonmonoxidefromburningofwoodinsmokehouse.
b. Carbonmonoxidefromheatinggasesorfurnaces.
c. Afaultymufflermayintroducecarbonmonoxidefrom
theexhaustgases.
3. Sulfite(notpermittedasanadditiveintheU.S.because
itgivesafreshappearancetotissuethathasbeenstored
foranabnormallylongtime)-
a. Sulfurdioxidegasintheairpossiblybecauseofa
leakintherefrigerationsystem.
b. Occasionallysulfitesarefoundinthewatersupply.
c. Somecleaningagentscontainsulfites.
Thisredcolorofcookedmeatusuallydoesnotconstituteahealth
hazardifthisistheonlyprobleminvolved.
4. HighpHinhibitformationofbrowncookedcolor (normal
cookedmeatpHis5.8-6.2)andmeatstaysredduring
cooking. ThehigherthepHtheredderthecolor.
a. Animalstresspriortoslaughterwillresultinlow
lacticacidinmeatandahighpH.
b. Useofveryalkalineadditivesascleanerswhichare
arenotadequatelyremoved.
166
LightColorinPork
P8E(pale,softandexudative)isageneticconditioninpigs
thatisobservedwhentissueafterslaughter(i.e.45min.)islow
in pH and high in temperature. These conditions denaturethe
proteinanditislightincolor.
DarkCuttingBeef
This is caused by a high carcass pH (usually caused bya
depletionofglycogenpriortoslaughter)whichcausesthetissue
tobedarkandsticky.
Iridescence-Thisspectrumofcolors(rainbow)onthesurface
ofslicedmeathastwoexplanations:
1. Thefibrouscharacterofthecutsurfaceofmeatorsalt
onthesurfaceofmeat,actsasagrating (workslikea
prism)andbreaksupthewhitelightthatstrikesitinto
itsrainbowofcolors.
2. Athinoilfilmspreadonthemeatduringslicingacts
likeoilonwaterandagainbreaksdownthelightinto
itsvariouscolors.
Thiscolorisastructuralcolorasopposedtoapigmentcolor
and,again,nohealthhazardisinvolved.
Greening;
Onthesurfaceofacuredproduct-thisundesirablecondition
maybecausedbyoneofthefollowing:
1. Nitriteburn-causedbyexcessnitritequitefrequently
accompaniedbylowpH.
2. Bacterialgreening-causedbypoorsanitationofthe
productaftercooking.
167
Thetypesoforganismsinvolvedinclude:
Lactobacillus
Leuconostoc
Pediococcus
Gaffkya
3 . Ironcontamination-maycomefromequipmentorthewater
supply.
Interiordiscoloration -maybedivided intotwocategories
dependingonwhenthecolorappears:
1. Greencolorpresentatthetimeofcutting:
a. Nitriteburn-usuallyacorecolororthetotal
product.
b. Bacterial-usuallythecolorisintheformofa
ring.
2. Greencolornotapparentatthetimeofcuttingbut
usuallyappearsafterexposedtotheair. Thisisusually
agreencoreproblemofbacterialorigin. Itisusually
causedbyhighlycontaminatedrawmaterialsand
insufficientthermoprocessing.
GrayColorofFreshPorkSausage
ThisisoftencausedbysmalllevelsofNitriteorNitrate.
Sometimesfoundindeepwellwaterwhenthewatertableislow.
168
References
Agboola,H.A. 1987. TheEffectsofHighMonosodiumPhosphateand
Alpha Tocopherol Supplemented Milk Replacer Diet on Veal
MuscleColor. Thesis,theOhioStateUniversityColumbus,OH.
London.
Ando,N.,Y.Kako,andY.Nagota. 1963. StudiesoftheColorof
MeatandMeatProducts. III. EffectsofpHandHeatonthe
DecompositionofNitrite. BulletinofMeatandMeatProducts.
JapaneseSocietyofMeatandMeatProducts.
Busch,W.A. ReddeningofFreshMeatsDuringCooking. Mimeograph.
SwiftandCompany,OakBrook,Illinois.
Chaiwanichsiri,S. 1982. EffectsofCookingTemperature,Nitrate
LevelandRelativeHumidityontheRateandExtentofCured
MeatColorDevelopmentinFrankfurter. Thesis,TheOhioState
University,Columbus,OH.
Draudt,H.N. 1955. TheChemistryofHemoglobinandMyoglobinin
Relation to the Color of Meat. Thesis, The Ohio State
University,Columbus,OH.
Jensen,L.B.1949. MeatandMeatFoods. TheRonaldPressCo.,New
York.
OckermanH.W.1969. QualityControlofPost-MortemMuscleTissue.
TheOhioStateUniversity,Columbus,Ohio.
169
Schweigert,B.S.1969. ChemistryofMeatPigments. Proceedingsof
the Eighth Research Conference,The Council on Research -
AmericanMeatInstitute,Chicago,Illinois.
Taylor,A.A.1971. TheGaseousEnvironmentofPackagedFreshMeat.
17th European Meeting ofMeat Research Workers. Bristol,
England.
Wiggins,G.S. 1987. AColorAtlasofMeatandPoultryInspection.
VanNostrand,Reinhold,NY,NY.
i:
ASH
The mineral (inorganic) elements or ash are normally
consideredsynonymous. Theyaredefinedastheelementsinfood
otherthancarbonthatremainwhenafoodisincinerated(oxidation
oforganicmaterial). Theseinorganicelementsaredivided into
majorandtracecategorieswiththeformerbeingsubdivided into
basicandacidicasfollows:
MineralsFoundInFood
MajorMineral TraceMineral
acidic Aluminum (Al)
Arsenic (As)
Chlorine (Cl) Boron(B)
Phosphorus (P) Bromine(Br)
Sulfur (S) Cobalt(Co)
Copper(Cu)
basic Fluorine(F)
Iodine(I)
Calcium (Ca) Manganese (Mn)
Iron (Fe) Molybdenum (Mo)
Magnesium (Mg) Silicon(Si)
Potassium (K) Zinc(Zn)
Sodium (Na)
Thereareexceptionswhenmineralsandasharenotexactlythe
samethingandafewareasareasfollows:
1. Somecarbonmayremaininashasacarbonateanditisnot
consideredamineral.
2. Someofthemineralslistedbelowmaybelostduring
incinerationand,consequently,maynotbecountedasash.
a. Sulfur(S)
b. Potassium (K)
c. Chlorine(Cl)
d. Phosphorus(P)
170
171
Minerals play an important role in both plant and animal
livingtissue. Asummaryofsomeofthemoreimportantfunctions
inanimalsarelistedasfollows:
1. Structuralmaterialofthebone. Calciumandphosphorus
aretheprincipalmineralsinboneoccurringas
calciumphosphate.Ithasbeenreportedthat99%ofthe
calciumand80%ofthephosphorusinthebodyarelocated
inthebones.
2. Responsibleforpartofthebloodbuffersystem.
3. Responsibleforosmoticpressurebalanceofbodyfluids.
4. Responsibleforirritabilityofmuscle.
5. Partofthestructureofmanynecessaryorganiccompounds.
Example-Myoglobin
6. Anecessaryconstituentofmanyenzymaticreactions.
In addition to the inorganic elements that are naturally
presentinanimaltissue,othersareoftenaddedinthecuringor
sausagemakingprocess. Theprincipalonebeingsodiumchloride.
Theashcontentofaproductshouldincreaseindirectratiotothe
quantityofsaltadded. Saltisaddedforthefollowingreasons:
1. Addsflavorandvarietytomeat.
2. Retardsbacterialgrowth.
3. Increasestenderization.
4. Increasesextractabilityofprotein.
Aslittleas0.2ppmofironinwashwaterwillcausestaining
onequipmentsurfaces.
Mechanically deboned meat [Mechanically Processed (Species)
172
Product (MP(S)P)]containsmoremineral thantypical tissueand
thereforeashhasreceivedgreaterattentioninthistissue.
Mechanically deboned meat (MDM) specifies meat which is
removedbymechanical ratherthanmanuallabor. Presently,the
USDArestrictstheuseofMDredmeatstodogfoodmanufacture,
export and to human food only undervery restrictive labeling.
Thisismainlybecauseofthelevelsofcalciumandstrontium90
foundinMDM.
ThereareseveraladvantagesinutilizingMDM:
1. Improvedyield
2. Decreaseinlaborneeded
3. Increasequality
4. Decreasecostofmeatproducts
5. Eliminatestheproblemofsellinglowdemandcuts
6. Potentialtoincreasedemand
7. Moreefficientutilizationofchickenandfish
8. Ca
++
content
Twodisadvantagesare:
1. Increasedsusceptibilitytooxidation
2. Improvedconditionsformicrobialgrowth
There are two principal methods of mechanical deboning.
First,thebonesarecrushedandthemeatportionisextruded(by
pressurefromascreworbeltsystem)throughfine(smallopenings)
plates. Secondly,thebonescanbegroundbeforethesofttissue
isremoved. ThecalciumcontentofMDMiseffectedbythetypeof
machineryusedbutthe%protein,%fator%moistureisusually
173
notaffectedtoalargeextent.
Theactualcompositionofthemeatisdependantonspeciesand
typeofbone. Roundboneswillhaveincreasedfatpercentagesdue
to the marrow content. As the amount of meat on the bone
increases,the%fat,%ashand%calciumwilldecrease.
Theamountofcalcium found inMDMdependsontheyieldof
MDM,sizeofgrinderplate,makeofequipment,temperatureofmeat,
degreeofcookingandtypeofbone. Ironcontentisincreasedin
MDM, which gives themeat a brighter color butmakes MDMmore
susceptible tooxidation. Connectivetissuedecreases asitis
removedfromthemeatwiththebone,whichresultsinafiner,more
uniformtexturetotheproduct. Themoremeatthatisonthebone
priortodeboning,thegreateramountofessentialaminoacids,due
tothedecreasedamountofconnectivetissue.
Tastepanelshavefoundthatthebolognacontaininghandboned
meatwasmoredesirable,probablybecause itismoretypicalin
texture. A spicier flavor is reported when MDM is added to
processedmeatsathighlevels,butatlowlevels(10%)thereisno
qualitydeterioration.
Thepercent ashandthepercentofthemostcommonmineral
elementsinfoodsareshowninthefollowingtwotables.
174
PercentAshinFoods
Food
Totalbody
Muscle
Bonelessredmeatcuts
Cookedmeat
Bonelesschicken
Fat
Bone
Liver
Egg
White
Yolk
Poultry (lightmeat)
Poultry (darkmeat)
Poultryskin
PoultryGiblets
Milk
Curedmeat
Bacon
Bacon-cooked
Coldcuts
Cornedbeef
Driedchippedbeef
Drysausage
Plants
Lettuce
Potato
Wheat
MeatAnalogs-Spunvegetableprotein
(Temptein)
Percent
4.4
1
0.7-1.3
0.9-2.0
1.1-1.2
0.1-0.6
22-82
1.3-1.4
0.7-1
0.3-0.6
1.7-2.0
raw0.8friedinoil-1.2
raw0.5friedinoil1.6
0.7-0.75
1%+saltadded
2.0-4.3
6.2
2.5-3.5
2.9-3.4
11.6
6.7-7.1
1-10
0.9-1.61
0.97-1.0
1.6-1.8
1.6-3.3
175
PercentMineralElementFoundinFoodonaFreshBasis
Eleaent Neat Bologna Bacon Liver Fat
Calcium .007-.022 .007-.009 .013 .006-.011
--
Chlorine .040-.076 1.8 1.127 .083-.101
--
Iron .001-.012 .0018-.0022 .0008-.001 .006-.030
--
Magne- .018-.033 -- .012-.030 .013-.022 --
siun
Phos- .131-.343 .102-.160 .108 .327-.373 --
phorus
Potassium .184-.415 .22-.23 .001-.130 .255-.330
..
Sodium .044-.168 1.1-1.3 .680 .021-.136
--
Sulfur .187-.300
..
.200 .230-.258
-.
Aluminum Traces
.. -- -. ..
Mercury .0000002-.00006
.. ..
.0000005-.0001 .000007
Cobalt
.- -. -. -.
Lead .00002-.000034
.- .-
.00002-.0007
..
Copper .00013-.00027
-- ..
.0006-.013 .0000008
Cadmium .0000007-.00001
.. ..
.000009-.0002 .000001
Manganese .00001-.00004
.. ..
.0002-.0003
Zinc .0015-.006
-- -.
.0035-.008 .0000054
Fluorine .00007-.00021 --
Mechanically
deboned
.0009-.0035
Iodine
-- -- -- -- --
Arsenic .000001-.000011
-- ..
.000001-.000019 .000003
Selenium .000004-.00004 -- -- .00001-.00015 .000003-
.000004
Vanadium 1x10'
8
-- -- -. .-
Nickel 0-1x10"
6
-- -- ..
Silicon 5x10"*- -- -- -- --
1.5x10"-*
Tin 3x10"?- -- -- -- --
3x10"
4
176
PercentMineralElementFoundinFoodonaFreshBasis (cont)
Eleaent Heart Kidney Chicken Fish Shri^>
Calcium .003-.007
.008-.013 .009-.015 .005-.200 .078
Chlorine .095-.140 .180-.270 .034-.090 .07-.325
Iron .003-.008 .0017-.05 .001-.002 .0004-.005;.02 .0017
darkmeat
Magne- .018-.025 .015-.020 .060-.025 -- .042
sium
Phos- .131-.370 .218-.270 .188-.218 .142-.301 .208
phorus
Potassium .106-.193 .178-.290 .250-.402 .2-.5 .203
Sodium .054-.140 .115-.220 .054-.089 .037-.090 .126
Sulfur .190-.200 .170-.180 .220-.303 .058-.272
--
Aluminum
.- -. .. ._
Traces
Mercury .00004 .000001-.00006 .000005 .00001-.00086
..
Cobalt
.. ._ ..
Lead .00004 .00003-.00012 .00003 Trace
.-
Copper .000035-.00052 .000043-.0007 .00012 .00004-.0006 .0057
.00025
Cacinium <.00001 .00001-.00015
..
Trace
.-
Manganese .000009-.00007 .00007-.00009
..
Trace Trace
Zinc .0014-.002 .0017-.0026 .0001-.0002 Trace .0015
Fluorine
-. .-
.0005-.001
--
Iodine
__ .. ..
.00001-.0005 .065
Arsenic
-.
.000002-.00003 .000009
-- --
Selenium .00002-.00005 .00009-.0002 .000006-.00006
-- --
Vanadium
.. .- --
0
--
Nickel -- -- -- 2x10"*- --
5X10"
6
Silicon
_. -. --
5x10"
4
--
Tin -- -- -- 5x10"?- --
3x10"
4
--
--
--
__
--
--
177
PercentMineralElementFoundinFoodonaFreshBasis (oont)
Eleaent
Calciun
Chlorine
Iron
Magnesiurn
Phosphorus
Potassinn
Sodium
Sulfur
Aluminum
Mercury
Cobalt
Lead
Copper
Cadmium
Manganese
Zinc
Fluorine
Iodine
Arsenic
Selenium
Vanadium
Nickel
Silicon
Tin
Oyster
.05-.06
.63
.005-.0075
.024-.048
.11-.19
.20
..
.18
..
.-
..
.001-.004
..
..
..
.00003-.00004
..
1.1x10"
5
1.5x10~
4
1x10"
A
Egg
HiIk
.054-.059 .118-.130
.100 .114
.002 .0001
.009-.011 .013-.019
.166-.205 .088-.092
.129-.149 .129-.144
.111-.122 .047-.050
.233 .031
_. ..
.. __
-- ..
.. ..
-- ..
..
.- ..
.. ..
.00008 .00001-.00002
-. ..
.. ..
-- ..
5x10"
5
1x10~
8
3x10'
6
..
2x10'^- 1.4x10"
4
4x10"-
5
9x10"
5
2x10"
5
-
7x10-5
Flour
.010-.031
.043-.085
.0005-.0030
.017-.044
.076-.183
.110-.175
.003-.052
.047-.210
.0001-.002
..
.000009
.-
.00008-.0003
..
.0003-.002
.0007-.004
.0000003-.000002
..
..
178
Recommended HumanDailyDietaryAllowances
Minerals Male*
Age
14-18
Male*
Age
35-55
Female*
Age
14-18
Female*
Age
35-55
Labeling
Purposes
**
Meat
Average
per100
grams
Calcium, 0.8 0.8 1.3 0.8 1.0 .01
g
Phos- 0.8 0.8 1.3 0.8 1.0 .2
phorus ,
g
Iodine, 140 140 118 90 150
meg.
Iron,mg 10 10 18 18 18 3
Magnesi- 400 350 350 300 400 25
um,mg
Zinc,mg 15 6
Copper, 2
mg
*1968
**1973
CanadianMaximumTolerancesofHeavyMetalsinLiverTissue
HeavyMetal Maximumppm.Permitted
Lead 2.0
Copper 150
Mercury 0.5 (Max.of
30/ig/day)*
Cadmium 1.0**
Zinc 100
*FDAGuideline **Unofficialworkingstandard.
USAMaximumTolerancesofResiduesin
LiverTissue
Residues
Maximumppm. Permitted
Arsenic
2 (Hogs&PoultryFDA)
DDT
7 (FDA)
179
References
andMeatProducts. W.H.FreemanandCompany. San
FranciscoandLondon.
Ching,K.C. 1992. FattyAcidsinFoodandTheirHealth
Implications. MercelDekker,Inc.,NY,NY.
Gettz,B.andB.Gettz. 1985. SourcesofvitaminsandMinerals.
ASHAResearch,Salem,Ore.
Gorenstein,B.andJ.D.Sprould. 1972. PesticidesandHeavy
MetalResiduesinCanadianMeats. 18thMeetingofMeat
ResearchWorkers. Guelph,Canada.
Lawrie,R.A.1970. ProteinsasHumanFood. AVIPublishingCo.,
Inc.,Westport,Conn.
LearningTreeFilmstrip. 1977. GoodNutrition: theFood
Platform. Boulder,Co.
Analogs. MarschallDivision,Elkhart,Indiana 46514.
NationalResearchCouncil. 1968. RecommendedHumanDietary
Allowances.
Newstrom,H. 1993. NutrientsCatalog. McFarlandandCo.,
Jefferson,N.C.
Peterson,WilliamH.,JohnT.Skinner,andFrankM.Strong.
1943.ElementsofFoodBiochemistry. Prentice-Hall,
Inc.,NewYork.
Smith,K.J. 1988. TraceMineralsinFood. M.Dekker,NY,NY.
Watt,BerniceK.andAnnabelL.Merrill. 1963. Compositionof
Foods. UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,Washington,
D.C.
White,P.L.andD.C.Fletcher. 1974. NutrientsinProcessed
Foods. PublishingScienceGroup,Inc.,Action,Mass.
CARBOHYDRATE
Carbohydratemaybedefinedasasubdivisionoffoodwhichis
composed of simple sugarora substance thatwill yield simple
sugarupon hydrolysis. The quantity of carbohydrates found in
plantsisusuallymuchlarger(60-90%onadrymatterbasis)than
thatfoundinanimaltissue. Asummaryofthefunctionandusesof
carbohydratesisasfollows:
Plants
1. Structure (cellulose)
2. Coatings
3. Energystorage (starch)
Animals
1. Energystorage (glycogen)
2. Intercellularcements
3. Lubricants
4. Constituentofnucleicacids
5. Essentialfornervoustissue
Consumergoodsderivedfromcarbohydrates
1. Food
a. Sugars
b.
Starches
2. Clothing
a. Cotton
b. Rayon
c. Linen
3. Wool
4. Fuel
a. Wood
b. Coal
180
181
Carbohydratesareclassifiedaccordingtotheirstructureand
the more important carbohydrates are included in the following
outline:
Classification oftheImportant Carbohydrates
I. Monosaccharides orSimple Sugars
1. PentosesC
5
H
10
O
5
(a5-carbon chain)
a.Aldoses (aldehyde group)
Arabinose
Xylose
Ribose -innucleic acids
2. HexosesC
6
H
12
O
6
(a6-carbon chain)
a.Aldoses (aldehyde group)
Glucose (dextrose) (blood sugar) (cornsugar)
Most carbohydrates areconverted tothis
structure inthebody.
Made fromcornsyrup.
Galactose
Mannose
b. Ketose (ketone group)
Fructose (levulose) (fruit sugar)
II. Disaccharides orDoubleSugars C
12
H
22
O
11
1. Sucrose (glucose-fructose)commonsugar,caneorbeet
2. Maltose (glucose-glucose) fromgerminating barley
3. Lactose (glucose-galactose) from milk
III. Trisaccharides orTriple Sugars
IV. Polysaccharides orMany Sugars
1. Pentosane (C
5
H
g
O
4
)x (5carbon subunits)
2. Hexosans (C
6
H
1Q
O
5
)x (6carbon subunits)
a. Glucosans -made fromglucose units
(1) Starch
(2) Dextrin
(3) Glycogen
(4) Cellulose
3. Pectins
Thestructuralformulasforthe6carbonsimplesugarsandthe
most common disaccharide isillustrated asfollows:
182
FormulasforCommonSugars
SingleSugars
v
H-C-OH
HO-C-H
H-C-OH
H-C-OH
H-C-OH
A
Glucose
H
y
H-C-OH
HO-A-H
HO-A-H
H-A-OH
H-A-OH
A
Galactose
v
HO-t-H
HO-A-H
H-A-OH
H-A-OH
H-A-OH
h
Mannose
Kelose
H-
fructose
H-A-OH
A=O
HO-A-H
H-A-OH
H-A-OH
H-A-OH
Fructose
fructose
Aidoses
HO-
glucose
oxygen bridge
formula
glucose
aldehyde
formula
ketose oxygen bridge
formula formula
183
Disaccharide
H-
HO- :-H
H-C-OH
H-C-OH
A
Qlucoee Fructose
Sucrose
Disaccharide
V
Glucose
Glucose
V
Maltose
Disaccharide
OH
Glucose
\
184
Dextrose (regularoranhydrous)isamonosaccharideoftenusedin
fermentedproducts.
Invert sugar is an equal mixture of glucose and fructose
(levulose)producedbyhydrolysisofsucrose.
Honey contains the following approximate carbohydrate
composition:
2% Sucrose
0-10% Dextrin
65-80% Dextrose (glucose) & Levulose (fructose) as
invertsugar
Maplesugarissucrose (orinvertsugar)withsapflavoring
producedfromthemapletree.
Nonfat dry milk (NDFM) and calcium reduced dry skim milk
containfrom43.8to55.9%lactose (45.5to58.0%onamoisture
freebasis). Freshcow'smilkcontains4to5%lactose.
Cornsyrupandcornsyrupsolidsarecomposedofamixtureof
maltose,dextrose(glucose;cornglucose)anddextrins{incomplete
hydrolysisofstarch;[(C
6
H
10
O
5
)
n
-xH
2
O])derivedfromcorn.
Maltsyrupismadefromwheatorbarleythathasbeenallowed
tosprout. During sprouting theenzymes diastase (or amylase)
developsandhydrolyzesthestarchtomaltose. Whenthismixture
is extracted with hot water the solution will contain starch
breakdownproductsanddiastase.
Eachofthesugarshasadifferentsweeteningpowerandusing
sucroseasastandardandexpressing itspoweras100,theother
sugarshavebeencomparedtoitandtheirsweeteningvaluesareas
follows:
185
SweetnessofSugar
Sugar Value
Sucrose (caneorbeet) 100
Lactose 15-16
Galactose 32-60
Maltose 30-45
Mannose 60
CornSyrup 40-70
Dextroseequivalent 64 65-70
Dextroseequivalent 54 60
CornSyrup,Enzymeconverted 55-65
CornSyrup,Reg. 30
Glucose (Dextrose)Anhydrous 70-90
Dextrose,Monohydrate 60-75
Fructose 140-173
HighFructoseCornSyrup (HFCS) 175
InvertSugar (Mulomoline) 100-130
Molasses 74-110
Sorghum 65-75
MapleSyrup 60-70
Honey 97-173
Sorbitol 60
Glycerol 60
Saccharine 30,000-50,000
Starch isthemost common storage form of carbohydratesin
plantsanditsmolecularsizeisestimatedas: (C
6
H
1Q
O
5
)x(xbeing
equalto2000-3000).
Usingacidhydrolysisthismoleculeisbrokendownasfollows:
acid
(C
6
H
10
O
5
)x + ( x - l ) H
2
0 x C
6
H
12
O
6
hydrolysis
Thequantityofhydrolysisisoftenchemicallycalculatedand
expressed as the dextrose equivalent (D.E.). The dextrose
equivalent isdefined as thepercentage of reducing sugars (dry
basis) in a product calculated as dextrose. D. E. isroughly
equivalenttothesweetnessoftheproductandindicatesthatthe
186
productisapercentassweetasdextrose.
Glycogen istheanimal storageformofcarbohydrate and is
oftencalled animalstarch. Itsgeneral formula isthesameas
starch[(C
6
H
10
O
5
)x]buttheglucoseunitsarenotconnectedinthe
samemanner. Glycogenisstoredprimarilyintheliverandmuscle
tissueand thequantity althoughalwaysrelatively small canbe
influencedbytheamountofworkdone(initiallylowersquantityin
muscle)ortheamountofcarbohydrateconsumed (initiallyraises
quantityintheliver). Eventhoughtheglycogenlevelinpost-
mortemtissueissmall (exceptinthehorsewhereitmaybeupto
2%)ithasamajorinfluenceonthebehaviorofthistissue. When
theanimalisaliveglucoseisconsumedandstoredasglycogenas
showninthefollowingdiagram:
Storage
AnimalStarch
Metabolism
or Glycogen
Glycolysis
Requires no oxygen
Energy
Glucose-
Requires
Oxygen
Lactic Acid
187
Asenergyisneededtheglycogenisbrokendownbyglycolysis
(nooxygen)andproceedsthroughthecitricacidcycle (requires
oxygen). Upondeaththetissuesnolongerhaveasupplyofoxygen
andtheglycogenisbrokendownbyglycolysistolacticacid. The
citric acid cycle cannot functiondue totheabsence ofoxygen.
ThislowersthepHofmuscletissueafterdeath.
Carbohydrates are important in meat production not only
becauseof thequantity that isinitiallypresent inthemuscle
tissuebutthesesubstancesarecommonlyaddedduringcuringand
sausage manufacturing. The added carbohydrate contributes to
flavor, tends to char on overcooking and supplies a sourceof
energyformicroorganismsinfermentedproducts.
The Level of Carbohydrates Found in Food is Reported as
Follows^/
AnimalSources %Carbohydrates
Muscle 0.0-0.9
Poultry 0.0-0.1
Liver 0.2-5.3normalrange
afterheavyfeeding upto10
sugarfeeding upto17.0
fastingortreatedontreadmill 3
Sausage .2-3.9
Oysters 3.4-6.4
Blood .0007-.016
Bone 0.2-1.9
Milk 4.9-5.1
Honey 80-82
Driedskimmilkordrymilksolids
(DMS)ornonfatdrymilksolids
(NFDMS) 51 (%lactose)
Egg 0.7-0.9
Yolk 0.6
White 0.8
188
PlantSources
Potatoes
Rice (raw)
Wheat (wholegrain)
MeatAnalogs-spunvegetableprotein
(Temptein)
17-22
80
69-75
2.8-6.4
!/USDA,1963;Petersonetal. ,1949
Sucrose(caneorbeetsugar)isthemostcommonsugarusedin
meatprocessing. Itisconsideredtobeself-limitinganddoesnot
browneasilysoisthereforeusedinfreshporksausageandroll
grillproducts. Infranks,itisusedattherateof0.5to 1.5
lbs.per 100lbs.ofmeat. Somemicroorganisms growbetter on
sucrosethanondextroseandafewofthesemayproduceastringy,
stickycarbohydratematrixontheproduct.
Sucroseismadefromcanebycrushingthecanewithrollers
andobtainingthejuice (95%ofthesugarmaybeobtained). The
acid,turbid,darkgreencoloredliquidistreatedwithlime(1lb
CaO/tonofcane)toneutralizethejuiceandtoforminsolubleline
salts (mostlycalcium phosphate). Thenextstepisheatingthe
limedjuicewhichcoagulatesthealbumins,andsomeofthefats,
waxesandgumsandtheprecipitatethusformedentrapssuspended
solids. Theseareseparated by sedimentation andtheclarified
darkbrownjuice(85%water)isthentakentotheevaporators. Two
thirdsofthewaterisremovedbyvacuumevaporationwhichproduces
aliquid with 65%solids and 35%water. Crystallization takes
placeinvacuumpanswhereevaporationcontinuesuntiltheliquid
189
issaturated andthenseedcrystalsareadded. Thismixtureis
passed intoabasket (400to 600holes/sq in)centrifugewhich
retainsthesugarandallowsthemolassestopassthrough. The
product isnextdried and sized. Sugar formeatuse shouldbe
tested forgrainsize,color,turbidity,sediment,moisture,and
microorganisms (mold,yeastandbacteria).
Sucroseisalsomadefromsugarbeets. Therawsugarrootis
cleaned and the coarse impurities are removed. The juiceis
extracted bythediffusion method. First,thewhole beetsare
thinly (4mmX.05-1.0mm)slicedtomaximizesurfacearea. These
pieces are called "cossettes". The cossettes are placed in
diffusioncellswherehotwaterextractsthesugarandsolublenon-
sugars. Thiswatermovesfromcelltocell (usually14-16)ina
counter-current system, until the sucrose concentration ofthe
waterisequaltothatinthecossettes. Thisjuicecontains10-
15%sugar.
Purificationtakesplacebysteamheatingthejuiceto90C
andaddinglimemilk(2-3%/wt.ofbeet). Theheatdecomposessome
darkcoloredsubstancesandcoagulatesproteins. Thejuiceisthen
carbonatedwithCO
2
toformaCaCO
3
precipitatewhichabsorbsnon-
sugars and colored impurities. The precipitate is removedby
vacuumfiltrationorthejuiceisfilterpressed.
Carbonationisrepeatedtoachieveoptimalalkalinityinthe
solutionandafinalfiltrationremovesfineturbidity. Next,S0
2
ispassed throughthejuicetoreducecoloring compoundsandto
190
lowertheviscosityofthesyruptoaidincrystallization.
Afterfiltration,theliquidisplacedinanevaporatoruntil
it reaches a concentration of 60% sugar. The purified,
concentratedliquidisfurtherboiledinavacuumtoconcentrations
of85%sugar. Atthispoint,somecrystallizationhasoccurred.
This mixture is called "massecuite". The crystals of the
massecuiteareremovedbycentrifugation.
Thecrystals arewashed ina2%solution ofhotwaterand
dried. Theresidueiscalledmolassesor"feedsyrup". Thesugar
issizedandisreadyforuse.
Dextrose(glucose;cornglucose)canbeusedasareplacement
forsucrose. Itishygroscopicandwillcharatexcessivelevels
andforthisreasonisnotusedinfreshporksausage(orlevelis
controlledtocontrolbrowning)andinproductsthatwillbecooked
onarollgrill. Puredextroseis70to90%assweetassucrose
andproductswithlessthan32dextroseequivalents (mostusedin
sausageareaare40-45D.E.)willanalyzeasaddedstarchinmeat
items. Itisoftenusedattherateof1.5to2.5 lbs.per100
lbs. ofmeat. No restrictions are placed on the quantity of
dextrosebecauseofitssweeteningpower(70-90%ofsucrose),itis
also considered to be self-limiting. Dextrose since it is a
simplersugarismoreeasilyfermentedthansucrosesoitisoften
necessarytouseitinfermentedproductsandforthispurposeis
usedattherateof0.5to1.0lbs.per100lbs.meat. A5to10%
solutionisoftenbrushedonthetopsurfaceofloafproducts. Up
191
to 12oz/100 lbs.ofmeatmaybeused asacarrier forsoluble
seasoningwithoutdeclaringitonthelabel.
Cornsyrupsolids (hygroscopic)andcornsyruparepermitted
(USDA) insausageproductsuptoamaximum of 2% (based onthe
weightofsolids;2.5%syrupis=to2%solids)offinishedcooked
weight. In pumping pickles 50pounds (60pounds of syrup)of
solidsmaybeusedin100gallonofpickle. Itis40to50%as
sweetassucroseandthereforeisnotasself-limitingassucrose.
Cornsyrup productswill brown and athigh levelswill havean
after-taste. Theyaregenerallynotusedinfreshporksausage.
Sorbitol (6carbonpolyalcohol)is60%assweetassucrose
andcanbeusedupto2%oftheformulaexcludingwaterandice-
cannot be used with corn syrup. It improves peelability,is
moisturelovingandisanon-browningsweetener.
Mostsweetenersarehygroscopicandholdmoisture. Theymask
theharshnessofsaltwhenusedathighlevels. Thesugarlevel
shouldbeadjusteddownwardwhenmilkproducts (lactose)areused
andupwardwhensoyandothernon-meatitemsareused.
192
Microorganismscanbreakdowncarbohydratesasfollows:
Conversionofdisaccharidesandpolysaccharides intosimple
sugars:
Clostridium Leuconostoc
Bacillus Streptococcus
Lactobacillus
Productionoflacticacidfromcarbohydrates
Lactobacillus
Leuconostoc
Streptococcus
Productionofaceticacidfromcarbohydrates
Acetobacter
Bacterium
Productionofbutyricacidfromcarbohydrates
Clostridium
Productionofpropionicacidfromcarbohydrates
Propionibacterium
193
References
London.
BinkleyR.W.1988.ModernCarbohydrateChemistry.M.Dekker,N.Y.,
N.Y.
BirchG.G.1985.AnalysisofFoodCarbohydrate.ElsevierApplied
Science,London.
HoodL.F.1977.CarbohydratesandHealth.AVIPublishingCo.
Westport,Conn.
LinebackD.R.andG.E.Inglett.1982.FoodCarbohydrates.AVI
PublishingCo.WestportConn.
Analogs. MarschallDivision,Elkhart,Indiana 46514.
Prentice-Hall,Inc.,NewYork.
Terrell,R. 1977. Functionalnon-meatingredientsincluding
nitriteandnitrate. AMIShortCourse,Dallas.
Terrell,R. 1980. SausageandCuredMeatOperations Modern
Technologies. TexasFoodResearch,Bryan,TX.
USDA,ConsumerandMarketingService. 1969. LaboratoryGuidebook,
PolicyandProceduresoftheLaboratoryBranch. Washington,
D.C. 20250.
Foods. USDA,Washington,D.C. 20250.
BydefinitionpHisthenegativelogarithmofthehydrogenion
concentration.
1
pH=log10 [H
+
]=concentrationofhydrogenions
[H
+
]
Hydrogenions (H
+
)areresponsibleforacidconditionsand,their
counter-part hydroxylions(OH)areresponsibleforbasic
conditions. Ifwemultiplythehydrogenionconcentrationinmoles
bythehydroxylionconcentrationinmolestheresultswillyield
1x10"
u
.
[H*][OH
+
]=1X10'
14
[H
+
] = Concentrationofhydrogen
ions(inmoles)
[OH
+
]= Concentrationofhydroxyl
ions(inmoles)
Therefore,inasolutionwherethehydrogenionsareincreased
the hydroxyl ions are decreased and if the hydrogen ions are
decreasedthehydroxylionsareincreased.
ThepHmeasurement isa scalethat expresses theratioof
hydrogenionstohydroxyl ionsinasubstanceand,consequently,
expressesthedegreeofacidityoralkalinityofthesubstance.
Afewpointsofreferenceonthisscaleareasfollows:
194
195
PH
0 Extremelyacid -i
1
2 Stronglyacid
Concentrationofhydrogenions
3 exceedstheconcentrationof
hydroxylions
4
5 Slightlyacid
6
NeutralpH-Pointatwhichtheconcentrationofhydrogen
ionsequalstheconcentrationofhydroxylions.
8
9 Slightlybasis
10
11 Concentrationsofhydroxylions
exceedstheconcentrationsof
12 Stronglybasic hydrogenions
13
14 Extremelybasic
SincethepHscaleisalogarithmicandnotalinearscalethe
relationshipbetweenthesetwoshouldbenoted.
196
ComparisonofScales
LogScale
usedinpH
Scale
(Example-yardstick)
Unequaldistancebetweenunits Equaldistancebetweenunits
0
0
3
5
6 9
7
8
10
g
10
197
AlogscaleisusedinpHbecauseextremelysmall(orlarge)
numbersareinvolvedandalogscalemakesthesenumbersmuchmore
convenienttohandle.
Theconcentrationofhydrogenandhydroxylionscorresponding
tothepHscaleisshowninthefollowingtable:
pHandHydrogenIonConcentration
pH Acid- H
+
ion Concentration
-OHion
Base
Concentration:molesof
OH /liter: (grams/1 =
1 gram (1 mole)of gram (ormole) of H gram (ormole) ofH
+
H in the following per liter
per liter: Exponential
exponential X 17)
number of liters
0
Increasing 1 1.0
1 X 10 1 X 1O'
U
Acidity
1
10 0.1
1 X 10"
1
1 X 10'
1 3
A
1
2
100 0.01
1 X 1 0 '
2
1 X 10"
12
3
1,000 0,001
1 X 10"
3
1 X 10"
11
4 1
10,000 0.000,1
1 X 10"
4
1 X 1O"
10
5
100,000 0.000,01
1 X 1 0 '
5
1 X 10" '
6
1,000,000 0.000,001
1 X 10"
6
1 X 10"
8
7 Neutral
10,000,000 0.000,000,1
1 X 1 0 '
7
1 X 10"
7
8
100,000,000 0,000,000,01
1 X 1 0 '
8
1 X 10'
6
9
1,000,000,000 0.000,000,001
1 X 1 0 '
9
1 X 10'
5
10
10,000,000,000 0.000,000,000,1
1 X 1 0 '
1 0
1 X 10"
4
11
100,000,000,000 0.000,000,000,01
1 X 10"
1 1
1 X 10"
3
T
12
1,000,000,000,000 0.000,000,000,001
1 X 10"
1 2
1 X 10"
2
Increasing
13
Alkalinity
10,000,000,000,000 0.000,000,000,000,1
1 X 10"
1 3
1 X 10"
1
14
100,000,000,000,000 0.000,000,000,000,01
1 X 10"
1 4
1 X 10
198
Ascanbeseenfromtheprevioustable,asthehydrogenion
concentration increasesthepHdecreasesandasthehydrogenion
concentrationdecreasesthepHrises. Duetothelogarithmicscale
asthepHincreasesoneunit(Example-pH4topH5)thehydrogen
ionconcentrationdecreases1,000%.
Whenthesolution isneutral (pH7)thenumberofhydrogen
ions(lxlO"
7
)isequaltothenumberofhydroxylions (lxlO"
7
)and
purewaterisanexampleofaneutralsolution.
Waternotonlycontainsthewatermolecule(H
2
O)butaboutone
molecule in 200million separates intotwopartswith opposite
chargesasshown:
H,0
' >
H
+
+ OH"
Water
molecule
Hydrogen
ion
Hydroxyl
ion
acid base
Inwater the number ofhydrogen ionsequalsthenumberof
hydroxylionsandthisiscalledaneutralpH.Ifwatercontainsa
predominanceofcarbonatesandbicarbonatesthepHvaluewillbe
above7andifitcontainssulfidesandsulfates,itwillusually
bebelow7.
Strongacidsinwaterexistalmostentirelyasionsasshown:
HC1 > H
+
+ CV
Hydrochloric Hydrogen Chlorine
acid ion ion
acid
199
Inthiscasethehydrogen ions (fromwaterandacid)would
exceedthehydroxylions(fromwateronly)andthisisknownasan
acidpH.
Weakacidsinwaterexistasbothmoleculesandionsasshown:
0-H 0
CH,-C *
>
H
+
+ CH
3
-C
w w
0 0
Acetic Hydrogen Acetate
acid ion ion
acid
Inthiscasethehydrogenionsexceedthehydroxylionsbutto
alesserextentthatwiththestrongacid.
Theadditionofastrongalkalitowateryields:
NaOH > Na
+
+ OH"
Sodium Sodium Hydroxyl
Hydroxide ion ion
base
Withastrongalkalithequantityofhydroxylionsfarexceeds
thequantityofhydrogenionsandthesolutioniscalledbasic.
Weakalkalisinwaterexistbothinthemoleculeandinthe
ionformasshown:
NH
4
OH NH
+
+ OH"
Ammonium Ammonium Hydroxyl
hydroxide ion ion
base
Inthiscasethehydroxyl ionexceedsthehydrogeniontoa
lesserextentthanwiththestrongalkaliandthesolutionisless
basic.
200
MeasurementofpH:
Measurement of pH generally falls into the following
categories:
1. Chemicalindicator (ordyes)
2. Electrical
AchemicalpHindicatorisacompoundthatwillchangecolor
due to different arrangement of the atoms in itsmolecule (or
ionization of the molecule),as the pH varies. This can be
diagrammaticallyillustratedwithanionizingindicatorasfollows:
base
Un-ionizedindicator H
+
+ Ionizedindicator
acid
ColorI ColorII
Asacidisaddedthehydrogenionconcentrationisincreased
andthereactionisforcedtotheleftandColorIisobtained. As
abase(hydroxylions)isaddedthehydroxylionscombinewiththe
hydrogenionsandforcethereactiontotheright,givingColorII.
The pH at which this color change takes place is a
characteristicoftheindicatorandindicatorsshouldbeselected
thatwillchangecoloratthedesiredpH. Exampleswouldbeas
follows:
Indicator pHofcolorchange
Bromphenolblue 4
Bromthymolblue 7
Phenolred 8
Phenolphthalein 9
201
ElectronicallypHisdeterminedbyimmersingelectrodesina
sampleandmeasuringtheflowofcurrentbetweentheelectrodes.
Millivolts (mV)
Temperature change/pHunit
0C 54
22C(roomtemp.) 60
100C 70
Sinceelectricalconductivityisdependentontheconcentrationof
ionspresent,itispossibletorelatethisbacktothesamplepH.
Normallythecurrentflowisfedtoameterthatiscalibratedin
pHunits.
Themeasurementoftheoxidation-reductionpotential (Redox)
isameasureoftheoxidizingorreducingpowerofasolution. If
a platinum sensing electrode and a pH reference electrode is
attachedtothepHmeter,amillivolt(mV)redoxmeasurementmaybe
made. Also specific electrodes forammonia,chloride,cyanide,
nitrateandsulfide(othersalsoavailable)havebeendesignedto
usewithareferenceelectrodeandthepHmetertodeterminethe
quantityoftheionofinterestinasolution.
ThepHrangeofsomeanimalproductsandcommonchemicalsis
showninthefollowingtable:
NormalpH
AnimalProducts pHRange
Muscletissue (physiologicalvalue) 7.2-7.4
Freshmeat (livingmuscle) 7.4-7.6
(afterrigor) 5.3-6.0
Dryfermentedsausage 5.3orless
202
Animal Products
Dark cut t i ng beef 6.0-6.6
Poultry meat (after rigor) 5.5-6.4
Rabbit meat 5.9-6.0
Pickled pig feet 4.5 or less
Oyster 6.2 Min. at origin
6.0-6.6 Min. at destination
Most fish 6.0-6.6
Halibut, Mackerel 5.5
Normal > 6.0
Chalky < 6.0
Shrimp
Prime quality 7.2 to 7.7
Poor quality 7.7-7.95
Spoiled 7.95 andup
Milk 6.3-6.6
Honey 3.7-5.0
Liver (pork) 5.8-6.5
Blood (human) 7.3-7.5
(poultry) 7.1-7.3
Urine 5.5-7.0
Gastric j ui ce >- 1.6-1.8
Saliva 7.0
Bile 7.8-8.6
Pancreatic juice 8.0
Scalded t r i pe 9.0
Canned and cooked in acet i c acid 5-5.5
Cooked Animal Products
Beef (corned hash) 5.5-6.0
Beef (stew) 5.6-6.2
Beef (dried) 5.5-6.8
Duck (roast) 6.0-6.1
Frankfurters 6.0-6.2
Ham 6.0-6.2
Plant Products
Most f r ui t s (canned) Below 4
Tomatoes (canned) 4.2
Cider 3.1-3.6
Sauerkraut 3.4-3.7
Dill pickles 3.2-3.6
Maple syrup 6.5-7.0
Water (pure) 7.0
Soft drinks 2-4
Beer 4.0-5.0
Wines 2.3-3.8
Coffee 4.7
Coffee + cream + sugar 5.2
Cola 2.2
203
Microorganisms
Mostbacteriaassociatedwithmeat (growthrange) 5-8
Mostbacteriaassociatedwithmeat (optimumgrowth) 7
Upperlimitformicrobialgrowth 10
Lowerlimitsforgrowthof:
Foodpoisoningbacteria 4.5
Mostbacteria 4.5
Lacticacidbacteria 3.5
Vinegarbacteria 2.5
Yeasts 3.0
Molds 2.0
ChemicalSolutions
0.1NHydrochloricacid (HC1) 1.1
0.1NAceticacid (CHjCOOH) 2.9
Backingsoda 9.0
0.1NAmmoniumhydroxide (NH,OH) 11.2
O.1NSodiumhydroxide (NaOH) 13.2
204
References
ChowK.C. 1992FattyAcidsinFoodandtheirHealth
Implications.M.Dekker,NewYork,NewYork.
DeFremery,Donald. 1963. Relationbetweenbiochemicalproperties
andtendernessofpoultry. ProceedingsMeatTenderness
Symposium. CampbellSoupCompany,Camden,NewJersey.
Deming,HoraceG. 1940.FundamentalChemistry. JohnWiley&Sons,
Inc.,NewYorkrChapmanandHall,Limited,London.
McMurray,DonaldM. 1968. WyandotteSanifacts. Wyandotte
ChemicalsCorp.,J.B.FordDivision,Wyandotte,Michigan.
McPherson,William. 1946. Chemistry. GinnandCompany,Boston,
NewYork,Chicago,London,Atlanta,Dallas,Columbus,San
Francisco.
Pauling,Linus. 1948. GeneralChemistry. W.H.Freemanand
Company,SanFrancisco,California.
Ray,FrancisEarl. 1947.GeneralChemistry. J.B.Lippincott,
Chicago,PhiladelphiaandLondon.
Routh,JosephI. 1953.20thCenturyChemistry.W.B.Saunders
Company.PhiladelphiaandLondon.
Sooksaws,H. 1992.EvaluationinMeatoftheEffectivenessofa
PapainInhibitorObtainedfromPotatoComparedtoAscorbic
Acid.Thesis,TheOhioStateUniversity.Columbus,Ohio.
Tang,W.T.1983.EffectsofIngredientsonthepHchangeofMeat
andKineticsofMeatMuscleProteinUponHeating.Thesis,The
OhioStateUniversity.Columbus,Ohio.
Whitaker,J.R. 1959.ChemicalChangesAssociatedwithAgingof
MeatwithEmphasisontheProteins.AdvancesinFoodResearch
IX:1.AcademicPress,NewYork.
1
POSTMORTEMCHANGESINPH
ThepHinlivemuscletissueisapproximately7.3to7.4but
by measuring it quickly post-mortem ithas usually dropped to
between6.5and7.0. Atslaughter,lossofbloodandconsequently
oxygentothetissuecausereactionswhichrequireoxygentostop.
This means that glycogen can still proceed through glycolysis
(requiresnooxygen)tolacticacid. Thereactionscannotcontinue
throughthecitric acid cycle sincethisportion of metabolism
requiresandoxygensupply. Thismeansthatglycogeninthemuscle
atthetimeofdeathwillbeconverted tolacticacidandwill
lowerthepHofthemuscle. Thereisapproximately1%glycogenin
themuscletissueandthiswillgenerate1.0to1.1%lacticacid.
Foreach1%lacticacidformedthepHwillbelowerapproximately
1.8 pH units. If pH isplotted against time post-mortem the
followinggeneralgraphisconstructed:
PH
Time
205
206
ThisdeclineinpHoccursatadifferentratefordifferentspecies
and the time of onset of rigor reflects this difference inpH
decline.
Species Timeinhoursforonsetofricjor
Beef 8-12
Lamb 6-10
Pork 2-6
Poultry 1-2
ThepH does not drop further due to one of the following
reasons:
1. Exhaustionorinaccessibilityofglycogensupply.
2. ThereductioninpHinactivatestheenzymesresponsible
fortheglycogenbreakdown (approximatepH5.3-5.4).
Boththe rateofpH fall andtheultimatepH achievedare
influencedbythefollowingfactors:
1. Species
2. Typeofmuscleinananimal
3. Geneticvariabilitybetweenanimals
4. Administrationofdrugswhichaffectmetabolism.
5. Environmentpriortoslaughter
a. Feeding
b. Stress
6. Post-mortemtemperature-increasedtemperatureincreases
rateofpHdecline.
7. Electricalstimulationofexcisedmuscle-increasesrate
ofpHdecline.
207
The effect of stress (ex. slaughter conditions) prior to
slaughtercanhaveaninfluenceontheglycogenconcentrationin
muscletissueandconsequentlytheamountofglycogenavailablefor
conversiontolacticacid. Thefollowingglycogenlevelshavebeen
reported3minutespost-morteminchickenbreastmuscletissue:
Initialglycogenlevel
Condition mg/g
Anesthetized
Stunned
8.3
6.0
Struggling 3.4
Fast rate of pH decline combined with high post-mortem
temperatureshasbeenreportedtobeacontributingfactorto"pale
softexudative (PSE)"muscletissueinswineandadull,whiteand
opaque,softandflabbyappearanceoffishmuscleknownas"chalky
fish". AhighultimatepHhasbeenreportedtoberesponsiblefor
darkcuttingbeef. Electricalstimulationofthecarcassincreases
therateofpHdeclinebyspeedingupglycolysis.
ThelowerthemusclepH,thebetteritskeepingqualitiesfrom
abacteriologicalstandpoint. BesidesthenormalpHdecreasedue
toglycolysis,pHcanbefurtherreducedbydirectadditionofacid
(acetic,lactic,citric)orbymicrobialfermentation.
WaterbindingisincreasedbyincreasingthepHofthemuscle
tissue. InadditiontothenaturalpHobtainedinthetissuethe
levelmaybeincreasedbytheadditionofphosphates.
CookingthemuscletissuecausesthepHtorisefrom1/3to
1/2apHunit.
208
References
AmericanHeatInstituteFoundation. 1960. TheScienceofMeatand
London.
Chen,M.T.,1977.EffectsofEnzymesontheUltrastructureand
BiochemicalChangesofMuscleDuringPost-MortemStorage.
Thesis,TheOhioStateUniversity,Columbus,Ohio.
Graner,M.,1967.EmulsifyingPropertiesofBovineSkeletalMuscle
TissueanditsProteinFractionsasRelatedtoTime
Post-MortemandMicrobialConcentration.Thesis,The
DeFremery,D. 1966. PhysiologyandBiochemistryofMuscleasa
food. UniversityofWisconsinPress. Madison,Wisconsin.
VITAMINS
Vitaminsareorganicsubstancesinadditiontoproteins,fat,
andcarbohydratesthatarenecessaryinthedietfornormalgrowth
andhealth. Theyareneededonly insmallquantitiesbuttheir
absenceoftenproducesdramaticsymptoms.
Vitamins are divided into fatandwater solublegroups as
follows:
Vitamins
1.watersoluble (B-complex)
a.Thiamine (B,)Thiamine
hydrochloride:3-[(4-Amino-2-
methyl-5-pyrimidinyl)methyl]-5-(2-
hydroxyethyl)-4methylthiazolium
chloridemonohydrochloride:
C
1?
H
17
C1N
A
OS.HC1
b.Riboflavin (B
2
)7,8-Dimethyl-10(D-
ribo-2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxypentyl)
isoalloxazine:C
17
H
?n
N
4
0
A
c.Nicotinicacid (Niacin)pyridine-
6carboxylicacid:C
6
H
5
NO
2
d.Pyridoxine (B
6
)Pyridoxine
hydrochloride:5-hydroxy-6-methyl-
3,4-pyridinedidimethanol
hydrochloride:Cgl^NOj.HCl
e.Pantothenicacid [N-(2,4-
Dihydroxy-3,3dimethyl-1-oxobutyl)-
6-butyryl)alanine:CoH
17
NO
s
]
Deficiency
Beriberi,
nervous
disorder
loss
of
vigor
Pellagra
needfor
aminoacid
metabolism;
anemia,
dermatitis,
nerve
disorders
depigmentat
-ionofhair
&dermatitis
Meat
Sources
pork,
ham
liver,
kidney,
heart
liver,
white
meat
liver
liver
209
210
f.Choline [Cholinechloride:
[HOCH
2
CH
2
N+ (CH
3
)
3
]Cl"]
g.Inositol (cholineInositol)
hexahydroxycyclohexane:C
A
H
1?
O
A
h.p-aminobenzoicacid (PABA;B
x
):
0^,1102
i.Biotin (H)cis-tetrahydro-2-
oxothieno (3,4-d)imidazoline-4-
valericacid:C
in
H
1A
N
?
O,S
j. FolicN-P-(2-Amino-4-hydroxy-6-
pteridinyl)methyl,amino,benzoyl,
glutamicacid:C
ig
H
19
N
7
0
A
k.VitaminB
12
(animalprotein
factor)cyanocobalamin:5,6-
dimethylbenzimidazoly1
cyanocobamine:C
M
H,
R
CoN
u
O
u
P
1.Ascorbicacid (C)C
A
H
R
0
A
2.Fatsolublevitamins
a.VitaminAretinol:3,7-dimethyl-
9-(2,6,6-trimethyl-l-cyclohexen-l-
preventionof
excessfatin
liver
fat
metabolism
growthin
experimental
animals
biosynthesis
ofenzymes
formationof
redblood
cells
pernicious
anemia
Scurvy
night
blindness
yl)-2 ,4,6,8-nonatetraen-l-ol:C
20
H
30
O:
formedfromcarotenoids
b.VitaminD (calciferol;D,):9,10-
secoergosta-5,7,10(19),22-tetraen-
3-olC,
B
HÔ
c.VitaminE (Tocopherols)alpha-
tocopherol: 2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-2-
(4',8,12-trimethyltridecyl)-6-
chromanol:C
?g
H
sn
O.,
d.VitaminK:2methyl-3-phytyl-l-4-
naphthosquinone
Rickets
abnormal
oxidation
reactions
blood
clotting
animal
organs
heart
widely
distrib-
uted
liver,
kidney,
pancreas
liver,
kidney
liver,
kidney
fish,
liver
fish
oil
Muscleandorgantissueisconsideredanexcellentsourceof
most of the B-Vitamins and, in addition, organ tissue contains
significantamountsofVitamins,AandC. Liver,inparticular,is
considered asasourceofVitaminsA,C,B
6
,B
12
,nicotinicacid,
211
pantothenicacidandbiotin.
Ingeneral,thevitamincontentofporkisespeciallyhighin
thiamine. Thevitaminlevelinporktissueisinfluencedbythe
levelpresentinthefeedtoafargreaterextentthanitisina
ruminant(beefcattle,lamb,etc.).
TheB-Vitamincontentofmuscletissueisquitesimilarfor
different cuts from thesamespecies. There isamuchgreater
differencewhenspeciesarecompared.
Thepicture isreversedwhen organtissues areconsidered.
Variousorgansfromthesamespeciewillhaveawidedifferencein
B-Vitamin content. However, when comparing the same organ in
differentspeciesthevariationisnotexcessive.
Processing (principallyheat)ofanyfoodlowersthevitamin
content expressed on an initial quantity basis. The treatment
receivedduringprocessingandthestabilityofthevitaminwill
determine the quantity that is lost. If water loss is
quantitativelygreaterthanvitaminlossduringprocessingthenit
ispossibletohaveanincreaseinvitamincontentexpressedona
weightbasis.
Inacomminutedproductthevitamincontentwilldependupon
therawmaterialsusedsuchas:
1. Ratiooforgantomuscletissue
2. Ratiooffattoprotein
3. Ratioofspeciesused
Most B-Vitamins are relatively stable to the processing
received inthe meat area. A few exceptions may be listed as
212
follows:
PercentVitaminLossesinMeatProcessing
Vitamin Cooking Cur- Rad- Ref- Remarks
ing iat- rig-
Totalloss Dripp
-ings
ion erated
Storage
Thiamine 20-60;Av. 1-25 2-22 15- 3-8
25;Canning 96
60-75
Riboflavin 10-40;Av. 5-30 1-5 0-25 0-2 light
15;Canning
6-55
sensit-
ive
Nicotinic 20-25;Av. 33-50 20- 10- 3-30
acid 20;Canning 32
35
20-54
VitaminB
6
50-80; 4-11 0 8-45
-
Canning47
VitaminB
12
Stable - - - -
duringmeat
processing
Folic 5-35
- -
10 -
acid
Pan- 20-35 20-25
-
25 Slight
tothenic in-
crease
VitaminA Large Freez- oxygen
losseson ing sensit-
cooking large ive
losses
on
storage
VitaminD Moderate - - - oxygen
heatstable sensit-
ive
VitaminE Stableto 25 oxygen
heat sensit-
ive
213
Thereportedvitamincontentofsometypicalmeatproductsare
listedinthefollowingtables:
VitaminContentofMeat (mg/100gexceptwherenoted)
WaterSoluble
Muscle
Vealleg
med.grade
Thiamine
B
1
.14-.50
Ribo-
flavin
B,
.25-.90
Nico-
tinic
Acid
6.1-22.8
Vitamin
B
6
/*g
.14-48
Panto-
thenic
acid
.71-1.3
Beefround
med.grade
raw
.05-.12 .17-.30 3.6-7.0 .30-.50 .47-1.0
Beefround
med.grade
cooked
lean
.13-23 .31-.33 5.7-7.9 .45 .63
Porkham
med.grade
.74-1.26 .18-.28 4.0-8.3 .34-50 .57-2.0
Lambleg
med.grade
.14-.19 .20-,78 4.5-8.5 .22-.32 .59-1.0
Beefround
steak,
lean
.08-.13 .22-.33 4.8-7.0 .30-.45 .63-1.0
Bologna .16-.72 .22-.98 2.6-12.0 .12-.13 .43
Poultry
Lightmeat .05-.10 .10-.17 7.6-9.9 .53
-
Darkmeat .05-.11 .18-.34 4.7-5.4 .30
-
Skin .030 .13 2.0
- -
Giblets .160 1.36 4.9
- -
Organ
Beefheart .24-68 .84-.90 6.5-7.5 .29 1.2-2.3
Beefliver .23-28 3.0-3.3 13-21 .74 5.5-8.3
214
Thevitamincontentofmeatcontinued.
WaterSoluble
Muscle
Vealleg
med.grade
Beefround
med.grade
raw
Beefround
med.grade
cooked
lean
Porkham
med.grade
Lambleg
med.grade
Beefround
steak,
lean
Bologna
Poultry
Lightmeat
Darkmeat
Skin
Giblets
Organ
Beefheart
Beefliver
Biotin
-
3.4-4.6
3.0-5.5
2.0-5.9
3.8-4.6
-
-
-
-
-
7.3
33-100
Folic
Acid
.020-.023
.014-.030
"
.007-.05
.007-.009
.02-.05
-
.02
.03
-
-
.004-110
.081
Vitamin
B
12
,Mg
2.5
2.0-2.7
1.7
.9-3.0
2.0-3.1
1.0-2.0
-
Tr.
1
-
-
8.0-9.7
65-110
VitaminC,
Ascorbic
acid
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-
-
2-7
23-46
215
Thevitamincontentofmeatcontinued.
Muscle
Vealleg
med.grade
Beefround
med.grade
raw
Beefround
med.grade
cooked
lean
Porkham
med.grade
Lambleg
med.grade
Beefround
steak,
lean
Bologna
Poultry
Lightmeat
Darkmeat
Skin
Giblets
Organ
Beefheart
Beefliver
VitaminA,
IU/lOOg
-
10-200IU
fat
0
-
30
-
50-80
120-220
550
4530
20-30
43,900-
44,000
FatSoluble
VitaminD
Tr.
Tr.
"
Tr.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Tr.
.001
VitaminE
Tr.
.13-.19
"
Tr.
.10
-
-
.08
.14
-
-
.37
.42
VitaminK
menadione
equivalent
.005
.005
.005
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
216
RECOMMENDEDHUMANDAILYDIETARYALLOWANCES
Vitamin MALE
3
FEMALE
3
Label
-ing
b
pur-
poses
Age Age Age Age
15- 23- 15- 23-
18 50 18 50
Thiamine, 1.5 1.4 1.1 1.0 1.5
B,mg.
Riboflavin, 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.7
B
7
mg.
Niacin,mg. 20 18 14 13 20
Pyridoxine, 1.8 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
B
A
mg.
Folicacid, 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
mg.
Vitamin 3 3 3 3 6
Ascorbic 45 45 45 45 60
acid,mg.
VitaminA, 5000 5000 4000 4000 5000
I.U.
(Ascorbic
acid)
VitaminD, 400 - 400 - 400
I.U.
VitaminE, 15 15 11 12 30
I.U.
Biotin, 0.3
mg.
Panto- 10
thenic
acid,mg.
3
1974
b
1 9 7 3
Meataverageper
100g
Beef
0.1
0.23
5.0
0.4
0.02
2.3
-
15
neg.
neg.
4.0
0.7
Pork
1.0
0.23
6.0
0.4
0.02
1.1
-
neg.
neg.
5.4
1.2
Beef
liver
0.2
3.2
17
0.74
0.08
6.5
40
44000
neg.
neg.
100
6.4
217
References
Agboola,H.A.1987.TheEffectsofaHighMonosodiumPhosphateand
AlphaTocopherolSupplementedMilkReplacerDietonVeal
MuscleColor,CompositionandCholesterolContent.Thesis,The
AmericanMeatInstituteFoundation. 1960.TheScienceofMeatand
London.
Fruton,J.S.andS.Simmonds. 1958. GeneralBiochemistry. John
WileyandSon,Inc.,NewYork.
Furia,ThomasE. 1968. HandbookofFoodAdditives. TheChemical
RubberCompany,Cleveland,Ohio.
NationalResearchCouncil. 1968. RecommendedHumanDietary
Allowances.
Stoytcher,M.,L.KominkovandY.Krusteva. 1960. Changesin
SomeB-ComplexVitaminscontentduringproductionof
pasteurizedcannedham,shoulderandloin. 15thEuropean
MeetingofMeatResearchWorkers,Helsinki,England.
Thomas,M.H.andE.S.Josephson.1970. Radiationpreservation
offoodsanditseffectonnutrients. TheScienceTeacher
37:3.
Foods. USDA,Washington,D.C.
Whitehead,C.C , 1992.BoneBiologyandSkeletalDisordersin
Poultry.CarfaxPublishingCo.,Abingdon,Oxfordshire.
Trouble Shooting Processing Defects
PROCESSED MEAT
Processed meat may be cured or uncured, solid or coarse ground or "emulsified".
Most ofthese products have an acceptable and unacceptable definition of quality and ifthe
product becomes unacceptable it isoften the quality control personnel job to find out what
went wrong. A list of some of the possible problems and some of the causes are outlined
as follows.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
FAT &JELLY PROBLEMS
Defect Cause Discussion
Fat caps and Borderline or unstable emulsion.
jellypockets.
a) Air incorporated during mixing, Sausage products cooked
comminuting or stuffing. Air pockets inwater are more likelyto
will fill with gelatin if the emulsion exhibit gelatin pockets
has borderline stability.
than sausages cooked in
dry heat.
b) Short meat, i.e.too much collagen Collagen protein should
protein and insufficient salt soluble contribute less than 33%
proteins. of total protein, and
preferably less than 25%.
c) High fat or high collagen ratios to Reduce fat and/or collagen
salt soluble protein in the product. and/or increase salt soluble
protein.
d) The pH of the meat istoo low. Adjust pH.
218
219
EMULSION PRODUCTS
FAT AND JELLY PROBLEMS
Defect Cause
Fat, rendering, a) Too much collagen protein.
fat pocket s,
greasing out.
b) Too much frozen meat.
c) Too much frozen meat.
d) Too much edible by-products.
e) Too much rework product.
f) Low pH.
g) Emulsion chopped too long and
too fine.
Discussion
Collagen protein should
contribute less than 33%
of total protein, and
preferably less than 25%;
final chop temperature
should be no higher than
50F if high in collagen.
If frozen meat is held for
any length of time at -4to
12C (25-28F), the
resulting formation of
large ice crystals will
rupture cell structure and
denature protein, thus
reducing bind capacity and
emulsion stability.
Denaturation of small
quantity of protein.
Poor emulsion stability.
Little emulsion stability.
Too much liquid smoke,
citric acid, vinegar or acid
phosphate added.
As a result of over-
chopping, not enough salt
soluble protein isavailable
to coat and stabilize the
l arge surface area
generated by the small fat
globules. Finely chopped
emulsions require much
more salt soluble protein
(cont.)
220
Defect
Fat rendering,
fat pocket s,
greasing out.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Cause
h) Emulsion chopped too short.
i) Emulsion held at elevated
temperature prior to cooking.
j) Emulsion held too long under
pressure before stuffing.
k) Emulsion keep too long in bins
before stuffing.
1)Pressure too high during transfer of
emulsion from emulsifier to chopper
or staffer.
m) Emulsion overworked during
transfer through pumps, pipes and
transfer auger.
n) Product under stuffed.
o) Under-stuffed, loose ends of
stuffed strands.
Discussion
than course chopped or
ground emulsions. Over
chopping can also damage
the proteins. If chopped
above 80F emulsion will
usually separate.
Separate during
processing.
Protein being denatured.
Emulsion should be staffed
immediately after forming.
Emulsion should be staffed
immediately after forming.
Do not pump long
distances. Do not have
sharp bends in pipe.
Phosphates reduces viscous
properties and reduce
shearing action.
Do not pump long
distances. Do not have
sharp bends in pipe.
Holes in emulsion fill with
fat from a weak emulsion.
Holes in emulsion fill with
221
Defect
Fat rendering,
fat pocket s,
greasing out.
Defect
Smearing
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Cause
p) Air pockets due to improper
stuffing.
q) Too high a cook temperature.
r) Heating too rapidly.
s) High RH too early in cycle, e.g.
90F and 55-60RH.
t) Allowingmoisture toaccumulate on
surface.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Cause
Stuffing horn contains nicks or burrs.
Swirlsdue to small horn stuffing large
casings.
Emulsion on outside of casing can
effect smoking and cooking rate.
Discussion
Holes in emulsionfillwith
Temperature above 160F
willoften cause problems.
Sausage may shrink before
emulsion is stabilized.
Reduce RH.
This will cause fat to
liquify.
Discussion
Keep horn in good shape.
Use horn only slightly
smaller than the casing.
Keep outside of casing
clean.
222
FAT AND JELLY
Defect
Fatrendering at
tip of smoke
stick mar k;
surface may
have a slightly
greasy touch
Defect
Thingreasy film
on surface of
emulsion
sausage.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
PROBLEMS
Cause
a) Too rapid heating.
b) Heated to an excessive
temperature.
c) Too much relative humidity due to
use ofa steam cook for 2-5minutes at
the end of a cookhouse cycle.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Cause
a) Insufficient salt soluble protein to
stabilize the emulsion.
Discussion
During heat i ng, fat
globules expand while the
protein firms and shrinks;
thus the fat ruptures the
protein matrix and rises in
the product ifpossible.
Discussion
This problem may be
reduced or eliminated by
reducing relative humidity
in the smokehouse.
223
Defect
Poor peelability
of wieners
Defect
Casing break
during cooking
of large
diameter
emulsion
products.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Cause
a) Improper initial surface
protein coagulation during
first stage of smoking.
b) Overdrying of wieners during |
chilling, i.e.Too much air j
circulation.
J
c) Improper pH of liquid smoke.
d) Inapproprait processing for casing.
e) Ingredients.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Cause
a) Product heated too quickly.
b) Batter held overnight in cooler so
the interior temperature was lower
than normal.
c) Too firm a skin formed prior to
heating.
Discussion
Dehydr at i on hinders
peelability. On the other
hand, sweating (i.e. cold
product in a warmer
environment) improves
peelability. Place product
in a high humidity area.
Steam cook at the end of
heating cycle helps.
Proper pH depends upon
casing type.
Proper processing (cook
time and temperature) for
each type of product.
Ingredients that attract
water to the surface ofthe
p r o d u c t i mp r o v e
peelability.
Discussion
In the case of heating too
rapidly, the surface sets,
and shrinks while the
inside remains cool and
we t . To o hi gh a
temperature and or too
high relative humidity.
For dry casings breakage
generally occurs at the
ends. For wet casings,
breakage generally occurs
in the center.
224
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Floating
emulsion
products such
asfrankfurters.
a) Air trapped in emulsion. Air which has been
trapped in an emulsion
may seep into the vacuum
package, causing the
appearance of a leaker.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Poor texture
(holes in
product).
Air in emulsion. Vacuum stuffing willhelp.
225
Defect
Excessive
shrinkage on
c o o k i n g or
wrinkling.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Cause
a) Excessive fat.
b) Soft fats such as pork or over-
chopping.
c) Excessive moisture as a result of
inaccurate estimate offlaked icetobe
added.
d) Low water holding capacity of
emulsion.
e) Excess moisture due to binder, or
salt, or bread crumbs stored in a
room having high relative humidity.
f) PSE pork.
g)Ingredients not mixed long enough.
h) Understuffing.
i)Overdrying or improper humidity in
smokehouse.
j) Cooked to rapidly.
Discussion
Rendering.
Soft oily fats such as
internal fat willexperience
greater shrinkage than
carcass fats.
R e c a l c u l a t e and
evaporation willhelp.
Free water is more easily
lost than bound water.
Addition of products
containing water.
Poor water holding
capacity.
Saltsoluble proteins poorly
extracted and emulsion
poorly formed.
Check stuffing pressure.
A particular problem with
natural casing franks.
Do not take from smoke
house directly to cooler.
226
Defect
Nonuniformity
ofcasings.
CURED COLOR
Defect
Gray outside
col or when
processing is
finished.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Cause
a) Variation in stuffing pressure.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
AND COLOR STABILITY
Cause
a) No nitrite added.
b) Internal temperature - too low on
entering smokehouse.
Discussion
Maintain uniform stuffing
pressure. Casing sizersalso
help. Poorly adjusted
l i nki ng e q u i p me n t
sometimes a problem.
Maintain uniform emulsion
flow to avoid excessive by-
passing of emulsion.
Discussion
Curing material was left
out of emulsion.
Int ernal t emperat ure
should be 90F on
entering smokehouse.
227
EMULSION PRODUCTS - CURED COLOR AND COLOR STABILITY
Defect
Weak color,
color fading.
Cause
A) Insufficient nitrite in cure.
a) Interior is undercured.
b) PSE pork,
c) Chicken
B) Cured pigment has been oxidized
by light, oxygen,etc. And oxidation is
also accelerated by temperature.
a) Vacuum package leakers.
b) Strong lighting.
c) Elevated storage temperatures.
d) Bacteria oxidizing pigments.
e) Chemical oxidation.
Discussion
The surface color fades
rapidly while the interior
mayrange from faded pink
to gray or light green.
PSE does not accept cured
color as well as normal
pork. The amount ofPSE
pork should be minimized
or separated to prevent
two toning.
Chicken has less pigment
than red meat.
Curing procedures should
be improved to guarantee
at least 70% of the meat
pigment being cured.
Reducing agents such as
ascorbic acid may be a
help in this area.
The quality of vacuum
should be improved.
The use of opaque
packages and reduced
exposure to light will
reduce the potential for
pigment to fade. Reducing
agents willalso help.
Maintain temperature
control.
Start with low bacterial
count raw material and
don't encourage growth.
Oxidized -cleaning agents,
sanitizers & chlorine.
228
EMULSION PRODUCTS
CURED COLOR AND COLOR STABILITY
Defect Cause
Discussion
Green colorand a) Improper chill after processing, Product should be chilled
sour flavor a
promptly and processing
few days after
prior to packaging.
processing.
Packaging at 60F or
above willcause problems.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Discoloration in A) Inclusion of air in the casing. Gray spots in large
emulsion emulsion products are
products. a) Faulty sniffer. common with this defect.
Vacuum chopping, mixing
b) Damaged stuffing horn. and stuffing willaid inthis
area. Some casings have
c) Careless handling of casings. holes or holes may be
added to allow air to
d) Air trapped in meat emulsion as escape.
it isplaced in stuffer.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Defect Cause
Discussion
Discoloration a) Cold showered too long. Removed water soluble
on ext er nal pigment and salt.
surface of large
e m u l s i o n b) Product was processed over too Microbial growth during
products in a
long a period of time.
processing.
few days after
processing.
c) Insufficient salt.
Salt level should be at
least 2% uniformly
distributed.
229
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Defect Cause
Color faded or a) Meat too warm during grinding.
smeared at time
of stuffing. b) Meat too warm during stuffing.
c) Damaged stuffing horn.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Defect Cause
Color fading. a) Insufficient reducing conditions.
b) Microbiological.
c) Chemical oxidation.
Discussion
Control temperature.
Control temperature.
Causes smearing.
Discussion
Add a s c or ba t e or
erythorbate or their acids.
Proper sanitation.
Cleaning detergents not
removed from surfaces.
EMULSION PRODUCTS CITRFD COLOR AND COLOR STABILITY
Light marks on a) Smoke sticks wrong size and Appear at tips.
small emulsion interferes with smoking.
products.
b) Contact between wieners during May appear at tips or on
smokehouse operation. sides. Often caused by
overloading the
smokehouse.
c) Impurities in metal sticks causing Appear at tips. Often
oxidation (sometimes green color). found when aluminum
sticks are used. Stainless
steel sticks will usually
prevent.
230
EMULSION PRODUCTS
CURED COLOR AND COLOR STABII.TTY
Defect Cause
Discussion
Light color and a) PSE pork,
In addition to dryness;
dry flavor.
pr oduc t may have
undergone an additional 3-
5% shrinkage during
processing.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Central a) Insufficient thermal processing. Cooking to a minimum
discoloration in internal temperature of
large emulsion 58C ( 137F) , and
products. optimum 69C (155F)
willreduce discoloration.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Red specks like a) Shredded meat hard frozen, Temper orpartially defrost
measles. frozen shredded meat.
EMULSION PRODUCTS CURED COLOR AND COLOR STABILITY
White salty a) Lactose crystals due to excessive Reduce levels.
crystal whey or milk powder use.
appearance
b) Phosphate.
Change phosphate or
reduce levels.
231
CURED COLOR
Defect
Green patches.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
AND COLOR STABILITY
Cause
A) Problem intensifies in an acid
medium.
a) Nitrite burn (sometimes brown)
due to excessive nitrite.
b) Nitrite burn due to improper
distribution of nitrite.
B) Undercure.
a) Undercure due to too short
n
of a curing time. |
I-
b) Undercure due to too cold
curing room temperature.
|
J
c) Too little nitrite.
Discussion
Lower nitrite levels inacid
products.
Improper mixing.
Better distribution of
ingredients, longer curing
time, temperature of
curingroom approximately
2-3C (35-38F), and use
of cure accelerators such
as ascorbate will reduce
g r e e n i n g d u e to
undercuring.
Recalculate nitrite level
used.
232
CURED COLOR
Defect
Surface
greeni ng in
large emulsion
products.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
AND COLOR STABILITY
Cause
A) Relatively salt resistant
bacteria capable of growing
at refrigerator temperatures.
a) Improper hygiene of racks
and working surfaces.
b) Improper cooking cycle.
c) Surface contamination.
d) Inadequate refrigeration of
finished product.
e) Freshly prepared product
exposed to product returns.
B) Iron contamination.
Discussion
A g r e e n i s h g r a y
discoloration may be
accompanied by slime.
Surface greening may
a ppe a r soon aft er
processing or late in retail
storage (at least 5 days
after processing and up to
a few weeks). Surface
greening will increase and
spread ifproduct isheld at
elevated temperatures
which are common in
summer. Increased salt
concentration, increase
smokehouse temperature,
a voi di ng exces s i ve
moisture in packages will
reduce the incidence of
surface greening.
Iron contamination will
cause oxidation.
233
EMULSION PRODUCTS -CURED COLOR AND COLOR STABILITY
Defect
Green rings in
large emulsion
products.
Cause
Same as green cores.
Due to facultative anaerobic bacteria
whichmay be relatively heat resistant.
a) Heavily contaminated emulsion.
b) Insufficient thermal process.
c) Remixing of off-conditioned meat.
d) Abusive storage offinished product
to permit growth ofsurvivingbacteria.
Discussion
Green rings generally
appear as continuous rings
at 2-4mm depths beneath
the surface at time of
cutting. For development
they require exposure to
oxygen. Generally after
several hours the entire
core may fade. Processing
to a minimum of 67C
(153F) and ifnecessary to
71C (160F) in addition
tochecking and controlling
quality of raw materials
will reduce the incidence
of green rings.
EMULSION PRODUCTS -CURED COLOR AND COLOR STABILITY
Defect
Green cores in
large emulsion
products.
Cause
Same bacteria as surface greening.
Contamination of emulsion prior to
processing.
a) Poor quality of raw materials.
b) Emulsion held too long before
cooking, or heavily contaminated.
c) Improper storage temperature of
finished product.
d) Insufficient thermal processing.
n
e) Smokehouse, cold spots (-
I
f) Smokehouse was overloaded.
J
Discussion
Green cores appear afew
hours after slicingproduct,
after surface isexposed to
the air. They are usually
not apparent at time of
slicing.
Note: Because the bacteria
are relatively heat resistant
they are alive in green
cores. As a result they are
capable of cross
contaminating process
lines and product.
Process to a minimum of
67C (153F) and if
necessary to 72C (162F)
and this will destroy most
bacteria.
234
EMULSION PRODUCTS
COLOR PROBLEMS
Defect Cause
Discussion
Lack of cured
flavor or
chicken feather
flavor.
a) Incomplete cure.
b) Poor distribution of cure.
Cure (Nitrite) contributes
to cured flavor.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
MICROBIOLOGICAL PROBTFMS
Sour or
casings.
slimy a) Natural casing held in stagnant
water.
b) Improper salt level.
La r ge n u mb e r
microorganisms.
of
c) High microbiological load
prior to processing.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
MICROBIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
Gassyprocessed
meat s , e. g.
wieners.
Carbon dioxide production
facultative anaerobic bacteria.
by Gassiness may appear as
vacuum failure since
packages generally bloat.
The product may have a
sour flavor.
a) Underprocessing. Sanitation problem.
b) Leaker.
Improper thermo
processing.
235
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Defect Cause
Discussion
Musty, weedy, Bacterial growth, Microbiological.
parsnips, cheesy
off-flavor. a) Insufficient salt.
b) Poor sanitation.
c) Abusive storage temperature.
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Sour flavor and a) Microbiological. Similar bacteria as those
odor. which cause development
ofgreen core,except there
isno pigment
discoloration.
EMULSION PRODUCTS -MICROBIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
Defect Cause
Slime. Due to high bacterial counts of lactic
acid bacteria, micrococci and yeast.
Accentuated by moisture
condensation, e.g. product
to sweat.
permitted
a) Post process surface contamination.
b) Abusive storage temperatures.
c) Leakers or loss of vacuum.
Discussion
White or yellow slime is
the visible presence ofthe
microorganisms themselves
rather than the
metabolites.
These bacteria mayappear
as whitish, milky liquidsin
vacuum packages.
236
EMULSION PRODUCTS
M o l d
wieners.
o n Require oxygen for growth.
a) High moisture content.
Improve vacuum package,
b) Leaky packages.
237
EMULSION PRODUCTS
PROBLEMS
Defect Cause
Milky purge in a) Microbiological growth.
frank package.
b) Poor water holding capacity.
Discussion
Reduce raw material
microbicidal level.
There should be lessthan
300 bacteria/g after
smokehouse cooking.
Increase smoke/cook
temperature up to 160F.
Reduce post peeling
contamination by good
sanitation and mid-shift
cleanup.
Reduce equipment contact
between peeling and
packaging.
Reduce microbiological
load in the air in the
peeling area.
Maintain good vacuum in
the packages.
Properly chillpackages.
Keep temperature lowand
non-fluctuating during
distribution.
Add salt to lean meat
early in processing cycle.
Use alkaline phosphates.
238
EMULSION PRODUCTS
Bacteria After processing contamination. Cont ami nat i on after
colonies on peeling.
surface.
Temperature abuse.
Excessive package purge.
Poor processing
contamination.
239
FRESH PORK SAUSAGE PROBLEMS
COLOR
Loss of bloom. Oxidation. Avoid contact withnitrite.
Use antioxidants.
Keep meat
below 30F.
temperature
Encapsulated salthasbeen
reported to help.
Use extracted
flavors.
oil of spice
COLOR
G l a n d s
products.
i n Glands in raw material. Pork jowls should not be
use.
FRESHPORKSAUSAGEPROBLEMS
COLOR
Fat smearing. a) Product too warm. Use 5-6lbs.dir ice/100lbs.
to cool.
b) Too high air pressure. Reduce air pressure.
240
COLOR
Defect Cause
Discussion
Fresh
loss of
smeared
sausage
bloom,
color.
a) Ingredients mixed too long.
b) Overmixing inribbon-type blender.
Reduce
Reduce
mixing.
mixing.
c) Grinders
worn plates.
with dull knives and/or Equipment maintenance.
d) Too small preblend discharge, thus
ground meat is overworked.
Increase size.
e) Nitrite contamination. Usually unintentional.
f) Sage oxidizing collagen casing. Alter spice or casing.
g) Too high temperature processing. Reduce temperature.
COLOR
Color fading,
white pasty.
a) Meat broken down too fine on
grinder plate or chopped too long.
Reduce comminution.
b) Excessive drying of natural casings
due to prolonged exposure to cold air
currents.
Temperature control.
241
COLOR
Fresh sausage a) Air pockets. Formulation and package
premature control.
souring.
b) Excessive moisture on inside of Reduce added moisture,
casing. improve water holding
capacity of tissue used.
c) Prolonged, abusive storage of Mi cr obi ol ogi cal and
sensitive raw ingredients such aspork. temperature control. Hot
boning isoften useful.
CASING PROBLEMS
Defect Cause
Discussion
Fresh sausage a) Casing filled too tight. Reduce stuffing level.
casings bursting
on cooking. b) Inferior casings. Improve casings.
c) Insufficient soaking or working of Follow casing instructions.
casings prior to stuffing.
242
Defect
Case hardening
of fermented
sausage.
Defect
Gassy dry
sausage.
Defect
Mold on dried
sausage.
FERMENTED AND DRIED PRODUCT PROBLEMS
Cause Discussion
a) Sausage dried too quickly, further Case hardening may be
drying very difficult. accompanied by surface
ridges,brown or gray rings
and excessive shriveling.
FERMENTED AND DREED PRODUCT PROBLEMS
Cause Discussion
Growth of heterofermentative lactic To avoid gas produced by
bacteria; in a few cases the growth the wrong microorganism
may be due to yeast which produce lactic acid starter culture
co
2
.
may be helpful.
FERMENTED AND DREED PRODUCT PROBLEMS
Cause Discussion
Surface mold or yeast. Microbiological retarding
chemicals are sometime
used.
a) Too moist surface.
In addition tothe mold the
outside surface may be
soft.
b) Too slow drying.
243
Defect
Fat separation
and wrinkling.
Defect
Pale color.
Defect
Green core.
Cause
Discussion
a) Over working of meat mixture. Keep emulsion below
40F.
b) Improper temperature and/or Use proper processing
humidities in smokehouse. conditions.
c) Too small a stuffing horn. Lead to smearing and
emulsion heating.
Cause Discussion
High fat content. Pork only summer sausage
are a particular problem
due to light cured color.
Cause Discussion
Usually microbiological. Poor sanitation.
Co n t a mi n a t e d raw
materials.
I mpr oper processing
temperature.
244
Defect Cause
Discussion
Slow
fermentation.
Frozen culture thawed and held too
long before adding to meat.
Make up culture
needed.
as
Incorrect temperature
during fermentation.
and humidity Follow recommended
optimum conditions.
Growth of contaminated
microorganisms buffers pH drop.
Use high quality (low in
microorganisms) raw
material.
Phosphate
drop.
in cheese may buffer pH Use cheese with care.
Product entering
than normal.
smokehouse colder Use care with frozen
meat.
Excessive salt or cure. Adjust additives.
Culture contacts
directly.
curing ingredients Mix separately.
High fat level. Low moisture level causes
problems.
Large diameter product. Slow heat transfer.
Rapid moisture loss.
Check drying
temperature, air velocity
and casing.
245
Defect Cause
Fast
fermentation.
a) Temperature and/or humidity
higher than normal.
b) Spice formulation
culture.
favoring
Discussion
Follow recommended
optimum conditions.
Black pepper, white
pepper, mustard, garlic
powder, allspice, nutmeg,
ginger, mace, cinnamon
and red pepper have
been shown to stimulate
acid production.
246
Defect
Dark rings
inside liver
sausage.
Defects
Casing burst on
cooked liver
sausage.
Defect
Fat separation
and jelly
pockets in liver
sausage.
LIVER SAUSAGE PROBLEMS
Cause
Water cooked liver sausage was too
cool before being placed into the
smokehouse.
OVER SAUSAGE PROBLEMS
Cause
a) Over cooking. -j
b) Raw livers used. |-
c) Emulsion over-stuffed.
J
LIVER SAUSAGE PROBLEMS
Cause
a) Too high a cooking water
temperature.
b) Prior to cooking raw
emulsion temperature was
in excess of 21C (70F).
c) Chopping period was
too long, and emulsion
temperature was not
kept low enough.
Discussion
Discussion
Liver tends to expand
during cooking.
Discussion
Liver products do not
make a strong emulsion
and must be handled very
carefully.
247
SOLID TISSUE PROCESSING
SLICING AND TEXTURE PROBLEMS
Defects Cause
Discussion
Broken pieces
during slicing
of processed
meats, e.g.
boiled ham.
a) Off-conditioned muscles used in
curing.
b) Failure to extract salt soluble, -j
binding protein. |
c) Inadequate tumbling or |-
massaging. |
Microbiological
denaturation of protein.
Tumbling or mixingand
appropriate salt and
phosphate levels willaid
in binding.
d) Inadequate salt.
J
e) Meat or pickle was too acid. Denaturation of protein.
f) Product was overcooked. Denaturation of protein.
g) Failure to press pieces together
tight enough prior to cooking.
Pressing during
denaturation (cooking) in
important. Also repress
after cooking.
h) Ingredients. Wheat gluten, egg
albumin, pork skins,and
meat emulsions have all
been used to aid binding
junctions.
SOLID TISSUE PROCESSING - SLICING AND TEXTURAL PROBLEMS
Soft boneless a) Excessive connective tissue.
ham.
r
Proper trimming.
b) Seam fat left inside ham.
J
C) Incomplete chilling after cooking. Temperature control.
248
SOIID TISSTJE PROCESSING
SLICING AND TEXTURAL PROBLEMS
Defect Cause
Discussion
Meat shattering a) Meat too cold.
during slicing, Temperature control.
e.g.bacon. b) Improper tempering.
c) Dull knife. Sharpen and adjust
equipment.
SLICING AND TEXTURAL PROBLEMS
Airpockets. Stuffing problem. Use vacuum equipment
with correct pressure.
249
SOUP TISSUE PROCESSING
TISSUE COLOR PROBLEMS
Brown hams. Oxidation of meat pigment. Dehydration due to low
relative humidity and high
storage temperature.
DEFECT Cause Discussion
Large muscle Size of 25 or 50cent pieces. Due to moldy feedstuffs.
hemo- e.g.toxins or blood
rrhages. thinning agents.
SOLID TISSUE PROCESSING -TISSUE COLOR PROBLEMS
Ham joint Blood vessels ruptured during Joint hemorrhages willbe
hemo- shackling. reduced by avoiding
rrhages. sudden jerks during
shackling.
Pinpoint Small blood spots.
hemorrhages.
Capillary rupture due to excessive A reduction of time
time between electrical stunning and between stunning and
bleeding. bleeding to 10 seconds
willreduce the incidence
of hemorrhages.
250
SOTID TISSUE PROCESSING
TISSUE COTOR PROBLEMS
Defect Cause
Twotone Preslaughter stress and PSE pigs.
muscle.
Defect Cause
Pale color of The color may vary from faded pink
hams. to gray or light green.
a) Hams not thoroughly cured.
b) Curing rate and efficiency -|
retarded due to abnormally low |
curing temperature. |
c) Elevated curing and storage |
temperatures have permitted |
sufficient bacterial growth to fade
J
pigments.
Defect Cause _ _ _ _ _
Faded interior Inadequate cure due to rupture of
section of ham. artery in hams being arterially
pumped.
Discussion
Two toning may be
accompanied by excessive
shrinkage during
processing. Reduce stress
and chill quickly.
Discussion
Check nitrite levels,
methods of incorporation
and tumbling willhelp.
Discussion
Damage to artery on
slaughter, cutting or
during pumping.
251
TISSUE COLOR PRORLF.MS
Defect
Iridescence.
Cause
Unnaturel shiny appearance.
Mother of Pearl appearance.
a) Diffraction of incident white light
due to striated or fibrous nature of
muscle.
Discussion
b) Bacterial growth.
c) Fat on surface of tissue.
Control microorganisms.
Reduce smearing.
TISSUE COLOR
PROBLEMS
Defect
Discoloration
of ham slice.
Cause
Caused by high intensity lights.
Discussion
Vacuum packing and
ascorbates willhelp.
TISSUE COIf>R
PROBLEMS
Defect Cause
Discussion
Pink or green
discoloration in
fat.
Metabolic
bacteria.
products of halophilic Control microorganisms.
252
TISSUE COLOR
Defect
Green bacon.
SOLED TISSUE PROCESSING
PROBLEMS
Cause
Bacterial growth.
a) Salt concentration too low.
b) Moisture content too high.
c) Temperature too high.
d) Raw product contaminated.
TISSUE COLOR
Defect
Dark frying
bacon.
PROBLEM
Cause
a) Inversion of sugar by bacteria.
b) Poor sugar quality.
c) Excessive heat during frying.
Discussion
Control process.
Microbiological control.
Discussion
Microbial control and
change of sugar types
may be helpful.
Improved sugar quality
and sugar types may be
helpful.
Don't overcook.
Green or faded Heat resistance bacteria.
There isgenerally no off-
canned hams. Streptococcus faecium.
odor, no off-flavor and no
swelling with this
a) Inadequate thermal process.
homofermentative
bacteria.
253
Defect Cause
Discussion
Greening. Oxidation. Hypochlorite sanitizers
residue.
Hypoperoxide due
rancidity.
Inadequate curing.
Impurities in salt.
Two toned Difference in pigmentation of raw Separate raw materials
appearance in material. into different color
sectioned and categories prior to
formed processing.
product.
254
SOUP TISSUE PROCESSING
CURING PROBLEM
Pickle pockets. When intact muscles are over-
pumped, open seams willform due
to brine localizing in seams between
muscle areas.
a) Use of high pump pressure to
overcome poor injection distribution
due to wide needle spacing.
Lower pump pressure,
b) Overpumping. Lower pump level.
255
Defect
Shoulder/ham
sour.
Cause
a) Improper chilling of carcass.
b) Tissue held too long before
curing.
c) In the case of shoulder-stuck
hogs, improper bleeding.
Discussion
Process control.
Improve sticking.
Defect
Gassy hams.
Cause
Same cause as gassy franks.
Discussion
Defect
Putty ham.
Cause
Spreads with a knife.
a) Internal bacterial growth.
Discussion
Microbial and
temperature control.
256
Defect
Color variation
inproduct due
to location in
smokehouse.
Defect
Uncured
product stays
red during
cooking.
Defect
Muddy product
color, e.g.
leaching and
shrinkage of
product.
ATT.PRODUCTS
Cause
Rotating damper not functioning.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
High muscle pH.
ATT.PRODUCTS
Cause
Oven isoverloaded with humidity.
When changing from one setting to
another the wet and dry bulb
thermocouples sense the need for
temperature elevation. The humidity
valve opens and saturates the house
with steam before the dry bulb has
been satisfied. Gas burners and
steam coils do not respond as
quickly as steam injection for RH
control.
Humidity too high.
Wet casings at start of smoke.
Discussion
Repair.
Discussion
Reduce animal stress
prior to slaughter.
Reduce alkaline additives.
Rinse alkaline cleaners.
Discussion
This problem can be
minimized by elevating
the dry bulb setting. After
it reaches the appropriate
range then the wet bulb
setting can be elevated.
Smokehouse should
initially be operated with
dampers open to remove
excess moisture.
More drying.
257
Defect
Excessive
shrinkage of
product.
Defect
Browning.
Defect
Dark black
surfaces instead
of the desired
redder surfaces
of meat
products.
Defect
Black specks
on surface.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
a) Oven exhausting as a result of
damper being locked in open
position.
b) Exhaust stack damper improperly
set.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Humidity too low.
ATT.PRODUCTS
Cause
Smoke too wet.
ATT.PRODUCTS
Cause
Ash from smoke.
Discussion
Repair.
The exhaust damper in
the closed position ona
gas heated house should
be 10-15% open for
proper venting. Steam
heated housed may
operate with a more fully
closed damper.
Discussion
Regulate.
Discussion
Dry.
Discussion
Too much draft insmoke
generator or too much
fine material in sawdust.
258
Defect
Product
sweating.
Defect
Yield, peeling,
internal
temperature
and color
problems in
product.
Defect
Product
rendering,
reduced yield.
Defect
Product
rendering,
reduced yield
and poor color.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Too rapid a rise in temperature
during smoking.
Internal product temperature too
low during smoking.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Diverted nozzle direction.
ATT.PRODUCTS
Cause
Temperature too high and/or cook
cycle too long.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Excessive relative humidity.
Discussion
Adjust temperature.
Adjust temperature.
Discussion
Adjust.
Discussion
Adjust.
Discussion
Lower.
259
Defect
Bleached color
on surface plus
salt loss and
reduced shelf
life of product.
Defect
Differences in
air velocities
from one side
of the
smokehouse to
the other.
ATT. PRODUCTS
Cause
Showering too long.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Inoperative rotating damper
motor.
Partially broken or loose blades
on fan.
Loose drive belts on main fan
drive.
Dirty fan wheel.
Dirty coil.
Lack of make-up air in smoke-
house area.
Broken supply ducts.
Damaged nozzles.
Discussion
The loss of surface salt
permits bacterial growth.
Discussion
Repair.
260
Defect
Severe drop in
nozzle velocity
insmokehouse.
Defects
Inhibited heat
transfer,
decreasing
nozzle velocity
insmoke
house.
Defect
Air
temperature at
base of
smokehouse in
excess of 3-5C
(5-10F) of air
temperature at
top of
smokehouse.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Clean up crew may have failed to
n
close access doors on the supply |
ducts. j
I
Two sided supply ducts not firmly (-
anchored to the ceiling or wall. j
Leakage of air at attachment j
points of supply ducts.
J
ATT. PRODUCTS
Cause
Caustic and lime deposits on steam
coils due to excess heat during
cleaning process.
ATT. PRODUCTS
Cause
Air circulation too strong.
Discussion
Repair.
Discussion
Clean.
Discussion
Blower on top of
smokehouse pushing too
much air.
261
Defect
Layers of hot
and cold air in
smokehouse.
Defect
Failure to draw
smoke (smoke
backs up into
make-up air
intake).
Defect
Slow
temperature
rise in
smokehouse.
Defect
Varying heat
rise patterns,
e.g.come up
time.
ATT.PRODUCTS
Cause
Stratification due to no air
movement.
ATT.PRODUCTS
Cause
Exhaust damper closed completely.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Dirty steam coil.
Valve may be partially open.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Drop in steam pressure due to
periods of heavy plant demand.
Discussion
Increase.
Discussion
Adjust.
Discussion
Clean and Adjust.
Discussion
More steam supply or
reduce usage.
262
Defect
Excessive
humidity.
Defect
Lowhumidity
reading.
Defect
False reading
ofrelative
humidity.
Defects
False reading
of lowrelative
humidity and
temperature.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Steam leak in area of make up air,
intake damage or worn seals in
steam valves, leaking unions or T's,
leaking steam coil or unvented
cooking. Cleaning tanks, cage or tree
washers in the area of the
cookhouse.
ATT.PRODUCTS
Cause
Crusting of wet bulb sock.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Rate of water flow into
psychrometer pan too fast and pan
remains full of cold water.
Rate of water flow into
psychrometer pan istoo slowand
pan runs dry.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Dry bulb located down stream from
the wet bulb.
Discussion
Repair or move.
Discussion
Clean or replace.
Discussion
Adjust.
Adjust.
Discussion
Adjust.
263
Defects
Humidity
control
problems.
Defects
Runaway steam
injection due to
false wet bulb
reading.
Defects
Fluctuating wet
bulb set point.
Defect
Wet
smokehouse,
lack of uniform
or insufficient
drying or lack
of uniform
color.
All PRODUCTS
Cause
Broken exhaust damper blade, loose
blade on shaft, loose linkage or
inoperative damper motor.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Bulb immersed in water.
All PRODUCTS
Cause
Oven with recirculated air has steam
leaking into the system or isusing
saturated air.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Malfunctioning air intake and/or
exhaust dampers.
Discussion
Repair.
Discussion
Adjust.
Discussion
Repair or adjust.
Discussion
Adjust.
264
Defect
Yellow,orange
or red lazy
loafing gas
flame.
Defect
Plugged
cleaning pipe
openings.
Defect
Spot dryingof
caustic and
lime on steam
coilsduring
cleaning.
Defect
Lowvacuum in
package.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Improper adjustment of flame which
may lead to an explosion.
ATI. PRODUCTS
Cause
Heavy tar and creosote buildup due
to postponing clean-up procedures.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Temperature of steam coil inexcess
of 54-60C (130-140F) during
cleaning.
ALL PRODUCTS
Cause
Did not draw sufficient vacuum on
film or film isnot impermeable.
Discussion
The flame should be
billowing blue with
yellowish,orange tips.
Discussion
Clean.
Discussion
Clean at cooler
temperatures.
Discussion
Pull vacuum of at least 22
inches of mercury (25 is
better). Use high barrier
film. Keep product and
packaging equipment
clean.
265
REFERENCES
Anon. Customers Service Bulletins, Research Library. Griffith Laboratories, Ltd.
Anon. 1977.Do's and Don'ts of Cured Meat Processing. Meat Industry, August.
Canadian Meat Council. 1981.Review of Manufacturing Practices for Processed Meats.
Frazier, W. C. 1967.Food Microbiology. McGraw Hill Book Co.,New York.
Gerrard, F. 1976.Sausage and Small Goods Production. Northwood Publications Ltd.
London.
Komarik, S.L.,Tressler, D. K. and Long, L. 1974.Food Products Formulary. AVI
Publishing Co. Inc. Westport, Ct.
Kramlich, W. E., Pearson, A. M. and Tauber, F. W. 1975.Processed Meats. AVI
Publishing Co. Inc. Westport, Ct.
Ockerman, H. W. 1989.Sausage and Processed Meat Formulations. Van Nostrand
Reinhold. NY, NY.
Ockerman, H. W. 1984.Quality Control of Post-Mortem Tissue, Environmental Control
Vol. 2. The Ohio State University. Columbus, Ohio.
Price, J. F. and Schweigert, B. S. 1971.The Science of Meat and Meat Products. W.H.
Freeman and Co.,San Francisco.
Q.C. - R&D. The research bulletin of the meat packers Council of Canada. Vol.7
#5 W. Islington, Ont.
Q.C. - R&D. The research bulletin of the meat packers Council of Canada. Vol.7
#6 W. Islington, Ont.
Q.C. -R&D. The research bulletin of the meat packers Council of Canada. Vol. 7#7
W. Islington, Ont.
Rust, R. E. and Olson, D. C. 1973.Meat Curing Principles and Modern Practice. Koch
Supplies, Inc. Kansas City.Mo.
Rust, R. E. 1975.Sausage and Processed Meat Manufacturing. American Meat Institute
Center for Continuing Education.
Tauber, F. W. 1974.Sausage Makers Seminar. Western Meat Industry. June.
266
Terrell, R. N. 1974.Preblending. Western Meat Industry. June.
Terrell, R. N. 1979.A Sausage Makers Guide to Good Manufacturing Practices. Meat
Industry. June.
Walters, C. L. 1975.Meat Colour: The Importance of Haem Chemistry in Meat. Ed.
Cole D. J. A.,Laurie, R. A.,AVI Publishing Co. Inc. Westport, Ct.
Wirth, F. 1979.pH What it Can Tell You About Safety and Quality of Raw Materials,
Finished Products. Meat Industry. December.
FOODADDITIVES
Food additives play a vital function in present day food
formulation. Without additivesmost of the currentlyprocessed
products would be difficult to make and, in many cases, the
effectiveshelflifewouldbedrasticallyreduced.
Curing
Curingofmeatistheadditionoffoodadditivestothefresh
tissue. Inthecuringprocess,themostindispensableadditiveis
salt(SodiumChloride:NaCl).
Salt: Thepurposeofsaltincuringmaybesummarizedasfollows:
1. Retardbacterialgrowth-Thisisprimarilytheresultof
themuscletissuehavingahigherconcentrationofsalt
thanthebacterialcells.Mostbacterialcellwallsare
semi-permeableinnatureandwillallowwaterbutnot
salttopassthroughthem.Waterwillthenpassfromthe
lessdensetothemoredenseconcentrationandthe
bacterialcellwillshrivel.Otherreportedeffects
include:
a.Directtoxicityofchlorineion.
b.Reducingoxygensolubilityinmuscletissue.
c.Reducingeffectivenessofbacterialproteolytic
enzymes.
Saltisquitetoxictomicroorganismsbutmoldsandyeastare
noteffectedtothesameextent.
267
268
Upperlimitsforgrowthof:
1.Botulismbacillus:10%NaCl
2.Staphylococcusaureus:15%NaCl
3.Salmonellae:8%NaCl
4.Mostbacteria:8%NaCl
5.Fermentativeyeast:10%NaCl
6.Oxidativeyeast:upto25%NaCl
7.Molds:18%NaCl;someupto22%NaCl
Thepreservativeactionofsaltisgenerallyconsideredtobe
inrelationtothebrineconcentration.
%Salt
Brineconcentration= X 100
%moisture+%salt
Brine Influence
Concentration
4-5 Sufficienttoprotectproperlytreatedsausage.
5-7 Bacteriaaregenerallyinhibited.
15 Somebacteriatolerate.
Otherconditionsinthemeatalsoeffecttheinfluenceofsalt
onmicroorganisms.Someofthesethatincreasetheeffectiveness
are:
a.Loweredwatercontent (seebrineconcentration
formula).
b.Increasednitriteandnitrate (lessinfluence)level.
c.Refrigeratedstorage.
d.LowpH.
2.Reducedcanningtime-Saltandheatbothreducethe
bacterialloadandthecombinationofthesetwotreatments
willallowanequalbacterialkillwithreducedlevelof
eithertreatment.Hightemperaturearedetrimentaltomeat
qualityandanadditive(Ex.-salt)thatwillreducethese
temperaturesisoftenused.Thisisthereasonmost
successfullycannedmeatproductsarealsocured.
269
3.Alterflavor-Saltisapleasanttastingcompoundthatis
necessarytothediet (1/2g/person/day)andinstinctively
cravedbymostanimals.Consumptionlevelsaverage5
g/person/dayandrangefrom2to15g/person/day.Some
reportsarerecommendingamaximumof3g/person/day.The
tasteperceptionofsaltvariestremendouslywith
individualsandthesaltyflavor canbediminishedbynot
choppingtheproductsofine (coarsechop),dilutingthe
flavorbyconsumingwithlesssaltyfoodsandbyadding
sugar.
4.Addvariety-Theadditionofsaltandmostotheradditives
offersvarietyofmeatproductsforselection.
5.Tenderization-Salt (NaCl)ifplacedonthesurfaceof
meatduringcooking,dehydratestheproductandcausesthe
tissuetotoughen;butifincorporatedintothetissuewill
increasetenderizationdramatically.
Othersaltscanalsobeusedforthispurpose:
Salt USDAapproved
PotassiumChloride 3%ofa2Msolution
CalciumChloride 3%ofa0.8Msolution
MagnesiumChloride 3%ofa0.8Msolution
6.Waterbinding-Saltwillincreasewaterbindingwhichwill
increaseyieldandreducethawingandcookingloss.Thisis
donebyuncoilingthehelixandhydratingtheprotein.
7.Chillingmedia-Saltisalsousedinthechillingwateras
anaidtochillingofrawpoultryproductsandsausage
products.Whenmixedwithwateritlowersthefreezing
270
pointofthisliquidandallowschillingatatemperature
below32F.Aluminumclipswilloxidizeinasaltmedia.
8.Cookingliquid-Whensaltisaddedtothecookingliquid
itraisestheboilingpointandthiswouldhavea
tenderizingeffectonmeatduetotheelevationofthe
boilingtemperature.
Disadvantagesofsalt:
1. Oxidation-Saltpromotesrancidityandshortenstheshelf
lifeofmeatproducts (particularlyfrozenproducts).
Saltalsosynergisticallyincreasesthecatalyticeffect
ofirononoxidation.
2. Color-Saltdiscolorsordarkensthecoloroffreshmeat
products.
Thesaltlevelisnotrestrictedbyregulations.
Before the days of refrigeration, and even today insome
specialtyproducts,saltwasaddedataleveltoallowtheproduct
to be preserved without refrigeration. Most dried curedpork
productshadasaltlevelofapproximately5-1/2%. Afewproducts
suchas "porkandbeanbellies",sometimes jowls,back fat,and
clearplate area are cured with salt alone. In this casethe
tissueisgenerallyover-saltedandtheleantissuebecomesdark
and hard. Inmost pork products today, salt is combinedwith
refrigeration andextends theshelf lifeof curedmeatproducts
whencomparedwithfreshproducts. Thesaltlevelinabrinecured
product isnormally2to3%andinbaconisusuallybetween1.25
and2.00%(outofsmokehouse),Wiltshiresides2.5-5%,hamsbetween
271
the2.2and2.7%levelandfreshsausageatapproximatelythe1.5
to2%level. Drysausageisnormally3%whentheproductisgreen.
Thebrineconcentration (saltinmoistureportionofmeat)ofa
refrigeratedproductisnormally5%andforashelfstableproduct
15.5-16% (USDA requires 17%) . In the summer months when the
relative humidity is greater than 76%, the salt level should
probablybe increased (duetowater absorption by salt;at90%
humiditysaltwillabsorb1to2%moisturein24hours)byeither
increasing the salt quantity, reducing the water level or
increasingthefatcontent.
Poultrymeathasamilderflavorthanredmeatandhighsalt
andspicelevels inthecuredproducttendtomaskthisflavor.
Saltlevels incuredpoultryhavebeenreported inthe2.8-3.3%
range.
Generallysaltisaddedtoacuringsolutionattherateof10
to20%byweightofthebrine.
Solarsaltmade fromseawatershouldnotbeusedformeat
curingduetothepossiblecontaminationbyhalophilicbacteria.
Nobacteriaispresentinnaturalrocksalt. Iodizedsaltisnot
usedinacurecontainingnitrateduetothepossibleinhibitingof
thenitratetonitritereducingmicroorganisms.
Freeflowingagentslikepropyleneglycolcanbeaddedtothe
surfaceof salt. Antioxidants can also be absorbed on to the
surface of salt and this will extend the shelf life of meat
products.
272
SaltProcurementandProcessing;
Saltisobtainedbyoneofthefollowingtechniques:
1. Mining-carvingoutofrooms (65%oftotal,restisleft
forsupport)inrocksalt.
2. Evaporationofseawaterbyuseofsolarenergyand
concentrationponds.
3. Brinewells-adrilledwellwithaninnerandouter
casing. Waterisforceddowntheoutercasing,dissolves
thesaltandabrinesolutionreturnstothesurfaceby
theinnercasing.
Purification of salt is accomplished by the following
procedure:
Impuresalt+H
2
0 > brine > ppt.of > chemicalsadded
insoluble toppt.impuri-
materials tiessuchas
calciumand
magnesium
A "graveller" "flashers" crystallizeinflatpans:
>(stonesur- > (concentrate > additives(polysorbate80)
290F faceremoves thebrine) andtemperaturecontrols
additional theshape
calcium)
centrifuge drying screening packaging
> removewater > tunnel > forsize, > 99.95%pure,
(waterless grading lessthan1.5
than0.1%) ppmofcopper
andiron
Saltcanbepurchasedinthefollowingforms:
Size
Fineflake-highpurity,dissolvesrapidly,smallparticle
size,mostexpensive-usedtoblendoilsand
oleoresins
273
Granular highpurity,largerparticlesizethanflake,
dissolvesatamoderaterate,primarytypeused
inmeatindustry.
Dendritic --finesaltwithstarlikeform,goodblending
properties,50%lessdense.
Rock lowpurity (3%impurities),verylargeparticle
size,slowtodissolve,oftencontainsCaand
willmakeapicklecloudy [oftencalcium
sulphate(impurityinsalt)+potassiumphosphate
(extractedformeat)=insolublecalcium
phosphate] ,notrecommendedforuseinmeatoras
lixatorstomakeasaturatedbrine.
Bay largecrystals.
Bar pressedintomolds.
Dairy crushedbar.
Purity
XXX-isthepurestandshouldbeusedinmeatprocessing
becausesmallquantitiesofimpuritieswilloftencause
colorproblems. Neveruserocksalt.
Sweeteners:
Sugarand/orartificialsweetenersareoftenaddedtocured
meat products. Artificial sweeteners (Saccharin, sodium
cyclamate
a
,andcalciumcyclamate
3
)onlycontributetotheflavor
oftheproduct.
274
Numberoftimesas
Artificial sweeteners assweetassucrose Limit
Saccharin C
6
H
4
SO
2
NHCO 300-500 times Bacon
100ppm
Aspartame L-aspartic acid& 180 times
the ethyl ester of
L-phenylalanine
Calcium
Cyclamate
a
C
12
H
24
CaN
2
O
6
S
2
40 times
Sodium
Cyclamate
a
C
6
H
11
NHSO
3
Na 30 times
Sorbitol C
6
H
K 6
0.6 times 2%andcan
notbe
used
withcorn
syrupor
cornsyrup
solids
Nolongerpermitted (USDA)inmeatproductsinUSA.
Sugar, [normallysucrose,glucose,orcornsyrupsolids (Max.2%),
cornsyrup (Max. 2.5%), glucose syrup (Max.2%),malt syrup (Max.
2.5%),andsometimes dextrose (regularoranhydrous)]isusedin
cured meat. Sorbitol (hydroscopic)ispermittedinfrankfurters
andknockwurst (Max.2%cannotbeusedwithdextroseorcornsyrup)
asasweetening agentanditfacilitates removalofcasingsand
reduces charring.
General functionsofcarbohydrates areasfollows:
1. Flavor-Sugariswellknown foritssweetening and
flavor enhancingpropertiesinfood. Approximately
0.5% (0.6%fordextrose)isthe threshold levelfor
detectionofsucrosebythe tastebuds. Incured
meatsitisalsocreditedwithreducing the harshness
275
ofsalt (thehigherthesaltconcentration,themore
sweetenerrequired)evenbelowthethresholdof1/2%
level. Thisfunctionislessimportantundercurrent
curingproceduresthanwhenheavierconcentrationsof
saltwereused. Sometimesspecialsugarssuchasbrown
(sugarinwhichalloftheimpuritieshavenotbeen
removedduringrefining)ormapleareaddedfortheir
distinctiveflavorproperties.
2. Foodenergy-Sugarisnotaddedtoincreasethe
carbohydratecontentofthecuredmeatproductbut,
nevertheless,thisdoesoccur.
3. Coloroncooking-Sugaruponheatingtendstocaramelize
andturnbrownandonprolongedheatingonagrillwill
oftenchar. Thisbrowningabilitydiffersamongthe
sugarsandcouldbeclassifiedasfollows:
Caneorbeetsugar Non-browning--usedinfresh
sausageandgrilledproducts.
Dextroseandcornsyrupsolids --willbrown--
browningcanbecontrolled
infreshporksausagebythe
amountofdextroseadded.
Fourtoeightoz/100lbsis
oftenused.
Sorbitol doesnotbrown.
Thisbrowningorcaramelizationreactiontendstotake
placeinacuredproduct. Thisgivesmeatcuredwith
sugaracrudebuilt-intemperatureindicator. The
artificialsweetenersdonotcontributethisproperty.
276
4. Retardbacterialgrowth-Forsugartoretardbacterial
growth,extremelyhigh(20-80%)concentrationsareneeded.
ApproximateSugarConcentration Inhibitgrowthof
50-60%
60%
80%
60%
85%
mostbacteria
mostfoodpoison-
ingbacteria
mold
mostyeast
osmophilicyeast
Theseconcentrationsarerarelyfoundinthemeatarea.
Theonlygoodexampleofameatproductinwhichsugar
playsamajorroleinpreservationismincement.
Onetotenpercentsugar (rangeusuallyfoundin
meat)willacceleratethegrowthofmicroorganisms. Sugar
(dextrose)isoftenaddedtomeatproductsthatwillbe
fermented. Thedesirableorganismsusethissugarto
producetheacid.
5. Promotereducingconditionsandimprovecuredcolor-
Sugarwasinitiallypromotedasprovidingamoredesirable
curedcolorandalsoamorestablecolor,butthisisof
questionableimportanceundercurrentconditions.
6. Lactose (milksugar)tendstoreducetheharshnessof
liverinliversausage.
7. Inperishablecannedproductsthesugar (Min:1%sugaror
0.5%dextrose)promotesgasformationbyanaerobicand
aerobicsporesandthisproducescansthatswellgivingan
indicationofimproperprocessingorstorage.
277
Sugarisaddedtofoodinoneofthefollowingforms:
Unrefined Brown
Refined White,granulated
orpowdered
Syrup Liquid,refined
orunrefined
Cornsyrup (mixtureofsugars)andcornsyrupsolidsare
foundunderthe"flavoringagents"sectionofthis
chapter.
Thelevelofsugarincuredproductsrangesfromzero
toapproximately2%withmosthamsapproachingthe2%
level.Dextroseisnormallyusedatthelevelof0.75to
21/2%level. Bothcaneandbeetsugarshouldbedeclared
onthelabelassugarbutdextroseshouldbedeclaredas
dextrose. Neithersucroseordextrosearerestricted.
Nitrite:
Asourceofnitriteisanessentialingredientincuredmeat
products. This may be supplied in the form of sodium nitrite
(NaN0
2
)orpotassiumnitrite (KN0
2
)ormaybederivedfromanitrate
compound. Bothnitriteandnitratecompoundsmustbekeptunder
lock and key (bond room) . Also both nitrite and nitrate are
sensitivetodecompositionandcanlosetheircuringstrengthand
thereforeshouldnotbeover-stocked. Brinesshouldbemadewith
waterbelow 40F since warm water can cause nitrite depletion.
Nitrite isavailable infour (4)forms:freeflowing,granular,
pelletandsolution,andhasthefollowingmajorfunctionsincured
products:
278
1. Curedcolordevelopment -Abreakdownproductofnitrite
(nitricoxide)willcombinewithmyoglobin(principalmeat
pigment)toproduce (withtheaidofheat)thetypical
curedmeatcolor. Itisbelievedthatapproximately
20-30ppmofnitriteareneededforcommerciallyadequate
colorstability.
2. Retardsbacterialgrowth-Nitritesarehighlybacterio-
static (retardsbacterialgrowth)reagentsevenatthe
concentrationsusedincuredmeatproducts. Fivepercent
saltplus200ppmnitriteisequivalentinpreserving
effecttoapproximately15%saltinmeatproducts.
GrowthofthefollowinggeneraisretardedbynitriteinthepH5.7
to6.0range:
Achromobacter
Aerobacter
Escherichia
Micrococcus
Pseudomonas
Nitrite in meat also provides an important degree of
protectionagainstbotulism. Itiscurrentlybelievedthatmore
than 100ppmofnitrite arenecessary forthisprotectionunder
commercialconditions. Itisspeculatedthatotherfoodpoisoning
bacteria, such as Cl. Welchii or Staphylococci may also be
inhibitedtoadegreebynitrite.
Nitrite hasmuchmoreantimicrobial effect under anaerobic
(absenceofoxygen)thanaerobic (presenceofoxygen) conditions
(see Meat Color Chapter). Nitrite (also nitrate) containsa
potentiallymetabolizable sourceofoxygenandoftenconvertsan
279
anaerobicenvironmentintoanaerobicone. Sincethenitritelevel
isreducedonprocessingandstorage,someresearchers feelthat
thisantimicrobial property becomes increasingly less effective
aftertheproductismanufactured. However,othersspeculatethat
nitrite is converted into other substances with inhibitory
properties.
Undissociated nitrousacidisbelievedtobetheinhibitory
agentanditsconcentrationisincreasedatareducedpH (seeMeat
ColorChapter) . Small increases inpH (mightbe causedby the
additionofalkalinephosphates)canreducetheinhibitoryeffect
ofnitrite. OptimumpHforantimicrobialactivityofnitriteis
near5.5. Nitritealtersthebacterialflorafromgramnegativeto
grampositivetypeoforganisms.
3. Flavor-Ithasbeenreportedthatnitritemaybe
responsibleforthetypicalcuredmeatflavor. It
hasbeenpostulatedthatnitritealterstheflavor
offreshmeatbyreducingthesubstanceswhichare
responsibleforthetypicaluncuredmeatflavor. It
isbelievedthatatleast50ppmofnitritearerequired
forcharacteristicflavorproduction. Nitritealso
preventswarmedoverflavorprobablybyreducing
oxidation.
4. Antioxidant -Nitriteretardstherateofoxidationof
meatfats (eventhoughinsomecasesitencourages
oxidation)andthisalsoplaysacriticalroleincured
flavor. Itisbelievedthisiscausedbythereaction
280
ofnitritetoformcuredpigmentswhichretaintheiron
hemeinthereducedform (Fe++)whichisinactiveasa
catalystforlipidoxidation.
5. Wholesomenessindicator-Spoilagemayoccurwithout
discolorationbutgreeningisalmostinvariablyan
indicatorofspoilage.
Ifanexcessofnitrite (orreducingcompounds)
isused,aconditionknownasnitriteburn (greenish
color)willdevelop (causedbyNO
2
formation)inboth
cookedanduncookedproductsanditismorecommonly
notedinfermentedproductsduetotheirlowpHin
combinationwithnitritelevel. Anitriteburned
productmaynotshowahighnitritelevelafter
holdingduetothebreakdownofnitrite. Whenmeatis
frozennitriteislostduetotheconcentratingeffect
offreezingonthenitriteinthetissue.
Highlevelsofnitritearetoxic;therefore,maximumlevels
areestablishedbygovernmentregulation. Oneoftheseregulations
(otherregulationsshouldbenoted)statesthatmaximum levelis
156ppm (200ppmifnitriteandnitrateareadded)inthefinished
product (2pounds/100 gal. -10%pump). Generally nitriteis
presentintheamountof0.05%to0.2%inthecuringsolution. The
nitritelevelisusuallyreducedinfermentedproductsinorderto
prevent the nitrite from inhibiting the microorganisms of the
starter culture. Nitrite isoften also reduced (to20ppm)in
cannedproductsgivenafullBotulinumcooktoreducecanstaining.
281
Japan currently limits nitrite to 70 ppm in the finished
product.
New regulations are currently being considered to reduce
levelsofcuringingredientsasfollows:
ProposedUseLevelsforNitrite
Productcategory
W.A.hams,picnics,butts,
cornedbeef (primals),
canned,choppedmeat,ham
saladspreads,cannedham
(cannedshelf-stable and
otherperishable products)
Bacon
Cornedbeefhash,deviled
ham (cannedsterile
product)
Franks,bologna,loaves,
luncheon (cooked sausage
products)
Countrycuredhams,
prosciutti (drycured
product)
Summersausage/hard salami
(fermented sausage)
Infant,juniorand toddler
babyfood
Ingoinglevelin
pickleorproduct
Sodium
nitrite
156ppm,2
lbs/100
gal.of
pickleat
10 %pump
120ppm
d
156ppm
a
156ppm
b
,
1/4 oz/100
lbs.
624ppm,
1oz
NaNO
2
/10 0
lbs.
156ppm
b
0
Potassium
nitrite
0
192ppm
156ppm
192ppm
192ppm,
0.31
oz/100
lbs.
768ppm
192ppm
0
Residual
inproduct
Sodium
nitrite
0
125ppm
80ppm
50ppm
100ppm
200ppmas
Sodium
nitrite
200ppmas
Sodium
nitrite
0
a
Somerecommendations are50ppm
b
Somerecommendations are100ppm
Iffootnotedvaluesareadoptedthesewouldhavetobelowered
d
500ppmoferythorbatealsorequired
c
282
Acommercialcurecontains94%NaCland6%NaNo
2
.
Iftheproductcontains200ppmofnitritethisisequivalent
to0.09gramsofnitriteperpound.Thefollowinglevelsare
considereddangerous.
%ofhemoglobin
Age GramsofNitrite qofHemoglobin reactedtobefatal
Adult 0.6-1.5 (acute 700 80%
intoxications)
Child 0.2-0.3
Whenthenitriteionisabsorbedintothebloodstreamitconverts
the hemoglobin tomethemoglobin, isablood vessel dilatorand
death is caused by lack of oxygen. The saliva contains
approximately9mgofnitriteperdaycomparedwith2.4suppliedby
curedmeat.
Thecombinationofnitrousacid (HNO
2
)withsecondaryamines
(R
2
NHfoundinmuscletissue)couldproducenitrosamines (R
2
N-N0)
which has been shown tobe carcinogenic if consumed inlarge
quantitiesbylaboratoryanimals.Anexampleofthisreactionisas
follows:
283
NaNO. HC1-
HONO NaCl
Nitrite
Acid Nitrous Salt
acid
CH, CH-
HONO N-H > N-N=O H
2
O
/
CH- CH-
Nitrous Dimethylamine Dimethyl- Water
acid nitrosamine
orthegeneralformula:
R-,
HONO + N-H
N-N=O H
2
O
Ro
Nitrous Secondary N-nitrosecondary Water
acid amine amine
(anitrosamine)
Todate (1980)nitrosamineshaveonlybeenfoundinafewcured
productsandcuringpre-mixes,andatverylowlevels (0-5ppb).
Valuesreportedforcoldcutsrangefrom0-4ppb,forsausagefrom
0-3ppbandforcannedmeatfrom0-3ppb. Afewsamplesoffried
baconhavebeenreportedashighas0to100ppb. Inpre-mixes
containingnobuffersvalueshavebeen foundfrom0to231ppb.
Levelsaregenerallyhigherinfreshandcuredfish (4-45ppb)and
infishmealmayrangeashighas120-450ppb.
Freezing of theproduct does not prevent the formationof
nitrosamines. Ascorbate and isoascorbate havebeen reportedto
retardtheirformation.
284
OptimumpHforformationofnitrosamines isfrom2.5to3.5
andonly5to7%ofoptimumvaluesareformedatpHof5.5. Some
researchershavereportedthattheformationrateofnitrosamines
isrelated totheamountofnitrite initiallyaddedtothemeat
product. Highcookingtemperaturesseemtoaccelerateformation.
USDA (1981)hasdeclaredthatanitrosaminelevelof10ppbinthe
current lowest limit of reliable measurement. Residualnitrate
thatwillnotresultinnitrosopyrolidineofover16ppb.
Degreeof Residualnitrite
violation atsliceror Residualnitriteat
concern zeroday 21days
seldom 30-35ppm 10-15ppm
sometime 20-30ppm
often 40-60ppm
Relationshipofresidualnitriteat21dayscomparedto0day:
1. Vacuumpackagingwillreduceresidualnitritelevelabout
60%in21days.
2. Non-vacuumpackagingwillreduceresidualnitritelevel
evenmore.
3. Increasingholdingtimeforpumpedbelliesto3-5dayswill
reduceresidualnitritelevel.
4. Increasingsmokehousecycleto18to20hourswillreduce
residualnitritelevel.
5. Holdingbellieslongerbeforeslicingwillreduceresidual
nitritelevel.
Astandarddeviationof1%orlessinbaconpumppercentagesis
desirabletoreduceexcessresidualnitriteinsomesamples.
Compositionofbaconat21daysthatlowerthelikelihoodof
nitrosamineproblems.
Min.protein 9%
Moisture 33%
Fat 56%
Salt appropriateflavor
Nitrite Max.16ppm
285
Nitrate:
Nitrateisalsousedincuredmeatandmaybesuppliedinthe
form of sodium nitrate (Chile saltpeter; NaNO
3
) or potassium
nitrate (saltpeter or Bengal saltpeter; KNO
3
) . Salt mined in
certain areas of Germany and The Netherlands contain small
quantities (1/4 of 1%) of nitrate and these impurities were
probablytheoriginal accidentaluseofnitrate inmeat curing.
Thereisagreatdealofconfusionastotheexactroleofnitrate
butsomeoftheclaimsareasfollows:
1. Tosupplyasourceofnitratebybacterialreduction
ofnitratetonitrite-thistheory (reservoir)was
quitepopularwhendrycuringwaspracticedbutisof
muchlessimportanceasthecuringprocessbecomes
shorter.
2. Bacterialinhibitingproperties-Theseclaimshavebeen
difficulttoprove.
3.Incannedperishablemeatproducts,nitrate (1oz/100
poundsofmeat)inhibitsthegerminationofanaerobesand
promotesgasformationbyothersporeformingmicro-
organisms.
Usingtoday'srapidcuringmethodsasatisfactoryproductcan
beproduced without nitrate. Itmaybemore important inadry
curedproduct. Nitrate isalso toxic and itsmaximum levelis
controlled bygovernment regulations. One ofthese regulations
(USDA)specifies(otherregulationsshouldalsobenoted)amaximum
of 2 3/4 oz. (1719 ppm) of nitrate per 100 lbs. meat. (7
286
pounds/100gal.pickle --approximately 738ppm;drycure31/2
oz/100 lbs. -- approximately 2,184 ppm). New regulationsare
currentlybeingconsideredthatwouldeliminatetheuseofnitrate
inbacon, franks and bologna and some of the proposals areas
follows:
ProposedUseLevelsforNitrate
Ingoinglevelinpickleorproduct
Productcategory
Sodiumnitrate
cornedbeef (primals),canned
choppedmeat,hamsaladspreads,
cannedham (cannedshelf-stable
andothercuredperishable
product) 7lbs/100galofpickleat
10%pump
Bacon
0
Baconimmersioncured 700
Cornedbeefhash,deviledham
(cannedsterileproduct) 1719 (23/4oz/100lbs)
Franks,bologna,loaves,
luncheon (cookedsausage
products) 1719 (23/4oz/100lbs)
Countrycuredhams,prosciutti
(dry-curedproduct) 2183f/ (3.5oz/100lbs)
Summersausage/hardsalami
(fermentedsausage) 1716^/ (2.75oz/100lbs)
Infant,juniorandtoddler
babyfood
/ Somerecommendationsarefor300ppm
_/ Somerecommendationsarefor0unlessmanufacturercanprove
thatitisorganolepticallyneededandthatnonitrosamines
areformed.
287
AnFDAregulationsrequiredlabelsofcuringmaterialsto
containdirectionforuseinhomecuringofmeatssothatthe
finishedproductcontainsnomorethan500ppmofnitrate.
Generallynitrateispresentattherateof0.05%to0.2%of
thecuringbrinesolution.
NitriteandNitrateProduction:
1. SyntheticSodiumNitrite
1.8%
5% 6%
Sodium
Nitrogen Nitric + Sodi um -> nitrite
oxides acid carbonate NaNO,
HNO
3
Na
2
CO
3
2.PotassiumNitrite
a)Synthetic High Potassium
Potassium nitrite
Oxygen
nitrate
Temperature
KNO,
0,
KNO,
b)
Synthetic 15-35%
Potassium
Nitric+Nitrogen+Potassium+Sodium
>Sodium+nitrite
oxide dioxide
hydroxide Hydroxide chloride KNO
2
NO NO, KOH NaOH
288
3.SodiumNitrate
a Mixed
"Caliche"
30%Sodiumnitrite
20%Sodiumchloride
15%Sodiumsulfate
30%Insolublematter Leached Sodiumnitrate(NaNO,
Smallamountsof -> removedbychilling
Iodine 60C andcrystallization
Chromium 5-8hrs,
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Purification
AtoMP
-> Impurities| Sodiumnitrate
ofnitrate
NaNO-,
or:
washwith
SodiumnitrateNaN0
3
alcohol+
10%ammonia
b)Synthetic
Nitric Sodium
acid + carbonate Sodiumnitrate
HNO-, (sodaash) NaNO-,
Na
2
CO
3
4. PotassiumNitrate
a)Mined
CrudeChilesaltpeter Potassium Sodium Potassium
Sodiumnitrate +chloride- -> chloride + ni t ri t e
NaNO
3
KC1 NaCl KNO-,
b)Synthetic
Sodium Potassium Sodium 80C Sodium Potassium
nitrate+chloride+chloride ->chloride+nitrate
NaNO- KC1 NaCl NaClI KNO-,
289
Reducingcompounds:
Ascorbicacidandsimilarcompounds (reductants)areusedin
cured (notallowed infreshproducts)products (including cured
poultry)andmaybesuppliedinoneofthefollowingforms:
Acids
Ascorbicacid
Erythorbicacid
(isoascorbicacid)
(D-araboascorbicacid)
C-0
c=o
I
HO- C HO-C
II
J
0
II
0
HO- C
HO-C
I
I
J
H- C
H-r*
I
I
HO- C - H
I
H- C-OH
H
rt
- C-OH
I
H
2
- C - O H
Usedinfrequentlyinpumpingpicklesbecausetheacidwouldcause
arapiddepletionofthenitrite.
Ascorbicacidhasbeenreportedtocauseaninitialperiodof
rancidity acceleration followed by a later antioxidant effect.
Thiswouldsuggestthatanintermediatedecompositionproductof
ascorbicacidmayberesponsible fortheantioxidantproperties.
Whenascorbic acid is combined with aphenolic antioxidant it
alwaysinhibitsoxidation.
290
0
Sodiumascorbate** Sodiumerythorbate**
(Sodiumisoascortate)
HO- C
HO - C
II O II 0
Na- O- C
Na - 0 - C
1
J
J
H- C
H - C
I
1
HO- C- H
H - C
- OH
I 1
Hg- C-OH
H
2
- C - OH
**Mostcommonlyusedproducts.
Check forpurity since thesecompounds are sometimesmixedwith
salt. Thesecompoundspromoteareducingconditionandresultin
thefollowing:
1. Fastercolordevelopment - Veryimportantduringrapid
processing (iftimebetweenchoppingandcookingisless
than45minutes). Canallowa1/3reductionintimefrom
choppingtosmokingandcooking.
2. Resistanttocolorfadingduringretailstorage.
3. Excessreducingcompoundsbehavebasicallyasawater
solubleantioxidantwhichwillprotectagainstrancidity
andcolorfading,enhancebloomoffreshmeatsystem.
4. AscorbicacidisknownasVitaminCbuterythorbicacid
hasessentiallynoVitaminCactivity. Ascorbicacidin
291
themeatindustryisusedasareducingcompound;there-
forenoclaimforVitaminCcontentmaybemade.
5. Willreduceresidualnitritelevel.
Itispostulated that the reducing condition promoted by these
additivesisresponsibleforthefollowingchemicalreactionswhich
promotetheformationofcuredmeatpigments.
1. Conversionofnitritetonitricoxide:Nitricoxideisthe
productthatactuallyreactswiththemyoglobintoproduce
thecuredpigment. Thisacceleratedconversionofnitrite
tonitricoxideinthetissuereducestheresidualnitrite
thatmaybefoundincuredproductsuponstorage.
Sincethenitritetonitricoxidereactionis
acceleratedbytheseadditivesitisimportantnotto
makeupthebrinetoofarinadvancebecausethenitric
oxidewillescapefromthebrineasagasandthenitrite
levelwillbelowerthancalculated.
2. Promotesreductionofnitrogendioxidetonitricoxideso
thatcuringmayproceed. Thenitrogendioxidewas
producedwhennitricoxidereactedwithoxygen.
3. Reductionofmetmyoglobintomyoglobin-Pigmentis
reducedtomyoglobinbeforereactionwithnitricoxide
cantakeplace.
4. Willreducetheamountofoccludedoxygeninthetissue
andthuspromotecuredcolorformation.
292
5. Aftercolorformationanyremainingcompoundwillact
asanantioxidantandretardthelossofcuredcolor
inthefinishedproduct.
6. Ithasrecentlybeensuggestedthatthesecompounds
mayaidnitriteinbacterialcontrol (suchasbotulism).
7. Aidinretardingorblockingnitrosaminesformation.
Ithasbeenspeculatedthatascorbicacidcan
1. Acceleratefatoxidationifthetocopherolcontentislow.
2. Incombinationwithcertainmetalcatalystsmaycause
hydrogenperoxidereleaseandresultinoxidation.
Ironinliquidstoragecausesalossofthese
reducingcompoundsandsalt (NaCl)helpstostabilize
thesesolutions. Insolutionscontainingnitratesor
nitritesthesaltformofthereducingcompoundis
usuallyusedinpreferencetotheacid. AlowpHand
areducingcompoundwilloftenreactwithnitriteand
causerapidreleaseofnitricoxide. Thiscausesa
lossofnitriteinthecuringpickle (undercure)and
thenitricoxidefumesaretoxic. Acuremaybeheld
for24hourswithlittlelossofingredientsifitis
formulatedandstoredasfollows:
Ingredients StorageConditions
Nitrite 50Forless
Ascorbates
Salt pH6.0orgreater
Ifthe reducing compound istobepremixed andstoredwith
nitritethen2%sodaashisoftenusedtobufferthepHandprevent
293
lossofnitrite. Ascorbatesanderythorbatesinthedryformare
alsosensitivetodecompositionandthereforeshouldnotbeover
stocked.
Ascorbicacidoritssaltreduces(erythorbicacidoritssalt
doesnot)theformationofgreencolorwheretheproducttouches
themetalsmokesticks.
Maximumlevelsofthesecompoundsareregulatedinfederally
inspectedplants. Oneoftheregulations (othersshouldbenoted)
liststhemaximumat3/4oz.or469ppm (7/8oz.or547ppmforthe
salts)ofascorbicorisoascorbicacidper100lbs.ofrawmeat,75
oz/100galofacidor87.5oz/100galofsaltsmaybeusedina10%
pumpstock. Mustbedeclaredassuchonthelabel. A10%solution
may be applied to the outer surface. Some regulations are
currentlybeingproposedandareasfollows:
ProposedUseLevelsforSodiumAscorbateorErvthorbate
Ingoinglevelinpickleorproduct
ProductCategory Ascorbateorervthorbate
cornedbeef (primals),canned
choppedmeat,hamsaladspreads,
cannedham (cannedshelf-stable
andothercuredperishable Maxnotmore
product) than550ppm
Bacon Target550ppm
Cornedbeefhash,deviledham
(cannedsterileproduct) 7/8oz/cwt.Max.
Franks,bologna,loaves,luncheon
(cookedsausageproducts) 7/8oz/cwt.Max.
Countrycuredhams,prosciutti
(dry-curedproduct) 7/8oz/cwt.Max.
Summersausage/hardsalami (fermentedsausage) 7/8oz/cwt.Max.
294
InJapanthereisnolimitonascorbateuseandtheadditionof
1-1/4to1-1/2oz/100lbs.iscommon.
Ascorbicacid (C
6
H
g
O
6
)isanaturalconstituentofsomespices
andmaybefoundinconcentrationsashighas1000ppm. Ascorbic
acidhasbeenusedtopreventblackspotinsomeshellfish.
Cureaccelerators:
Compounds that lower the pH (acidulants) in cured meat
products alterthe flavor,reduce bacterial growth,retardsthe
action of many natural enzymes, increase the reaction rateof
ascorbateorerythorbate,produceaproductwithabettersliced
shelflifeandalsoacceleratethecuredmeatcolordevelopment.
Colordevelopmentmaybereducedfrom1-1/2hoursto15-30minutes
withtheadditionofcureaccelerators. Thecompoundsmostwidely
usedtospeedupcolordevelopment arecitricacid (oritssalt)
(acidandsaltcanalsobeusedincuredpoultryproducts)glucono
deltalactone (GDL),andfumaricacid (incured,comminutedmeat
andpoultryproducts). Theymaybeusedinthefollowingform:
CitricAcid SodiumCitrate
H.-C-C-OH H -C-C-O-Na
I 0
HO-C-C-OH HO-C-C-0-Na
0
v
-
9
-C-C-0H H -C-C-O-Na
\
2
\
295
GluconoDelta
Gluconic
Lactone,GDL
Acid
O- H
H
- C-
OH
Hydrolysis
1
HO
-c-
H
at 40C
1

S~\. 1 1
25% hydrolysis
H
- c -
OH
in 10 minutes:
H -c-
1
OH
100% hydrolysis
1
in 3hours
CH OH
2
Fumaric
HO-C-CH
II^
0 HC-C-OH
II
0
CitricandfumaricacidlowersthepHofthemeatwhenadded
totheproduct. GluconodeltalactoneisessentiallyaneutralpH
wheninitiallyaddedtotheemulsionbutisthenslowlyconverted
togluconicacidwhichlowersthepHvalueapproximately0.15to
0.20 units. This reducedpHpromotes conditions under which
naturaloraddedreducingcompounds(sodiumerythorbate,erythorbic
acid,sodiumascorbateorascorbicacid)speeduptheconversionof
296
nitritetonitricoxide. Timeforcolordevelopmentisasfollows:
WithoutGPL WithGPL
Wiener 1-1/2 to2-1/2hrs 15-30min
Bologna 7-8hrs 3-3/4hrs
PuetothisconversionofGDLtoanaciditisoftenaddedlatein
theemulsifyingstage.
GDLisoftenusedattherateof1lb/100lbsmeatinEurope
for fermented sausage (assist drying and encourages growthof
lactic acid bacteria) and this produces a 0.5 reduction inpH
units. IntheU.S.permittedlevelsare8oz/100lbsmeat(range
0.5to8used)or5000ppmincookedcuredsausageor1pound/100
lbsrawmeator10,000ppmindrysausage (i.e.GenoaSalami). It
isdeclaredonthelabelasglucono-delta-lactone.
A lowpH isnot desirable during theemulsifying stageof
sausage production but is desirable for subsequent color
development. Under"normalcommercialpractices"evenGDLwithits
gradualconversiontoanacid(5min=pH5.8,30min=pH5.6,and
1hr=pH5.4)tendstoweakenanemulsion;therefore,don'tlet
thisproductstandbeforecooking. Citricacidandsodiumcitrate
also have antioxidant properties and function by enhancingthe
activityofnaturaloraddedantioxidantsandbycomplexingwith
tracemetalsthatcatalyzeoxidation. Citric acid isusedwith
variousantioxidantsinlard,unsmokedsausage, driedmeat,fish,
shellfishandcrustoceans. Inshellfishwhichhavearelativelow
fatcontentthecitrateiontiesupironandcopperwhich
297
accelerate discoloration and the development of off-odors and
flavors.
Citricacidorsodiumcitratemaybeusedatthe547ppmlevel
andusedtoreplaceupto50%oftheascorbic acid,erythorbate
acid,sodiumascorbateorsodiumerythorbateincuredproducts.
Citric acid (3-5% solution) is often sprayed on to
frankfurtersafterstuffingandpriortosmokinginordertoaid
peelability.
Citricacidandsodiumcitrate (0.2%withorwithoutwater)
mayalsobeusedasananticoagulantforblood. Thecitrateion
ties up the calcium of the blood which is necessary for the
clottingprocess.
Fumaric acid accelerates color fixing, allows the use of
highercookingtemperaturesandcorrespondinglyshorterpreparation
timeandimprovesthepeelabilityofcookedsausage. Fumaricacid
canbeusedatthe0.065%(1oz/100lbs)levelinmeatandmeatby-
productsbeforeprocessing.
Also see sodium acid pyrophosphate under the "Phosphate"
sectionofthischapter.
Sodium (orPotassium)Lactate (saltoflacticacid):
Lactate is reported to extend shelf life, to be a flavor
enhancerwithoutchangingthepHorcolorofmeatbutitdoeslower
thewateractivity,increasethewaterholdingcapacityandhasa
antimicrobialeffect. Itisapprovedasaflavoringagentat2oz.
dry solids (3.33% of 60% strength) level. This may require
reducingtheaddedmoistureby40%ifsodiumlactateisaddedand
298
sometimesa0.5to0.1%saltlevelreductionisdesirable.
SodiumBicarbonate:
Sodiumbicarbonate (NaHCO
3
)may (USDA)beused indrycured
mixturescontainingbothnitriteandsodiumascorbatetoprevent
theirreactionpriortoapplying thecuretotheproduct. (See
regulationsformaximumpermitted). Sodiumbicarbonatemayalsobe
usedto:
1. Precipitateundesirablemineralsfromwaterusedfor
pickle (Max.pH8).
2. Adjustacidityofacidtypemeatproducts.
3. Aidinrenderingoffat.
4. Assistincleaningvegetables.
Phosphates:
Phosphatemayalsobeused (0.5%)inallcooked (afreshmeat
thatistobecookedorfrozenafterprocessing)meatandpoultry
products except where otherwise prohibited. When a single
phosphateisuseditmustbedeclaredonthelabelasforexample-
sodiumphosphateandwhenacombinationof2ormorephosphatesare
usedtheyaredeclaredassodiumphosphatesonthelabel. Sodium
acidpyrophosphate (SAPP)isdeclaredonthelabelassodiumacid
pyrophosphate. Phosphatesmayinfluencethesalometerreadingby
10-12%andthusmustbecorrectedfor.
Phosphatesmaybesuppliedinoneofthefollowingform:
2 9 9
PHOSPHATESTHATMAYBEUSEDINMEATANDPOULTRYPRODUCTS
ORTHOPHOSPHATES, de r i ve d from an a c i d:
Disodiumphosphate
[sodiumphosphate
dibasic,dialkali
phosphate,basic
(dialkali)
orthophosphate,disodium
hydrogenorthophosphate,
disodiummonophosphate]
Formular Na
2
HPO
4
0
Na- 0- P- O- Na
0
H
K Dipotassium Phosphate
Phosphate
that may
be used"
Purpose Reducetheamountof
cookoutjuice
M-O-P-O-M
O
M
Monosodiumphosphate
(sodiumphosphate
monobasic,monoalkali
phosphate,acidic
orthophosphate,
monosodiumdihydrogen
orthophosphate,
monosodium
monophosphate)
NaH
2
PO
4
0
Na- 0- P- O- H
0
H
Monopotassium Phosphate
Reducetheamountof
cookoutjuice
Use Meatfoodproducts
Meatfoodproducts
exceptwhereprohibited
300
Polyphosphates (twoormorephosphatesjoinedbyanoxygen
bridge);alkalinepolyphosphates
Sodiumhexametaphosphateoften
cyclic ***
Formula Mixtureformulaoraverage
chainlength:
(NaPO
3
)
6
orNa^P
618
:
0
II
II
Na-O-P-O-
1
1
0
1
1
Na
0 0
II
II II
II
P-0-P-O-Na
1 1
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
Na Na
n
301
Sodiumhexametaphosphatetypes
Formula
Purpose
Use
Purpose
Use
Sodiummetaphosphate,
insoluble;
Maddrell'ssalt
n=2ormore,often
branchedchains;
(NaPO
3
)
n
Sodiumhexametamost
popular
(NaPO
3
)
6
Reducetheamountof
cookoutjuice
Meatfoodproducts
Helpprotectflavor
Productscookedor
frozenafterprocessing
Sodiumpolyphosphate,
glassy;Grahams-salt;
Madebyrapidlycooling
moltenmixtureof
sodiumoxide-
phosphoruspentoxide
Structureunkown;
i.e.Calgon
(NaPO
3
)
n
Reducestheamountof
cookoutjuice
Meatfoodproducts
Helpsprotectflavor
Productscookorfrozen
afterprocessing
302
polyphosphates
Sodium
tripolyphosphate
af9m
(Pentasodium
triphosphate,
sodium
triphosphate)
saturationpointis
approximately15%
Na
5
P
3
O
10
;
0 0 0
II II I I
Na-0-P-0-P-0-P-0-Na
0 0 0
Na Na Na
soluble,linear
Potassiumtripoly
phosphate
e
Reducetheamount
ofcookoutjuice
Meatfoodproducts
exceptwhere
prohibited
Helpsprotect
flavor
Productscookedor
frozenafter
processing
Linear
For-
mi11^
ILLLl_L0.
K
Phos-
ph-
ate
that
can
be
used
Pur-
pose
Use
Pur-
pose
Use
Sodium
pyrophosphate
dfhijlm
(tetrasodium
pyrophosphate)
Na
A
P
2
O
7
;
0 0
Na-0-P-O-P-O-Na
0 0
Na Na
soluble,linear
Potassium
pyrophosphate
ehl
Reducesthe
amountofcook
outjuice
Meatfood
productsexcept
whereprohibited
Sodiumacid
pyrophosphate
(SAAP)(disodium
pyrophosphate,
disodium
dihydrogen
phosphate,
disodium
diphosphate,
acidphosphate)
Na
2
H
A
P
2
O
7
;
0 0
Na-0-P-O-P-O-Na
0 0
H H
soluble,linear
Accelerates
curedcolor
development
Meatfood
productsexcept
whereprohibited
303
(footnotes)
a
Mostwidelyusedphosphatesinmeatcuringeitheraloneorin
combinations.
b
Bestsolubility,awaterconditioningagentandwhenblended
withtripolyphosphateitwillimproveitssolubility.
c
Goodsequesterant,willproduceclearerpickles,prevent
machineclogging.
d
Poorsolubility.
e
Morehydroscopicthansalt (extraprotectionisneededin
storage.
f
Lesshydroscopicthansalt.
9
Lowwatersolubility.
h
Maycauseaflavorproblematupperlevelsofuse.
1
Onlyphosphatecansplitactomyosinintoactinandmyosin.
J
Bestemulsionstabilizer.
k
Willconditionhardwaterandmakeotherphosphatesmore
soluble.
1
Solubilizesproteininemulsionsverywell.
m
Encouragescorrosionandstainingofcannedmeatproducts.
n
Potassiumphosphatesaregenerallymoresolucle,more
expensive,andmoresubjecttocakeingthesodium
counterparts.
Phosphatesarechemicalcompoundsinwhichaphosphorusatomis
surrounded by 4oxygen atoms.The structure isa tetraedron in
whichphosphorusislocatedinthecenterandthe4oxygenatoms
arelocatedinthecorners.Thisstructureallowspolymerization
andstructuressimilartothoseofcarbon.
304
The pH and solubility of thes phosphates are as follows:
Formula Name pHof1% % Of P
2
O
5
Solubilityg/
solution 100gH,0,50F
Na
2
H
2
P
2
O
7
Sodiumacid 4.2-4.3 Not 7
available
NaH-.PO,. Monosodium 4.5 59 65
K
?
H
?
PO
4
Monopotassium 4.5 52 15
Na
6
P
618
Sodium
hexameta
6.5-7.0 Variable Maddrell-
insoluble
(NaP0
3
)
n
Glassy 7.5 Variable Grahams
(glassy)very
soluble
K
?
HPO
4
Dipotassium 9.0 40.5 89
Na
7
HP0
4
Disodium 9.2 49.5 4
K
5
P
3
1 0
Potassium
tripoly-
9.6 46.9 178
phosphate
Na
5
P
310
Sodiumtripoly
phosphate
9.7-9.9 57.3 15
Na
4
P
2
O
7
Sodiumpyro 10.2- 43.1 5
(tetra) 10.5
K
4
P
27
Potassiumpyro
(tetra)
10.5 42.7 182
When0.5%phosphatewasaddedtomuscletissueandtheproductwas
curedandcookedandthencomparedtoacontrol (nophosphate),the
followingresultswerereported.
in
TI T3 Ti TI Ti Ti
o
tn
d) d) d) d) 0) d)
ro
SH C
.,_i CO CO CO CO CO CO
d) - H to tC tC tO to tO
4J TJ
(0 cu
d) d) 0) d)
tO rH rH SH r H SH
u
U
u
U
0)
u
V
S 0 fO u
d) C
c c c
M H M M
p
p
TI T! T) TI T)
d) 0)
T3
d) d)
CO
d) d) 4-1
4-) d
-H
dJ CO CO CO CO
d) CO
(0
d)
U
u
U O U U
u
d) d) d) C C
(0
<U
rd
ru to tC
d) (0 d)
rH 4-)
o
cu
4J C SH SH
z
rH
-rH 0
Z U
L
o
p
m
e
n
t
f
a
c
t

rH
co
p P P
M M
o
SH
H
o
v
a
l
u
e
(
R
V
)
,

e
d
w
i
t
h
c
o
n
t

p
r
o
m
o
t
e
s

c
o
n
v
e
r
s
i
o
n

r
o
m
o
f
n
i
t
r
i
t
e

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

a
s
e
d
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

a
s
e
d
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

a
s
e
d
D
e
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

a
s
e
d
D
e
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

L
g
h
t
p
r
o
m
o
t
e
s

a
s
e
d
D
e
c
r
a
s
e
d

t
o
N
O
&

R
e
d
u
c
i
n
g

c
o
l
o
r

S-l
cu
c
o
r
a
t
i
o

( 0
(
C
R
V
)
,

:
t
i
o
n

C
o
m
p

d)
TS
c
0
rH -H
o
0 4-> a
s
e
d

d) d) d)
a) <u
d)
S-l
^_j
r H S-l
rH C ,i
1
0
U
d)
4J
(\\ i 1
U^ - 1 '
r H
o
Q
T!
44
0
u u
u u
u
u
d) d) d) d)
3 0
u
M
c
M
a
M
c
,<^ MI ,
P
| r H p
co p
to a
d)
TI
U
C
0
p
a
s
p
a
s
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

c
r
e
a
s
e
d
p
a
s
Ti >,Ti
4J d)
di
v
a
l
u

s
c
r
a
s
0)
rn
i-* *+- C
C
d)
o
(J
1
0
M
c
M
P
P
p
T
i *->
J r\
0 1
" u rH - H
(
C
F
C
)

i (,
4J
C
o
l
o

c
r
e
a

c
r
e
a

r
m
a
t

c
o
l
o

c
r
e
a

4J 3
m
a u d)
m
i- ti i
)
in
o
o
in r^
o
LO LTl n
en O ro ^<
c.
m U3 U)
X
1
%

s
o
l
u
t
-

i
o
n

4-1
0
X
a
in
CN O 00
o
r-
H
r--
O
r\j
CO
o
d"
:
r
o
l

o ^-
o
s
-

d) T)
O
d"
-
o~
fC ' 8 *
og
rj
c in >t
ac
X
a to ru
0M o
w
o
to to to ru
0
tO
z
fC
u a
4
306
In general the phosphates that lowered the pH of cooked
productsincreasedthecuredcolorandcolorstabilityasindicated
byincreasedCFV,increasedCRV,increasedRVanddecreasednitrite
valuesbutloweredwaterholdingcapacity. Thereversecanbesaid
forphosphatesthatraisedthepHvaluesandwereresponsiblefor
decreasedcolorformationandstabilityandincreasedwaterholding
capacity. In general, the greater the pH alteration themore
influence exerted on color andwater holding capacity. ThepH
alterationsproducedbyphosphates,however,donotexplaintheir
totaleffect.
Phosphatesmaybeincorporated (0.5%)into"FreshBeef","Beef
forFurtherCooking","CookedBeef",andsimilarproductswhichare
frozenafterprocessing. Thepurposeofthesephosphateadditives
istohelpprotecttheproductsflavor (primarilyprotectionfrom
oxidation or rancidity and from a warmed over beef flavor)by
chelateingheavymetals.
Phosphatepermittedforthisuseare:
Sodiumtripolyphosphate Na
5
P
3
O
10
Sodiumhexametaphosphate Na
6
P
6
O
18
Somephosphates (e.g.tetrasodiumphosphate)canalsoextend
the microbial shelf life of meat products probably also by
chelatingheavymetalsneededformicrobialgrowth.
Sodiumacidpyrophosphate (SAPPanacidulant)ispermittedin
comminuted products to accelerate color fixing and is used
primarily in fast continuous processes. It also slackensthe
emulsionmaking stuffing easieronasmalldiameterproductbut
307
doesnotweakedtheemulsion. Themaximumlevelis8oz.per100
lbs.or5000ppmoftotalformulation (forproductsthathaveno
moisture restriction) and 0.5% of finished product weight (for
productsthatdohaveamoisturerestriction)andthiswillproduce
approximatelya0.4pHdrop. Ifthesausageemulsionistooacid
"fattingout"isoftenaproblem. Theresultsaregenerallynot
desirableinallbeeffranks.
A2%tripolyphosphatewashsolutionisusedtoraisethepH
ofolivespriortoaddingtoanemulsion. Ifthisisnotdonethe
acidwillcauseemulsionbreakdownandtheoliveswillpopoutof
theloafduring slicing. Acidbrinesmustalsoberemoved from
picklesforthesamereasons.
Alluncookedmuscletissuecontainsenzymesthatcanhydrolyze
phosphatesinthefollowingmanner:
Pyrophosphate Orthophosphate
TPase i 1i 1DPase
p - p - p > P - P > Pi + Pi
warm ' '' 'rapid
Tripoly water Diphosphate Inorganic
phosphate + Pi monophosphate
Inorganic
Monophosphate
Rateofhydrolyzingofphosphateinuncookedtissueisinthe
followingorder:
1. Beef 2. Pork 3. Poultry 4. Fish
Theinfluenceofthishydrolysisonwaterholdingcapacityis
illustratedinthefollowinggraphinwhichtripolyphosphatewas
addedtomeat.
308
Monophosphate
(orthophosphate)
100
"ri polyphosphate
Water holding capacity
Q.
*
i phosphate
pyro phosphate
S
V
10 20
30 40
Time
Phosphatesmayalsobeusedinemulsionproducts (1982).
Phosphates are corrosive and stainless steel or plastic
containersareusuallyusedinhandlingthesesolutions. Incanned
hamsthathavephosphatesaddedananodizedcanwithanaluminum
insert isusedsothatthealuminumwillbeselectivelycorroded
andthestructuralpartofthecanwillbeprotected. Caremust
alsobetakentoavoidprecipitationofphosphateinthebrineand
recrystallization issometimesnoted onthesurface ofthemeat
(tissueenzymeshavechangedaddedphosphatestodisodiumphosphate
crystals) whenhigh levelsareused. Softwater shouldbeused
withphosphatessincephosphatestendtosequestercationssuchas
309
calcium,ironandmagnesiumfromwaterandthuspreventsphosphates
fromtheirassignedfunction. Thepurposeofphosphatesinmeat
maybesummarizedasfollows:
1. BasicreactingphosphatesincreasedthepHofmeat
(redmeat,poultry,andseafood). Thisincreasein
pHcausesanincreaseinthewaterholdingcapacity
ofmuscletissue.
2. Phosphatesandsalt (NaCl)haveasynergisticeffect
onincreasingwaterholdingcapacity.
3. Increasedjuiciness-Theincreaseinwaterholding
capacityisresponsibleforanincreaseinjuiciness.
Thisincreasedjuicinessseemstobepreferredbymost
consumers.
4. Reducedcookingshrinkorincreaseinyield (insome
cases2-3%).Reducedcookingshrinkisalsodueto
increasedwaterholdingcapacity.
5. Reducescookingtimeprimarilyinmaturepoultryand
whitetuna.
6. Reducesrefrigeratordripandthawingdripdueto
increasedwaterholdingcapacity.
7. Colorretention-Claimshavebeenmadeforincreased
colorandcolorretentionforphosphatesthatlowerthe
tissuepH (Ex.sodiumacidpyrophosphatewill
lowerthepHandspeedupcolordevelopmentandalso
pyrophosphatedissociatesactomyosinwhichhelps
tocounteractthedestabolyzingeffectofloweredpH).
310
Curedmeatcolorformationandprotectionfromfading
lightisusuallybetterwithphosphatesthatmaintain
alowertissuepH (thesephosphateshavelesswater
holdingcapacity).
8. Texture-Thetextureoftheproducthasbeenaltered
makingiteasiertoslice.
9. Stabilizessausageemulsion-Phosphateswhichincrease
pHincreaseemulsionstability. Thisisofgreater
importanceinemulsionproductswithpoorbinding
propertiesand/orhighfatcontents. Alsoincreased
extractionofsaltsolubleproteinsisobtainedwiththe
useofphosphatesgivinganimprovedemulsion.
10.Antioxidantproperties-Polyphosphateshavesomeanti-
oxidantpropertieswhichreduceoxidativechangesand
thiscanprobablybeexplainedbytheirchelating
ability(e.g.tripolyphosphate,tetrasodiumandpotassium
pyrophosphate,sodiumacidpyrophosphate). Ithasbeen
suggestedthattheyfunctionbysequesteringcatalytic
hemeironwhichpromotesoxidation. Theyarealsocheaper
thanmostotherantioxidants. Thisreducesrancidityand
warmedoverflavor.
11.Alkalinephosphatesreducepurgeincannedproducts.
12.Reduces"fattingout"ofanemulsionproduct.
13. Increasesemulsifyingcapacity.
14.Somereportshavesuggestedantimicrobialeffects(e.g.
tetrasodiumpyrophosphate)forphosphateinmeatbut
311
increasingpHundermostcircumstanceswouldencourage
microbialgrowthinmeatproducts.
Maximumlevelofphosphatepermitted inmeatproductscured
underfederalinspectioniscoveredbyfederalregulations. Oneof
these regulations (others should be noted) lists the maximum
permissible level of added phosphates to 0.5% (0.005) of the
finishedproduct (50pounds/100gallon-10%pump). Often32lbs.
per100gal.ofpickle,at10%pumpwillcauseaprecipitationon
theproductandindustryoftenused16to20lbsper100gal.of
pickleanda10%pump. Phosphateisaddedpriortosaltforeasier
solubility. Each2lbs.ofphosphateper100gallonofbrinewill
increasesalimeterreadingapproximately1. Sodiumpyrophosphate
isthemostwatersolubleofthepermittedphosphates. Phosphates
(oftentripoly)areoftenadded (2to4oz.per100lbs.meat)to
flaked-formed fresh product. In bacon the residual phosphate
contentintheleanportionofthebaconisthecontrollingfactor.
Oftensmallquantitiesofphosphate(.076)mayfindtheirwayinto
emulsionproductsby thesweetpickletrim route (15%allowed).
Phosphates may now be used in pountry and red meat emulsion
products.
Commercialblendsofphosphatesoftenfallinto2groups:
1.Viscous with
Tightlypolymerised Acidpyrophosphate
Metaphosphate orTripolyphosphate
2 . Nonviscous with
Tetrasodiumpyrophosphate Phosphateglassy
orTripolyphosphate
312
Phosphatesareoftenaddedasblendsandaexampleoftypical
meatblendphosphatesisasfollows:
PhosphateBlends-Examples
Type % Indredients Purpose
Viscous 85-90 Sodiumtripoly goodemulsionstabilizer
10-15 Sodiumhexameta conditionhardwaterand
makesotherphosphates
moresoluble
Non-viscous Tetrasodiumpyro --goodemulsionstabilizer
Phosphateglassy--conditionshardwaterand
makesotherphosphate
morestable
The determination of the added phosphate is calculated by
subtracting the native phosphate (native phosphate = 0.0106X
protein) from the total phosphate. Optimum level formoisture
controlisobtainedwith0.35%phosphateat2%saltleveland0.5%
phosphate may be desirable at a 0.75% or lower salt level.
Phosphateslikeallinorganicsaltsaretoxicifexcessiveamounts
are ingested but these salts are only slightly more toxicthan
sodiumchloride.
Phosphatesarealsousedashogscaldingagentstoaidinthe
removalof hair,rendering agentstoassist intherenderingof
animalfatsandassynergistswithantioxidantstoretardrancidity
developmentinfat.
Sodiumhydroxide (NaOH)
Sodiumhydroxidemaybeusedinarationnottoexceed4to1
(4partsphosphatetoonepartNaOH)withphosphatestoraisethe
313
pHandtoincreasethewaterholdingcapacityofthetissue. This
would reduce shrinkage during cooking. The combination of
phosphateandsodiumhydroxidecannotexceed0.5%intheproduct.
Water
Waterisalsoaddedinmostcuringformulasanditsfunctions
are:
1. Distributecuringingredients-Acceleratescuring
tremendouslywhencomparedtodrycuring.
2. Increasesjuiciness-Finishedproducthasmoremoisture
thanadrycuredproduct.
Since water is inexpensive and the final meat product is
priced on a per weight basis the quantity of water added is
controlledbyregulations. Afewoftheregulations(othersshould
benoted)andlabelingrulesareasfollows:
Label Weight
Example:
"Ham" Maximumcuredweight =uncuredweight
"Wateraddedham" Maximumcuredweight =10%abovefresh
weight
"Cannedham" Maximumweight =8%abovefresh
weight
"Imitationproduct" Greaterthan10%abovefreshweight
"Cornedbeefrounds" Maximumweight =10%abovefresh
weight
"Cornedbeef
briskets" Maximumweight =20%abovefresh
weight
Labeldeclarationsas"Water".
Countrycuredhamsnormallyshrinkatleast18%fromuncured
weightduringprocessing.
314
Hardnessofwaterusedisalsoimportantsincehardwatermay-
leadtoformationofscumandmanycureingredients (Ex.phosphate)
aredifficulttodissolve inhardwater. Discolorationoffresh
andcuredproducts isoftencausedbyhighmineral levelinthe
water. Addedwaterislabeledaswaterintheingredientlist.
Binders
Curedporkproducts labeled "HamWaterAdded"and "Hamand
WaterProducts-X%ofWeightisAddedIngredients".Cancontain
foodstarch-modified,sodiumcasinate,isolatedsoyproteinand
carrageenanasbindersandshouldpreventpurgingofpumpedbrine
solutions.
Substance Amount
Carrageenan Nottoexceed1.5percentofproductformation:
notpermittedincombinationwithotherbinders
approvedforuseincuredporkproducts.
FoodStarch Nottoexceed2percentofproductformulation:
Modified notpermittedincombinationwithotherbinders
Sodium Nottoexceed2percentofproductformulation:
Caseinate notpermittedincombinationwithotherbinders
IsolatedSoy Nottoexceed2percentofproductformulation:
Protein notpermittedincombinationwithotherbinders
Batter-breading:
Coating meat with a batter-breading before cooking is
increasinginpopularity. Thestepsusuallyinvolve:
1. Meat
2. Sizing
3. Dusting-dryusuallyflavorbasetoabsorbsurface
moistureand,improvedadhesion.
315
4. Battering-aliquid,waterflour,starch,seasoning,
mixture.
5. Breading-flavorbasedbreadcrumborcrackermeal
forcoatingtexture.
6. Batteringandbreadingmayberepeated.
7. Blanching-sometimeused.
8. Cooking-sometimeused.
9. Freezing.
10.Packing.
Batter/breadingingredients:
1. Polysaccharides -forviscositycontrol.
Flours-(wheatmostcommon,approximately10%protein
preferred),cornandpotatoalsoused.
Starches-corn,wheat,andpregelatinizedstarchis
usedtoabsorbwater.
Gums-increasesviscosityandholdswater.
2. Protein
Milkandwheyproteins (mostcommon;non-fatdrymilk
andwhey)maybeusedasapredip,predusttoincrease
adhesionofthebatter,forfrycolordevelopmentand
forincreasedflavorduetolactose.
Eggwhiteoralbumin-contributetobodyandstructure
andcrispness.
Eggyolk-contributetobodybutissofterandwill
altercolor.
3. Fatsandoils-contributetotendernessandcrispness,
316
retardsmoisturefromenteringcoatingandaddsflavor.
4 . Leaveningagent-asourceofcarbondioxideandareused
inpuffortempurabatters. Causesfatabsorptionwhich
willmaketheproductcrisper.
Bakingpowder=acid+base.
5. Water-usedtoformasuspensionofingredients,effects
viscosityandadhesionandaidsinstructureformation.
6. Seasoning-usuallyaddedtobatter:
Salt-flavor
Sugar-flavor,tenderness,browning
MSG-flavorandfrycolor
Pepper-flavor
Paprika-color,flavor
Spiceorspiceextract-flavor
7. Maycontainsodiumacidpyrophosphate.
USDAregulationsforbreadedproducts:
1. Redmeat-batteringandbreadingcannotexceed30%
offinishedbreadedweight.
2. Poultry
a. Batteringandbreadingcannotexceed30%of
finishedbreadedweight.
b. Cookedpoultryincludingboneandbreadingshallnot
containmorethan30%breading.
3. Fritters-cancontainupto65%breading.
CuringPickle:
Tomixacuringpickletheingredientsshouldbeaddedinthe
followingorder: water;phosphates;sugar,dextrose;flavoring;
nitrite; and ascorbate (toprotect the nitrite and ascorbate).
317
Excessive agitation of the brine should be avoided and pickles
shouldnotbestoredlongerthan12hours.
Emulsionproduct:
Incorporatedintoemulsionproductsarealloftheadditives
listedundercuredproductsand,ingeneral,thepurposeforthese
additives is the same as in cured products with the following
exceptions:
1. Salt-Sameascuredproductsand,inaddition,thesalt
andwateristheextractingliquidformyosinfromthe
musclefibers. Thisproteinsolubilizationwillincrease
binding,emulsionstability,processingstability,water
bindingandyields. Itwillalsoreducethawingand
cookingdrip. Thesaltandwaterthenencapsulatesthe
fat, forminganemulsion (looksmuchlikeaspongethat
hasabsorbedfat). Thesmallerthefatparticlesthe
moresurfaceareathatrequiresproteincoatingbutif
wellcoatedandcombinedwithahighviscosityofthe
protein-waterphasethemorestabletheemulsion.
Myosinin
saltwater
Water
Hydrophobic groups
Hydrophylic groups
318
Timeincontact and percent salt are both importanttoobtain
maximumproteinsolubilityasshowinthefollowinggraph:
9 7 %
% Protein
extracted
at various
*Conditions
time 92%
peroids
y"
4% Salt
y
40F
y
post-rigor meat
60%
7f
8
24
Dwelltime (hours)
Forthesereasonsaneighthourdwelltimeseemsreasonable.
Protein
solubility
0 6to7 12to14
NaCIinaqueousphase
Sevenpercentsaltwouldbeidealforproteinextraction,butthis
319
Sevenpercent saltwouldbe ideal forproteinextraction,but this
ofcoursewouldmake the finalproduct too salty. Itis sometimes
desirable tomix thismuch saltwiththehighqualityprotein (low
fat)of the meat block for pre-blending and then dilute the salt
withthe rest of the meat block.
Pre-blending is the mixing of salt with tissue and then
storing for several hoursprior tochopping. Its advantages are:
a) Obtain maximum use of salt soluble proteins.
b) Allow the use of some lowerbinding quality raw.
materials
c) Allow time for chemical analysis tobe completed.
Procedurethatisoftenrecommendedforpre-blendingwouldinclude,
100 lbs.meat (fat smearing will cut down on salt soluble
proteinextractionsothisshouldbe avoided).
Lean-Prebreak/hydraflakefrozenmeat;grindfrozen
orfreshmeat through1/8 -3/l6thinchplate.
Fat -Prebreak/hydraflake frozenmeat;grind frozen
or freshmeat through 3/8 -5/8th inchplate.
Polish -1/2" grind fora final 3/8" grind.
20 lbs.water or ice.
3 lbs.good salt (NaCl).
1/2 of sodium nitrite used here (bacterial control and
antioxidant).
Don't use cure accelerators or reducing compounds here.
Store at 28F (Max.36F) for 12to48 hours.
Theother 1/2 of sodiumnitrite isadded atthe last stage of
320
choppingandthiswillincreasetheshelflife.
Ifpre-blendingisnotusedtheleantissue,salt,andcure
and 30% of the water should be added first in the chopping
operation. Thissequencewillgiveabrinecontentof6-8%in
theleanmeatandwillresultinsolubilizationoftheprotein.
Cured fat foruse inpork andbeans iscured in100%salt
brinefor14days.Evenafterretortingitwillholditsshape.
Saltwilldiscolorafreshmeatsystem.
Saltinbolognaandfrankfurtersareusuallyaddedatthe
rateof2.2to2.6%ofthefinishedproduct,freshpork
sausagesrangebetween1.5and2.0% (2to2.5%wheneaten)
andfrom0.5to0.75%inrestructuredproducts. Theweight
ofsaltaddedtoaproductshouldbeincreased0.1to0.2%
whenthehumidityishigh,forexampleJune,toaccount
forincreasedwaterlevelinthesalt.
2. Sugar-samepurposesasincuredproducts.
Sincesugarhasanattractionforwateritwillalsoimprove
peelability.Quantity (weight)ofsugarshouldalsobe
increasedby0.1toO.,2%duringhighhumidityweather.
Franksnormallycontainfrom0.5to1.5lbs.ofsucroseper
100lbs.ofmeat. Sugarshouldbeadjusteddownwardwhenmilk
isusedandupwardswhensoyandothernon-meatproteinsare
used. Lactoseisalsousedinliversausagetoreducethe
bitterness.
3. Nitrite-samepurposeasincuredproducts.
If156partspermillionisaddedtotheemulsiononly60-70
321
partspermillionwillbepresent,outofcook.Oftenl/8th
oz. (1/2normallevel)isusedinfermentedproducts. As
littleas5to10ppmwillcauselossofbloominfresh
sausage. Whencookedtheseproductsmaybrieflylookcured,
butthenturngray.
4. Nitrate-samepurposeasincuredproducts.
Nitratewillnotcauselossofbloominfreshsausageasfast
asnitrite.
5. Reducingcompounds-samepurposeasincuredproducts.
6. Cureaccelerators-samepurposeasincuredproductsbutif
acidisaddedpriortocookingtheproductitwillinterfere
withbindbutifaddedslowlycanassistincoagulation.
7. Phosphatesandsodiumhydroxide-sameasincuredproductand
inprocessedmeatstheyhavebeenreportedto:
a. Increasesolubalizedproteinsolowercost
rawmaterialscanbeused.
b. Canuselowercostrawmaterialbyreducingbind
valuerequired.
c. Canreducetheamountofrework.
d. Increaseemulsionstability.
e. Asmallimprovementinyield (byincreasing
proteinretention)canoftenbeobtainedbut
thisisoftennotlargesincemostprocessors
arealreadyoperatingclosetothe30%fat
maximumandclosetothe4Xprotein+10%
moisturemaximum.
322
f. Reducesmeatviscosity,emulsionisthinner
andyoucanobtainmoreuniformpumping
pressuresandmoreuniformstuffing.
g. Thisreduces"giveaway"and"overpacking"by
increasingunformity.
h. Temperatureriseduetochoppingisreduced
becauseofreducedemulsionviscosity. Therefore
ahigherstartingtemperatureoralongerchop
timeisrequiredtoreachafinalchoptemperature,
i. Reducesyieldlosseswhenproductsareoverchopped,
j. Less"greasyout",
k. Improvestexture.
1. Enhancecolor,however,ifbindvalueis
loweredsometimecolorisreduced,
m. Extendshelflife,
n. Improvesflavor.
8. Iceandwater-samepurposeasincuredproductsand,in
addition;
a. Coolstheproductsofheatobtainedfrom
frictionduringchopping. Ifthisheatbecomes
excessivetheemulsionwillbreakandthe
productwillnotholdtogetherduringfurther
processing.
b. Wateralsoaidsinextractingthemyosin,
mentionedin#1.
c. IfwateroricecontainsCa
++
ionstheycan
323
interferewithmeatbindingpropertiesand
reduceemulsionstability,
d. Iftoomuchwaterisaddedtheproductwill
bemushy.
Waterisregulatedastothequantitiesthatmaybe
added. Aruleofthumbis25-30lbs.per100lbs.
ofmeatinthechoppingoperation. Limited
quantitiesofwatershouldbeaddedinitiallyto
adjustthebrinestrengthandextracttheprotein.
Aftertheextractionhastakenplacetheremainder
ofthewatercanbeincorporated. Anemulsion
shouldcontain55-65%moisture.
Asimplifiedappxoximation(seeregulationforexact
procedure)isasfollows:
Product Permittedmoisture
Cookedsausage: %moisture=(4x%protein)+10%
Uncookedsausage: %moisture=(4x%protein)+3%
Iffrozenmeatisusedwaterof120-140Fmaybeaddedina
finemisttotheemulsiontoraisethetemperature. If
waterthatistoohotisadded,theproteinwillbe
denaturedandbindwillbelost.
Over-showeringofcured,cookedsausagewillremove
surfacenitritesandsaltandthereforeencouragecolor
fading and bacterial growth. Hard water can also cause
discolorizationoftheproduct.
324
Water shouldbeadded tobinders inapproximately these
ratios:
a) 2.2 lbs.ofwaterto 1lb.texturevegetableprotein.
b) 2 . 8 - 3 . 1 lbs.waterto1lb.ofsoyproteinconcentrate.
c) 5lbs.waterto1lb.of isolated soyprotein.
8. Binders
Binders [orextendersor filler (sometime reserved for
carbohydrate sources)] formeatproducts should includesuch
itemsas:cereal,flour,milkproducts,etc. Thecerealshave
aslightly starchytaste andwillabsorb 2to3timestheir
weight inwater. Theirprincipaluseistoholdmoistureand
toforma firm starchgelwhenheated to160F.
Pregelonalitized productsdon'thavetoberaised toashigh
atemperature togel.
Some commonbinders thatareoftenused include:
Cereal - (containapproximately 8%protein;wheat,
corn,rye,barleyandmilo-maizeflourscanbe
declared as cereal)
Corn -hard gel
Wheat - (InCanadamust containat least80%
dextrose)
Oats -highest proteinof cereals,types;
rolled oats, steeled cut oats --havea
texture likebreadcrumbs.
Rice-softgel,boiledrice (oftenunpolished
325
patna)areinsomefreshsausages.
Sunflowermeal-usedasatexturedvegetable
protein.
Flour-theterm"flour"byitselfrefersto
wheat.
Wheat-contains13%moisture,14%protein,3%
fat,64%carbohydrateandisrehydratedat
therateof1.25partswaterto1part
flour.
VitalWheatGluten-glutenprocessedtoretain
itsviscoelasticproperties. Usedin
Japanasameatextender.
Corn (alsostonegroundcornflour)-high
starch (67%carbohydrate),lowprotein
(0.7%protein),12%moisture,&0.3%fat.
CornGluten-alighttan,90%proteinisolate.
Potatoes (farina-mustbelabelled
specificially)-usedmoreinEurope,
usuallyattherateofapproximately5%,
andhasgoodbindingqualities.
Soya(mustbelabelledspecificially)andwater
solubleproteinextracts-sizerange;
flour-grit (sandsized)-textured
(crumbledmeat). Finelygroundproducts
tendtomigratetocasingsurfaceand
causesmearing. Somesoyproductshavean
326
objectionablebean-likeflavor. This
flavorcanbenoticeable,initially,or
sometimesdevelopsafter2wks.ofshelf
storageintheproduct.Theyshouldnotbe
usedinablandproduct. Soyaworksbest
inhighlyspicedproducts. Normal
hydrationrateis2.5to1.
327
Sovtypes
Flour
Grits(soy-
flourbefore
grinding)
Texturedsoy
flour(soy
flour
restructured
intouniform
chunks)
Protein
concentrates
Protein
isolate
Protein Comments
50% Usedinhighlyspiced
products.Restrictedto
3-1/2%inspecific
items.
Lowtemperaturewater
holdingcapacity (2to
3timesitsweight).It
willdarkencolorof
productandaccelerate
browning.
50% Texturesimilarto
meat.Holds2to3
timesitsweightin
water.
50% Texturesimilarto
meat.Holds2to3
timesitweightin
water.
70% Lessflavorproblem.
Absorbsfat-tieup
moisture (2timesits
weight)
90% Leastflavorproblems.
Willoxidizeduring
storage-bestfor
emulsionproducts;bind
waterandfat.
Restrictedto2%.
Label
Soyflour
Soyflouror
grits
Texturedsoy
flour
Soyprotein
concentrate
Soyprotein
isolate
InCanada legume products such as soy or pea are defined as
extendersratherthanfillersorbinders.
Peanut-colorless,blandflavor,retardsoxidation.
Fullfat-28%protein.
Partiallydefatted-42%protein.
Fullydefatted-57%protein.
Cottonseed
328
Rapeseedproteinconcentrate-HasaPERof2.5,goodfatand
waterbindingpropertieswhenaddedtomeat.
Topioco-mustbelabelledspecifically.
Rice-contains12%moisture,6%protein,1%fat,78%
carbohydrateandabsorbs31/2timesitsweightin
water.Oftenscalded.
Oatmeal- contains9%moisture,12%protein,9%fat,65%
carbohydrateandisusedinScottishhaggisandinsome
bloodpudding.
Barley-cookedpearlbarley (11%moisture,8%protein,2%
fat,73%carbohydrate)isusedinsomebloodpudding
andloafs.
Rusk-bakedspongycrackermadefromwheatandcornflour,
water,saltandaeratingagents (bicarbonateofsoda
andacidsodiumphosphate);itisground (coarseto
fine)andoftencoloredandusedatthe25to50%level
inEnglishporksausage. Itcontains1-4%moisture,
12-15%protein,0.5%fat,80-82%carbohydrate
andisrehydratedattherateof1.5to2partsof
waterto1partrusk.
Bread-whitebreadcontaining40%moisture,7-8%protein,
50-64%starch,1%fat,isoftenbakedandallowedto
staleandthisproductisusedasafiller.
Starches shouldbedeclaredonthelabelastothetypeof
starchandcerealfloursshouldbelabeledastotheindividual
329
flours. Texturedvegetableproteinshouldbelabeledforexample
"Texturedsoyflour (caramelcolor)".
Milkproducts-Somepopulations,particularlyofAfricanancestry
havealactose intolerance causing digestionproblemswithmilk
productswhichshouldbetakenintoconsiderationwhenaddingthem
tomeatproduct. MilkproductscannotbeaddedtoKoshersausages
because of requirement for separation of milk and meat. Milk
productsoftengiveasmoothingeffectandasheentothesurface
when added to sausage products. They also improve the
sliceability.
Non-fatdrymilk (mostcommonlyusedinmeatproducts,good
flavor) -- NFDM is produced by de-fatting the milk with a
centrifugeseparatortoremove99.5%ofthefat. Theskimmedmilk
isthendried in avacuum evaporator [milk boils at 70C.and
proteins do not denature until it becomes viscous (45% solid
solution)]. Theconcentratedmilkinthenatomizedintoastream
ofdryairforfinaldrying. Itcanalsoberollerdried. The
compositionofnon-fatdrymilkis3%water,1%fat,38%protein,
51%carbohydrate, and 7%ash. Thisproduct has ahigh calcium
content (8%)whichreducestheemulsionformingpropertiesofthe
meatmix. NFDMisusedtosmooththeflavorandtolightenthe
colorofsausage. Itisalsoreportedtobebeneficial incolor
retention. Probablyduetohighcontentofreducingsugars. Label
must be billboarded "Non Fat Dry Milk Added" and included in
ingredientstatement.
330
Sodium caseinate (90%+protein) -milk equivalent ofsoy
proteinisolate,blandintaste,lightincolor,doesnotcontain
highlevels ofreducing sugars,andcanbeusedinnon-specific
loaves (it is difficult to analyze in the finished product).
Sodiumcaseinatecanbeaddedaheadofwaterandthefatmeatsince
ithassomeemulsifyingcapacityandwillabsorb4timesitsweight
inwater. Alsothisproduct canbeused topre-emulsify fatby
adding10partsofanytypeoffat,10partsofwaterand1partof
sodiumcaseinateandthenheatingto140F (sodiumcaseinatedoes
notcoagulateathightemperature)inthecookingchopper. Upto
40partsofthisemulsioncanbeincorporatedintomuscletissue.
Normallyone-thirdofthefatisreplacedbythisemulsifiedfat
(total emulsion is normally 20% of total batch weight). In
standardproducts10%isoftenadded. Inpatty-likeproducts10%
canbeaddedandisusuallyblendedwith1%soyisolate. Thispre-
emulsified fatmakes acreamyemulsionwhich isoftendesirable
whenusingbeeffat. Thisproductisaddedinthesecondhalfof
the chopping cycle. A high viscosity caseinate is also
manufactured and allows the use of less caseinate in thepre-
emulsifiedfatmixture.
Calciumreduceddriedskimmilk-70%ofthesolublecalcium
(divalent)isreplacedwithsodium(mono-valent)andthisincreases
the amount of soluble proteins which reduces the amount offat
separation (increasebindingproperties) duringmeatprocessing.
Labelmustbebillboardedandincludediningredientstatement.
331
Driedwhey(18-75%protein)-wheyisthesoluble,undenatured
protein separated from the curd in cheese manufacturing. It
contains6%solidswhichcanbedried (oftendenaturesprotein).
ItenhancesflavorsimilartoMSGandalsoenhancesbrowning. It
ishighinlactoseandtakestheedgeoffofliverproducts. It
canbeused at the 31/2%level insausage,bockwurst andnon-
specific loaves. Amodifiedwheyproductusesa semi-permeable
membranetoremovewater,inorganicsaltsandlactoseandthiswhey
proteinisnotdenatured.
Gelatinusedinjellyloavesandtocontainpurge (prevent
grapefruiteffect-preventsquirtingwhencanis
opened)incannedhams. Qualityisusuallyjudgedby
clarityoftheproduct.
Highquality --clearcapsuleforpillshighergel
(highbloom) strength,goodsliceability.
--chemicalgelatingforfilm.
--gelatindesserts.
Lowerquality --yellow,formeatproducts.
--lowergelstrength,soft
Thehigherthegelstrengththebettertheslicing
characteristics.
YeastProtein-Yeastgrownonasubstratefrompetroleum;
yeasthasameatlikeflavor.
Gums-(Seegumssection).
MustardFlour-(Seespicesection)18%protein.
Blood-onlyusedinafewitemsbutthepossibilityof
furtheruseisbeinginvestigated.
332
SingleCellProtein-possibilitybutnotmuchresearchyet.
Theseadditivesservethefollowingfunction:
a. Economy: Bindersarenormallycheaperthanmeat
ingredientsandare,therefore,addedtoemulsionsso
thatthefinishedproductmaybesoldatacheaperprice
perpound.
b. Bindproductsandabsorbwaterorfat: Mostbindersare
notasgoodemulsifiersasskeletalmuscletissue,but
manyofthemdohavesomeemulsifyingpower (Example,
driedwhey). Some (soyproteinconcentratewithhigh
proteinsolubility)havetheabilitytoabsorbfatand
maketheproductlessgreasy. Manybindersalsohave
theabilitytoabsorbwaterandretainitduringthe
cookingprocess (Example,sodiumcaseinate). Some
improveemulsionstabilityandreducefatcappingor
rendering.
WaterAbsorptionandEmulsifyingCapacityofFillers
8
Filler %Protein Water Emulsifying
absorption capacity,
%Cold %Hot
mloil/g
protein
Potatostarch 0.2 78 1100 0
Wheatflour 14.1 130 375 154
Milkpowder 35.4 0 0 204
Sodiumcaseinate 90.2 0 0 188
a
Comer,F.W.1979.FunctionalityofFillers inComminutedMeat
Products.C.I.F.S.T.Journal12(4)157.
333
c. Reduceshrinkageduringcooking: Thispropertyisrelated
tothebinder'sabilitytoretainmoistureduringcooking.
Thisalsoincreasesjuiciness.
d. Alteringcolor: Thecookedcolorofmostbinderswill
slightlyalterthecolorofthefinishedproduct.
Normallythisisaslightlylightercolorthanwouldbe
obtainedwithouttheiruse. Ifabrowningreactionoccurs
thentheproductwillbedarker.
e. Nutritionalvalue: Normallybindersarenotasgood
nutritionallyasanequalquantity (expressedonanequal
moisturebasis)ofskeletalmuscletissue. However,the
nutritionallevelofmanyofthebinders (example,milk
products)isquitegood.
f. Improvingslicingcharacteristics: Insomeproductsthe
absorptionofwaterimprovestheslicingcharacteristics
ortextureofthefinishedemulsionproduct.
g. Somebinderssuchassodiumcaseinateandsoyproteinare
beingmixedwithbrinesandpumpedintohams. After
tumblingtheproductcanhaveayieldashighas130%.
h. Alterflavor: Mostbindershaveaflavorandtherefore
altertheflavorofthefinishedproduct.
Reporteddisadvantages:
1. Soyproteinmaybindironinthetissuemakingit
unavailable.
2. VegetableproteinsareoftenlowinB-Vitaminsdueto
extremeprocessing.
334
3. Vegetableproteinsareoftenlowinsometraceminerals
andcalcium.
4. Vegetableproteinsareoftenlowinmethionine.
5. Trypsininhibitorsarepresentinuncookedsoybeansand
affectdigestion.
6. Flatulence (productionofgasinintestines)iscommonly
associatedwithvegetableproteins.
Starchinthesebindersbehavesinthefollowingmanner:
heating cooling
Starch&Water >swells >gel >solidify
150to155F
Starchwillalsoabsorbwater,andthusthiswaterisnolonger
available toextract protein and consequently theemulsionwill
havealowerbindingquality. Forthesereasonsstarchisusually
addedlateinthechoppingoperationsothattheemulsioncanbe
stabilized first. Soyprotein isolate isbeing evaluated asa
producttomixwithcuringbrineandtoinjectintosolidpiecesof
meat.
Sincebindersarenormallymoreeconomicalthanmeattissue
andsincethequantityaddedisdifficult tovisuallydetermine,
the levels permitted are governed by federal regulations. A
summary(totalregulationsshouldbenoted)oftheseregulationsis
asfollows:
1. Imitationsausage-mayexceed31/2%
Nonspecificloat (meatdoesnotoccurinthename)
335
2. Sausageorloaf-Maximumof31/2%individuallyor
(thatcontains collectively (labelmustbebill-
meatinthe
boarded"Cerealadded")of-
nameofthe Cerealflour
product) Vegetablestarch
Starchyvegetableflour
Soyflour (50%protein)
Soyproteinconcentrate (70%protein)
Non-fatdrymilk
Calciumreduceddriedskimmilk
Driedmilk
Maximumof2%(approximatelytheequiv-
alentinproteincontent)
Isolatedsoyprotein (90%protein)
[taggingwith0.1%titaniumastitanium
dioxideisnolongerrequiredasof
June1984].
3. ClassA,U.S.SchoolLunchProgram-30%rehydrated
(21/2to1)soy.
4. Englishfreshsausage-25to50%rehydrated.
9.Flavoringagents-Thisgroupofadditivesincludessubstances
whichareaddedtomuscletissueprimarilytoaltertheflavor.
Mostcompoundsthatareaddedinanyquanity,regardlessof
theirprimaryfunction,alsocontributetotheflavorofthe
overallproduct. Someoftheproductsaddedprimarilyfor
theirflavorinclude:
336
a. Hydrolyzedplantprotein (HPP),hydrolyzedvegetable
protein (HVP)andmilkproteinhydrolysate: Thisisa
mixtureofaminoacids (flour30-33%protein)produced
fromoneofthefollowing:wheatorcornglutens,
yeast,rice,soybeanmeal,orcasein. Theratioofamino
acidsdependsontherawmaterial. Theproteinissub-
dividedbyoneof3basicmethods.
a. Enzymichydrolysis (pancreatictrypsinor
papain).
b. Alkalinehydrolysis.
c. Acidhyrolysis(hydrochloricorsulphuricacid).
Oneofthesaltsoftenproducedonhydrolysisismonosodium
glutamate (10to12%MSGinsomeHVP)andinsomehydrolyzed
plantproteinaportionofthisisremoved. HVPisusedto
replacemonosodiumglutamateinsomenon-criticalproducts.
When acid hydrolysis is used, the acid is
neutralizedandalargequantityofsalt (30-50%)isformed
whichisdifficulttoremove. Colloidalhuminisformed
(combinationofaldehydewithtryptophane)inthehydrolysis
reactionandthismakefilteringoftheaciddigestdifficult.
Thehydrolysatehasacharacteristic flavor
(dependingontherawproductandmethodofproduction)andis
addedtoproductssuchassoups,sauces,meatproductsand
spicemixturesforthepurposeofflavoring. Itisalso
sometimesusedinplaceofbeefbouillon. Itmaybecolored
(tanorbrown)oruncoloredandhaveaflavorsimilartobeef,
337
pork,chickenfish,etc.andoftenisveryhygroscopic. High
levelsgiveasoysaucetaste. Thereisnouselevel
restriction (USDA)anditisusuallyusedattherateof2to
10oz.per100lbs.ofmeatdependingontheproduct. Itmust
belistedonthelabelashydrolyzedplantorvegetable
proteinorflavorings.
Caremustbeusedwhenaddingittofreshproductssince
itwillturndarkanddiscolor (lossofbloom)surrounding
tissue. Somehydrolyzedplantproteinmaycontainnitrite
producedfromNOformedduringthespraydryingoperation
(gasburningring dryer).
HighlevelofHVPwillhaveasoysauceflavorwhich
enhancesthemeatflavorandHVPcontain40%saltand8%MSG.
b. Monosodiumglutamate (MSG):H-0
\
C-CH-CH
2
-CH
2
-C-O-Na
ONH
2
O
Manufacturedfromwheatgluten,cornglutenanddesugaredbeet
molasses. Thischemicalisdescribedashaving"flavor
enhancing", "flavorpretentiator"or"flavorbody"properties
andhaswidespreaduseinthevegetableindustry. Itis
proposedthatitactsonnerveendingsinthetastebudsand
makesthemmoresensitivetootherflavors. Innormal
concentrations (1to3oz./lOOlbs.)ithasnoflavorofits
own. Athighconcentrationsitgivesasweettaste. Inthe
meatindustryithasfounditsgreatestuseinmeatloaf,ham
loaf,chickenloaf,andfreshporksausagewhichcontain
338
naturalspices. Ithasalsobeenreportedtoreduce:mutton
flavor,thesharpnessofonionflavor,rawnessinvegetables
andmeat,strongearthypungenttasteofnaturalspices,
particularlypepperandtogiveamorebalancedorsmooth
flavorprofiletotheproductbutMSGhasasaltybaseand
increasesspoiledorrancidflavorinanoldproduct. Other
reportsindicatethatitdelaysranciditydevelopmentand
improvescolorretentioninmuscletissue. FAO/WHOhas
statedthatAcceptableDailyIntake (ADI)levelasbeing
152mg/kgofbodyweightforhumansover12weeksofage.
c. Sodiumsulfoacetatederivativeofmono- anddiglycerides:
Compoundsofthistypemaybeusedtoflavorcuredproducts.
Theirformulaswouldhavethefollowingconfiguration.
H
2
- C - O - C - R ' R',R'',R'''- areCH
2
- SOjNa
0 and
H - C - O - C - R
1
' - CH,CH,
I I
0
H j - C - O - C - R
1 1 1
0
d. Smoke (naturalandliquid): Smokegeneratedbycellulose,
(logs,chips,sawdust)pyrolysishaslongbeenknowntoadd
itsdistinctiveflavor,color,increasepreservation,forms
askinonsurface,makenewproductspossibleandaddsanti-
oxidantpropertiestofoods. Smokeforfoodisusuallymade
fromhardwood (hickory,maple,apple,mesquite). Smoke
concentrationontheproductstoalargeextentdependson
339
combustiontemperatureofwood (650Fideal), relative
humidityofwood,smokedensity,exposuretime,casing
permeability,moistnessofmeatsurfaceandtemperatureof
themeat (45-180Frange,100-110Fisbest,100-140Fbest
forliquidsmoke;ifproductistoocoldyouwillgetpoor
colorandiftoohotpoorpenetration)andrelativehumidity
(35-40RHideal,above70RMmuddycolor).
Smokingcycleanddamperuseshouldbeasfollows:
Stagesinsmokehouse Damper
Drying Open
Smoke (1/2hours) Closed
Heating Closed
340
Thecasingsurfaceshouldbeasfollowstobestacceptsmoke:
Type Surface
Cellulose Wet (morepermeable)
Naturalcasing Tacky
Hamorbacon Tackyonleanarea
TypesofSmokehouses
Gravity
Coldsmokingchamber
Airconditioned-cancontrolrelativehumidity.
Closedlooprecirculatedair.
Nooutsideair.
Refrigerationusedtoremovehumidity.
Cookinginmanycasesalsoaccompaniessmoking. Naturalsmoke,in
addition to its flavor characteristics, also deposits
bacteriostatic (heavy smoke reduce bacterial numbers -100,000
fold)andantioxidantsubstancesonthetissuesurfaceandupto12
mmintothetissue. Color(shadesofbrown)oftheproductisalso
alteredbysmoking.
1. Smokeandprotein brownstablecolor.
2. Curedmeatcolorofham pink
3. 1+2 mahoganycolorofcured
smokedmeat.
4. Fadingcausedby
a. Smoke&protein brownstablecolor.
b. Fadedcuredmeatcolor --gray
c. a+b Kraftpapercoloroffadedsmokedmeat.
341
Smoke added to oxidized fat will often result in a yellow
undesirablecolor.
Resmokingtoincreasesmokecolorisoftendoneat80FDB.
Natural smoke (200 compounds have been isolated) is often
dividedintothefollowingphases:
1. Particulate phase (solids) - fly ash and tars (not
desirable).
2. Gaseousphase (non-condensibles)-
Heatedair
Combustiongases
co
2
Watervapor
3. Condensiblephase (chemicalactivity)
Phenolic (20havebeenisolated)-
preservativeeffect (bacteriaandmold)
antioxidant
skinformation
Carbonyls color
combineswithmeatproteinto
producecolor.
Acid-90%aceticacid,vanallicacid
Polycyclichydrocarbons
Manychemicalshavebeenisolatedfromnaturalsmokeandtheymay
becategorizedasfollows:
1. Organicacids (increase0
2
insmokegeneratorincreases
acidcontent).
342
a. Coagulatesprotein (welldefinedskin,improves
peelability).
b. Acceleratesthenitrosationofmyoglobinwhich
yieldspinkcolor.
c. Bacteriostatic
d. Flavor (tartness)
2. Alcohols
a. Somebacteriostaticeffect.
3. Phenols (donotappeartobemutagenicorcarcinogenic).
Increase0
2
insmokegeneratorincreasesphenolcontent.
a. Antioxidant
b. Bacteriostatic
c. Smokyflavor
d. Sheen (phenols+carbonyls=resinouscompounds)
e. Proteincoagulation (welldefinedskin;improves
peelability).
4. Carbonyls
a. Flavor (sharpness)
b. Aroma
c. Color (carbonylsandfreeaminoacids=smokybrown
color).
5. Resins-formedbycombiningaldehydesandphenols.
a. Color
6. Polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons (PAH's)-bitter
a. Somearecancinogensinlabanimalsandtheseare
locatedintheparticulatephase.
343
Benzo [a] pyrene
Dibenz [a.hi anthracene
13
12
Production i s minimized
a t c o m b u s t i o n
temperatures
below 425C and
accelerated
at temperatures above
750F. Cellulose
casings have been
reported to con-
st i t ut e a functional
b a r r i e r t o t h i s
compound.
Acids from natural smoke, added acids or liquid smoke
coagulatesproteinatalowertemperatureandaidsinpeelingthe
344
casingfromtheproduct.
Controllingsmokedischargeintotheatmospherehasbecomean
air pollution objective and this is frequently accomplishedby-
heating the smoke laden air to a temperature of 1200F (very-
expensive)whichoxidizesthesmokeparticlesandeliminatesthe
smoke.
Liquidsmoke(canbelabeledhambutnotsmokedhamunlessthe
liquidsmokeisatomizedorrevaporizedthencanbecalledsmoke)
isanaqueoussolutionofwater-solublewoodpyrolyzatecomponents.
Canalsobeinoilsolubleorpowderedform. Thebenzo-pyrenecan
beprecipitatedfromthissolution. Lowacidity (pH2.2)products
areproduced for incorporation (1/2to 1oz/100 lbs) intomeat
products [must be labeled as hickory smoke flavorings addedor
natural (combinationofhardwoods) smoke flavoring addedasthe
casemaybe] but more highly acid andphenolic liquid smokeis
required for surface treatment to obtain the desire glaze and
color. Because of this high acid level liquid smoke isvery
corrosiveandifexcessiveamountsareaddedtoanemulsionitwill
"short out" due to lowpH. Liquid smoke has the potentialof
inhibiting lactic starter cultures used in fermented sausages.
Liquidsmokeantioxidantpropertiesvaryfromaslightpro-oxidant
toanextremelystrongantioxidantdependingonthemanufacturing
processtoproducetheliquidsmoke.
Liquid smoke canbe applied tothe surface ofmeat inthe
followingmanner.
345
1. Paint
2. Showanddrip
3. Atomize
4. Converttovapor (gas)at600-650Fandcanbelabeled
assmoked.
5. directaddition
Liquidsmokeisusuallyappliedintwoapplicationsbecauseofits
higherrelativehumidity.
Conditionsoftenusedwithliquidsmoketoaidpeelingareas
follows:
Regularcellulosecasings
1/3 liquidsmoke,1/3acid (acetic,malic,citric)
3secondsat180F
pH2.5
Easypeelcasings
1/3 liquidsmoke,2/3water
pH4to4.5
Levelsoftenused
0.5 -4.5oz/100lbsemulsion
6oz/100lbs.topumpbellies
Excessiveuseageofliquidsmokewillcauseatoughrubbery
outerskin.
Labelingofsmoke
SmokedProduct. Aproductlabeled"smoked"mustbeprocessedusing
smokegeneratedfromhardwood,hardwoodsawdust,
corncobsorfromnaturalliquidsmokewhichhas
beentransformedintoavapor (mist,fog,gas)by
theapplicationofdirectheatorbymechanical
means,e.g.,atomization.
346
SmokeFlavoring.Ifsmokeflavoringorartificialsmokeflavoring
isaddedtotheproductsurfacebutnotasan
ingredientintheformula,produceneednotbe
labeled "smokeflavoringadded"or"artificial
smokeflavoringadded". Producttowhichsmoke
flavoring (liquidsmoke)orartificialsmoke
flavoringisaddedasaningredient,thelabel
mustinclude"smokeflavoringadded"or
"artificialsmokeflavoringadded".
HickorySmoke. Iflabelingofsmokedproductrefersto"hickory
smoke,"plantshallprovidetheinspectorwith
appropriatecertificationthatsuchsawdustor
woodusedforsmokingis100percenthickory.
e. Cornsyrupsolids: Thesesweetenersmaybeaddedto
flavortheproduct. Sincethesweeteninglevelis
lessthansucrose (approximately 35%), itwouldbe
possibletousetheseasfillersand,therefore,a
maximumlevelhasbeenestablished. Cornsyrupor
glucosesyrupmaybeaddedattherateof2%(calculated
onadryweightbasis;approximately21/2%onliquid
basis)ofthefinishedproduct. Cornsyrupmaybeused
attherateof60lbs/100galofpickleandcornsyrup
solidattherateof50lbs/100galofpickleat10%
pumprate. This2%(doesnothavemuchsweetening
effect,onlyequivalenttoapproximately .6%sucrose)
isnotconsideredpartofthe31/2%non-meatmaterial
thatmaybeadded. Cornsyrupandcornsyrupsolidscan
bothbedeclaredascornsyruponthelabel.
Corn syrup (80%solids,20%water) isproduced by acidor
acid-enzymehydrolysisofcornstarch. Thehydrolysisreactionis
haltedbyincreasingthepHwhenthecorrectdextroseequivalentis
347
reached. Theproductmaycontainmoreorlessdextroseandbemore
orlesssweetdependingonwherethehydrolysisisstopped. Fatty
substancesareremovedandmoisturecontentisadjustedto60%by
dryingandtheresultingproductiscornsyrup. Cornsyrupsolids
areproducedbyspraydryingcornsyruptoamoisturecontentof
below3.5%. Cornsyrupandcornsyrupsolidscontainamixtureof
dextrose,maltoseandhighersaccharides. Thecornsyrupusedin
meatproducts usually has adextrose equivalent (% of reducing
sugars)of30to42 (30to42%assweetasdextrose)butcanbe
obtainedwithadextroseequivalentaslowas20. Thehigherthe
dextrose equivalent the sweeter the product and the more
hygroscopicandthemorelikelytocake. Thelowerthedextrose
equivalentthestrongerthereactionwithiodineandconsequently
maybeconfusedwithstarchinalaboratoryanalysis. Cornsyrup
mayalsobeconfusedwithmilk,wheyornonfatmilksolidssince
maltosemaycausethepresumptivetesttobepositive. However,a
milk confirmatory test will be negative even with corn syrup
present. For these reasons USDA suggest that corn syrup with
dextrose equivalent below 32notbeused insausageprocessing.
Cornsyrupcanbeparticallyfermentedbutadditionaldextroseis
usually needed in fermented products. Excessive browning and
charring may be obtained with corn syrup which makes products
particularlysusceptiblethatwillbefried.
f. Sorbitol: Thissweetener (non-browning)maybeused
toflavor (notverysweet)cookedsausagelabeled
frankfurter,frank,furter,wienerorknockwurst.
348
Italsoisreportedtoaidintheremovalofcasings,
improvecolorduringandaftersmoking,hasbacterio-
staticproperties,andwillreducecharringupon
cooking. Itmaybeused (USDA)inplaceofdextrose
orcornsyrupsolids (orsimilarsweeteningagents)
andislimitedto2%ofthecookedsausageformulas
excludingwaterandiceandcannotbeusedwithcorn
syruporcornsyrupsolids. Itispreparedindustrially
asfollows:
H
H
I
H - C
1
- OH
1
C=0
H -
1
- OH
H-C-OH
Highpressure
I
c
1
HO-C- H
hydrogenationor HO -
c
- H
1
H-C-OH Electrolytic H -
c
- OH
reduction
1
H-C-OH H -
c
- OH
H-C-OH
H-C-OH
I
H H
Glucose Sorbitol
Driedyeast (deadcellorsinglecellyeast) : Driedyeast
(Saccharomycescerevisiae)anddriedtorulayeast(Candida
utilis)andsmokedyeastoffoodgrademaybeusedfor
flavorind (labeledasflavoring),mellowingandsmoothing
purposes. Driedyeastcontain30-45%proteinandarerich
invitaminsandminerals. Theyarereportedtoretain,
restore,intensifyanddrawouthiddenflavorsinthefood
products. Theseflavoringingredientshavetheabilityto
349
surviveheatprocessingand,therefore,canbeusedin
retortedandbakedfoods. Theyareoftenusedtomellow
orgiveasmoothingeffecttosauces,gravies (autolyzed
yeast),soups,etc. Avarietyofflavortonescanbe
obtaineddependingontypeofyeastused. Usuallythey
containlargeamountsofglutamicacidandthereforeacts
likeMSG. Theymaybeusedatthe2%levelorsufficient
forpurposesincetheyareselflimitinginsausage
productsandarelistedasflavoringintheingredient
list.
h. Nucleotides: Disodiumguanylate (C
10
H
12
N
5
O
8
PNa
2
H
2
O)and
disodiuminosinate (C
1Q
H
11
N
4
OP
8
Na
2
2H
2
O)areusedasflavor
potentiators (nucleotide+sugar=meatflavor)atvery
lowlevels(100thof1%range)insauces,soups,gravies,
cannedandretortedproductsandinsomeextendedpatties.
Doesn'tworkwellinfreshmeatduetoenzymaticreactions
andisthereforeusedonlyinpre-cookedorcannedmeat
itemssinceitsurvivestheheattreatment. Highlevels
causeasweettaste.
10. Spices-Amultitudeofnatural,whole,ground,cracked,
rubbed (stronglypungent,earthy,longlastflavor)spices
asshowninthefollowingtableareallowedinmeatproducts
withnoUSDAlimitsexceptforpaprika,tumeric,saffron
(coloringmaterials)andmustardandhydrolyzedprotein
(proteinfillers).
o
in
co
u
4J
<D
CD
<D
H
rl
U
0)
CQ
u
us
m
CQ
4-1
Ol -
CD
u
B 0
3 *
a rd
C
co
c
d) -H
d)
CD
d)
rl
rd
tn oi
0 rfl
r-i CQ
0 3
O
u
0
r l ^
d) .
. 4J .U
U CQ
4H S
r-i
l H
rd o
H
E
rd
r-i
rfl
CO
0)
tn
ro
CO
3
OS
CO
c
rd
H
,-H
rd
4J
H
H
E
m
r - l
ns
co
CQ
r-l
II
re
XI
4-1
rrj
dJ
2
d)
tr
d)
XI
nS
CQ
d)
d)
tn
0
En
d)
Q)
CQ
,.
4-1
d)
d)
m
01Tl
rfl
CD
rfl
CO
d)
c
u
o
u
d)
-H
in
CQ
r- l
rfl
r l
u
d)
Q J
CO
ra
CD
d)
u
T l
rrj
d)
EC
0)
tn
rfl
CD
rfl
CO
Xi
co
H
rH
O
ft
o
o
Pi
CQ
dJ
rd
0) ft
Tl
a
H
r l
0
rfl
U
H
O
0
r\
\J
r*
i-i
l
1
l
4-J
i
i
0
01
0
C
-rl
rl
O
d
id
ca
0
a
4H
0
d)
rd
o
-H (Dl
a o
(0
4J
o b
0) CO
CO
- r l
i-l rfl
.s
> CJ
-H -H
4-1 -H
rfl4H
CO M_|
0
01 rd
rfl 4-1
CJ C
-H CD
TlE
dJ - H
2ft
CO
X!
u
CQ
o
E
r H
d)
X)
rfl
CD
3
CJ
CO
- H
X)
H
K
rfl
U
- H
r H
d)
Ol
c
rfl
X!
CJ
U
rd
rfl
CJ
- H
r H
CD
Oi
s
s,
r-i
CD
01
5
4H
0
a
a
CD
r l
0)
X!
4-> 0
0Q
rfl
i;
CD
H
r H
rfl
-H
u
H
4-1
4H
o
rfl
CD
a
0 -H
Q r H
rd
U
E
CO
- H
C
rd
rfl
r-i
r-i
0)
c
- H
a
E
H
ft
o
0
Ed
E
r l
CD
E
H
u
H
r-i
r-i
r-i
J
CQ
- r l
r H
rfl
a
H
U
H
4H
4-1
0
rfl
CQ
CQ
- H
r H
0)
2
E
E
H
C
H
E
E
E
- H
CJ
o
E
u
H
r H
- H
CQ
rd
XI
E
E
- H
U
o
CO
H
r H
- H
XI
o
a
CO
r l
=1
rd
h-q
CO
H
r H
rd
c
- H
CJ
-H
4-1
4-1
o
rd
r-i
3
Tl
c
CD
r H
rd
U
CQ
- H
r H
-r-l
XI
0
a
CQ
- H
E
d)
x!
4-)
C
rfl
r H
r H
H
E
O
E
rfl
X!
U
rfl
- H
r l
rfl
U
r l
^|
4->
rfl
2
a
rd
CQ
o
C
H
a
CD
CD
- H
r l
rd
a
a
rd
u
11
CQ
c
CD
CJ
CD
CD
4-1
^-1
4H
E
u
- H
CO
J
E
3
C
a
rfl
E
3
CJ
H
CO
a
rfl
ftU
rd
U
- H
>
rd
r j
E
r l
rd
U
rd
>
H
4J
rfl
CQ
rfl
r H
r-i
CD
Oi
H
0
CO
(IS
(V
CO
u
rd
d) 0)
0) X!
m
o
Ti 4J
c c
XI
rd
H
U
rd
-H
E
0
- a
'ri ns
e tn
U
nS
r-t
X!
4->
0
d
a
(0
rd CD
XI -H
rlft
d)
CD
rd U
T)
d)
0)
CD
dJ
4-1
rd
U
O CD
0 CD
r l CO
rd rd
CJ U
a
CO
rd
X!
4J
rl C X! d)
rfl O co d)
4-1 E 3 3
co rH
ns 3
X!
CD d)
H rH
3
EC
SH
O
c
rfl
u
rfl
ca
v
4-1 -H
r-i a
4-1- H
CD r H
-H -H
rHrH
4-1
CQ 
d)
W E oaa rl rl U
0 rd rd rfl rfl
rd
rfl rfl
rd rd
co
15
pa ffl
CQ U
u
U U
U U
H
H
en
E
rH
d)
LT)
4J rH rfl
/I1 tn cu
L
i
v
e
m
a
u
s
a
u
s
a
g
u
rH
> 4J
-H
CD -rH
en
u
rH
0
a,
ro
rC
E
rfl CO
rfl
CU
d) -
^4 G OJ cn
4J tn
4J 4H
tn M
rfl
cn CO CU
0 U G
cn
u
4->
rfl d) rH
0 rfl
4H Q)
M Ol
ii
11 1
CUCQ
0 CU
rfl
4-1
11 rfl d)
rfl
CQ rH
tn G rfl CO
tn
0
rfl
c
4J
X3
4J
rfl
a> rflcn
0
rfl
d) 4J
H
rH 3
i H
tn en CD
G
CO
u rfl
G rH
rH
CU
u
u 4-1 H rfl
u 0 d) 4-) LI
a)
4J G
c
CO
0
O
tn
rfl u en
(L)
G
c
0 rfl rfl ^3
G
d)
n
C d)U
Oi>3
co
G
u
en
M-l U rfl
0
H
E 3 0 U ro
tn
0 -H5 4J d)
0 0 G rfl rfl G u
r l
d)
G
CO r H
cu
| OS
X
d)
o
XI (C
0 ^_) d)
U pT|
S u
m
4J
o
o
a
m
0
c
0
<d
h
n)
0
a
M-l
d)
E
|
5
ro C
cu cn
E d)
u X!
EE
EE
0 0
EE
rfl rfl
GG
-H -rH
uu
E 4-
1
3
E E U
E ucn
G CO rfl
cau
-H rfl
U U
en
C
d)
ii
0
dJ
rfl
U
tn
E
rH
0)
u
cn
O 03
CD E
rl 4H E
rH 4H ^
Xi 0 -H
E
en
rO
rH
a
0
C
0)
0
E
CJ
- H
C
rfl
r H
>
dJ
N
3
0
E
rfl co
C d)
C d)
H | g
u
d)
3
ffl
rfl
rH
CO
CO
rfl
U
3
O
rfl
a
a
-H
U
CO
d)
d)
-H
rH
rH
rH
d)
rH
rfl
4J
rfl
E
E
0
Xi
. m a
o d)ao
-H rHa >^
rfl CD SH
H rfl
U EU
co 3
-rl rfl XI
(0 rH -H E
rfl -H OG3
G > 4H d) XI
G rH -H OlE-l
H rfl ^H3
CJ COE-i W
E
-H
4J
rfl
CO
E
U
rfl
H
u
o
u
G
rH
G
-H
E
U
H
4-1
rfl
CD
CU
Oi
r|
a
n)
4)
en
u
(U
XI
4J
o
T3
a
n)
CQ
a)
u
H
CO
0)
0)
cn
c
o
E
rfl
XI
u
rfl
u
G
0
rfl
XI
U
rfl
U
>
rfl
4J
rd
m
0)
co rji c M
d) C 0dJ
c as tna,
-MTS -H a
Xi rfl rfl i
rrj rflrO rfl
U UUU
13
d)
-H
VH
T)
CU
d)
CO .
CU
u
u
CD
Xi
u
g"
CU
4J
co
c
0
<H
CU
u
c
o
raE -V
0) rflU
> rfl
H C XI
XI -H
U U
E"
d)
4J
CO
0)
CO
CU
r^
>,l
u
G~
g
d)
4J
CO
G
0
O l
.,-(
rC
W
C
d)
O l
rfl
cn
><
r l
rtf
1
ri
o
cn
T)
rl
0)
O
0 0
B M B X.
rfl rH(C rH
C rflarfl
a xi cxi
-H -H
u
>< d)
JH >
rfl O
uuu
d)
d)
cn
d)
G
rfl
H
^-i
0
U
u
rfl
E
U
C
- H
E
U
u
r
ii
XI
G
r |
E
U
rd
rC
re
u
u u
CN
U
LT)
<D
4-1
O
U
O
m
0)
H
M
M
0)
(Q
X
U
(d
PQ
4J
tt>
to
0
id
v
S3
a)
o
a;
CQ
o
CO
TJ
a
rS
tt)
to
0)
tt)
xi
u
Ti
as
0)
-
L
e
o
n
a
[
C
h
e
e
s
(0
N
N
H
tt)
fn
U1
IS
CO
rl
3
MH
kJ
r-"-,
c
4)
D
CM a
IS
IB
CO
4-1
U
Ti
0
ri
DJ
-H
C E
(0IS
H iH
ilaj
iS CO
to
4-1
o
3
TI
O
U
CM
XI
CQ
H
> :
r l
3
EH
4H
tt)
tt)
CQ
rH
r-i
IS
4J
CO
0
E
r-i
<
M-J
V
CO
0
2
- H
E
rB
r H
IS
CO
IS
C
en
0
rH
0
oa
T)
c
IB
XI
u
a)
en
IS
CO
3
IS
CO
0
CM
co
4-)
CJ
3
Ti
0
U
CM
tt)
u
IS
CO
4-1
IS
tt)
0
1
0
CQ
IB
rH
r-H
4)
T)
IB
4J
r l
0
2
ffi
CO
4J
u
3
Tl
0
r l
CM
tt)
>
- r |
m
(S
o
C 4)
CO
rl
rl
rT en
0
0
d)
4)
(0
(d
3
o
m
0
a)
10
cj
-H
id
0
m
CD
c
a)
o
rl
CD
E
xi
co
H
CO
C
cu
Ti
m
a
IS
CJ
10
CO
rl
2
tt)
IS
en
>
E
a
4)
o
E
3
O
H* 2
> 0)
u
E -rlIS
3 3 r-i
r-iTi r-i
3 4)
U C
H M O
C is en
4) > -H
O in
fc EH
E
5 1
-H >
4H -H
4H 4J
O IS
CO
IS
-H E
C 3
-H -H
QjrH
U
CQ
O
01
au
CO - H
MH
E 4H
3 O
H
C iH
0 Q)
enx!
in - H
(0 en
r-i C
tt)-H
TI *
C
N
IS "H
IS
N
-H
XI
IS
H
rH
] O
4H
4) -H
rl XI
IB 4J
en is
rH ft
3 IS
> >~l
CQE
CQ
CQ " H
H rH
rHIB
(0 C
a -H
-rl U
CJ - H
H 4H
4H 4H
4H O
O
fB
CQ r-i
rl rl E
>1tt)3
ux: E
>i4J 0
r-i OE
o <
E is
3-H
rH CJ
XI IS Xi
3 rl -H
iH O rH
M E -H co>U
IS rl
2 <C
H
XI
J r(
iH
IS >,
in cj
IB ft
ft
0
m
M-rl
to rt j
a c
IS"H
M Uto
01-H4)
IB4H 4J
M MH -H
4H 0 C
33
&T)
OC
CQ IS
>
rS
H CO ft (S IS
XI ft U rHIS
X r l U CO - r l 3 C
r l iH4) 4-1TiIB
IS > i X i (S CQ Cr l
O 4J -H - r l 4)0
>10 rH iHr-i - n
rH -H >iIBIB
O H2U2
H
a
o
to
s
a)
M
0
a)
u
-H
XI
L>
U
n)
2
xi
J
a
Id
CQ
a>
o
-w
P
w
H
Q
CQ
in
0)
0
rl
a)
Tl
rH
w
U
0
C
H
rj
a)
c
~ -tt)
rH rHJ-|
tt) tt) 0
C C H
DD
fa
a)
4)
u
c
m
en
IS
en
IB
enu
C-rl
tt)rH
rH iH
IBIS
1)
0
N
H
U
tt)
en
C
-H
IS
N
-H
XI
in
rl
Tl
tt) 3
CQ 0
H XI
T3 r l
ISIB
r l O
IS XI _
MHTi-H
O C Ti
3 IB
CO O iH
C XItt)
H 4) CQ
IB rt rl
iH 0 O
U
tt)
ftT)
oa
COtt)
CO >
S
O O O X X X
IS
4)
CJ
H
rl
o
U
tt)
o
rH
4H
C
4)
4J 4-1
O 0
ftft
TiE
r-i IB
O r l
en0
Titt) -H -r-i
C U U rl
-H IS IB IB
HH 2 2 2
0)
4)
0
0
C
.v a
d)
r l "
cn
r l
d)
d)
CU
in
>1
0
SH (
f-H
,
dJ r-l C
cn Cn
ro
c
0
H
H
4J rd 0
cu
(11
fu in
u
d) 0
cn
rd
dJ XJ d)
H
MH
rn
cn
to
U CO
X
a
a
u
cn
o
g
i
H
CD
u C d
tn 4J
dj
TI Id
XI
4J
- H 4J
d)
-H
JJ
J
MH
CnrH r l U
xs
rd PQ
Xl"
. H
a)
a
H
o
d)
rd
0 rC H
CJ TJ CQ
en
CO i1
Cn Xi r H
u a
0
tn
CD
o
-H
in
- H
0 0 d)
a o
r l
p
rd -.
d En
a
- r l
U
rd
a
CO
o
CO -U QJ
cu
MH
a a a
n
JJ
Cn 0
co
rd
-H
a)
a)
a
d
rd
in u id
t
e
r
cn
rd c
MH r1 CQ
0
d)
d) PQ
rC 0 rH MH
rO rC
4-1 0)
r|
0 H
CD r-{
cn
rd
MH d) in
5
CJ
c a
N
rd V "
Cn
C
S
u
- H PQ
d (D 0 o\ - r l
n re
a a
r H
T3 U M-l U rd O
0
^
CnaJ CD T) 4J CO - r l
H
0 d) TJ O CJ O
r H ^_l r r j r H
0 rd CD
cn cn
Id
in
C d
- H iH
0 0 0 cn
0 4J Xi 4J 4J 11 4->
^
o
i c
a
rd PQ <-i CQ
cn rd
4J frj
u
rH
e
rd
X
rd
n3
a e
r H rd XI d) SH d)
0 0
d)
0
4J
En M
2 2
u
CD
2 ft 2
a>
o
u
o
a SH
to
xl re I 4J
O
9) o X I co I 4-1
a
a U 0
0) O U O
Xi K
i
cn
H
U i l-H
1
o co .
CO
CU CD
a
e
(0
0 C
cu i33
;3
tJ
cn
S
r d
co
si
H in - H
C
a
-iH
rd
-H . re
d) U
u
SH U_I
cn
rd 0) rd tn
CD c
4J MH H
C
SH U 4J rd
Urn
H
rd
- H MH
o
tn c U U rd
iH in C MH
rd
1
e in d)
s
o
m
O
rd
e
d)
O
H ^
H MH
a
rd C *" S 4H
r l C 3
XI
C -r-i
rd - H
a
H ~ tn Cn
id
u
U
rd rd rd U rO
U U
H -rl m
c
g CO
H a
U -H SH ;3 H
13
-H rd - H - H -H 4J CJ
CO r H U CO
rd CJ d)
a
u CO CO CD CO -rH O- H U -H . XI
d c re
n)
CO - H
a
CQ SH 2 d) CQ rd
a
O d) -U 4J
re
d) 0 id co co
a
4J n rd rd f d r4 a 4Ja a u C CD
a n
Q a a d) H rd
ft
rd d) - H
U U rl
0 0
a m
>, re re
ft U ft ft
2 2 m PQ
m 2
rd
U
H
u
ft
c
tn
rd
9)
CO
u
o
u
I
1
1
'-
^
C
re
u
S
..
$
0
4J
d
0)
-H
d) ^
a
u
1)
I
0)
o
H
a
CO
a!
U
O 10
Sxi
X) S
1
rd x
^^ tn CD
(U ^
m
2
TJ TJ TJXi O rd rC
cui Hi - i CDt ncl CnCn
d ) r d r d C D d ) r d C U - r i
C 0 4 - ) 4 J C 0 E t T l S H i H
^ C Q C Q " 4 J < D O
3 3 3 n
2 2 2 O
m
u
H
in
CD
0
4J
rd C
AS d)
H e
SH -rl
aft
rd
ft
CO
iH
rd
ft
0)
U d)
rd >i
rH fO
XI U
SH i n
CD 0
a a
a a
CD CD
ftft
CD
4J
TJ - H
CDXI
SH S
in rl
CD CD
a a
a a
CD CD
ftft
to i i
TJ
4-> TJ O
d o CDcn
- H - H CU-H
G Xi CO r l
SH O re
d) rd >i g
a-u a
a cn a4J
dJ-H O O
ftftftft
LD 4J
C
O
U
ns
CD
0
OJ
0)
u
Ol JH
ns
U
d)
CO
(0
O
(0 ^ ni j j
nS
E
a)
CO
as E
-H
O
n as
r4 0
M
<D
>
4H
0
m
CD CO d> H
as o
(0
^3
, ~|
0
r H
O
1
a)
H
Ol
as a x
u
(0
as
0
^>
.1 CD 4-1 11 Q)
R)
U
as
r H Q
(0
rtx;
to (D
as
0
as
PQ 0-t CO
2
DO
d)
in
O )
n
CD
as
fr, cQ fo
o
o
O
m
E
E
a) 3
>
n)
CD
H 0
E
u
a> 4J
ft
m
CQ CQ
CD
rH
a)
0
4-1 o
c
as
. -H
ns
a
c
-H ^
as ~ C E
r H
ns
Ol
ni
c
u
c
a E
6 co 3 4-) aS - 0
-H
4H C CO
as
ns Q) ns 3 rH r H
4J
4-1
H f(3 as 3 ii I
-H
W OJ 3 - H
4-1 u
4J ^4
-H
- H aS
H
ns
M
O rH > U o ^.
C -H
ns 0) Is
>
> 01 O
0
O -r-i-rH r-l O ns O nS T^
U >
oi
c
13
(0 D 4J 4-4 -H ^3 -r-iE-n C-rH
cu
1t> ns 4-4 ^4 CO CD - H
D
SD N
a ns co 0 j j as W asU
CD
E -H > CD
c -H
rH
3 - H 3 E 3 CD C nS rtS cu ns
s-H tj i to rC
as Q)
4-1 D 4J 3 ai - H - H co CD co XI nS in E
a as 3 -H ns rH as E u u G O 3
j
E
as u >
H
> 3
^
co 3 co aJ
4J -H d) E E
a u - H nS 0 U
CD 4-1 O 1 ^ - 4J " CO 01 d) ns
M
G > 2 in
CIrH 4J S ^
m
o
OD 3 U as
rH 4-)
ni a) rJ 4J ns
CO rH H XI XI . .
cd cd U co
as as
u
U co co
SH <C E-i E-i W
o
(d
(O
a)
U
0
co co
CQ
CQ
M
Oi
a
H
ft
0)
 co d) n) rM
T)
o o 3 as as ns rt ns d) ft 4-1 as x l
aS d)
p
cu oi oi co co co co co CO CO CO tsl
CQ
LD
CQ
d)
4J
rfl
CD
_j
tn
rd
u
s
a
g
e
,
S
a
u
s
H
i->
CO
H
T l
a
d
i
n
g

H
4J
0
id
id
4>
0)
u
rH
E
CO
r H
rd
CO
n
i
V i
i
n
d
a
x
a i
rH U
TO
cn rH
III
u re
4J XI xl Xl XI O 0
rjj
i
,1
CD
H Pi u u
d) i
rH CO
<
-H
cn
^ ^
cn
id id
O rd r H J rH
H
I) 4-1
4-1
4-1
U
u
rd
s
U
rd
cu rH
rd
0
co
rH CD
CK cn - 1 0) rJ
V .,-1 CQ
re
*
cn
r H H X! -H d) r ^
r-l
CQ rd
P

id <M
Ul ,_,
u
d)
i - H
E
-rH
4-1 r H rd 4-1 rj
0
re cn
rd rd 4J
tn re
3
4J
0 rd M
E
re
E Xl
cn
rd rd rd
rd c
3
H -rH
re
C
c
cn
d) C
-rH
cn
tn
3
- i H
U r H
>-H
r H
c
u
X!
re
H
H 0
- i H dJ
u
co 0
rH r-{ H
c
- H 0
"
Pi
2
H Cj rd CD
cn u u
c
4H
a
U ^| H -r-\ 4J U rd d) CO XI
id
4-1 - H XJ
E
u
cn
u
-rH
rd
1
tt'H
d) r-H r H d) C
5
XI
E
JH
0
rd 4-i
tn
rH CD 0
u
4-1 rd
co
4H
a
- H- H
u
rO
tn
r H
CD 0)
CO 4-|
>,
rd
a
rd
4-1
rd co
4H
xi cn XI rd CU
r H
rd
> i
rd
a
rC
H
o
E
0 r H CO
X) 0
c
u rd 0
u
U r H
E
CQ
id
o m
CO
cnx: m
rd U r H rd
cu
0 cn X)
a
o
rd
E
rd CO CQXI 0
01 U
t n re 3 3
u u
rd 0 d) 4J
re
r H N
re
0 ffi
n
u
rH
u
n
rO 4J cn
C
c
cn
u
-H CD U
c
re
rd
cn
> , 4-1 E CO 4-1
2
CO
cn
CO C
CQ
4-1 3 4J COH i H r H r H SH 4J
rC
1
Pi U C
a
C
cn
X
0 3
3
c
3
rc
H CD r H r H rd
rH CD 0
o -H
rd
a
3
d) rH
0
H E
rH
cu
.
r H
cu
C M rH rdXl
4-1
4J
XS E CU CQ X! t n p
Q rH
E
U r H r H
u
-rH
E
4-1
XI Cu CU CQ H
C C d) -H r H H
S
rd
i H CD
cu u
rd
-rH H r H
a)
PQ 2 CU Cu
<2
O
CM
2
2
o
h
3
Cu CJ CU
a)
M cn
O
U C
U
i
rd rd
rl
Xl rH
0
CD
at
CD
rd
o
CD
H
rH
-rH 4J
CD
o U 0
U
4-1
rd
rd
a rd 3
-H
tn
4JTI
E3
XI rH
rH
H
O CD
CD O
o re
CD
O CD 4->
a a. rd X!
cn
o
u co co
0 CO "H
o
XIU E*+H 0) U H u
rd CD - H rdrd
reU
rd
<DO > >H
4J
rd- H
M
H rd U - CO U U
U 3
re >i
0
co
4J 4-1 - H X) CD -rH -H
-H 4J e
CD E
rHCD
c
HiH
rH CQ
Q) CD
rd
CD 3
n a a s
<D CD CO 4-1
rd
cn
01
rd CD 0 rH
CD 0
- H rO
E cn
cn >i >i u
4J rH
in
MHrH E a
i n Cn
rd rd
o
o Cn i n HrH
re rd rd cu
a
W
5 <
CQ CQ
PQ CQ PQ PQ
PQ
in
CO
CO
CD
c
o
CD
ft
X!
u
ft
rd
c U
CJ
co
CO
TS
O
tn
u
G"
0
CD
C
0
CD
G
T
4J
id
a>
SB
H
a
CO
4- 1
XI
CJ
G
XI
CJ
c
CJ <D CO
^
tn u T)
to
re p
co
3 (U
m 
o
u
0
m
c C
0
4J
CD
CD CQ
E CD
3 CD
CQ
CD
CD
CQ
CD CD
I CD r H
rd
CD
CD
a)
M-l
o
o
H
d
n)
0
m
o
re
CJ
re
CJ
0
XI
0
CD
x:
0
m
u
u
rd
U
H
rH
4-J
m
o
CQ
H
0
G
co
H
E
xi
4J
rd
4J
rd
O co
CD
O
CO
CD
3
3
0 0
XI E
P fe
E
3
re
tn
g
3 H
U CO
re G CO cC
G re ftU
rd re
u u
m
i
J
o re
E P
m
I
"O * ^
"I ^_j II
H CJ CO
r-i rCre
re - H -H
U rHG
re 0
E 4J4J
3 4J rd
rH CD rH
re r HCD
u w u
E
C -H
G PQ
CD
PQ rd
H
reCO
H CQ
rd U rd
4J CD CJ
0 4J
3
re rH
U tt)
O
CQ G E
3 0 re
U 4-> G
3 0 G
re rH - H
Q U U
rH 21
PQ
H
-H -H
G U
G -H
rd CD
E U
S- H
E E
E E
O O
E E
re rC
a c
H - H
u u
c
5 2
CD G
CD 0
> U CQ
rd 0) 3
rH COU
tn CD
CD - H
E 3 rH
3 GXI
-H 3 4J
ft rH G
<C DJ <C
':Si T)
I G
CD
- H
E -H
4H rH
+H O
0 XI
x u
-H
U
\ <-{ 3 rH -H
3 -H rj PQ -H..
rH - H rH
_ 3 -H rd-H co
cd -"H CDcd - H CD 3
r H CO rHr H COiHT l
I > , CO 3 > , CO 3 rH
CD re O a) re Ord
E E E E EE ft
0ft
tnco
E E E E EE
O O O O 0 0CD
E EEEEftco
r C r C ( d r e r d r d O 3
C C C C C W r l
G G G G G G E 4 J
-H -H -H -H -H -H ;>i-H
u u u u u u u u
o
co
m
C
XI
CO
1
1
1
i
i
i
1
1
1
1
1
1
i
i
i
1
1
1
-rl H 1 i 1 1 t 1
01
9)
u
o
rH
tn
G
0
rO
U
O
1
G
0
CD
CQ
CD
1
G
0
1
G
0
CD
CQ
CD
1
G
0
0)
U
G
o
I
>*,
G CTIrH
- H
G
i*H
tn
H
rC
U
c
rHXl ^
tn
-H
re
rH
re
X!
CD
U
XI
u
rd
CO
CD
U
u
nj
CO
-rl
O
rO
xi
E
o
CD
CD
CQ
X)
rH ! r H CD
X M M 4H 4-1 M-l
rH rH rH n5 rO fC I CO
rC rd re a) a) CD rH
X I X l X l r H r H r H fU CD
(0
H
JJ
a
<D
01
tQ
w
u
O E
rt 0
U E
rO (C
U U
H
E
0
rO
U
3
U
- H
CO
ft
re
u
-H
E -U
rdXI 0 re
rd fC rd rd
rH X) -Q-H XI
CD
CO
>
rC re rC rO >~i
H 4-)- H rH
r e T l O r H U C O C O r e c o c i )
rH rH rH CO
rO re rO rC rd rC re
u u u u o u u
CQ CQ PQ CO
rd CD
u u
>i-H
rH >
CD CD
Xi XI
CJ U
rH d)
> . o o o o o o
f E E E E E E G
E E E E E E G
O c c r d r e r C r e r d O 3
U G G G G G G r - i r H
H G G G G G G 4 J 4 J
XI -H-H-H-H-H-H-H -H
U U U U U U U U U
CO
Q)
4J
rfl
H
CD
Cn
H
rl
m
CO
3
to
tfl
H
CO
0
m
3
id
fO
o
3
<u
E
E
3
CO
o
co
cn
CD
i1
CD rO
(D
E
to
CO
at
0 o
A
U M
4J
III
0
4J
m o
u
9 m
4H
0
tn
CD
m
E
m
a)
73
C
(0
co
3
to
s
p
p
E
co tn
X!
5
3 a;
m H
10 U
0 u CO
rH
c tn u u
E OS tn
a a m
3 C rH c a)
3
-rH -rH
II
QJ
o fO
u
4J O
to
O 4H .
u
-H E cn
at
O O E 1 i
3
to CD
C
a>
0
4J
XI
m
a
TH (0 -H 4J C " H a u cn u
>
to
r H 3 a>,
0
tO 4H
fO ax H
c j ~]
TS
H
E SH 4H . rH a
tn o Cn E 3 C tO fO U o u a
n)
u
X CO ^_|
cn
tfl U 3 0 CO >H H
cn
fj O UrH E ^ > 3 Cn *i iE rO U X! tn
u
o
CD 4J ,i
as C to CO CD U tC >i3 U -H rH
m m
E C 3 a a xxs XI a m 3 s Xi XI K*1 CD XS
4-1 4J rH fC
c
rH
m
-rH
a
o
>
Xi
o
r ,
O 4H
to a) a 4J rH
SH - H 0 CDXi
CD O
E
SH a) O Q) rH CD CO
4-) P
G o
rH U)
H (0 fO P C Cn as O O O
d) 3
N U
tt) a
to
.3
CO W U CJ U < co u
uo
to
c
to
a)
CO
0
0)
to
to
rH
o 8>
tu Cn
2> to
Cn
N ^
to u
*j rH
M
4-) T3 (0
0
(0
cn
H
u O 3 u to
O
rH u a) U
5
1 0) 4J
to 4H o
u -
tO CD u
C
co 3
CD o
0) rH CD tO o rH CD
U 3 QJ 4J 4-1
o
CO U
o to o -
4J
X! rH CO
o C -r-
H
tO - H
0) C OS tO rH Cn >H
>. 0) CD CD CD 0)
ii
C u rH as a)
rH
Cn- r H rH tox)
0
VH > > > > tO 4-1 tO as o a TD
dJ
rH 0) M C0
0
10 O O 0 0 U 4-1 rH E rH co C
Tt r H
CD4-1 4J O
0 rH|H rH rH rH 0 0 O
0 0
3 3
OS - H
a U SH
3 tC
C rH
0
CO
H
U U U U uu U P
PP
p
H W
uu
uuuu
00
(U
Ln CO tn
ro CD m
CD
tj)
3
rd
rd
CQ
to
CQ a)
CQ
a)
T) CQ
>,
U
C d)
Q CQ
TS
u
m
- H
4J TS
C 0 CQ
u
m <D U
c
S5
a
O4
(U
- H
U
to
4-1
u
rH
0)
o
C
o
a
u CQ
u
n) u
0
CQ
4J
a
ii
-H
id
i~-i
-
c
H
u
CQ ^>
M
it
4-1 CQ
o
1 4_)
,
- H 4-1
O
- H
cu
CQ 0
a
r H
rd
4J
4-1
rd
,( JJ (1
rd CQ
,^
a
ro
H
2
rd CQ rd
co C
r H
nt
0
3
u
j " ]
rd
r^
CO H 0
H rB CO J J H
tn
- H 4-1
u u
4H
CQ
tn rd U 3 CJ
0 E CD CQ - H H
H r H r H J J H rd - H -U
X! H 4-1 JJ
m
Tf
o
4-1 4-1 1(TS J J r H 4-1
rd
ma
>
a c
4-1
E
4-1
a
O
P3 0 - H O r H
î
a o
0
a
H
Xi
a
<D <d
rd CO
a
E
r H
a
to CQ CQ
e
0
a
rd rd
CD u a a
co > i E 3 C COr H r H
VH
E co
-rH CQ rd
3
r H 3
u
r H
u
. 3
X
z
4- 1
-H
co
Q 3 TI
a
X! CD CD rd r H CQ
coT)
-H
I
;3 H
rd
r H
0
u
- H
_(~]
a
TS
3
3 rd
'c m
î
T i ^ 1
3
CQ
H 0
H j rd rd
JJ JJ
o
E
c
rH O
E
0
m
3 3 >
J J - H SH rH CQ CQ prj O
c
H CQ rd
3
0 > i CD rd 3
0
rd rd rd rd
a f i t
" 1
o
to
a
T)
 a
o
tn
N N JJ U rd
it H -H-H X! 'O
JJ
X!
CD (U
co
E E E Xi J! 3 C Xi rH SH
H <D rC ^ -^ ^ u i-i k >. 3 - H ' CD CD Q)
JJ tnu-H -H-H u u rH 4-1 sajj C TS
a c tn fn
-r
H C G C >i a) rd
0
rH
Xi
0
CD O U
-H
a CD CD
a
c
a> 3 fO 1I fl3 fO n5 tno u a>
CD
CO CO CD O H rd U U
m a i H rH rH rH rH > rd rd
U U
rH CQ E E a rH 3 3 Q)
CD
m 0 r d r d CD CD CD -H rH rH UrH 3 -H 0 0 0 CO 3 O rd rd rd
0 0 0 0 0 rd *-3U rd
o oo
.
i
u
m
a
n
d
u
m
.
o
l
a
.
1
1
.
01
0) (L)
d)
01
en
i n
m
i1 ns
a
en
m
u
0)
Oi
S-1
nj
CO
CQ
CO
3
D
a>
m
CO
c
0
CD
X!
0
CO
CO
(C
>H
JJ
CO
c
0
CD
CJ
0
1 <u
-
2 u
CO
C
id
4)
2
CD
- H
il
(C
CO
C
,-q
TS
d)
u
H
a
CO
CD
r H
a
a
n)
u
CO
c
U 3
d) J
01
C Tl
-H d)
in U
3 -H
X! a
EH CO
SH
d) Tl
Oi d)
U
H -H
SH a
3 CO
X!
H
4J
0
id
u
v
X
d)
r H
i U
x;
w
o o
JJ
JJ
V
It
0
n
rH
rH U rH
"2^
0
OS r H 4_|
-H U-H
Oi JJ
c
ns a ns
N a >H 3
co 3 a ns rH
ns a- r i
SH SH co Cen
D
1
en
H 3
H 3
CQ
CO -.
c ^
ns
r< 
o
H E
H O 3
CO d)
C
n)
01
ns
ns co ns a
a
a
CO
nS
B
3
u
ns
C
0
K
CO
c
its
rH
Oi
4-H . -r| JJ (0
M-I a' O c ^H
o a KS ns IJH
CD SH SH
ns 3ns
ns a ns u
u
s
H 3
CO - H
E
SH CJ
ns- H en co JJ
4J
SH cu co 0 3
r>iX! 3 ni JJ rH
u JJ rH -H ns 3
>i 0 JJ rH SH E
' - H -H d) 3
U H U tC
O
CO d)
-rH TS
U U
>i O
2 ffi
SH 3 SH rH
Ol SH 0 X -H
J J -r-> cu m
H nS rH
CJ s M
X!
JJ O U en SH SH- H
C Q CJ n! JJ J J SH
d) ns SH -H -H >,
S CO PQ U U S
x ; en 3 3 en
n
c
0
0
u
o
E
o
rH
ns
JJ
A
H
JJ
a
0)
m
n
w
a
n
c
c
iH
C
rt!
ns
0)
a)
co
_ to
E co
rH n)
n) u
X) oi
c c a
o o o
E E E
<U <u a)
0)
C rH
O 0
E u
CD - H
rH rH
CD TS
E C
H -H
CD JJ
3 CJ
rH ns
-\ u
a)
c
ns
CD
JJ - H
CO <-i
3 3 d) JJ
U a U rH
O 3 nS ni
J J S 2
4J
co
C E
M n)
SH SH
ns o
T) " n (U
C rH JJ
ns ns ni
ni
X!
0)
Q)
to
co o
coxl
-H JJ
u
CDns
J J SH
n) J J
JJ X
d) d)
u
ni
eo
rH d)
>, en
x ! CQ
JJ ns
ns c
01U
H Q)
TJ .
H
u Oi
nsC
JJ -H
H Oi
HO)
o E
l
C C C n l H l H J
0 0 0 0 3 ( 8 ( 1 ) 3
M
CO
xl
d)
U
d)
u
01 0 0
4-1 i d
Pi
p i
(d 4J CD
P m i d
m i d
CO
C
Ol 01
> 0 0
o 0 11
3xi
P 0
CQ CQ
O
0) 3
0
tn
O CO >
CD
CM fa u
U
4J
4J d) d)
id
^ T3 CO ( ) d)
cu
4J
cu
U <D
d> r-t i-l Oi Oi Oi
S3
> O * ^3 id
3
i d ^3 rd
H 4-1
4-4 CD CO4-1 CO4-1 CQ
J T3 10 d) y
rd
u
C O
c
td
u
C rd
C
m
rd CO
fa
CO id CO
m
^_) !H id
0)
fa
CO
0)
o
id
o
o
4-1 4-1
O T) TJ 4-1
CQ
u c c
4J
to C"H -H13
Pi
m J J
id
CO id
3
rH CO CD
CQ
H-H
4J
P
a
rd
4-1
to rH rH
H ,-q
O
E
CD
H
CD I 1 c
rd -H
m m
C
CD
4J d)
- H H -H -H
d) E
4J (d 3 H M 4J
id
C c
E C
M d)
u u
id rd cu
o) a
c c -H -H
C
>-i c CD
a
C
c
rd
3
C a xi
rd O 4-1 4-1
rC (d
id
cu
r-l .
0
- H
" tji
H C U
U
3
E
O OrH
u m CQ X
E
Oi
E
r H -t-\
H
-H tn
CU o
u O 3
a o core
id to
H
a
id
E CO d) CQ i H iH N
to 4-1 4-) a
a c id X) O-H Xi > i 4 J CO CQ u
0 U 2 E -H 0 ^ CQO O O cu co 4J
X O 3 3
d) d)
E E
H
JJ
a 4-) a p C -H C Q 4JO P P P ' 4-1 4->
o
d) H -rH -rH
-H-H
XI 3 d)
m
u o
o
CD
- r l
CQ
CO
ID
CQ
SH
0
dJ
c
a)
O
3 -H
-H
O CU
4-J a r H CU
CD
4H a
E
d)
u u
10 10

r)
4-1 4-1 d) d) CU
u
4-1 4-t
rH
O 4J 4J 4-1 d) d) 0) H
~ - d)
rd
CU
H - H fd 3 3 3
(0
XI
c c c c
rC 4J
Xi X) d)
CD CO CO Id
3 re
id E co
H C
H -H -H -H
cu C
Xi cu d>cu
- - - 3 O re
u
E m
id id ic >M
co J-i
Q) <1)Q) U X
M - H
01 Ol 01 Ol4-1 4-1
0 a 0101tn
Ol Oi Oi rri rd -H
cu d) H Ol
a
a
cu
^
>
4-14J 4J C C C
a
o c c c a H -H -rH Id d) d)
C C C 01E U
CD d)
a a m H 10 id id
rd rd rd-H rH a
4J 4-1 4-1 4-1 E E
a E
-rl
a u
^1u m 0 a cu d) u d) d) d)
a, a,&,
U U U U rO rd
-{
O O O
CU d)
a, 04
W o
H 0
cu cu

CO
4-)
co
Q)
q
a
4-1
a)
fC
4)
SH
S3
XI
U to
<
CD
3
u
3
ro
a5
CO
co
o
u
o
1
m
E
O
XI
a tfl
1-3
to
r-H O
l
i
a
V
B
l
a
n
c
;
r
i
c
a
c
y
l
u
m
l
o
s
a
R
o
s
v
a
r
s
i
l
e
n
s
a
l
i
s
tI
(0
>
1-5
tfl
rl
o
o
M-l
o co n
S
I
S
l
i
s
(0
tO rfl
55
o
<: r H
0
MH en
CJ 3 rO o jj
>
to
u
H S-i 4J -H CO
QJ
MH H
tO
q
a;
re
m crc
QJ
o
f
a
i-5
-rH
- H
SH
M-l
m
CQ
tC
0
,*
E
q
fO
TI <-\
r-n to r H r l q
en
q
re
eji
,|
4J M-l d)
rH
3 2 3 3
JJ q 3
*
rH M-l CJ O -H Jq 3
X
u
(0
rH
O tC
0
to
q
0
r-|
u
-H i-1 tO .,-1 ,| CO
E
i|
E 0
H r-H
rtf
H
q
u
a o
^H
QJ r H 4J G CQ JJ
3 E
QJ
3 E MH - r l -rH
o
<-{
X 0
XI fO 0 d) tO CO r H
3 >
m
MH r H
tfl
tO Q.tO
E 3 d)
a
CQ
(0
MH tC 4-1 CO
1
TI 0
i H
to SH q
0 SH
r H co
o
X!
u u
rH
a
- H
c m o
Ifl
ii
- H d)
X 3 q
H -rH
en
0
en q
a
CO
-H
^-
1 l
fO
p|
CO CD
r H > (0 tJ) CD (0 tO tC QJ d) tO TI
0 3
J J - r |
co en
3
- H -rH 4J rH q 3 XI q
u
3
O
I(
QJ X! C rfl q
E
r H
S-HK
m
rt
rH f~
4J
r j
fO ffl JJ
fC d> rC 0 0 0 0 rfl - (0 U
E
CQ
>
rH
3
JJ r H
SH to r
q
3
m m
4J
^-1 C71 4-1
o
T3 Q Q QQ rH J 4J XI
2 0 E
r H r H JJ
>
rfl
q
10
o en en q
CD
0
tO 10 tO (0 QJ 0 0)
0 0 3
-rH
a)
rH
ro
to
u
rH
CO CO CO Pi CO CO CO Pi CJ
X oi U 2
EH
a u
to
4J
a
SH
o
M X!
0
CQ
4-1
r|
O
H
4J
g
n
D
w
fO
X!
X!
CO
to
u
-H
rl
0
d)
V
3
rH
o
en
JO
to

CO
0
U
co
rH
U [0 d)
4-* CD CD S
^ COTi 0
0
0 3 rH
rH X ) M-H '
d) MH d) d)
CO O CQ CO
0 OO
ttl Pi Di
E
3
dl d)
en en
OO
c
rfl
Cn
CO
dJ
>
tfl
r H
>1
SH
rfl
E
d) QJ
eo co
O 0
MH
(0
QJ
tfl
d)
HTI
tfl
^ < "
XI SH
CO X3
QJ c en
MH d)tfl-
reuftq
dJ O O CCOO XI
rH H 0
rH
d) d)
CQ
-H 0"
H
3e
rH CO
- , rH d)
C! Q> X 3 - - C Q O J - r H
O O> I > I ^ h
MHdJQJQJ OO- r H d J Q )
d J MHt n c n t n - t > > x l r H j q
3 t f l ( 0 r e r f l j J n 3 t C U O
Pi Oi Pi COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO
u
d)
Ti
q
d)
q toTi
H r H Cl
B -H
rH d) rH
reA; to
dJ -H E
aa aa ro o
d)
c
H
rH
CD
tn
a
to
E
o
CO CO E-i E-i
CN ,.
co
CD
0)
Oi
aj
tn
as
0)
co
a
iH H,
OS
a
u
to
CO S-4
3 a)
u >
^ - H
a)>H
3 o
a
CD
UH -H
0 h
4-1
rH 3
a u
CD U
to
- H co
CO S-l - H
0 a JJ in-H rt
W O Ti CO Ol >i
C rH N CD
E
r<
as
CO
O
U
CD
13
-u
rt 2
* -
H
-
O)C *
G rt ^
rt
4J
u
rtrt
C -I'
-H rt
4J SH
O O
SH T3
o
oi
H
SH
rt
O
CD Tl
E CJ
o
CO 4J
rH U
r-H CD
rfl m
cn a
JJ -H
co
-U rt CO -H
rt 6 -H co
- i E 3
CDG 0) rt E
r HH JJ 1) S
r( Xi Xi
Ti > i as 0) 3 -H CD
< D G - r H G > C Q r H CO
H
u co
as 3
^ O E
Oi Q
-H U -H
CO O r H
4J rt rt
E rH
o
T3
0) O
H
G O rt
r H r * C > 2 0 Q Q
CD O 0 N
CO XI
aS EH rt
co Oi
3 GTl 3
0 O G rt G U
O 3 rt
- H
G rt
rt
U U
Oi co
G to
H as 4J
a SH
CD O l
<D o
U O l to
u o
Ti as U
u rt
0 CD r < CO CO
H
o
H
fl)
H
4J
0)
I
G
G
-H
U
rd
U
G
0
Oi
CD CD
4-1 T ) CO
H H ^
3 3 E
CJ
Q) U
CO - H rt
O U rH
CD a) a)
o rt rt ^-i Oi
i H <U (U (H C
UHrH rH CD rt
XI rH
4J 4J JJ U ^ i
U
as
X!
<u
10
DQ
W
0
R
0
u
- H
C
C
m
EH
as
U
U
rt 0)
CD CD- H
(H 3
EH EH
rJ CDrH
CD E -H
r( G
3 rt
CD CD CD i
rH rH rH Tl Ol
0 O 0 rH C
-H -H -H -H OS
as
O
363
Natural Substances Used in Conjunction with Spices and Other
NaturalSeasoningsandFlavorings
Commonname Botanicalnameofplantsource
Algae,brown(kelp) Laminariaspp.andNereocystis
spp.
Algae,red Porphyraspp.andRhodymenia
palmata (1)Grev.
Dulse Rhodymeniapalmata (L.)
NaturalExtractives (Solvent-free)UsedinConjunctionwithSpices
andseasoningsandFlavorings
Algae,brown Laminariaspp.andNereocystis
spp.
Algae,red Porphyraspp.andRhodymenia
palmata (L)Grev.
Apricotkernel(Persicoil) PrunusarmeniacaL.
Dulse Rhodymeniapalmata (L.)Grev.
Kelp(Seealgae,brown)
Peachkernel(persicoil) PrunuspersicaSieb.etZuec.
Peanutstearine ArachishypogaenL.
Persicoil (seeapricotkernel
andpeachkernel)
Quinceseed CydoniaoblongaMiller
Miscellaneous
Commonname Derivation
Ambergria PhysetermacrocephalusL.
Castoreum CastorfiberL.andC.
canadensisKuhl
Civet(zibeth,zibet,zibetum)- Civetcats,Viverracivetta
SchreberandViverrazibetha
Schreber
Cognacoil,whiteandgreen Ethyloenanthate,so-called
Musk(Tonquinmusk) Muskdeer,Moschusmoschiferus
L.
SpiceMixes
Bar-B-OueSeasoning
MixtureofChilipowder,Japanchilies,onion,garlic,celery
seedandanumberofspicesandflavorings
ChiliPowder
MixtureofChilipeppers,oregano,cuminandgarlic.
MixedPicklingSpices
Bayleavesandotherspices.
PoultrySeasoning
Mixtureofsage,pepper,celeryandotherspices.
364
Usually4to8ozofspiceareusedper100lbsofmeat,depending
onproduct andthespiceused. Products thatareheatedbefore
eatingrequirelessspicesthanproductseatencoldbecauseheat
increases the flavor of the spice. Natural spices shouldbe
declared on the label asspice or spices. Tannins fromspice,
chlorophyllinsageandmostgroundspicesoftencausegrayingof
freshproductandthereforepurifiednaturalspiceareoftenused
for freshproducts. Thesepurified spicesproducebetterbloom
thannonpurifiedspices. Shelflifeofpackagedspicesarefrom
6to8monthsifstoredinarefrigerated (below45F),dark,dry
(40-45%RH,tightlysealedcontainerstoprotect flavorandkeep
from caking) room andmuch less if storage conditions areless
favorable. Whenpractical,spicesshouldbestoredonly2months.
Naturalspicesarealsosusceptibletoinsectinfestation. Donot
mixnewandoldspicesforstorage. Extractsofthesespicesand
smallquantitiesofsalt (1/2%)andsugar(3/4%)arereferredtoas
flavorings. Asummaryofthefunctionofspicesareasfollows:
a. Flavorproduct.
b. Addcharacteristiccolorortexturepattern (important).
c. Antioxidantproperties.
Spicessometimescontainahighbacteria loadand/orinsectsand
somemanufacturers offera"sterilized" "purified" or "bacterial
treated" (ethylene or propylene oxide gas or methyl bromide;
destroys approximately 90%of microorganisms and specification
levelsoftenusedarelessthan1,000to50,000/g)naturalspiceto
combat thisproblem. Somecountries regulationswill notallow
365
ethyleneoxidetreatmentofmixturescontainingsaltandresidual
levels cannot exceed 1500 ppm of ethylene chlorohydrin. Other
techniquessuggestedforspicesterilizationincludemethanolvapor
fornonleafyvegetablesandextrusioncookingofspices.
Spice potency is highly variable in the natural form and
spicesare often extracted (declared on labels as flavoring or
flavorings)oftheiroleoresinsandessentialoilsandstandardized
toobtain a greater uniformity of potency. If the flavor is
obtainedby steam distillation, theproduct iscalled "fragrant
oils"or"oilofspice" ,-ifobtainedbyextraction,itiscalled
"oleoresins";and,ifrecombinedorblendedandcoatedonacarrier
(toincreasevolume sothattheycanbehandledeasier) suchas
salt, sugar or dextrose (the carbohydrates do not have to be
labelediflessthan12oz/100lb.ofproduct)iscalleda"soluble
spice". Other approved carriers for spices are modified food
starch (1/2-oz/lOO pound product) andalpha cellulose (2-oz/100
poundproduct). Storagelifeoftheseproductsshouldnotexceed
onemonth. Vacuum packaging and/or refrigerated storage will
extend its shelf life slightly. Some spice extracts are also
placedinwaterwhichmakesthemeasiertouseinabrine. Soluble
spicesare more soluble inpumping solutions,have less flavor
variation, have the advantage (sometimes disadvantage) of not
producing spice specks in the finished product and will not
discolorfreshsausageasquicklyasnaturalspices. Solublespice
flavor dissipates faster in meat than ground spice flavor and
thereforeisoftenusedinproductsthatarevacuumpackagedand
366
have a rapid turnover. Soluble spice pungency is moreeasily-
controlled and they are easily sterilized; but, often donot
containthesamefullnessorroundness (losessomeoftheearthy
pungenttaste)offlavorasthenaturalspice. Solublespicescan
beusedwithgroundspices. Oilsorresinsaremoresolublethan
natural spices and work better in pumping solutions and often
combinedwithpolysorbate-80. Oilsandresinsareoftenusedat
therateof0.1to8.0 ccper100lbsofmeatdependinguponthe
products. Theoilshaveapackageshelflifeof3-5months.
Spicespecificationsofteninclude:
1. Definitionanddescriptionoftheproduct.
2. Botanicalsource.
3. Geographicsource.
4. Appearance.
5. Likelyadulterants,absenceof.
6. Mesh.
7. Essentialoilcontent.
8. Extractablesolublematterinspecifiedsolvent.
9. Odorandmethodofassessment.
10.Flavorandmethodofassessment.
367
Asummaryofspiceformcharacteristics:
Naturalspice Extractivesof
including spices (liquid
mustardflour spice)
Visualeffects consumerwillbe novisualeffects
abletosee
Flavor morelastingflavor usuallynotthe
"earthy"character total spice
flavor
Flavorimpact finergrind-more moreimmediate
immediate
largergrind-more
lasting,lingers,
buildsupprofile
Label spicesorflavoring flavororspice
orspecificspices extractives
Meatseasoningmayalsocontaindehydratedvegetablessuchas
onion,garlicorceleryleavesorstems. However,thesemustbe
labeledseparatelyandcannotbelistedasspicesorflavoring.
Oldworldproductsusethegroundformofonionandgarlic.
Theseareavailableasflakesorchips (dehydrated),powdered (10
timesstronger than freshonionsor6timesstrongerthanfresh
garlic) and toasted forms. The oils (onion and garlic) are
difficult to use in meat because true flavors are hard to
duplicate. Fresh onionorgarlic isprobably thebest typeof
these products for sausage items but potency may vary from
differentcrops. Makesurethesearewelllabeledsinceitiseasy
to confuse these two vegetables until the final product is
evaluated. Levelsusedinmeatproductswouldsuggestthat1/8oz.
per100lbsofmeatisdifficulttodetectbut1/4oz.per100lbs
368
of meat can be distinguished. Even though these productsare
spicestheymustbedeclaredseparatelyonthelabelasapowdered,
flake or rehydrated product. Onion and garlic juice maybe
includedinthetermflavoring.
Dehydrate celery stalksandbellpeppersmaybe labeledas
dehydratedvegetables.
Paprikaisconsideredbothaspiceandcoloringmaterialand
assuchmustbelabeledbothasaspiceandascoloring. Sinceits
colorisdarkred,itcouldbeusedtoimprovetheleanappearance
ofaproduct;and,forthesereasons,itcurrentlycannotbeused
infreshsausageexceptfreshItalianChorizosandpizzasausage.
Highlevels (8-12oz/100lbsofmeat)particularlywithproducts
that contain alotofbeef fatwill give anorange color. The
paprika shouldbemicromilled toreduce specks inthefinished
product. Paprikawilloftenbleachduring storagewithsaltto
giveacolorlessorbrownproduct. Productwillkeepwithoutsalt
inacoolplaceforapproximately3months. Itisnormallyusedat
the rate of 2 to 16 oz per 100 lbs of meat depending onthe
product. Tumeric (brown-beige)andsaffronarealsoconsideredas
aspiceandasacoloringmaterialandbothdeclarationsmustbeon
thelabel.
Mustardalsoshouldbediscussedseparatelybecauseifhandled
properly (heattreated) ithaslittle flavor (flavoroftoasted
nuts)andcouldbeusedasahighprotein (27-35%protein;3%fat:
6 -8%ofmoisture;12%fiberandash)fillerandifunidentified
couldbeusedtoraisethemoisturelevel. Mustardwillabsorb3
369
to4timesitsweight inwater. Forthesereasons,itslevelis
limitedto1%ofthefinishedspecificproducts (nolimitinnon-
specificproducts)andappearsonthelabelasaspice. Re-heated
mustard also has antioxidant properties, reduces cooking loss,
increaseswaterholdingcapacity,increasesemulsionstabilityand
decreasesrancidity. Theodorandbiteofnon-heattreatedmustard
isnotpresentinthefreshseedorgroundmustard;but,develops
byan enzymatic process (thiocyate enzyme) in the presence of
moisture inthe sausagemix. Thisenzyme isdestroyedbyheat.
Thenon-heat treated enzyme reactioncancause instability toa
weakmeatsystem. Ifthesausageisprocessedrapidly,theenzyme
isdestroyedbyheat;and,littleflavordevelops. Ifallowedto
standbefore heating, thepungency increases. Therefore,great
caremustbeusedwhenincorporatingnon-heattreatedmustardinto
afreshproduct. Infact,mostpeoplewouldrecommendusingonly
theheattreatedtype.
Mustardthatisnotheattreatedandthatiscombinedwitha
hot-bonedproduct (ormoisture)andsoldfreshcanoftendevelopa
rotten-eggflavor. Mustardflourcomesinthreetypes: yellow,
brownandblack. Therearefourgradesoftheyellowtype;and,
thepoorergradesgivespecksintheflour. Sometimesmustardbran
(hull)isusedtodilutemustardflour;and,ifthisisdone,it
mustbelabeledmustardbran. Certainblendsofmustardarevery
pungentandresemblehorseradishinflavor.
Some spice also have other properties that should be
considered.
370
Paprika,Tumeric,Saffron
Capsicumfamily (andpepper)
Rosemary,Thyme
Cloves
Cinnamon
Redpepper
Nutmeg
Blackpepper
Sage
Mustard
Ginger
Tumeric
Nutmeg
Mace
Whitepepper
Garlic
Allspice
Property
Color
Vit.C.;antioxidant
Vit.E.;antioxidant
Antioxidant;
Anti-bacterial;willgivepositive
sodiumbenzoatereaction
Anti-bacterial,antioxidant,also
stimulatesacidinfermented
products
Contributetobloom,athighlevels
willbleedintofatandbleach
(brown),alsostimulatesacidin
fermentedproducts
Black specks often confused with
dirt, also stimulates acid in
fermentedproducts
Black specks often confused with
dirt;
Containstannin+Feinmeat=dull
gray,alsostimulateacidin
fermentedproducts
Antioxidant;
Containstannin+Feinmeat=dull
gray
Antioxidant,alsostimulatesacidin
fermentedproducts
fermentedproducts
Antioxidant
Antioxidant
fermentedproducts
Stimulatesacidinfermentedproducts
Stimulateacidinfermentedproducts
Stimulateacidinfermentedproducts
Manganeseappearstobethefactorinspicesthatisresponsible
fortheincreaseinacidproductivityinfermentedproducts
Whennaturalspicesareextractedtheodorcomponentsdonothave
astrongantioxidanteffect.
Countrystyleproductsarelimitedtonaturalspices.
371
Specificationsforspices
Specificationsforspiceswillassistthemeatprocessorin
maintainingconsistentqualityandmayincludethefollowing
criteria:
NaturalSpices
1. Moisture
2. Volatileoils
3. Totalash
4. Acidinsolubleash
5. Protein
6. Refractiveindex
7. Meshsize
8. Extraneousmatter (ASTA) (sticks,stems)
9. ColorASTA (AmericanSpiceTradeAssociation)
10.Heat/Pungency -whereapplicable
11.Totalplatecount
Oils/Oleoresins
1. Volatileoil
2. Alcoholsolubility
3. Refractiveindex
4. Specificgravity
5. Opticalrotation
6. Pungency-whereapplicable
7. ColorASTA-whereapplicable
8. Piperine (Oleoresin-blackpepper)
372
DehydratedVegetables
1. Reconstitutedflavorandcolor
2. Sizing
3. Mesh
4. Moisture
5. Extraneousmatter (ASTA)
6. Pungency
7. Defects
8. Bacterialspecificationse.g.totalplatecount
9. ADOGA (AmericanDehydratedOnionandGarlicAssociation)
specifications
FruitandVegetablesTreatedwithSulfite
1. Freshfruitsandvegetablesmaycontain50ppmofsulfite
(asSO
2
)topreventdarkening.
2. Dehydratedfruitandvegetablesmaycontain200ppmof
sulfite.
3. Dehydratedfruitandvegetableswherethemeatcomponent
isseparatedfromthenon-meatcomponentmaycontain
2500ppmofsulfite.
11. Coloringmatter-coloringmattermaybeappliedtothe
surfaceofameatproducttoalteritssurfacecolorbut
shouldnotpenetrateintotheproduct. Mayalsobeusedin
suchproductsasrenderedfats,cannedhamsaladspread,and
creamedtypecannedproducts.
Approvedcolormaterialsareasfollows:
373
Natural Coloring Substance
Alkanet - extract of root of Alkanna t i nct ori a, Tausch
Boraginaceae. Brownish red
C H
CH-CH -CH =C
CH.
Coloring
Pigment
Annatto-extractofseedsofBixaorellanaL.,Bixaceae.
Yellowtoorangered.
CH
3
CH
3
Bixon (Main color)
C-O-ChL
II
HO-C
II
CH
3
CH
3
0
0
Carotene - widely distributed in plants. Yellow form:
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
374
Saffron-extractofstigmasofCrocussatiousL.Iridaceae,
orangebrown.
Crocin (2 glucose units)
CH
3
CH
3
O-gentiobiose
0
A
O-gentiobiose
CH
3
ci -
GreenChlorophyll-pigmentofplants. Greenaform
CH=CH
CH
C-O-CH,
CH CH
o
CH C-O-CH
2
CH=C-CH
2
CH
2 2
CH
2
CH-CH
3
O
375
I
:c
Tumeric-extractofrhizomeCurcumalongaLinn,Zingiberaceae.
Yellow.
Notusedtoomuchinmeatproductsbutoftenusedin
chickengravy.
CH
H
H
OH
CoalTarDyes mustbecertifiedundertheFood,Drug,and
Cosmetic (FD&C)Act. Theymustbelabeledas
certifiedfoodcolors.
TitaniumDioxide- (TiO
2
)-whitepigment
Caramelizedorextradarkbrownsugarorcaramelcolorcannotbe
added to the interior of the sausage but may be rubbed on the
surface.
Colorisaddedtomeatby:
a. Casingtransferringcolortothetissuesurface.
b. Addedtoshoweringorcookingwater.
c. Dippingproduct.
d. Brandingofmeatproducts.
Theabovecoloringingredientsmaybeaddedtorenderedfats
intheproductionofoleomargarineorshortening. Titaniumdioxide
(TiO
2
)maybeaddedtosaladsandspreadstowhitentheseproducts.
376
Hydrogenperoxide (H
2
O
2
)isusedasableachingagenttoremovethe
colorfromtripe. Thehydrogenperoxidemustberinsed fromthe
tripe prior to use as food. Liquid paprika (Capsicum family)
concentrate isnotpermitted (USDA)infreshmeat sinceitgives
theappearanceofaleanerproduct. Twoto3ouncesareoftenused
incuredproductsbutissometimesobjectionableduetoanorange
color.
FederalinspectioninkusedforapplyingthemarkofFederal
inspection to the product may contain the following FD andC
(Certified by Food and Drug Administration) food coloring
ingredients:
FD&CBlueNo.1,ColorIndexNo.42090
FD&CBlueNo.2,ColorIndexNo.73015
FD&CGreenNo.3,ColorIndexNo. 42053
(Reservedforhorsemeat)
FD&CRedNo.3,ColorIndexNo.45430
FD&CRedNo.40,None
FD&CYellowNo.5,ColorIndexNo.19140
FD&CYellowNo.6,ColorIndexNo.15985
Atypicalbrandinginkmayhavethefollowinggeneralformula.
100lbs.granulatedsugar.
10lbs.ofoneoftheFD&Capprovedfoodcoloring
ingredients.
45gallonwater.
38gallonof95%ethylalcohol,
withorwithoutasmallamountofacetone(shortendrying
time).
377
Otherbrandinginkingredientsthatareoftenusedinclude:
Isopropanol
Dextrose
Ether
Propyleneglycol
Syrup
Carboxymethyl cellulose
Glycerin
Foodgradeshellac (10%)
Tattooinksmaycontainsuchpigmentsas:
Channelblack
Titaniumdioxide
Ironoxides
Starterculturesand/oraddedacid-LowpHissometimesusedto
giveameatproductadistinctive"tangy"flavorandtoaidinits
preservation. LoweringthepHisachievedbyfermentationand/or
theadditionofacids.
Fermented sausages aretraditionally produced bychance
contamination(5%seeding,backslopping)withlocalbacteria(2-10
daysinthecooler undertheinfluenceofsaltananaerobic
conditions) buttoproduce a more uniform product, starter
bacterial cultures arebecoming morepopular. Live lactic acid
producing organismsofthese typesareoften usedasstarter
cultures:
378
Lactobacillusplantarum;
Pediococcuscereviae,P.cerevisiae;
Streptococcus;
Microbacteria;
Micrococcus (oftendoesnotproducelacticacidbutdoes
convertnitratetonitriteandprotects
flavorandcolorbyeliminationofhydrogen
peroxide).
Micrococcusvarians;
areoftenusedinstartercultures. Starterculturesmusthavea
highsalttolerant (6%), beabletogrowinthepresenceofnitrite
andnitrate,growattemperaturesof27(48hrs.toobtainpHof5)
to43C(24hrstoobtainpHof5),andhaveasthemajormetabolic
endproductoflacticacid. Differentstrainsofstartercultures
havedifferentoptimumtemperaturesandexcesssaltandnitritecan
retard bacterial lactic acid production. These cultures are
usuallymixedwithwaterandaddedattherateof0.5%. Theyare
storedinthefreezedriedorfrozen(mostsuccessful)liquidstate
(-20F). A bacteria level of 20,000,000 per gram of meat is
necessaryforagoodinoculum. Thelacticacidproducingbacterial
metabolize(anaerobic)naturaloraddedcarbohydrates(0.50-0.75%
dextroseorglucose;quitefrequentlywillnothydrolyzesucrose,
lactoseorcornsyrup)andconvertthemtolacticacid. ThepHof
typicalfermentedsausagesshouldbeintherangeof4.6 to5.4.
379
ThefinalpHcanoftenbecontrolledbythequantityofsugaradded
andthefollowingrelationshiphavebeenreported.
5.30
5.20
5.10
5.00
4.90
4.80
4.70
4.60
4.50
0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
PercentDextroseAdded
Ifadditionalsugarisdesiredforflavorpurposes,itmayalsobe
addedandfermentationisterminatedbyheating. Europeanproducts
areusuallylessacidwithapHrangeof5.0to5.2. Labelsmust
state "Lactic acid (starter) culture added for flavor or --".
Fermentedsausagesaredividedintomajorgroupsandafewexamples
arelisted.
380
Commercialculturesin; Optimum temperature
U.S. 90-100F
Europe 50-70F
DriedSausage-Usuallynotcookedorsmoked,Max.90F;dried
for10to100daysat45-65Fand65to80%relativehumidity.
Moisturelevel25to35%andwithveryfinetexture.
Percentofgreenweight M/Pratio
Driedsausage 50-75%
Typesofsalami
Italian
BCSalami
GenoaSalami
DrySalami
Pepperoni
2.3:1
1.9:1
1.6:1
Semi-dry sausage -Usually heated to 137F; range 115to
145F, moretangy,softer,lesschewytexture;moisturelevel
often 50%.
Semi-drysausage 50-90%
Cervelat
Lebanonbologna
Mett
Porkroll
Thuringer
Holsteiner
Summersausage-Madeduringcool 3.1:1
monthstobeconsumedduringsummer.
ThepHmustbe5orless.
NewSausage 80%
Direct additionofacids isalsousedto lowerpH.Vinegar
which contains acetic acid isoften use and pickled pigsfeet,
pickled Polish, and some jellied loaf products are the best
examples of this type of preservation. The water phase should
containatleast3.6%aceticacidinvinegar-pickledsausages.
381
Acid (5%citricor35-40grainvinegar)issometimesusedas
aspraytoimprovepeelabilityofanemulsionproduct. Citricacid
isusedto flavor chili concarne and toprotect the flavorof
margarine. Encapsulated (with fats) acids are also being
investigated to release theacid toward the end of the heating
cycle.
Integralcutswithprimaltexture:
Thelargerthepieceofmeat themore flexibility thefood
processorhas initsutilization therefore therehavebeenmany
attempts to join smaller chucks of meat into a solid body.
Procedurescurrentlyinusewouldincludethefollowing:
1. Exudate (creamy,tacky)isproducedandplacedonthe
surfaceofthemeatthroughmechanicaltreatment(mixing,
tumbling,machining,churning)ofthetissue. Thebonding
takesplaceonhotprocessingorcookingandthefinal
productwillholdtogetherduringslicing. Sometimethe
productisfrozenpriortomechanicaltreatmentandwith
somemodificationaboneinproductcanbeutilized.
2. Saltand/orphosphatesareoftenusedinthe
mechanicaltreatmenttohelpextractthebindingproteins.
3. Proteinextractsfrompoultryskinand/ordarkmeatare
alsousedasbinders.
4. Bindingagentsaresometimesaddedsuchas:
a. Gelatin-bindsrefrigeratedmeatbutnothotmeat.
b. Flourproducts-generallyproduceswhite,doughy
seams.
c. Wheatgluten (30-80%)-holdstissuetogetherin
thehotstate.
d. Eggalbumin.
382
Mechanicallydebonedmeat:
Inmostmachinesmeatandbonesaregroundextremelyfineand
the meat tissue is forced through a 1/80,000 of an inchdie.
Machines canbe adjusted toproduce different Ca levels inthe
finaltissue. ExamplesofCareportedareasfollows:
Ca
Beef 0.4%
Pork 0.5%
Chicken 0.8%
Turkey 0.25%
Max.suggestedbysomeresearchers 0.75%
This tissue must be handled very carefully since it is very
susceptibletooxidationandbacterialgrowth.
Renderedfat:
Additivesarealsoincorporatedintoanimalrenderedfats.
1. Antioxidants-Theseadditivesareusedtoimprove
stabilitybyretardingoxidationandconsequently
preventthedevelopmentofrancidityinrenderedanimal
fats,vegetablefats,drysausage,freshporksausage,
brownandservesausage,beefpatties,anddriedmeats.
AntioxidantsarealsoaddedtofoodenrichedwithB-
vitaminssincetheyarealsosusceptibletooxidation.
Oxidationisconsideredachainreactionandifthecycle
canbeinterrupted,thechemicalreactionscanbestopped.
Consequently,asmallquantityofantioxidantcan
dramaticallyextendtheusefulshelf-lifeofafat. There
aremorenaturalantioxidantsinvegetablefatsthanthere
areinanimalfatbut,theadditionofanantioxidantis
moreefficientwhenaddedtotheanimalfat. Several
383
theorieshavebeenpostulatedforexplainingthewayan
antioxidantretardsoxidation,butthetotalchemical
picturehasnotbeenelucidated. Antioxidantsnormally-
workbettertogetherthantheydoindividuallyandsome
antioxidantshave"carry-through"properties (Example-
BHA)whichallowtheantioxidanttocontinuefunctioning
afteruseinabakedproduct (notaseffectiveindeep
fatfrying).
Indrysausageantioxidantscanbeaddedattherate
of0.003%aloneor0.006%incombinationsbasedontotal
weight.Indriedmeatthelimitis0.01%ofthefinished
totalweight. Infreshsausagearateof0.02%ofthe
fatcontentcanbeused. Antioxidantsmustbedeclared
onthelabel (billboarded)qualifyingstatement (oxygen
interceptoradded;addedtoprotectflavor)aswellasin
theingredientlist.
Carry-ThroughPropertiesofAntioxidants
Antioxidant Carry -Through
Best Excellent Good Limited
BHA X
BHT X
Tocopherols
(T form)
X
NDGA
X
n-Propyl
gallate
X
384
Tocopherol (VitaminE)istheonlyantioxidantnaturallyfound
infattissue (Lard10to30ppm)and itslevelcanbe increased
slightlybyincreasing the quantityinthe feed used forhogs
(Vegetableoilsmaycontainfrom300to1000ppm).
Themostcommonantioxidantsusedinanimalfatareasfollows:
O-H
Butylated Hydroxyanisole
C(CH
3
)
3
(BHA)
OCH
3
Butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT)Undergoing reevaluation
forsafety
CH,
Glycine
NH
2
-CH
2
-COOH
CH,
Nordihydrogruaiaretic acid
(NDGA) Extracted from Creosote
HO
CH
2
-CH-
385
COOCH
2
CH
2
CH
3
Propyl gallate
HO O H
OH
Resinguaiac
Mi x t u r e of C
21
H
26
O
5
&
C
22
H
266
CH,
Tocopherols
C H
'2
C H
3
Mostantioxidantshaveanalcoholgroupattachedtoa6-memberring
inadditiontoothersidegroups.
3
v_
C OH
386
Examples of a few antioxidant combinations that are found in
commercialproducts.
Product BHA BHT Propyl Citric
Gallate Acid
AnimalFat 20%
-
6% 4%
AnimalandVegetableFat 10% 10% 6% 6%
VegetableFat-Frying
- -
20% 10%
VegetableFatWithCarry-Through 10% 10% 6% 6%
2 . Synergists-Thesecompoundsarenotstrictlyantioxidantsbut
enhancetheabilityoftrueantioxidantstoprotectthefat.
Theychelate (complexortieupfromtheGreekkhelemeaning
chow)metalssuchasiron,copper,nickel,manganese,cobalt,
chromiumandtin (contaminantsfromequipmentorwateror
additives)whicharecatalystsfortheoxidationoffatand
vitamins. Theendproductofthisoxidationyieldoffodors
andflavorswhichproducesanunacceptableproduct.
H i ti
Tl
n
00
ro
<o
i M 0
0) d)
i
n
-

,q
I) (0H
H
XI V-i XI
tt "0 H 4J
i
re u
i
to
u
j 0 (S
d) CQ
d) cn
p u re CQ
P U rfl CQ
i
0
CD JJ
i
(
H
O
)
t
i
o
n

x
c
e
e

.
0
1
%
O
T
X
U
T
2
.
0
0
3

.
0
1
%

.
0
2
%

a
H
e
e
l

) 0 a) o o o o
i i
Tl
i
d) i XI d) d) XI
Ol
tn
- r l
0i 4J 0)
Ol
I
re
Ol Oi di Ol Oi
re
- H
'O
a
CQ
c c
P
c
G
cn
r j
- H 1
X
0) H 3
cn
H - H - H - r t 4J CQ 0)
CQ
a
rC 4_)
c c c c
re
4J
o
rfl -H
c
0) CO U d) d) d) d) d) CO
o
Tl T l - H
ft
4J d)
cn
4J 4J d) Oi 4-1 4-1 T3
- H
E
0
SH
tr
. * 4J Tl SH
c re
r l r l y 4J <D H 4J
c
o
0
ro re
O
o o
H CQ
o o
r l rC
c
U O
o o u
XI CQ 0 d) r l
xl
XI Ol
o
0)
o
rfl ft-H
C/D r ^
a,2
CO r l rO CO CO PM
2
r H 4J CQ 4J d)
r^
r H
s
re ro
rC
u re
ft
O
0} C
r Tl Tl
E
CQ X! Tl rH d) M SH Q
Tl CQ d) d> Tl T) O 4J Tl Tl CQ d) Tl U O - r l
re
U d) - H SH <D r l rC r l r l d) -H d) 4J d)
m
r-i 4-1
re
r l r l S-|
ro m o
d)
re
rO r l r l CQ H
u
r H O XI CQ
P
P
u ^
O 2 p
U
ftXl
u
CQ
ro
a
C
r |
o
CQ u c
O
o
a
SH
4J
- r l
ro
* - ~ +
CQ
u
U
a
a
d) 9 Tl
o
OJ
u
a
CJ
a"
u
o
u
c
h
e
]
L
a
t
o
r
t
h
a
t
h
o
l

(
O
H
)
(

a
u
' rv
O
U
a
u
a
o
rv
a
u
o
o
u
ru
a
u
CJ
a
u
a
u
iz;
ru
;
e
e
c
u
r
e
a
c

F
o
r
m
u
l
a

C
O
O
H

CQ
0
a
u
cn
i
r-H
a
u u
ru
rfl
o
J
a SH
u
a a
u
r-. NO i
u
u
4J
u
o
o
c

H
O
O

" *
u a
oX
a a
<
O
to
u o u
a"
J
CO
ru
o ro
a
u
CO
Tl
H u 0)
KN
H Ti
1 H
CQ
u u ft d)
- H d) d) d) XI
- i H rC
o
4J
o
4J
c
C
1
u
,^
0
(7) rj rC XI
cure
0) H rC- H
11
- H
T3 rl T3
u
1
ft
ftTl
i
u
r l rH î 4J Tl Ol
u
- H
0 -H
H
o o
4-1 cn-ri
0
4J
rfl
e
4-1 d) H
p
o
4J CJ U U
, j
c
CQ H
o u
rH H
xi
i H d)
u
U
E

- H CQ r e
re o
H
u
Xl re
o
Ol
u u
Tl 4J
re re
d)
CO
U
2 2 2
w a
388
3. Solvent-Propyleneglycol (CH
3
CHOHCH
2
)isoftenusedasa
solventforantioxidantsandsynergists.
4.Antifoamingagents-Methylpolysilicone(Methylpolysiloxane)
[(CH
3
)
2
Si0]ordimethylpolysiloxanenottoexceed10ppm.is
usedtoretardfoaminginfatsandoilsduringprocessingand
subsequentcooking. Itisalsousedincuringpickles (50ppm)
andsoups (10ppm)forthesamepurpose. Thischemicalcan
alsobeusedinthescaldingtanktoaidintheremovalofhair
fromthehogcarcasses.
5. Emulsifyingagent-Thesecompoundsareusedtokeepan
emulsion (waterinoiloroilinwater)fromseparatingduring
storage. Theyalsooftenextendtheshelflife,keepaproduct
fromdrying,improveedibility,preventthedepositionoffat
crystals,reducespatteringandallowincorporationofmoreair
intoafoam. Normallytheyhaveawatersolubleendandafat
solubleendonthesamemolecule. Manyemulsifyingagentsare
extractedfromoraretheresultsofchemicalreactionswith
animalorvegetablefats. Categoriesandspecificexamplesof
someofthemorecommonemulsifiersareasfollows:
a.acetylatedmonoglycerides
Generalformula Specificexample
(stearodiacetin)
H H
H - C - O - C - R H - C - O - C - (CH
2
)
16
- CH
3
C H
3
- C - O - C - H O C H
3
- C - O - C - H O
0 H - C - O - C - CH, 0 H - C - O - C - CH,
| \\ | \\
H O H O
389
Manufactured by the following reaction:
HO H
HC-O-C-(CH
2
)
16
CH
3
HC- O - C - (CH
2
)
16
- CH
3
HC-O-H + CH,- C-O-C- CH, > CH, -C-O-C-H 0
I \\ \\ V/ |
HC-O-H 0 O 0 HC- O - C -CH,
I I W
H HO
Monostearin AceticAnhydride Stearodiacetin
b.Diacetyltartaricacidestersofmonoanddiglycerides. (Using
stearicacidastheexamplefortheR-radical)
H 0
I //
O H O H - C - O - C - (CH
2
)
16
-CH
3
CH, - C - O - C - C - O - C - H O H H O
I I //|| //
CH, - C - O - C - H H - C - O - C - C - C - C - O H
/ / I I I I
O C = O H 0 0
I I I
0 o =c c =o
H CH
3
CH
3
"Mono"
H 0
I //
O H O H - C - O - C - (CH
2
)
16
-CH
3
\\ IW I
CH, - C - O - C - C - O - C - H O
1 | //
C H , - C - O - C - H H - C - O - C - ( C H
2
)
1 6
- C H
3
/ / I I
0 C = 0 H
I
0
H
"Diglyceride"
390
Manufacturedbythe followingreaction:
H H O 0
/ /
I I
HC- O- C- (CH
2
)
16
CH
3
H- C- O- C- (CH
2
)
16
"CH
3
0 C
\\ / \
HC-O-H H-C-OH 0
CH
3
-C-O-CHO
100-130C
I //
HC-O-H H-C-O-C- (CH
2
)
16
-CH
3 CH
3
-C-O-C- -C
I
//
\\
H H H
o o
Monostearin Distearin Tartaricanhydride
diacetate
H
O
//
O HO H-C-O-C-(CH.
2'16
C H
3
\\ |\\ "Mono
1
CH,-C-O-C-C-O-C-H OHH 0
I I //I I //
CH
3
-C-O-C-H H-C-O-C-C-C-C-OH
/
O
c=o
H 0 0
I
o=c c=o
0
H
3
C CH
3
H
H 0
|
/ /
0 HO
LJ c* r\ t~* I C*XJ \ C*XJ
"Di
1
\ \
l\\ 1
C 1 U J
:H
3
-C-O'-C-C-O-C-H
0
1 1
II
CH,-C-O-C-H H- C- O- C- (CH
?
)
1A
CH
3
II
1
|
0
c=o
H
11
0
H
C.Glycerol-lacto, stearate, oleateorpalmitate (canbemadein
several forms both stearateand palmitate willbeusedforthe
R-radicals).
391
Glycerol - Lactoesters, 100 series
H OH
I // I
Glycerol - Lactostearate - 100
H - C - O - C - C - O H
I I
(GLS)
H - 0 - C - H CH
3
H - C - O - C - ( CH, ) . . - CH,
I \ \
2 16
H O
Manufactured by the following reaction
H H O H
HC-O-H
H H-C-O-C-C-OH
I
HOC-H HO-C-C-OH > H-O-C-H CH,
I //I
HC-O-C- (CH
2
)
16
CH
3
O CH, H-C-O-C-(CH
2
)
16
CH
3
H O H O
Monost ear i n Lact i c Acid GLS - 100
Glycerol - Lact oes t er s , 200 s er i es
H OH OH
I / / I / / I
Glycerol-
H - C - O - C - C - O - C - C - O H
Lactostereate
H - O - C - H CH, 200-(GLS)
H - C - O - C - ( CH
2
)
1 6
- CH
3
\ \
H O
Manufacturedbythefollowingreaction:
H
H OH OH
I
HC-O-H H H- C- O- C- C- O- C- C- OH
HOC-H
2 HO-C-C-OH
-> H-O-C-H CH
3
CH
3
I //I
HC-O-C- (CH,).,CH.
O CH
T H- C- O- C- ( CHJ. . CH,
I \\ I II
H O
H 0
Honostearin
Lactic Acid
GLS - 200
392
0
Glycerol-Lactoesters,GlycerylLactylates (Palmitates)
H 0H 0 H O H
H-C-O-C-C-O-C- (CH
2
)
U
CH
3
H 0 H-C-O-C-C-O-C-(CH
2
)
14
CH
3
H-O-C-H CH, CH
3
-C-C-O-C-H CH,
O H
WI
H-C-O-H O H-C-O-C-C-OH
H H H CH
T
1-Mono-o-pal mi t oyl Lact i n 1-0,-Palmitoyl Lactyl-2,3 Dilactin
393
Manufactured bythe following reactions:
0H
H O H 0
CH
?
-O-C-C-CH,
1) Pyri di ne H-C-O-C-C-O-C- (CH
2
)
U
CH
3
\ \
I
\ /
o
2) Et her, HC1 HO-C-H CH
3
A
\
I
H-C-OH
H
H
(2,2-Dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-
1-Mono-o-palmitoyl lactin
4-yl)methyllactate
CH
2
-O-CH-CH
3
C=0
Cl
2-(Benzyloxy) Propionyl Chloride
CHC1
3
Pyr i di ne
HO H O
I III II
w
H OH O
H 0
H-C-O-C-C-O-C(CH ) CH
I IIIII
III I 3 0-C-C-O-C-H
C H
HOH-C-O-C-C-O-C- (CH.
2'14
CH
3
CH,-C-C-O-C-H OH <
H
2
; Pd; C
OH
0 H-C-O-C-C-OH
Acetic acid
III
H H CH
3
H-C-O-C-C-O-CK,
II
l-o P a l m i t o y l L a c t y l- 2 , 3
D i l a c t i n H
C H
3
Palmiticacidesterwith2,3dihydro-
xypropyllactate,diesterwith 2-
(benzyloxypropionicacid
394
d.Lecithin
MostcommonR-radicals
H
R=stearic
I
R=palmitic
H - C - O - C - R
R=oleic
\\
R=linoleic
0
H - C - O - C - R Obtainedasaby-productinthe
O\ \ manufactureofsoybeanoil.
\ \ O
H - C - O - P - OCH
2
CH
2
N(CH
3
)
3
H I
e. Mono and di gl yc e r i de s
H H
I
H - C - O - C - R '
H - C - O - C - R
\\
\ \
O
0
H - C - O - C - R
1
'
H - C - 0 - H
\\
o
H - C - O - H
I H- C- O- H
H
Monoglyceride
H
Diglyceride
See chapter on the "Chemistry of Fat"for the method of
manufacture.
f.Polysorbate80(polyoxyethylene (20)sorbitanmono-eleate)
H
O
/ /
H - C - ( 0 -CH
2
- CH
2
)
H
- O - C - ( CH
2
)
7
CH = CH( CH
2
)
7
CH
3
H - C - 0 - CH
2
- CH
2
- O(CH
2
- CH
2
- O)
x
- H
C - H
H - C - 0 - CH
2
- CH
2
- O(CH
2
- CH
2
- O)
y
- H
0
H - C - 0 - CH, - CH, - O(CH, - CH, - 0) - H
C- H
H
Polysorbate80 w + x + y + z = 1 7 ( t o t a l "poe" i s 20)
395
Manufactured bythefollowing
I
H-C-O-H
H-C-O-
I
I
H-C-O-H
H-C-O-H
| Oleic |
HO-C-H
acid
>HO-C-H
reactions:
H-C-O-H
H-C-O-H
I
H-C-O-H
I
H
Sorbitol
H-C-O-H
H-C-O-H
H-C-O-C(CH
2
)
7
CH= (CH
2
)
H O
OleylSorbitol
+20
Polysorbate80<-
O
CH
2
-CH
2
?
H-C-
H-C-O-H
O
HO-C-H
H-C
H-O-C-H
I
H,HC-0-C(CH,)
7
CH=CH(CH,).
I I I
H O
OleylSorbitan +"Span80"
H-C
H
H-C-OH
H-C
C-H
H-C-O-C-H
2
)
7
CH=CH (CH
2
)
7
C
C-HO
H Oleylisosarbide
g.Propyleneglycolmonoanddiestersoffatsandfattyacids
(stearicacid isusedasanexampleoftheR- radical)
H
H-C-O-C- (CH,)
1(
,CH,
I II
26
H-O-C-H0
I
CH
3
Propylene Gl ycol
Mono St e ar at e
(PGMS)
H
H-C-O-C- (CH
2
)
16
CH
3
CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
C-O-C-H 0
0
CH
3
PropyleneGlycol
Distearate
(PGDS)
396
Manufacturedbythe followingreactions:
H H PGMS
I I
H-C-O-C-(CH
2
)
16
-CH
3
H-C-OH PGDS
CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
C-O-C-H 0 \ HO-C-H >GlycerolMonoStearate
0H-C-O-C- (CHJ..-CH, CH, GlycerolDiStearate
| \\
H O Glycerol
Fat Propylene
Tristearin Glycol
h.Polysorbate6 0[polyoxyethylene (20)sorbitanmonostearate]is
thesameasPolysorbate8 0exceptthe:
- C- (CH
2
)
7
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
CH
3
Octylradical
O
isreplacedby
- C - (CH
2
)
16
CH
3
St earoyl r adi cal
O
i . St ear yl - 2 - l a c t yl i c aci d
?
H
3
CH,-(CH,)., - C - 0 - C - C - O - C - C - O H
[| I II I W
O HO
x
H 0
Manufacturedbythe followingreactions:
H
H HCH CH,
CH
3
(CHJ
16
C-O-H f HO-C-C-OH > CH,- (CHJ . . -C-0-C-C-O-C-C-OH
w l \ \ II 11 II 11 w
O CH
3
0 0 |H O |H 0
StearicAcid LacticAcid Stearyl- 2-
LactylicAcid
397
j. Stearylmonoglyceridylcitrate:
H
I
H- C- O-C- (CH
2
)
16
- CH
3
H - O - C - H O O H O
H - C - O - C - C - C - O - H
H O C- OH
I I
0
Manufactured by the following reaction:
H H O
I //
H- C- O- C- (CH
2
)
16
CH
3
H-C-C-OH
HO-C-H 0 I HO-C-C-OH
I
\\
o
H-C-OH
I
H-C-C-OH
H
Iw
Monostearin
H O
CitricAcid
k.SorbitanMono - Stearate
H
I
H- C
H- C- O- H
H- 0- C- H O
H- C
H- C- O- H
H - C - O - C - (CH,)..- CH
I I I
H 0
H
H-C-O-C- (CH,).,-CH3
I II
2
^
->H-O-C-H0OH0
H-C-O-C-CC-O-
I III
H OC-O-H
StearylMonoglyceridyl
Citrate
StearoylSorbitan
"Span60"
Formanufacturingreactionsseepolysorbate80.
398
6. Flavoringagent-Diacetyl (CH
3
COCOCH
3
)maybeaddedtoflavor
margarine. Ifdiacetylisobtainedbydistillationfrom
culturedmilkitiscalledastarterdistillate. Isopropyl
citrateandstearylcitratemaybeaddedtoprotectthe
margarine'sflavor.
Theirstructuralformulaisasfollows:
Monoisopropylcitrate
o
CH,
c- o-
CH
I
\
CH3
H-CH
H - O - C - C - 0 -[H]
\\
o
H-C - H
I
C-O - H
\\
o
Monostearyl (octadecyl) Citrate
O
/ /
C - 0 - [(CH
2
)
17
CH
3
]
a
H - C -H
I
H - O - C - C - O - [H]
\ \
o
H - C - H
C - O - H
O
a
The radicalmay replace anyoneofthethree acid groupsand
wouldproducetwodifferentisomers.
399
Disodium guanylate (C
10
H
12
N
5
0
8
PNa
2
-H
2
0) and disodium inosinate
<
c
io
H
n
N
4
OP
8
Na
2'
2H
2
0) a n d s o m e
aminoacidsarepermittedasflavoring
agents (flavorintensifier)inoleomargarine.
Refiningagents-Chemicalsthatmaybeaddedtofattoaidin
refiningbut,theymustberemovedduringprocessing.
Chemical
Formula Use
Aceticacid
CHjCOOH Toseparatefattyacidsand
glycerol
BicarbonateofSoda NaHCOj Toseparatefattyacidsand
glycerol
Carbon (Purified C Aidinrefiningofanimal
Charcoal) fats,Decolorizing
CausticSoda NaOH Torefinefats
DiatomaceousEarth Primarily Torefinefats,Clarifying
SiO
?
agent
Fuller'sEarth Primarily Torefinefat,Decolorizer
Al
?
0^-2Si0
?
SodiumCarbonate Na
?
CO^ Torefinefats
TannicAcid C
7A
H
S?
O
/i.A
Torefinefats
RenderingAgents
Tricalcium Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
Toaidrendering
Phosphate
TrisodiumPhosphate Na.PO, Toaidrendering
Tenderizers
These compounds include additives that are combined with
muscletissuetoimprovetenderization. Asummaryoftenderizers
includes:
1. Weakacids
a. Lemonjuice
b. Vinegar
2. Mechanical -breakingofmusclefibers
3. Freezing-improvestenderizationonlyslightly
4. Salt-markedinfluenceontenderization
5. Proteolyticenzymespresentintheanimaltissue-these
arealreadypresentanddonothavetobeaddedtothe
tissuebut,increasingthetemperatureduringagingcan
increasetherateofreaction.
6. Plantenzymes-extractedfromtropicalplants.
400
ENZYMESUSEDINMEAT
Partof
Plant
Source
Mole-
cular
Weight
pHin
Water
Iso-
electric
Point
pHRange
forMeat
Optimum
pH
Activ-
atedby-
Inact-
ivated
by
Active
Center
Specific
ity
Sub-
strates
PAPAIN
LatexofPapaya
Tree
CaricaPapaya
21,000
5.1
8.87
5to7
6
Reducingagents
(cysteine,
sulfites,alkaline
cyanides,sulfides)
Oxidizingagents
(Oxidationslowed
byalcoholic
suspensions,salt
mixturesandair
tightcontainers)
Reduced
o r ; - (-iTT
State
ProteinDigestion
SmallM.W.
Substrateand
Protein;Hydrolysis
ofPeptidebonds
FICIN
Milky
Latex,
FigTree
Fig,Ficus
23,000to
27,000
5.2
9.0
5to7
5.5
Thiol
Compounds
&
Cysteine
Sulf-
hydryl
Compounds
-SHin
Reduced
State
Hydro-
lysis,
Peptide
Ester&
Amine
Bonds
Gelatin,
Collagen,
Elastin
BROMELIN (BROMELAIN)
PineappleStems
AnanasComosus
5to7
5to7
7.5
ReducingAgents
(cysteine,sulfites,
alkalinecyanides,
sulfides)
OxidizingAgents
(Oxidationslowedby
alcoholic
suspensions,salt
mixturesandair
tightcontainers)
-SHinReducedState
ProteinDigestion
Casein,Hemoglobin
401
Papain
Fi ci n Bromelin (Bromelain)
Temperature
Minimum 77F (25C)
86F
(30C)
86F (30C)
Optimum
8
30 min.
176F (80C), range
140F (60C-160C)
113F
(45C)
122F (50C)
Ex-
t ensi ve
Meat
Digest-
ion
131F-185F
(55C-85C)
High and Broad
86F-122F
(30C-
50C)
Low&
Narrow
86F-140F (30C-
60C) Broad and
Medium Range
Maximum 184F-203F
95)
(84C- 158F-
212F
(70C-
100C)
140F-148F
64C)
(60C-
Effect i veness on:
Muscle High-Medium Medium Medium-Low
Fiber
Collagen Medium High- Medium
Medium
El ast i n Medium High Low
Theoptimum temperature willbelowerthelongertheperiodof
digestion.
a. Papainproduction-Papainisanenzymefoundthroughout
thepapayatree. Thistreeiscultivatedinthetropics
withmostofthecommercialproductiontakingplacein
TanganyikaandCeylon. Thiscultivatedherbaceoustree
is10to30feethigh,haslargepalm-likeleavesnear
thetopandthepapayamelonorpapawhangdownin
clustersbeneaththeleaves. Commercialproductionis
generallylimitedtothelatexofthegreenfruit (ripe
papawcontainsnopapain)andfluidisobtainedbymaking
402
incisionsintheepidermisofthepapawandallowingit
tobleed. Thedrippinglatexiscollected (onepound/
tree/year)andcoagulates (6hoursspontaneouslyor10
minuteswithstirring). Thecoagulatedlatexisquickly
(topreventoxidationanddeteriorationofactivity)dried
(reducesweighttoapproximately1/4andmoisturecontent
ofdriedpowderis5-8%) inthesunoronalowtemper-
aturekiln. Thedriedpowderisapproximately1/6
papain. Thepowderedlatexispurifiedbydissolving,
filtrationandprecipitation.
b. Ficinproduction-Ficinisanenzymeproducedfromthe
latexofthefigtreeandmostcommercialproduction
centersinSouthAmerica. Theenzymeisobtainedby
tappingorcuttinganddrainingthefigtree. The
rubberylatexcoagulatesandaliquidrisestothetop
ofthecollectionpan. Ficinisrecoveredfromthis
liquidbyspraydryingorsolventprecipitation (acetone
oralcohol). Theprecipitateisdissolvedinwater,
reprecipitatedwithsolventandvacuumdried.
c. Bromelinproduction-Bromelinisanenzymefoundinthe
steminboththeripeandunripefruitofthepineapple
plant. Duetothevalueofthefruitmostcommercial
bromelinproductionisderivedfromthestem. Thestems
arecollected,freedofleavesandsuckers,juiceisfreed
bypressingandisthenfiltered. Thejuiceisprecipi-
tatedwithgivenquantitiesofacetoneorammonium
403
sulfateormethanolorisopropanolandthisprecipitate
isdiscarded. Anadditionalvolumeofacetoneisadded
toproduceasecondprecipitatecontainingthebromelin
whichiscollectedbycentrifugationanddried,
d. Plantenzymesform-
Dryenzymemixturesarequitecommonandthegeneral
ingredientsareasfollows:
Salt-carrierandpreservative
2%Papain-enzyme
15%Dextrose-stabilizerandflavoringagent
2%Monosodiumglutamate-flavorenhancor
Pepper-flavor
Celery-flavor
Edibleoil-preventdusting
Liquidenzymemixturesarealsocommonandgenerally
containthefollowing:
Enzyme
Glucose
Propyleneglycol
Salt
Unaidedpenetrationofanenzymeintomuscletissueisonly
1/2to2mm.thereforedistributionwithinatissueisextremely
important.
7. BacterialorFungalenzymes
a. Aspergillus-agenusoffungi
Tenderizersmaybeaddedtomuscletissueinthefollowingway:
,404
1. Pre-slaughter -injectionintobloodstreampriorto
slaughter (Swiftmethod-4ppminrawmeat).
2. Pre-rigor
a. Pumpedintocutsbymulti-needleapproach.
b. Pumpedintocutsusingarterialsystem.
3. Post-rigor
a. Dippingormarinating.
b. Forkingintotissue.
c. Multi-needleinjection.
d. Arterialsysteminjection.
e. Rehydratingofdehydratedproducts.
Since the water isusually used as a carrier, there isa
regulationlimitingtheweightincreasecausedbyinjectionofthe
enzymesolution. Thetreatedweightislimitedto3%inexcessof
theuntreatedweight.
Preservatives:
Preservatives arenormallyobjectionablebecause theyalter
thenormalbacterialfloraofmeatandthusprovidethepossibility
of increasing thenumber ofpathogenic bacteria. Preservatives
thathavebeenusedareasfollows:
405
PRESERVATIVES
CHEMICAL
FORMULA USDAPERMITTED USE
Sulfite
3
Compoundscontaining Notpermitted Preserve
theradicalSO,
inanyproduct fresh
orHSO,
appearance
Ascorbate See"Reducing Notpermitted Preserve
Compounds"inthis infresh fresh
chapter product appearance
Benzoic In Prevent
acid(or c - 0- H
oleomargarine, reversion
sodiumor poultrysalads offlavor,
potassium Antioxidant
salt)
0 orNa
properties,
prevent
moldand
orK
yeast
growthin
somefoods
Calciumor (CH
3
CH
2
COOH)
2
CaCH
3
CH
2
InPizzacrust Retardmold
sodium COONa andpiedough growth
propionate
Potassium CH
3
CH=CHCH=CH-COOK 2.5%in Prevent
sorbate
bcde
solution, moldgrowth
Verycorrosive before&and
afterstuffing
drysausage
Poultrysalads Protect
flavor
Nitrite SeeNitriteinthis Notpermitted Retard
chapter infresh bacterial
product growthand
color
alteration
Borates Saltoresterof
Notpermitted Retard
Boricacid (H
3
BO
3
) infresh bacterial
product growth
406
c
CHEMICAL FORMULA
USDAAPPROVED USE
Calcium
disodium
Nl-O-jj-CHj
o\
C H 2- C H 2
/ \
CHj.fi.O.N.
/ o
Margarine
Preserve
product,
ethylene-
N N
Protect
diamine- flavor,
tetra- Chelating
acetate agent
O - C - 0 O - C - O
Propyl-
C-O-CH.CHXH
3.5%in Prevent
paraben solution, moldgrowth
(propylp-
L. L. Q
beforeand
hydro- afterstuffing
xybenzoate) drysausage
Margarine Preserve
product,
Protect
flavor,
Retard
fungus
growth
a
Usedinshrimp toinhibitoxidativedeteriorationcalledblack
spot.UsedinCanadainnon-standardizedmeatsandmeatproducts,
fish,poultryandpoultryproducts.UsedinEnglandandWalesin
sausage and sausage meats (450p of SO
2
/m) . Used in France in
shrimpanddriedfish.Sulfatedestroystniamineinmeats.
b
Alsousedinpoultrysalads,onsmokedandsalted fish,indog
foodpatties,andmargarine.
PermittedinsausageinJapan;sorbicacidalso.
d
Evaluated in bacon and sausage products to give botulinum
protectionwithreducedlevelsofnitrite.
e
Also acts as an emulsifying agent and encourages better
distributionofotheradditives.
f
Label must be billboarded "Dipped ina solution of potassium
sorbatetoretardmold".
407
CHEMICAL
FORMULA USDA USE
PERMITTED
Chlor-
H H
Not Retard
1H
tetra-
0 permitted bacterial
cycline i \'S.C-NH, inany growth
f
/ \ \
2
product
V o
VyVv
1,HOCH
3 N(C
Oxy-
H H
1 1
tetra-
0 0 0 n
cycline .C-NH,
/ \ \
2
1 0
OH
HO CH
3
\
N(C
H
2
)
3
OH
Other preservatives that have been suggested or used are as
follows:
CHEMICAL
Sorbic
Acid
FORMULA
CH
3
CH=CH=CH
COOH
orKsalt
Margar-
ine
Sausage
Poultry
Skin
PreventHydrolyticRancidity
2.5%Solution,beforeorafter
stuffingdrysausage;USAto
preventmoldgrowth.Usedin
Japantocontrolmoldand
yeastgrowth.
LowerpHandextendshelflife
408
CHEMICAL FORMULA PRODUCT USE
Neofur- Mixtureof Cooked UsedinJapan
asukin nitro- Sausage
furazone&
nitro-
furylacryl
amide
Boric H
3
BO
3
General UsedinBritishCommonwealth
Acid Pre-
servat-
ive
Imid- Enhancebloominfreshmeat
azole
l
system
Sodium 450ppm Sausage UsedinEngland
orPot- sulfur
assium dioxide
meta-
(so
2
)
bi-
sulphite
Bleachingagent;
Hydrogenperoxide (H
2
O
2
)canbeusedasableachingagentfor
tripebutmustberemovedbyrinsingwithclearwater.
AnticakingAgents;
Salt,curesorseasoningmaycontainupto2%ofthefollowing
anticaking agents and are particularly helpful in mixtures
containinghydroscopicingredients.
AnticakingChemical
Tricalciumphosphate - Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
Tetrasodiumpyrophosphate - Na
4
P
2
O^
Calciumcarbonate - CaCO
3
Magnesiumcarbonate - (MgCO
3
)
4
Mg(OH)^*5H
2
O (0.8%often
addedtosaltforhomeuse)
409
Silicagel
- H
2
Si 0
3
Calciumaluminumsilicate
- CaO-Al
2
Cy2Si O
2
Calciumsilicate
- CaSi O
4
o r Ca
3
Si
2
0
7
o r Ca
3
( Si
3
0
9
) o r
Ca
4
( H
4
Si
4
0
1 3
)
Magnesiumsilicate
- Mg
2
Si
3
0
8
-5H
2
0
Sodiumaluminosilicate
- Al
2
O
3
-Na
2
O"6SiO
2
(Zeolex)
- Na
2
O-Al
2
O
3
-2SiO
2
- Na
2
O-Al
2
O
3
-4SiO
2
Sodiumcalciumalumino - XNa
2
0-XCa0-XAl
2
0
3
"XSi0
2
silicate
Sorbitol
'
C
6
H
U6
Glycerol (glycerine)
'
C
3
H
83
Propyleneglycol - CH
3
CHOHCH
2
OH
Silicondioxide - SiO,
Methylcellulose
- 29%methoxylcontent
CrystallizingAgent
Saltmaycontain (USDA)upto13ppmofyellowprussiateof
soda (sodium ferrocyanide decahydrate; Fe(CN)
6
"10H
2
O) as a
crystallizingagent.
Iodizedsalt
Potassiumiodide (KI)orcuprousiodide (Cul)maybeaddedtosalt
asanutritionaliodinesource.
Gumsarepermitted(USDA)asemulsifyingandthickeningagents
insaladdressing,sauces,seasonings,breaders,andbattermixes.
Thefollowingarepermitted:
410
GUM SOURCE CHEMICALLY ANALYSIS APP- PUR-
LICAT- POSE,
ION PROD-
UCTS
Vegetablegum
Acacia Tree Saltof 13% High To
gum exudate polymeric, Moisture water ex-
(gum (Acacia Arabicacid, 3%Ash sol- tend
Arabic) verek) Ave.MW 0.1%Acid ubility and
240,000 insoluble &prot- stab-
ash ective ilize
colloid prod-
action uct;
egg
Locust
bean
(carob
seed
Seedof
evergreen
tree,
Ceratonia
Galactomannan,
Ave.MW
310,000
12%
Moisture
1%Ash
0.5%Acid
In-
crease
vis-
cosity
roll,
any
poult
-rv
and
gum,
carob
siliqua insoluble
ash
poult
-rv
gum,
gum
tragon,
6%
Protein
0.5%Fat
2
prod-
ucts
tra- and
gosal, alcohol
St. soluble
John's
bread
gum
Guar Seedofleguminous
plant, (Cyamopsis
tetragonolobus)
Karaya Tree Acetylated 13% Ab-
exudate, poly- Moisture sorbs
Sterculia saccharide; 5%Ash water
urens) Ave.MW 1%Acid without
9,500,000 insoluble heat
ash.
pH5.7
411
GUM
Tra-
gacanth
Carra-
geenan
(Irish
Moss)
Algin
Car-
boxy-
methyl
Cell-
ulose,
Cell-
ulose
gum
Methyl
Cell-
ulose
SOURCE
Bush
exudate
(Astra-
galus
gummifer)
CHEMICALLY
Vegetable gum
2fractions-
AveMW840,000
Traqacanthin
arabogalactan
producesa
colloidal
solution.
Bassorinacid
poly-
saccharide
semi-gel
ANALYSIS
12%
Moisture
4%Ash
1%acid
insoluble
ash.
pH5.7
APP-
LIC-
ATION
thick-
ens,
emul-
sifying
Extractfromredalgae
(chondruschrispus
Gigartinaspecies)
Extractfromseaweed
(Macrocystispyrifera
Laminariaspecies)
Toextendandstabilize
product;Breadingmix,
sauces,anypoultry&
poultryproducts
Toextend&stabilize
product:Breadingmix,
sauces,anypoultryand
poultryproducts
Modified Gums
Semi-synthetic (wood
pulp&cottonlinters)
Semi -synthetic
Toextend&stabilize
product:Bakedpies,any
poultryandpoultry
product
Toextend&stabilize
product (alsocarrier):
Meat&vegetablepatties,
anypoultryandpoultry
products
Ifusedinseasoningamaximumof0.15% (USDA)gumisallowed
inthefinishedproduct. Itisdeclaredassuchonthelabel.
Otherforeignandexperimentalapplicationforgumproductsin
themeatareainclude: sausagecasings,fishpreservation,canned
412
andjelliedmeats,sausagebinders,andcoatingformeats.
Agumthathasbeenapprovedformeatproductsisasfollows
Source Application
Xanthangum Producedbypure Tomaintainviscosity,
culturefermentation suspension,emulsionand
ofglucosewith freeze-thawstability
Xanthomonascampestris.
Itisaheteropoly-
saccharidemadeupof
D-glucose,D-mannose& Products
D-glucuronicacid Meatsauces,gravies,
residues. salads,stews,chili,
Pizzaandbreading
mixes.
Miscellaneous
Treatment ofmeat withgases,rays,wrapping materialsand
casings isnotanadditive inthestrictsenseoftheword,but
thesetreatmentsdoaffectthemuscletissueandwillbeoutlined
briefly.
1. Gases
a. Carbondioxide: C0
2
(dryicetemperature-78.5C
or-109F)-Thischemicalisusedprimarilyto
coolmeatproducts. Thegas (levelstoapproxi-
mately25%)hasalsobeenusedtoinhibitthe
growthofmicroorganismsandretardtherateof
fatoxidationinbothredmeatandpoultry. Higher
levelscausebrowndiscolorationofthetissueand
insomecasesoff-flavors. Higherconcentrations
canbeusedwithfrankfurtersbutasourtaste
developsinconcentrationsabove50%.
413
Legalconcentrations(InUnitedKingdom)ofC0
2
forstunningpigsis62to70%. Sixty-fivepercent
C0
2
willbringaboutcollapseofthepigin60
seconds.
Thisgaswillcauseunconsciousnessinmanat
the12%levelandconvulsionsatthe30%level. The
thresholdforpotentialhazardissetat.5%(5,000
ppm.at5feetabovefloorlevel).
b. Carbonmonoxide: CO-Thisundesirablegascombines
withmyoglobinandformsanunnaturalredpigment
whichisheatstable. Accidentalsourcesofcarbon
monoxidemightincludeheatinggases,exhaustgases,
andfurnaces.
c. Ozone:O
3
-ProducedbyactionofU.V.radiationon
oxygenintheair. Ozoneisapowerfuloxidizing
agentandisbactericidaltoairborneorganisms
buthaslittleeffectonorganismsonthetissue
surface. At0.6mgofozonepercubicmetera
significantdecreaseinthegrowthrateof
Pseudomonashasbeenreported. Ozonealso
acceleratesrancidityinfatandtheformation
ofbrownmetmyoglobinonthemusclesurface.
Highconcentrationcausesirritationtotheeyes
andrespiratorytract,andtheconcentration
414
d.
2. Rays
a.
b.
c.
shouldnotexceed0.1ppmincontinuouswork
areas.
Nitrogen: N
2
andVacuum-Usedinpackagingsystem
toexcludeoxygen,reduceranciditydevelopment,
andtodiscouragethegrowthofoxygenrequiring
organisms.
Liquidnitrogenisalsousedincontactmeat
freezingandhasaboilingpointof-195.8C
(-320F). Thevaporizationofonepoundof
liquidnitrogenabsorbs86BTU.
Microwaveorradar-Thesewaveshaveafrequency
of2000megacyclesorgreaterandareusedin
cooking.
Ultraviolet (U.V.)-Mosteffectiveatdestroying
airbornemicroorganismsatawavelengthof2600A.
Theserayshaveverypoorpenetratingpowers,
increasefatoxidationandaccelerateformationof
brownmetmyoglobinintheleantissue. Therays
areharmfultotheunprotectedeye.
Ionizingradiation-Theseradiationsmaybe
obtainedfrommachinesorradioactivematerial.
Theycanbeusedbothtosterilizeorpasteurize
meat.
415
Singeing
Singeing isanessential step inWiltshire bacon
production andmay be donewith hand torches or
in special furnaces. This step lowers the bacterial
count on the skinof the carcass.
Catalysts
A number of catalysts arepermitted in fat processing,
but in all cases theymust beeliminated during
processing.
Chemical Formula Purpose
Nickel Ni To accelerate chemical
reactions inanimal or
vegetable fats such as
hydrogenation.
Sodium amide
NaNH,
Usedinrearrangementof
fatty acid radicals.
Sodium methoxide CH
3
ONa Usedinrearrangementof
fatty acid radicals.
5. Wrapping material
Meat wrappingmaterials areoftendivided into the
following categories:
a. Base webs
Flexible
(a) Nylon -tough, flexible,withstand heat.
(b) Polyester -strong, flexible.
(c) Cellophane -flexible,not elastic,
non-forming, good physical stability,
poor registration.
(d) Polypropylene -Pooroxygenbarrier,non-
forming.
416
Rigid
(a) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) -Vinyl chloride
isunder investigation for carcinogenic
properties; needs anoxygen barrier and
therefore isusually coated with seran.
(b) Barex
(c) Cycopac
(d) Polyester -can be thermo formed, low
oxygen barrier, hard tocut.
Sealants (temperature and dwell important).
(a) Polyethylene -inexpensive, narrow
temperature range,poor sealing
throughwater and grease.
(b) EthyleneVinylAcetateCopolymer (EVA)-
broad sealing range, can seal through
water and grease.
(c) Ionomer (DuPont -Surlyn) good hot pack
strength, can seal through water and
grease, expensive.
(d) Vinyls
Specialized materials
(a) Paper andpaperboard -opaque and good
printing properties.
(b) Foil -best gas barrier; no product
visibility, expensive.
(c) Polyvinylidene Chloride (PVdC) (DOW-
Seran) -goodgas barrier.
Properties needed inmeat wraps are as follows:
a. Oxygen permeable wrap -Used on fresh meat to allow
oxygen tooxygenate themyoglobin pigment and produce
the bright red color. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film
is oftenused. This film isalso used for "store-
417
packed"freshpoultryduetotheconvenienceof
handlingonlyonefilmeventhoughpoultrydoesnotneed
anoxygenpermeablewrap. Frozenbeefneedsanoxygen
permeablewraptomaintainredcolor.
b. Oxygenimpermeablewrap-Usedoncuredmeattoexclude
oxygenfromthepackagesothatnitrosomyoglobinwill
notbeoxidizedtometmyoglobinandtoaidincontrolling
bacterialgrowth. Polyvinylidenechloride (PVDC)filmor
morecommonlyknownas"saranwrap"isoftenused.
"Inplant"packagingofpoultryandfrozenturkeysisoften
wrappedwitha"Cryovac-type"offilmthatexcludesthe
oxygenandthefilmisheatshrinkablearoundthebird.
Thisretardsthepropagationofaerobic(oxygenrequiring)
microorganisms.
Oxygenimpermeablewrapshouldalsobeusedon
frozenfish,porkandpoultrytoreducetheoxidationof
fatandthedevelopmentofrancidity.
c. Moisturepermeablewrap-Meatpiesrequireahumidityof
lessthan75%toinsureproperventilation. Cellophane,
celluloseacetateandventilatedpolyethyleneareoften
used. Oxygenandmoisturepermeabilityofwrapping
materialscanbecomparedinthefollowingtable:
418
PERMEATIONRATETABLE
8
Sample Identification Water
Permeation
G/sqm/24hrs
@100F,90%RH
BaseMaterials (1milthickness)
Cellophane,Lacquered
Cellophane,PalmerCoated
Polyester,Uncoated
Polyester,SaranTypeCoating
CelluloseAcetate
Polypropylene,Cast
Polypropylene,Oriented
Polyethylene,LowDensity
Nylon6
Polyvinylchloride,Non-Rigid
Saran,PolyvinylideneChloride
Aclar,Fluorohalocarbon
PolyvinylAlcohol
Foil,0.00035"
TypicalCombinations,2-5mil
thickness
CoatedCello-Polyethylene
Lacquered Cello-Polyethylene
Uncoated Polyester-Polyethylene
Coated Polyester-Polyethylene
Paper-Polyethylene
Paper-Poly-Foil-Poly
Cello-Poly-Foil-Poly
Polyester-Poly-Foil-Poly
BiaxPolypropylene-CoatedCello-
PE
3-16
8-14
16
4.5
VeryHigh
11-25
8-11
16-20
VeryHigh
35
1.5-4.5
1-1.5
VeryHigh
0-1
3-6
6
11
4
4.5
16-40
0-.5
0
0
3
Oxygen
Permeation
Ml/sqm/24
hrs@73F,
50%RH
25-70
6-10
80-115
8-16
1600-2300
3700
1900
3900-7800
30-100
470-3100
8-25
110-230
1.5-11
0
3-46
10-25
30-45
3-6
3900-12000
0-8
0-8
0-8
4.5-8
419
Sample Identification
Water Oxygen
Permeation Permeation
G/sqm/24 Ml/sqm/24
hrs@100F, hrs@
90%RH 73F,50%RH
Nylon-Polyethylene
7-8 16-45
Nylon-Seran-Polyethylene 4.5-5.5 4.5-16
BiaxPolypropylene-Polyvinyl 3-4.5 1-3
Alcohol-Polyethylene
Aclar-Polyethylene
1-1.1 110-230
Paper-Saran,9lbs
40-45 1.5-16
Paper-Polyethylene (6lbs)- 6 1.5-16
Saran(6lbs)
a
Galloway,D. 1976.AMIShortCourse,Atlanta,GA.
d. Paper-Mustnotcontaminateproductorcontain
cadmium,arsenic,antimony,lead,chromium,mercury
orotherharmfulsubstances. Sulfitefrompaper
sometimesadulteratesproduct. Pattypapermaycontain
200ppmofformaldehyde.
e. Cancoating- Acoatingofmodifiedepoxywithaluminum
pigmentsisusedinmeatcans.
f. Foil-Leadfreealuminumfoilisnottoxic.Aluminumfoil
incontactwithhighlysaltedoracidicmeatmaystainthe
meatandmakeitunacceptable.
g. Polyethylenefilmisoftenusedtolinestainlesssteel
meatloafpans.
6.Casings-Casingdiameterisusuallylistedinmmandlengthin
feet.
420
COMPARISONOFCASING
MostExpensive,cost/pound
product
RefrigerationStorage
degreeofTenderness
BreakDuringProcessing
CasingPreparationCost
Soaking&FlushingBeforeUse
EaseofSmokePenetration
BestMachinability
BestProductYield,perfoot
ofcasing
FinishedProductYield,per
footofcasing
FinishedProductUniformity-
CostofCasingRemoval
Printability
OldWorldAppearance
EaseofPlantStorage
NATURAL
Most
Expensive
Yes
Most
Tender
Most
Likely
Most
Expensive
Yes
Most
Penetrat-
ion
Least
Least
Least
Least
None
None
Best
Least
Storage
COLLAGEN
Less
Expensive
Yes
Less
Tender
Less
Likely
None
No
Less
Penetrat-
ion
Less
Less
Less
Less
None
Limited
Less
Less
Storage
CELLULOSE
Least
Expensive
No
Peeled
Least
Likely
None
Sometimes
soaking
Least
Penetrat-
ion
Best
Best
Best
Best
Most
Best
None
Best
Storage
a. Cellulosecasingmanufacture. Inthemanufactureofthese
casingslintersarecleanedmechanically,cookedin
dilutealkalitoremovesolublecomponents,washedto
removetracesofsaltandthencausticsodaismixed
421
with98%purealpha-cellulose [fromcottonlinters
(fuzzoncottonseed)orwoodpulp]whichswellsthe
fibers. Thefibersarethenpressed,theexcessive
causticisremovedandthesheetsareshreddedtosmall
whiteparticleswhicharecalledalkalicellulosecrumbs.
Carbondisulfide (CS
2
)isthenaddedtoarotatingdrum
thatcontainsthecrumb. Theresultingyellow-orange
coloredmixture (cellulosexanthate)isthenblendedin
highspeedblenders,storedundervacuumforagingand
deairation. Thesolutionthenpassesthroughaseries
offiltersandisextrudedintheshapeofacasinginto
acoagulation (acid)bath. Afterextrusionofthe
gelatinlikecellulosefilm (80%waterandtheCS
2
is
splitfromthecomplex)inthecylindricalformthe
casingisthenwashedandpurified. Foodgradedyes
canbeaddedatthispoint.
Thisdyemayultimatelybetransferredtothemeat
product. Aftercompletewashing,90%ofthewateris
removedfromtheinflatedcasinginadryer. Thecasing
isthenwoundonwheelsforaging. Aftertheaging
processiscompletethecasing (cellulose,glycerineand
water)isunwoundandplacedonashirringmachine. This
machinepleatsandcompressesintostraightstrandsthe
casingsothatitwillfitoverastuffinghorn (some
casingsarecompressedfrom160feettounder18inches
inlength). Thisiscalledastickofcasingbecause
422
theywereoriginallyplacedonsticksforshipment. The
numberofthecasing (Ex#10)givestheapproximate
numberofhoursneededforprocessing (Ex10hours).
Somecasingsareprestuckwithholestoallowgas
and/ormoistureand/orfattoescapeduringcooking.
Aprestuckcasingwillusuallyhave1hole(approxi-
mately0.7mmindiameter)/sq.inch. Adoublestuck
casingwillhave2holes/sq.inch. Theseholescanbe
on1sideordoublesidedandcanalsobeinspecified
areas (e.g.-underalogoarea).
Whenthisproductispackagedandshippeditshould
contain14-17% (12to20%willusuallywork)moisture.
Iftheybecometoodry,placeinacoolertorehydrate.
Thetemperatureofwaterandsoaktimerecommendedby
themanufacturershouldbestrictlyadheredtofor
bestresults. Meatproductisstuffedintothiscasing
anduponcooking (seeheatingchapterfortemperature
andhumidity-thiscasingispermeablewhenwet)and
coolingtheexternalsurfaceofthemeatiscoagulated
andagelatinousfilmisformed. Thecasingisthen
peeledfromtheproductpriortoconsumption.
Somecasingsarechemicallytreated (i.e.-Carboxyl
methylcellulosewhoseacidpropertiesaidpeeling)to
allowforfasterpeeling. Thesecasingsalsocook
faster,cookdrier,haveanaffinityforfatandalittle
moreofatendencyto"fatout" (greasing).
423
Anorganic aciddiporspray (e.g.1/3 acid, 1/3
liquidsmoke,1/3water,pH2.5;verycorrosive;maximum
temperature130F)isoftenusedtoaidpeelabilityof
regularcasings.
Uniformdiameterofcasingisimportant forslice
weight control; and, therefore, longer casings are
becomingmorepopulartoreducethenumberofendpieces.
Ifhungverticallyduringcooking,thelongerthecasing
themoreitweighs;and,therefore,themorethetendency
to take on a teardrop shape. For this reason, long
casingsareoftencookedinthehorizontalposition.
Fibrousorreinforcedcasingsinboththeregularor
quickreleasetypeareavailabletogiveaddedstrength
anduniformityduringstuffing. Moistureproof casing
(PVDC--polyvinyldichloride)areavailableforproducts
cooked in water. Dry sausage fibrous casings are
manufacturedfordryproducts. Thesecasingswillallow
watertoescape,willsticktothemeatandwillshrink
asthemeatcontracts.
Cellulosecasingsareavailable inmanysizesand
types;but,canbebrokendownintosixcategories:
(a) Smallcellulosecasingsareavailableinclear,
coloredandstriped (tohelpidentifyunpeeled
productanddistinguishbetweenformulas),in
both open and closed-end forms. They are
usuallyavailablein40to160footshirred
424
sticks that may be dry stuffed (require no
preconditioning) at 250 ft/min. The casing
is removed after cooking and cooling of the
product. They are used principally for
skinless frankfurters andwieners; and,
sometimes used for skinless fresh and smoked
pork sausage, skinless smoked link sausage,
skinless Polishand skinless thuringer.
(b) Largecellulosecasingsareavailable inbothclear
andcoloredtypes;and,areusuallysuppliedin
flatbundlesof100pieces. Thesize (CO110=ll
inch stuffing circumference) suggests the
tightnessofstuffing. Thesecasingsshouldbe
soaked (30min.at 80to 100F)prior touse.
The ends aretied with cotton twine or
mechanically fastened which gives a finished
sausage a cylinder shape with hemispherical
ends. This casing may be removed prior to
slicing, at the retail level or by the
consumer. This type of casing isused for
alltypesofsausage itemsand forsmokedmeat
such as Canadian bacon.
(c) Fibrous casings are available inclear, opaque and
colored forms; and, are made by impregnating
selected paper to form a tube. This gives a
very strong and uniform casing which can be
425
madeinlongerlengthswhichisdesirablefor
slicedpre-packagedproduct.Thecasingsmaybe
prestuck and/or with vent holes drilled if
desired. Theyshouldbesoaked (30min.at80
-100F)priortouse;and,endsfastenedwith
cotton twine or mechanical fasteners. The
casingsareusedforlargesausage(longpieces
for slicing), wire cage loaves, bulk pork
sausage, chili-con-carne, liver sausage,
braunschweiger,loafitems,jelliedloaves,
cooked hams, boneless smoked hams, semi-
boneless smoked hams, flat hams, picnics,
butts, cappicola, Canadian style bacon,
hamburgersanduniformservingsofsteaks
andporkchops.
(d) Moisture-proof fibrous casings are available in
clear, opaque and colored types and
manufactured with a moisture and air
impermeable outer surface. This casing
provideslesscookingloss,lessdrying,better
keepingqualitiesandaidsinweightcontrol.
This casing is not suitable for smoked
products. Thiscasingshouldbesoaked (1to
8hoursin80-100Fwater)priortouseand
theendsmaybefastenedwithcottontwineor
mechanicalfasteners.Thesecasingsmaybeused
426
for braunschweiger, liver sausage, jellied
loaves, beef rolls, pork rolls, boneless
poultry,turkeyrolls,chickenrolls,hamburger
andpork sausage.
(e) Easypeelfibrouscasingsareavailable inclearand
colored forms and are internally treated
fibrous casings that will give ready release
and a smooth surface of the meat after
processing. Thesecasingsshouldbesoaked (30
min. to4hoursat 80-100Fwater) priorto
use and can be closed with cotton twine or
mechanical fasteners. These casings areused
on sausage or smoked meat items that require
additional operations (slicing or
unitpackaging)afterprocessing. Theproduct
isusuallypeeled by hand.
(f) Drysausagefibrouscasingsareavailableinclear,
opaqueandcolored;and,haveaninner coating
whichadheresthecasingtothesausagesurface
during drying. This is especially important
when 20 to 30% shrinkage in weight occurs
during the longperiods of low temperature
drying. If this type of casing is not used,
airpocketswilldevelopbetweenthecasingand
theproduct. Thiscasingshouldbe soaked (30
min. to4hours at 80-100Fwater) prior to
427
use and can be closed with cotton twine or
mechanicalfasteners.
b. CollagenCasingManufacture. Thesecasingscanbemanufactured
inbothanedible (usuallysmallcasings)andanon-edible
(usuallylargecasings)variety. Collagenisextractedfrom
thecoriumlayerofanimalhidesandextrudedintotheshape
of a casing. These casings arechewablebecause they are
thin. Intheedibleformtheywillsolubilizeincooking.
Theyshouldbestoredbetween35and50F. Bacteriacangrow
onthesecasingsiftheyaremishandled.
They are "man-made" products but constructed from
collagen,aproteinofanimalorigin. Thecollagenis
obtainedfromthecentralcoriumlayerofbeefhides. Two
methodsofmanufactureareused;and,theyarereferredto
asthe"dryandwet"methods. Thedrymethodhasahigh
solidcontent;and,thewetmethodusesagelorlowsolid
contentforextrusion.
Hidesarewashed,defleshedandtreatedwithaweak
acidoralkalitoremovethehairfromthefollicle. Thehide
isthen split bymachine to separate thegrain or leather
layerfromthecollagenouscoriumlayer. Thecoriumlayer
isthenneutralized,washedandcoarselyground. Itisthen
runthroughahighspeedultrafinechopperresultingina
shammy. Theshammycontaining5%collagen (lowsolids)is
acidifiedcausingittoabsorbwaterandthepastygelisthen
filtered,homogenizedandextruded. Theextruderalignsthe
428
collagenfibersandfibrilsbyrunningthroughanannulardie.
Theextrudedtubeisneutralized,washedwithwaterand
givenachemicaltreatmenttoimprovestrength (sugar)and
pliability (glycerine). Thecasingsarethendriedunder
specialtemperatureandhumidity;andthenarecutandshirred
tofitmoststuffinghorns. Thecasingsarethenpackedin
moisture-checkedboxes. Moistureismaintainedbetween13-18%
andtheboxedarethensealed. Theproductcanbestored
indefinitelyaslongasthestorageconditionsremainfavor-
able. Thecasingsarereadytousewhentheycomefromthe
box (no rewetting is necessary except for large diameter
casingswhichcanbesoakedin80-90Fwater).
Thesausageinthesecasingsshouldbecookedata
relativehumidityof40-45%. Ifcookedbelowthisrelative
humidity,thecasingwillsplit;and,ifcookedabove,the
casingwillhydrolyzeandspilltheemulsion.
Thesmallcasingsareedibleandareoftenusedfor
freshporksausage. Largecollagencasingsaretreatedwith
aldehydestocrosslinkthecollagenandincreasethe
strength. Thistypeofcasingisremovedbeforeconsumption.
Groundsagewilloftendiscolorthecollagencasings.
Formaldehydeisusedinthemanufactureofcollagen
casingsandispresentonthesecasingsinboththefree
andcombinedstate.
429
USDA-MAXIMUM FORMALDEHYDE
FREE COMBINED (total-free)
Edible
None 4ppm
Inedible
10ppm 200ppm
Inedibleringbologna
50ppm 200ppm
ClothBags. Bagsmadefromcottonareoftenusedfor
freshporksausage,smokedsausageandsomespecialty-
items (Ex:Taylorroll). Bytightlystuffing,some
ofthefatisforcedoutthroughthemesh;andwhen
theproductissmokedathightemperatures,thefat
meltsandsealsthesurfaceforminganimpermeable
layerwhichpreventsdrying.
Stockinettes. Stockinettesaremadefromcottonknitted
materialinsuchafashionthattheywillexpand. They
areusedtoencasemeatusuallyduringthecookingand
smokingstagesofmanufacturing. Fatrenderingand
proteindenaturingoftenmakeremovaldifficultwithout
tearingofthemuscletissue. Aidsinstockinette
removalwouldincludesoakingthestockinetteinthe
followingpriortoplacingonthemeat:
1. Acid (orvinegar)
2. Enzymesolution
3. Liquidsmoke (Phenolicacid)
430
3. Naturalcasingsareacquiredfromthealimentarytractofmeat
animalsandtheconstructionofthistractisasfollows:
Intestineiscomposedof5layerswhichfrominsideto
outsideare:
1. Mucosa - glands aid in
secretion,digestionand
absorption.
Hog&SheepCasing > I 2. Submucosa-collagen,
andoftenfat.
BeefCasing 3. Circularmuscle.
4. Longitudinalmuscle.
' 5. Serosa-collagen,elastin.
Theconversionofthistractintosausagecasingusuallyinvolve
thefollowinggeneralsteps:
Stepsinpreparingacasingforuse:
1.Removalofintestinefromanimal.
2.Running-removalofloosemesenteryfat.
3.1ststripping-squeezingtoforceoutintestinalcontents.
4.Washedandcooled (50Fwater).
5.Mechanicalstripper.
6.Brushesusedtoremovefat.
7.Sliming-removaloftissuelayers-revolvingdrumsand
warm (115F)water.
8.Strippers-removeappropriatetissuelayers.
9.Storedovernightiniced15-20%saturatedsaltsolution.
10.Graded-species,size,quality.
11.Cured-rubbedwithsalt,letsetfor1week.
431
12.Removedfromcure,shakenfreeofexcesssalt,rubbedwith
finesaltandpacked (40%salt).
13.Flushedpriortouse.
Thefollowingclassificationswouldincludealargepercentage
ofthecasingsusedformeatpurposes;
NATURALCASINGS
NATURAL LOCATION APPEARANCE SAUSAGE AVE.
&.COMMENTS YIELD/
ANIMAL
BEEF
Round Small Ringlike, RingBologna,Polish 90-135
intestine Tougher, Sausage feet
Easily- long
handled,
Less
breakage
Bung Cecum Capocolla,Salami 4-5
feet
long
Bladder Bladder Ovalor MincedSpecialty, 7-14
molded Mortadella inches
wide
Middles Large Sewed, Bologna,Salami 20-25
intestine Most feet
expensive, long
Adds
uniformity
Weasand Windpipe
18-26
inches
long
HOG
Round Small
intestine
Maybe
eatenor
LargeFrankfurter,
HogSausage
42-52
feet
peeled
long
Bung Cecum Maybe
sewed
Braunschweiger 30-72
inches
long
432
NAME LOCATION APPEARANCE SAUSAGE AVE.
& COMMENTS YIELD/
ANIMAL
HOGCONTINUED
Middles Large Curly Chitterlings 12-16
intestine
feet
long
Stomach Stomach Headcheese,Souse
Bladder Bladder 5-9
inches
wide
SHEEP
Small 22mm, SmallFrankfurter, 90feet
intestine Most PorkSausage long
tender,
Most
breakage
Naturalcasingsholdmoisturewell,shrinklessthancellulose
casing, have a distinctive appearance and are frequently not
uniform (catchweightsnormallyused). Theyareflushedtoremove
saltpriortousing. Afterflushingthebacterialcountisusually
verylow. Somecasingarepre-flushedandpackedinabrine,P0
4
,
etc.andareusuallyalkalineinpH. Theyshouldbeflushedagain
ortheywilloftenblockcuredcolordevelopment. Casingscanbe
classifiedasfollows:
Sheep-Smalldiameter,usedforfranksandporklinks,
mosttendercasings,mustbehandledverycarefully
inmanufacturingandwaterisusedtolubricatethe
casing. Twisting (preferably)orstringtie
(sometimescutscasing)isusedtoformthelinks.
Hog- Intermediateinsize,cansometimesbetough.
433
Beef- Largestinsize,notpalatable,usuallynoteaten,
usuallypeeled.
SewedCasing-Ultimateincasingart,sometimesdouble
walls (bungsandroundslinedwithbungs)are
used,veryexpensive.
Laminated -Oftenusedfordryorsemi-drysausage.
Inusingnatural casing there shouldbe adrying period inthe
smokingcycletoobtainuniformsmokecolorandgreatcareshould
beexercisedincookingandsmokingoftheseproducts. Sincethese
products are primarily collagen they behave in the following
manner:
Dry-Theybecomebrittleandshrink-alsosmokewillnot
penetrate. Somedryingisnecessarytoreducesmoke
penetrationtokeepfromformingaskinunderthe
casing.
Wet-Smokegoesthroughthecasingtothesausage.
Acid (smoke)-Firm,harderandtougher.
Heatinpresenceofmoisture-Theybecomesoftandhydrolyze
slowly (sheepistheworst).
Ifthesecasingsarehandledproperlythemeatproductcanstand
moreabuse (lessfattingout)thanwithcellulosecasings.
Glvcerolandpropyleneglvcol-Isusedinpackagingofanatural
casingandislimitedto10%concentration.
DipCoating-Dermatex (clearorcolored)isdistilledacetylated
monoglycerideandcellulosepropionateandwasdevelopedtoreduce
shrinkageandmoldgrowth. Dermatexisheatedto230to280Fand
434
a sausage with natural or artificial casing isdipped for 1to3
seconds. Thecoatingpickupisfrom2.5to4%andthecoatingmust
be cooled for 10secondspriortopackaging.
Pallet -One,twoorfourway indicates thenumberofwaysafork
lift truck can approach. Types inuse in the meat are: wood-
plastic -cardboard.
7. Label
Meat label required features.
a) Product name -standard ornon-standard; seemeat
inspection definition andrequirement for specific
product names. Ex. "Frankfurter, cereal added".
b) Qualifying statement. Ex.withsoy protein
concentrate,calciumreduceddryskimmilk,hickory
smoke flavor, citric acid tohelpprotect flavor.
Onethird the lettersideofproduct name.
c) Inspection legendandestablishment number.
d) Name,address,zipcode;Private label - "Packed
for"or "distributed by";maybeon principal
or20%panel.
e) Weight (oz/lbs) --do notuse fractionoflbs.
--metric isoptional.
f) Net contents -tareweight onshipping containers;
mustbeonbottom 30%ofprincipalpanel.
g) Ingredients -listed (commonorusual name) in
descending orderofpredominance asused in
formulation. When2meat ingredients are70%
ofthemeat itemsandwhenneither isless than
30% andwhen "and"isplacedbetween the meat
itemsratherthanacommathenthe proportions
canbevariedbetweenthese limits without
changing thelabel. Antioxidants should be
listedhereaswellasinqualifying statements.
Maybeprincipal or20%panel.
h) Handling statement -"Keep frozen", "Perishable
keep refrigerated".
i) Manufacturing dateorfreshnessdate (sellby).
435
Voluntary information
a) Universal product code
b) Nutritional information
Additives areusually labeled inthefollowingmanner:
COMMON OR USUAL
NAME
Natural spice
Spice
extractives or
(oil/resin)
Oil/resin onion
orgarlic
Oil/resinof
paprika,
tumeric,
saffron
Onion/garlic
poweror flakes
Oilofonion,
garlic,sage,
etc.
Hydrolyzed
plant protein
(HPP)or
vegetable
protein (HVP)
flavorings
Dextrose
Cornsyrup
Wheyproducts
Cornsyrup
solids
Starches
LABEL DECLARATION
Spice/Spices
Flavoring
Extract of individual spice/or flavoring and
coloring
Coloring,extractof individual spices/or
flavoringand coloring
MID -flavoring,onionorgarlicpowder or
flake,ordehydrated onionflake,or
extractivesofonionorgarlic,oronion or
garlic spice,onion flakesasingredient if
inquantity
FDA -powder
Spiceextractivesorextractivesof spice
MID -hydrolyzedplantproteinor hydrolyzed
vegetable protein
FDA -flavorings
Dextrose
Corn syrup
Wheyprotein concentrate,Delactosed whey,
Sweetdairy whey
Cornsyrup solids
Type (i.e.)modified foodstarch, tapioca
starch,ricestarch,rice flour,etc.
436
COMMON OR USUAL
NAME
LABEL DECLARATION
Liquid smoke-
hickory (must
come from
hickory)
Hickory smoke flavoring
Combinations of
hardwoods
Natural smoke flavoring
Chicken Labeling
a) Chickenmeat -Chickenmeatwithout skin, sex
glandsorkidney (handormechanically deboned).
b) Chicken -Chickenmeatwith skin,sexgland
and/or kidney.
c) Chickenwith sexglandsremoved -Meat and skin.
Ifaproduct contains
15%or lesschicken -Chickenmustbe in ingredients
statement.
15-20% -Product namewithchicken.
20%ormore -Chicken intheproductname.
8. Lubricants:
Approved (USDA)lubricantswheredirect contactwith product
occurs:
Foodgradeanimal fats.
Foodgradevegetable fats.
Refinedmineral oil -only lubricant tobeused to
prevent rust after cleaning.
Refined petrolatum.
Ifno significant contact withproduct isexpected other
lubricantsmaybeused (see regulations).
9. Hog scaldingagents:
Avarietyofchemicalsmaybeadded tothehog scalding
water toaid inthe removalofhairand these substances
437
shouldberemovedbysubsequentcleaning. Thechemicals
are:
CHEMICAL
Caustic
soda
(Sodium
Hy-
droxide)
Lime
(calcium
oxide)
Sodium
Carbonate
(Soda
ash,
Washing
soda)
Sodium
Hexameta-
phosphate
Sodium
dodecyl-
benzene
sulfonate
FORMULA
NaOH
CaO
Na
2
CO
3
(NaPO
3
)
6
C
12
H
25
C
6
H
4
SO
3
Na
ACTIONINSCALD
WATER
RaisesthepH
Hydrolyzesfat
Precipitates
basesandmetals
fromwater
Softensepidermis
Corrosivetoall
animaltissue
Dispersessolids
CaO+H
2
0 *
Ca(OH)
2
RaisespH
RaisespH,Water
softening,
Washing
properties,
Emulsifyingfat,
Precipitationof
minerals
RaisespH,
Detergent,
Sequestering
calcium,
magnesium&iron,
Watersoftening
Anionicdetergent
438
CHEMICAL
Sodiumn-
alkyl-
benzene
sulfonate
(alkyl
group
predomin-
antlyc
12
andC
13
)
Trisodium
Phosphate
Dioctyl
Sodium
Sulfo-
succinate
Sodium
Sulfate
Sodium
Lauryl
Sulfate
Sodium
Tripoly
Phosphate
Methyl
Poly-
silicone
FORMULA
H
Na
+
H
2
-C-(C
H
2h-:4'\
Na
3
PO
4
0 C
2
H
5
//
CH
2
C-O-CH
2
C:H(CH
2
)
3
-CH
3
NaO,S-C-C-O-CH,CT I- (CH
2
)
3
-CH
3
1W 1
H O C,
Na
2
SO
4
CH
3
(CH
2
)
10
CH
2
OSO
3
Na
Na
5
P
3
O
10
(CH
3
)
2
Si0]
x
ACTIONINSCALD
WATER
Detergent
Detergent,
Precipitates
minerals,Raises
pH, Emulsifying
properties,
Dispersing
properties
Wettingagent
Wettingagent
Detergent,Lowers
surfacetension,
Emulsifiesfat,
Wettingagent
Watersoftening,
Sequestering
calciumand
magnesium,
Peptizingagent,
Emulsifierof
fat, Dispensing
agent
Releasefrom
sticking
439
CHEMICAL
FORMULA ACTIONINSCALD
WATER
Sodium
Na
2
Si0
3 Wettingagent,
Meta-
Emulsifyingfats,
silicate
Dispersesprotein
Sucrose
C
12
H
2211
Reportedtoaid
inremovalof
hairfrom
follicles
10. DenudingAgents
A variety of chemicals are used to denude (remove
covering)themucousmembranefromtripe (wallsofreticulum
andrumenofaruminantanimal)buttheymustberemoved
byrinsingwithwater. Thefollowingchemicalsmaybe
used:
Chemical
Formula
SodiumCarbonate
Na
2
CO
3
OH
SodiumGluconate
HO-CH,-CH-CH-CH-CH-C-O-Na
I I I \\
HO OH HO 0
SodiumHydroxide NaOH
SodiumMetasilicate Na
2
Si0
3
SodiumPersulfate Na
2
S
2
O
8
TrisodiumPhosphate Na
3
PO
4
(TSP)
11. Coolingandretortwatertreatmentsubstances:
Avarietyofchemicalsmaybeaddedtothecoolingor
retortwatertoaidinthepreventionofstainingorcorrosion
440
ofthecansortoassistincoolingprocessbyallowingthe
temperaturetobeloweredbelow32F (OC). Thesechemicals
are:
COOLINGANDRETORTWATERTREATMENTSUBSTANCES
CHEMICAL
Calcium
Chloride
Citric
Acid
Diotyl
Sodium
Sulfo-
succinate
Disodium
Calcium
Ethylene-
diamine
Tetra-
acetate
(Na
2
Ca
EDTA)
Disodium
Ethylene-
diamine
Tetra-
acetate
FORMULA
CaCl
2
CH,-C-O-H
\\
0
H-O-C-C-O-H
\\
0
CH,-C-O-H
2
\\
0
0 CH,CH,
//
CH
?
-C-O-CH
?
CH-(CH
?
),CH,
NaO,S -CH - C-0 -CH,CH -(CH,),CH,
\\
0 CH
?
CH,
Na-O-C-CH, CH
?
C H
?
ChW-G-O-Na
\/ \/"
\
\l \'
\/
hi N
/ \ / \
H
2
C
\ / \ H ,
Ca 2
/ \
/ \
O - C - O O - C - O
Na-O-C-CH,CH,CH,CH,-C-O-Na
\/ \/
N-CH
?
CH
2
-N
/ \
HOOC-CH
?
CH
?
-COOH
ACTIONIN
COOLINGOR
RETORTWATER
Preventstaining
ofcans
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Metalchelating
agent
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Solubilizing
agentforgums,
Wettingagent
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Metalchelating
agent
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Sequestering
agent
4 4 1
CHEMICAL
Disodium
Phosphate
Ethylene
Diamine
Tetra-
acetic
Acid
(EDTA)
Iso-
propanol
Potassium
Pyro-
phosphate
Propylene
Glycol
SodiumBi-
carbonate
Sodium
Bisulfite
FORMULA
Na
2
HPO
4
[HO-C-CH
2
]
2
N (CH
2
)
2
N [CH
2
-C-OH]
2
0 0
CH,-CH-CH,
1
OH
K
2
P
2
O
7
CH
3
CH-OHCH
2
-OH
CH
3
CH-OHCH
2
-OH
NaHSO
3
ACTIONIN
COOLINGOR
RETORTWATER
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Metalchelating
agent
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Metalchelating
agent
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Antifreeze,
Solvent
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Metalchelating
agent
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Antifreeze,
Solvent,
Emulsifying
agent,
Disinfect
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Antifreeze,
Solvent,
Emulsifying
agent,
Disinfect
Preventstaining
andrustingof
cans,
Disinfectant,
Bleach,
Stainremover
442
CHEMICAL FORMULA
ACTIONIN
COOLINGOR
RETORTWATER
Sodium
Carbonate
Na
2
CO
3
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Cleaningagent,
Watersoftener
SodiumDo-
decyl
Benzene
Sulfonate
Na+
SO
3
H
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Anionic
detergent
H
2
-C-(CH
2
)
10
-CH
Sodium OH
Preventstaining
Gluconate ofcans,
HO-CH.-CH-CH-CH-CH-C-O-Na
II IW
Metalchelating
agent
HO OH HO O
Sodium
Hexameta-
(NaPO
3'6
Preventstaining
ofcans,
phosphate IncreasespH,
Detergent,
Metalchelating
agent,
Watersoftening
agent
Sodium CH
3
(CH
2
)
10
CH
2
OSO
3
Na Preventstaining
Lauryl ofcans,
Sulfate Wettingagent,
Emulsifiesfats,
Dispenses
protein
443
CHEMICAL
Sodiumn-
alkyl-
benzene
Sulfonate
(alkyl
grouppre-
dominantly
C
12
and C
13
)
Sodium
Nitrite
(Mustbe
decharac-
terized
with
charcoal
or
nigrosine
gr.)
Sodium
Pyro-
phosphate
Sodium
tripoly-
phosphate
Zincoxide
Zinc
sulfate
FORMULA
r SO.H" i
Na
+ r
\.
H
2
-C-(CH
2
)
8
.
14
-CH
3
_
NaNO,
c.
K
2
P
2
O
7
Na
5
P
310
ZnO
ZnSO
4
ACTIONIN
COOLINGOR
RETORTWATER
Preventstaining
ofcans
Inhibits
corrosionor
rustingofcans,
RaisespH
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Cleaningagent,
Emulsification
agent,
Removerust
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Watersoftening,
Metalchelating,
Peptizingagent,
Emulsifierof
fat,
Dispersingagent
Preventstaining
ofcans,
Antiseptic
Preventstaining
ofcans
444
12 .Defrostliquid-ethyleneglycolorpropyleneglycolareoften
usedtodefrostrefrigerationcoils. Concentrationinroom
mustnotexceed2ppm.
13. Filterair-propyleneglycolissometimesusedtofilterair
priortoitsentranceintoameatplant. Itwillremovedust
andabsorbwaterandmaintainarelativehumidityof50%.
14. Residues-unintentionaladditivesthatsometimesfindtheir
wayintotissues.
a. Polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCB)
Cl
Thesechemicalshaveanumberofindustrialusesandare
widelydistributedintheenvironment. Residueshavebeen
foundinseafoods,poultryanddairyproducts. Foodand
DrugguidelineformaximumPCBresidueisequivalentto
2.5ppminmilkfat.
445
MEATAREASOILCLASSIFICATION
SOILTYPE
Sugar
Fat
Protein
Salt
(mono-
valent)
Salt,
poli-
valent
(calcium,
mag-
nesium)
DESCRIPTION
ANDCAUSE
White
crystalline,
Sticky,
Curingbrines
Hangingwater
droplets,
Greasywhite
appearance,
Lowtemp-
eratureor
improper
detergent
concen-
tration,Use
ofacidsin
washing,
Pulsatoroil
Blue
(rainbow)
varnishlike
"applesauce"
Deposits,
Scale,Film
Deposits,
Scale,Film,
White,Chalky
togreasy
SOLUBILITY
ANDREMOVAL
Water
soluble,Easy
toremove
Water
insoluble,
Alkali
soluble,
Difficultto
remove,
Removeon
initial
clean-up
Water
insoluble,
Alkali
soluble,
Slightacid
soluble,
Difficultto
remove
Water
soluble,Acid
soluble,Easy
todifficult
toremove
Water
soluble,Acid
soluble
CHANGES
CAUSEDBY
HEATING
Carmeliz-
ation,makes
more
difficultto
remove
Hotwater
aidsremoval
butheating
causes
polymer-
izationand
makesmore
difficultto
remove
Denatur-
ation,much
more
difficultto
remove
Not
significant
Interaction
withother
compounds
andbecomes
more
difficultto
remove
PRE-
VENT-
ION
Water
rinse
Reg-
ular
and
proper
clean-
ing,
Acid
rinse
Pre-
rinse,
Chlor-
ine
and
alk-
aline
deter-
gent
inhot
water
Per-
iodic
acid
wash
Per-
iodic
acid
wash,
Water
soft-
ener
4 4 6
SOILTYPE
Milk
stone
(Water
stone)
Iron
DESCRIPTION SOLUBILITY
ANDCAUSE ANDREMOVAL
Whiteto Acidsoluble
yellow
Redtoblack Acidsoluble
CHANGES
CAUSEDBY
HEATING
Evaporation
causes
deposits
More
difficultto
remove
PRE-
VENT-
ION
Acid
wash
and
rinse
Acid
rinse,
Water
treat-
ment
447
MATERIALUSEDINMEATPLANTS
MATERIAL
Wood
Con-
crete
Vitrifi-
edbrick
Glass
Paint
Rubber
Black
metal
Stain-
less
steel
Anit-
mony
Cadmium
Lead
Iron
Zinc
Copper
CHARACTERISTIC
Notimpervious,
Difficulttomaintain,
Softenedbyalkali,
Scoredbycuts
Etchedbyacid
Likeconcrete
Etchedbyalkali
Qualitydependson
application,Etchedby
alkali
Noteffectedby
alkalinedetergents,
Attackedbyorganic
solvents,Attackedby
strongacids
Rustpromotedbyacid,
Rustpromotedby
chlorinateddetergents
Resistcorrosion,
Smooth,Easilyclean-
ed,Ductile,Nonmag-
netic,Maybeattacked
by:Cl,F,Br&I
Toxic
Toxic
Toxic
Causesfatoxidation
Causesfatoxidation
Causesfatoxidation
NOTES
Shouldbeproperlydressed
andpreserved,Maplepre-
ferredforcuttingboards
(treatedwithhotlinseed
oil),Compositeandrubber
boardspreferred
Dense,Acidresisting,Non
dusting,Waterproof
Cleanwithmoderatealkali
orneutraldetergent
Cleanwithmoderatealkali
orneutraldetergent
Mustbeapprovedforuse
Non-porous,
Nonspongy
Ironorironalloys,Often
tinnedorgalvanized,
Neutraldetergentsshould
beused
Corrosionpermittedby
removalofoxidefilm:
Hammering,Scratching,
Strongchemicals,Electric
current,Halogens
Shouldnotbeusedinfood
equipment
equipment
equipment
Avoidcontactwithfats
448
MECHANICALCLEANINGAIDS
TYPES
Mechanical
abrasives,
steelwool
&copper
balls
Wiping
cloths
Squeegees
Broomsand
brushes
Water
hoses
Low
pressure,
Hightemp-
erature
High
pressure
Steamguns
Foam
cleaning
Cleanin
place
(CIP)
USE
Donotuseonsurface
thatwillcontactfood
Ifused,boiledandsan-
itizedbeforeeachuse
Sweepingwaterfrom
smoothsurface
Bristlesshouldextend
beyondblock
NozzleTvcecleaning
Jet -Deepcracks
Fin -Flatsurface
Bent-Aroundand
underequipment
Sprayhead/brush-
Washing,brushing
Detergenteasily
directedtosoil,Useful
forstrongdetergents
Highvolume-prelim-
inarywashdown,
Lowvolume-lessens
backsplash
Usefulafter-low
pressurewash
Cleanlargeareas,
Floors,Strippaint
Clingstovertical
surface,
Alkaline-useddaily,
Acid-used
periodically,
Rinseoffin10-15min.
donotletdry
Recirculatingsolution
RESULTS
Piecesmaybecome
embedded,Pitcorrosion
Usuallyspreadbacteria
Shouldbekeptclean
andrepaired
Stiffenoughforclean-
ingbutsoftenoughnot
todamagesurface
Shutoffvalvelessens
waterwastageand
sprayingrestofplant
Littlesplashing
Reduceshandscrubbing,
Reduceswateruse
Adjustmentisnecessary
topreventfogging
Canseewheredetergent
hasbeenapplied
Popularindairy
industry,Limitedin
meatindustry
4J
O
ti
H
W 4J
0)
8
E
CO
0
c
0
Q
03
a
CD
O
4J
C
- H
- H
d)
Pn
O CD C
w
H
o
01
i^y
CQ
0)
CO
03
r H
0)
4J
Ti
O
?**
H
4J
03
d)
U
Cn
o
iH
CM
o
r H
CQ
H
01
O
P4
cn
a
- r l
ti
d)
CO
m
di
i
4J
03
4J
Cn
C
-H
6
03
d)
r H
u
in
U
ti
H
d)
ti
d)
a
Cn
C
- H
CQ
C
- H
^
w
u
E
d)
TI
rl
X
u
H
JJ
CD
d)
4J
03
o
TO
F-i
p-*
w
H
W
W
U
H
TI
0
CO
0
in
T)
CO
13j
m
u
.
03
Ti
O
CQ
o
03
V
-rl
rH
H
co
Cn
-rH
C]
rn
\^/
CM
0
- r |
4J
03
iH
o
tf
w
H
U
Q
S5
o
EH
u
w
fa
w
w
o
cu
ti
d)
m
^H
d)
u
ID
U
03
U
CO
a
- r l
M
CO
l
4-)
rd
r H
03
ti
H
d
0
- r l
CQ
d)
Cn
03
e
03
TI
r l
-rH
a
CQ
0)
K * 1
u
o
4J
03
4J
u
m
r l
4J
w
> I
H
01
O
OH
o
u
d)
H
CD
0
^J
O
U
o
4-1
r l
EH
ti
m
>
r-\
m
o
T!
d)
N
-H
rH
03
4->
d)
E
u
d)
a
a
0
u
^
CQ
CO
03
H
O
r H
- H
O
TI
d)
CQ
03
X!
CQ
4J
a
r l
03
a
T)
d)
U
4J
dl
o Cn TI Cn ti
H
o
CO
01
H
Q
p*
o
Cn
- H
r l
1
! (
0
co
CO
Tl
u
d)
o
a
i
r H
E
TJ
0
0
O
03
Cn
C
H
^ K ,
MH
H
CQ
a
-H
^ 1
UH
-H
d
0
a
rd
CO
CO
cu
r l
4J
r l
d)
a
o
a
U
- H
E
i-i
cu
4J
O
X
w
r H
r l
o
XI
m
s
0
d)
N
H
iH
0
a
m
>
ii
03
C
O
CD
U
d)
a
Cn
W
pi
C
0
j |
CO
r-t
a
03
*.
cu
c
- H
U
rH
CQ
m
o
in
o
CO
T l 03 rd
d) d) )H d)
r H co cnco
Na C
rd a >i ^ 3
2 rd XI 0 Cn
Cn
G
-H
C
Tl rd
C d)
rd i-H
K U
Tl
C
rd
tc
Cn
a
r l
C
rd
d)
U
w
CO
cn
cn
CO (TJ
4 J d)
05 SH
fo Cn
a
rl
d>
4-1
0
rl
CM
T l
0
0
i-H
m
w
CO
o
Pi
Cn
c
-H
rd
0)
u
Cn
C
-H
d)
rH
U
Cn
a
rl
rd
d)
rH
u
c
o ia
I -rl
u - cu cnc T Icn
(TS Cn U O -H d) rH
IH 4J 3 ^ 4J C It
^1 C 4J
C -H d)
e
Tl
3 rd d) O
TO U O 4-i
CO
U
H
4J
rd
EC
O
"
H X)
U
fM
TJ ^H rd
O rd S
TO U
d)
4-1
0J
' ex!
m^ . ,
SH - H cn
-U Ti O rd
d) O X! S
E-I co a
1
d)
4J
03 4J CO
XI JH-rl >H
a d) TId)
cn 4J C C
0 03 0 O
XI S U -r|
dJ
4J
(TJ I
X! r-\ X!
a >irH .
CO,V >i rH
O H h 3
xl rd rd co
a,
D
e
g
r
e
a
s
e
s

s
k
i
n

d)
H
c cn
CO
-u Ccn rd co
xl O 0 cox i -u d)
o
Cn C ^ - co d xl
rl U 0) (0 H d) CJ
o
rH O 0 > rH - H 03
u
TO 4-> U -rl O O a rd d)
d) i rH T)
4-> > 4-J rH d) T)
o o
(TJ rH r l H (C cn o
CO
Pi
U O CO
I C d) rl 3 O
CO
Pi
d) co TJ rH a d) HH 05
H
Tl co Cn O 3 Cn
o
a Cno cn C 4-> dJ
Z
H
til
O -H
H
o e
C (0 C ^ CD d) O C iH
S O d) -H CO -H a - H a c-rire
CU
W
>i-H (TJ
rH rH
U
Tl rrj
- r l 4-1
CO
H rH rd d)
S rd
in
o
w
CM
H
O
CO
d)
CD rH
>-( 4J rfl
rrj rd CJ
CD
<D
4J tO T)
CD 4J - H
3 CD X
CO
o
CM
CM
Cn
C
-H
c
(0
<D
U
cn
c
H
c
rfl
CD
rH
u
tn
a
-H
C
rfl
CD
rH
u
01
c
-H
to
(1)
u
0 O
- H 4J
C CO- H
H 4J 0 XI
4J C rH -H
4J CD U Xi
(D Cn 0 C
S 10 U --H
c u
o o
H 4J
C CO -rH
-H 4-1 O X!
4-) C U -H
4-) CD SHX!
(D Cn O a
S (I) O-rl
CO
U
d a
(D X O
J U U
s.
O- H
U
r-
T ) CD U
>i U O
EC tO EC
u
X
o
'^8
CD f
O X
i
G (U
(D C
X! -H
ftT3
CO
o
Pi
w
w
W
U
H
fa
h
CM
co u
u
i H
c
0
Cn-H
!H
a)
r H
4J
u
rfl
rfl
4J
4J
(0
a
rfl
c
-rH
as* >,
2 CD (D
W
H
CO
O
O
U
CD
N
.-H
CD iH CO
O - H tC H CD
U 4J > fCft
in rH 4Jft
O O tO <D O
U 4-> Cn E U
CD CO
S a
H ** H
CO
CO
W
o
cm
H
CM
rH
T> Xi
rH-H
-H U
2 to
in
rH
fa
d)
:
E
R
G
E
*

O
4J
rfl
H
H
CO
CU
o
dl r H
a
CO
T3
r H iJ
tfl
CO CQ 4J r-
rO CJ
r j
dl ^<
CO r H
E 0
Dl
CO r H
d
CQ CJ
d rH 0 corfl
- H
d
rH -H
ro
H
Di
0 0
u
D d -u Dl Dl Dl
d
Dl
0 0
iH
o
UJ
d
H 4-1 Tl CJ
d
d) 01
d d d
0)
c!
- H 4J 4-1
H CQ - H H H
JJ E
H H H 4J H CQ - H -H
CM
d
0XI
J3 rH d d d d
XI rH
d 0 X! d
to
iH -H 0 T) cfl Did) CO
m
cfl Dlco rH H
Tl
di iHX! rH H H di H E d) di dl - H 4-1 dl iH
XI
SH - H
r H
o d
0 XI
u
r H
U 0
r H r H r H rH 01 r H
0 d
0 CJ
U
U -H
+H
u
rfl
u
X ! CO
u
U U XS E
u
u
H 4H tfl
1
ro
dl CJ
d
u
0
u
o
H
o
S3 E
3 E
H H
E -H
u 0}
W 0
8
CJ r H Tl rv 0 - H 4J
1 - H
to
4H r H rfl iH |TJ XI CJ CQ CO
0
^1
0 U
u
o" a
r H CQ
E
in
0
T> K*1 * ~ iH rfl 4H 4-1 Tl CD r H rfl
0
V^
Tl
rH -H rH Tl r H
rn
r H -H 0 4J 4J iH
>i XI U U U
X!
ro -rH
0
XI rvj
IX
U (0
u
CQ U
X
H CO CO
m
ft
2;
ft
u
B
UJ
X!
C
T
O
N

c
e
s

s
i
v
e

w
h
i
c

a
t
e

P
L
O
Y
E
E

1
d Dl
0
- H
r j
u
0
CQ r H
co
-rH
w
fa
HH
W
Q
fa M E
m
0 X
SH CQ d
u
d
H
W
0
0
0 rfl rC r H
3
co
Oi4J CJ Di U r H
dl
4J T3
t
c
dl d) Dl CO -rH dl
H r H
d
CQ 4J N
CO rH CJ rH dl H CO CQ
o
co d
4J
CQ Tl rH ~
d
U U J^ rH
K
o o
CQ r H ^2
d ii
to
r H d) H U 0)
PH rH CJ
o
rfl r H H dl CO QJ rH CO XI
o
iH
E
4.J
CJ tfl 01
r H 4J
a x i
4-1 XS
u
0 0
dl
d
4J 4J rfl dl
0
ffl 4-1 3
u
ua
E
H co co
D E
CJ4H < rH
Dl di 4J T l <1J d) rH
u
r
e

4J
?
R
O
P
E
R
T
]

CO
Tl rfl
w
1 1
tfl in E
0
d 0 rH
-H
3
0
L
V
]

1 1
r o
v j
d) XI 4-> H
E
to
CO 4J
dl
r H
D
CO CO rHXI 4H
dl CQ
u
in CO H iH
0
0 CO
to
CU !H dl
XI
CU
a4H -H01
0 iH 4H 4J dl <-i dl
a
E
o
Tl rH -H
E
U r H 4J
c
rfl 0
rH
i T ) >
d)
d
~J dl cfl d) fC
0 d ccxl
Q
u
E E E rH Pi
cu
CQ
Cfl -U S co
EH 4J
W
T
Y
P

.
o
n
g
!

J
U
- H
u
CO to
Tl
n
d)
e
H CD
rH C
rd
CO rd
XI
co
rH 4J TI CD
rd H CD
H 4J
01 CO U rd
TO
^H
a c
- H
m
CD
W
d) d) H r l
EH 4J 4-1 r l JJ CO
u
CO
2
O CD
3 C d) d)
2
rd
H
tn Ol CD 0 TS CO
X)
CO
a
C 01 r l rd
r l CD
^
- H d) H rd
0 d)
4J CD
a
4J rH d) 4J rH JJ r l
Pi
C p
t
- r |
rd XI Oi rd d) H
u
CD r l 4J rd fd 4J U
C
O d)
0
- r l
4J
u
H - rl
0 - H r |
O r l r l CD
0 r l 4J JJ
cq
0
r l
C
4J r l U
u
&.
u
M
ID
CO M XI
m
EH
a
Q
4H A JJ
W 0
rH
TO
CD
. ,
d)
C
O CD
u
CD MH
.
0 H - H r l j> CD
0
d) - H
CD
^1 01
c
r l
c
di H J J r l d) rd CO
rH CD
0
rd 4J JJ H
u
JJ
, ^
rd
H -
a
H CO r H
Ol J J U r l r l H
x;
e
Ol
CD r H
a)
XI rd rd
0
rd r l
u
CO
^ 1
C jD O O
u
0
T-i
c
rd
B 0 rdTl CD
<D TO 0
u
r l
e
-rl XI Oi d) H
w a
,|
a
TO 4J [3 0 d) CD
u
U CD En XI U H
3
JJ <-\ d) 0 0
0
u
XI rd U
TO 1 H 4J XI
JJ
co
d) H 0 O
P
a
rd rd H CD X!
a
4J
a T i
XI rH
W 4J rd CD r-\ r l JJ rd CO ^-\ j J XI
N
a
e
-H O
- r l
a
H d)
r j
x;
0 H
u
H CD
!z
CO H
u
rd i - H
e e
3
rH Q XI ^
EH
e
I I
CO 4J r l
o\ XI rd U
d) CD
H
a SH
Qi
d) rl
u
c
rd
u
rH r H
TI
0
COTl
J2 H d) >*< U d) d) rd
n 0
O
u
CDTS
u
H ;3 CDr H
rtj
3 4-1 0 4J UH
Cn
1 Qi ,1 r H
X
-H TI
0 X
O
TO
crm
SH rd MH rH 0
^ .
c] fd H O
a
0 X!
- r l
w 3
u
CU 3 W
0
(N
u
CJ
g
rd
r l CO
g
d)
u
H
3
r\
O
O
rH
J
O U
u
O
1 1
H
d) CDu
e
u
T) B 0
0
l
e
i
i
n
e
-H
TO
H
-H
rd
ru
rd
rH
U
PJ
rd d) r l 0 U
S?
CJ JJ
-H
0 - H
IDM-l
O
EH
rH
4-1 0
rd
r l r l
d) rd
U 0
0 u
d)
IT)
H H
a rH
TS iH
e
x;
u
6
- H SH rH r\ j
r j
0 0
4J - H
0
O
1
TI
0
^-t rH
X
u
rd
a u
rd - H XI XI
r l
u u
B
U U)
x:
TO
W
H
CO
I
G
O
R
c
(D
0
Ol
H
H
rd
u
XI
I 1 1
CO
u
ft
d)
-d
1 4-1 CO
a
d) 3
CO SH
X rtf 0
CO 0
4J
a
4J Ti 3
rtf 0 4J
u
CO
d) - H d) H 0
-rH
X! 4J - H r l d)
CO
rH
u c
CO CJ
u
a c
U 0
rH
w
H
0
- H
0
rfl - H ffl
rfl
til
0
rH
u
r l CO
H 4J r-i 4J rH
C
CJ
13
- r l
0
CO
0)
O CJX! CJ XI
4J Ti rtf
a
T3
a
0 d)
C
s
o
l
'
55 rfl
u
rfl
u
H 0)
en
u
H .rH 0 r5
O
rH -H
s 0 r l d) d> 0 rH
13
tt)
C
CO
co
H
3 0
01 CJ 0) H
CO
a
rfl
CO
c
rfl 4J 4J d) 4J
01 dJ CO rfl
d) XI
cu
XI U
a

rfl 4J
4-1 4-> r l X! E
ID r l - H
*
- H H H
H
CO
0) u
U - H
H
6
)
4-1
0
rO
rj U
4->
0
'I rfl rO
E
H U
- r l
T3
>
ft
4-) rfl 4J 4-1
Ti C en ft
CO 3
2H
0] 0 -H rfl 4-)
t
a
n
in
0
s1
o
O
o
-H
1
s
i
l
CN d>
13 3~
, |
S3" 4J o
H
g a
rH
(NJ
1
CO U H 4J
i
-
CO
u
rfl
a
rH rfl rfl
ft
CJ

3 iH T!
o"
o
d)
3
K
CJ 3
d)
CN
rH 0 A HH
co co
4J XI
u
QJ CO
0 3
a
rfl
1
u
r~
T3 CJ
M d) 4-J
P-I
dJ
X
- H
^ t
g
CO 4J r \
1
rfl
a
d) d)
c
rH
ft
rO M rH 0 rH
w
-rH d)
3
-
c
H ft-H rfl
H
3
A V T3
E C 3
EH
O
1
0
a
I M 0 0 0 CO
M
S
A
N
I
M
ft
H CJ
2 ID pa
c
h
y
l
XI
I V|
4J - H
dl U
H
g
r l
- H
U
rfl
O rc
CJ
CO
H
CM
{H
r
K
U
U
H
2
o
o
EH
d)
C
- H
g
rs
o
, 1
XI
u
d)
a
0
N
rfl
ii
rtf
a
d)
-rH
e
-rH
r H
0
r-H
XI
U
j
r H
O
O
^
CO
m
in
i
0
u
0
i-H
XI
CJ
H
T3
rH
a
-H
0
1 )
a
rfl
XI
u
- H
rH
c
rfl
U
0
r H
0
r H
XI
U
H
Q
- H
3
C
rfl
^ 1
CJ
0
^H
0
r-i
XI
u
- r l
u
E-i
H
H
u
o
XI
ft
o
T)
0
M
CO
w
H
co
Pi
a
o
CD
cu
W
o
EH r-H
U
rfl
IT)
JJ JJ
CQ CQ
o
W
1x1
o
d)
u
ro
4-1
r J
2
CQ
U
r H
0
H
JJ
ro
u
CD
JJ
C
d)
Ol
ro
d)
H
JJ
U
ro
CD
JJ
a
d)
Oi
QJ
JJ
d>
T)
^
0
0
ft
CQ
.
CQ
CD
rH
u
0
TI
O
^
H
CQ
0
U
U
0
u
1
c
0
JJ
ro
co
a
0
- H
JJ
r J
OlrH
a
- H
JJ
ro
11
- H
u
u
-H
l
a
o
13
- H
Ti
r H
ro
E
0
c
c
H
ro
Ol
ro
CD
>
rH
JJ
U
dJ
4-H
M-H
Q)
JJ
CQ
0
s
d)
^>
i H
JJ
- H
CO
O
E
ro
r H
Ol
co
E
CO
- H
C
ro
01
in
0
c
- H
ro
0i
ro
JJ
u
d)
4H
4-1
d)
d)
CQ
iH
d)
TI
u
01
Xl
Xi
u
r >1
XI
T)
d)
N
H
r H
ro
in
JJ
d)
c
JJ
0
U
H
c
ro
rH
d)
JJ
Oi JJ
u
0
ro
E
U
d)
j J
ro
Tl
0)
JJ
- H
E
- H
JJ
-H
<-{
- H
r H
0
CQ
a
ro
o
co
xl
JJ
r H
Ti
0)
H
0
o
a
0
H
CQ
r H
d)
a
CQ
H
TI
TI
H
ro
r H
co
E" iH
CQ
Oi
w
N
H
EH
H
J2
J^
CQ
III
CO
CQ
d)
TI
-rH
u
-H
^
d)
JJ
U
ro
JJ
c
d)
r-{
r H
d)
U
X
w
u
0
c
0
H
JJ
ro
r H
U
-rH
U
u
0
4H
E
a
a
o
o
c
o
H
CD
^1
d)
E
E
-H
u
CQ
0
xl
CO
X!
E
a
a
o
o
*3*
ro
u
CQ
o
4H
E
a
o
o
00
H
in
d)
JJ
ro
E
u
- H
c
ro
Oi
0
^ i
X)
d)
d)
T3
C
XI
4J
O
X!
JJ
- H
d)
r H
Xi
- H
JJ
ro
E
0
u
a
M
CQ
a
ro
0
CO
JJ
c
01
ro
O)
a
- H
JJ
U
ro
u
ro
4H
r H
CQ
U
r H
c
0
- H
1
CQ
r-i
- H
0
d)
C
H
ft
d)
JJ
ro
X!
a
CD
0
xl
a
ro
JJ
d)
E
ro
X
Xl
E
H
TI
0
CO
xl
JJ
-rH
^
d)
r H
XI
H
JJ
ro
a
E
0
u
d)
JJ
ro
XI
a
CD
0
XI
a
g
r H
Ti
0
CQ
- H
U
cu
JJ
ro
a
CQ
0
a
0
u
a
E
- H
TJ
O
CQ
ro
u
JJ
d)
E-
CQ
CD
d)
C
d>
^
H
JJ
U
dl
4H
4H
d)
CU
U
^
TI
d)
H
u
r H
ro
u
Oi
c
- H
a
-rH
ro
a
0
u
rH
d)
JJ
ro
TI
ro
X
a
0
H
^_)
0
TI
C
ro
E
rJ
- H
CQ
CD
a
Ol
ro
E
CQ
JJ
C
- H
ro
a
,i
ro
CQ
Ol
a
- H
JJ
ro
0
u
d)
s
Ol-H
c
4H
r H
JJ
<
JJ
U
d)
JJ
0
ft
d)
u
0
r H
TI
C
ro
CQ
d>
H
0
JJ
ro
^>
ro
r H
JJ
u
d)
4H
C
-rH
co
-H
Q
CD
E
0
O
u
r-{
ro
Oi
c
4H
- H
JJ
c
ro
<D
- H
JJ
ro
^
u
cu
CD
d)
a
Ti
0
0
1 2
JJ
a
H
ro
a
CQ
ro
di
u
ro
T)
0
o
4H
U
0
4H
JJ
C
- H
ro
ft
,1 o
CO
w
0<
H
O
c
d)
XI
a
r H
c
CD
Xl
i
O
u~
i
0
u
o
r H
xl
u
ro
JJ
a
CD
ft
, |
X
u
<
1
r H
0
a
Xl
a
i
00
in
CD
a
a
0
u
r H
0
c
- H rv
rJ , *
tr o
X x
0 o
rH U
Ti d)
>.a ^
Xl -HU
CQ
W >H
CQ
H
c
g
o
H
1
Ti
C
8
w
H
U
d)
JJ
ro
a
H
c
0
ro
CQ
JJ
ro
a
M
0
C
d)
XI
ft
0
a
0
u
CN
(U
4J
<T3
C
0
en
w
H
H
e
- H
il
H
4J
rd
JJ
0) H
o
-U
a
to
CO
ft
d)
ra
D
0)
4J
CO
ra
4J
c
0)
Cn
C
0
-H
ft
T3
d)
ra
co C m
r-i TS
0
rd
T)
H
c
ft
H
4->
rd
0
4J
-H o
rH
4-)
CJ H
0
- H
^_( 4-1
U
0
ra
ffi
e
o
u
d)
CO
w
N
0)
4J
u
a)
ffl
rd
[~]
4J
ra
H
CO
ffi
u
O 4-)
ftra
S o
co
0
0)
H
EH
H
g ra
4-)
a
Cn
4-1 -H
C T)
a) o m
Cn co in
h-ri 4J
a
+ o
^ E 4J
CO
W
ft
a)
4J
a)
c c
-rH - H
rci O
^ IH

fti-i
to n) C
o a o 4J
i u
d
gx
x
i
i
u-H
u
ft d) C rd
OilOw
^ rd a U
>> 2 3
ft fj
1
+m
C +
cu
cn ~~
Mu u
d)-H -H CO
4J ^ ^ in
d) =i O O
T3 X! XI XI
ftftft
T) rHrao
H 3 OTJ
oraxl o
N
H
CO
W
H
4J
r-t
a
8
rd
4J
c
CO
0)
Cn
a)
4-)
U cu
P
457
SANITIZERFORVARIOUSTYPESOFEQUIPMENT
AREAORCONDITION
BESTSANITIZERTOUSE
Aluminum
Iodophor,Quat
Lowcost
Chlorine
Plastic
Iodophor
Porousareas
3
Chlorine,Quat
Production,Handdip
Iodophor,Chlorine
Rubber
Iodophor
Stainlesssteel Acidsanitizer,Chlorine,
Iodophor
Walls Quat,Chlorine
Washroom,Handdip Iodophor,Phenolic
Wood
3
Chlorine,1,000ppm
a
Materialshouldnotbeinameatplant,butbestsanitizers
arechlorineandquatsathigherconcentrations
TROLLEYCLEANINGANDOILING
CAUSTICCLEANING
TEMPERATURE TIME
3.5%Caustic
2 00F 3 0 seconds
or1%Caustic
200F 20-30 minutes
Rinse
200F
Oil (Nodrip,blow Use supplier's
offoil)
temperature,donot
polymerize oilor
it will become
stickyandblack
specks will appear
onthecarcass
458
References
MeatProducts. W.H.Freeman&Company,SanFranciscoand
London.
Ando,N.,Y.Kako,andY.Nagata. 1961. StudiesontheColorof
MeatandMeatProducts. I. EffectsofOrthophosphateson
ColorofCookedSausage. BulletinofMeatandMeatProducts.
JapaneseSocietyofMeatandMeatProducts.
Ando,N.,Y.Kako,Y.Nagata,T.Okaski,Y.Hirakata,N.Suematsu,
andE.Katamoto. 1963. StudiesontheColorofMeatandMeat
Products. II. EffectsofPolyphosphateontheColorof
CookedSausage. BulletinofMeatandMeatProducts. Japanese
SocietyofMeatandMeatProducts.
Bennett,O.L.1971A&B. PersonalCommunication. Laboratory
Branch,USDA,Washington,D.C. 20250.
BrananA.L.1990.FoodAdditives.Dekker,NY,NY.
Brandly,P.J.,G.MigakaandK.E.Taylor. 1968.MeatHygiene. Lea
andFebigir,Philadelphia,Pa.
Brody,A.L. 1970. FlexiblePackagingofFoods. CRCPress,
Cleveland,Ohio
Bull,Sleeter. 1951. MeatfortheTable. McGraw-HillBook
Company,Inc.; NewYork,Toronto,London.
Busch,W.A.1970. ReddeningofFreshMeatsDuringCooking;
Mimeograph. SwiftandCompany,OakBrook,Illinois.
Deman,J.M.andP.Melnychym. 1971. PhosphatesinFood
Processing. TheAVIPublishingCo.Inc.,Westport,
Connecticut.
FAO/WHO.1992.CompendiumofFoodAdditivesSpecifications.Rome.
FoodandDrugAdministration.1993.EverythingAddedtoFoodinthe
UnitedStates,K.C.Smoley,BocaRaton,Fla.
Freydberg,N.1982.TheFoodAdditivesBook.BantonBooks.NY,NY.
Furia,ThomasE. 1968. HandbookofFoodAdditives. TheChemical
RubberCo.,Cleveland,Ohio
Gardner,W.H. 1966. FoodAcidulants. AlliedChemicalCorp.,New
York,N.Y. 10006.
459
Hughes,C.C.1987.TheAdditiveGuide.Wiley,Chichester,NY.
Hutchins,J. 1971. PersonalCommunications. ChemicalAbstracts
Service,Columbus,Ohio,43210
Ingram,M. 1970. TheCuringofMeat. DieVleisnywerheid.Vol.
XX,No.l,p.32.
Knipe,L. 1982. Phosphates:Whattheymeanforyoursausage.
MeatIndustry28(6)30.
Lawrie,R.A. 1966. MeatScience.PergamonPress;Oxford,
Edinburgh,NewYork,Toronto,Paris,Braunschweig.
Loening,K.L. 1971. PersonalCommunications. Directorof
Nomenclature,ChemicalAbstractsService,Columbus,Ohio,
43210.
MarcusA.I.1994.CancerfromBeef:DES,FederalFoodRegulations
andConfidence.JohnHopkinsUniversityPress,Baltimore.
MerckandCompany. 1968. TheMerckIndex. MerckandCo.,Rahway,
N.J.
MilesLaboratories. 1970. TureenFlavorsfromMiles. Marschall
Division,Elkhart,Indiana, 46514.
Mountney,G.J. 1966. PoultryProductsTechnology. TheAVI
PublishingCo.,Inc.,Westport,Connecticut.
NationalAcademyPress.AlternativeUsesofNitrite.Washington,
D.C.
Neraal,R.andR.Hamm. 1973. Enzymaticbreakdownofadded
tripolyphosphateinmeat. 19thEuropeanMeatResearch
Conference. P1419.
Ockerman,H.W. 1968.FoodAdditivesinMeatProducts;Mimeograph.
TheOhioStateUniversity,Columbus,Ohio. 43210.
OfficeofFederalRegister.1990.CodeofFederalRegulations
(Title)21FoodandDrugOfficeofFederalRegister,
Washington,D.C.
Scanlan,R.A. 1975. N-NitrosaminesinFoods. CriticalReviewsin
FoodTechnology. Vol.5,Issue4.
Terrell,R.N. 1980. SausageandCuredMeatOperations --Modern
Technologies,TexasFoodResearch,Bryan.
Toll,J.D. 1971. PersonalCommunication. Glidden-Durkee,1303
S.ShelbyStreet,Louisville,Ky. 40201.
460
UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture. 1965. Regulations
GoverningtheMeatInspectionoftheUnitedStatesDepartment
ofAgriculture. U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington,
D.C.
UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,ConsumerandMarketing
Service. 1969. LaboratoryGuidebook,PolicyandProcedures
oftheLaboratoryBranch,Washington,D.C. 20250
UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture. 1971. FederalRegister
36:103. Washington,D.C.
Waldt,L.M. 1971. PersonalCommunications. WallersteinCompany.
125LakeAvenue,StatenIsland,N.Y. 10303.
Wistreich,H.E. 1972. TheRoleofSaltinMeatProcessing. The
NationalProvisioner. JuneP27-28.
Wistreich,H.E. 1976. FunctionalNon-MeatSausageIngredients.
AMI-SausageCourse,Atlanta,Ga.
Ziegler,P.Thomas. 1966. TheMeatWeEat. TheInterstate
PrintersandPublishers,Inc.,Danville,Illinois.
HEATING
Cooking
Tissue: Cooking of food normally causes coagulation which
changesthematerial fromasemi-liquidtoamoresolidstatein
thetemperaturerangeof86to131F (30to55C).Coagulationis
usuallydividedintotwosteps:
1.Denaturation
2.Precipitation
Bothoftheseaidinthetransformationfromaliquidtoasolid
state.Thereasonsforcookingmeatmaybebrieflysummarizedas:
1.Reductionofbacterialnumbersandtrichinaelimination-
Hotwaterbathpasteurizationinsausageproductionwill
give99%bacterialdestructionrate.Trichinaare
destroyedat120FbutUSDArequires137Fforasafety
factor (in1977oneortwohogsin1000areinfested
inU.S.).
2.Improvepalatability-ofbothmeatandspices.
a.Aroma
b.Flavor
c.Possiblytenderness.
3.Firminganemulsionproduct.
a.Coagulationofprotein.
b.Dehydration
4.Shorteningorshrinkingofcollagen.
5.Fixingofcolor.
461
462
a.Denaturationofglobinportionofmeatpigments.
Physicalandchemicalchangestakeplaceonheatingandthese
arethemostdramaticintheproteinfraction.Alistingofafew
ofthechangesareasfollows:
1.Changeofsizeandshapeoftheproteinmolecule.
a.Crosslinkagebetweenthestrandsofthedoublecoiled
helixarebroken.
b.Unfoldingofpeptidechain.
c.Breakingofpeptidebondsandaminoacidmolecules.
2.Exposureofsulfhydrylgroup (-SH).
3.Exposureofdisulfidegroup (-S-S-).
4.Lossofwatersolubilityat104-140F (40-60C).
5.Lossofabilitytocrystalize.
6.Lossofbiologicalactivity.
a.Enzymes
b.Antibiotics
c.Viruses
7.Mayincreasedigestibilityinsomefoodsbutusually
slightlydecreasesdigestibilityinmeatproducts.
8.Lossoffreeacidicgroupswithacorrespondingincrease
inpH.FromapHofapproximately5.5to6.0.
9.Reductioninwaterholdingcapacityat176-212F
(80-100C).
The effect of heating on various components of meat
tissuemaybesummarizedasfollows:
1.Collagen-altereddrasticallybymoistheat.
463
a.Swelling
b.Shrinkage
c.Disintegration
2.Elastin-heatingdoesnotalter.
3.Musclefibers-coagulatedbyheat.
4.Water-islostduringheating.
a.Intercellularwater.
b.Waterisforcedoutoffiberwhenproteincoagulates.
5.Fat-someintermuscularfatislostonheating.
Factorswhichinfluenceheatingrateare:
1.Thehighertherelativehumiditythemorerapidtheheat
transfer.
2.Themorerapidtheairvelocitythemorerapidtheheat
transfer.
3.Ratiooffattoleaninaproduct.
a.OneBTUrequiredtoraise1lb.water1F.
b.0.4BTUrequiredtoraise1lb.fat1F.
c.0.7BTUrequiredtoraise1lb.sausage1F.
4.Surfaceevaporationofwaterat212Frequires
approximately1000BTU/lb.
5.Largertemperaturegradientbetweencookingtemperature
andproducttemperaturewillreducecookingtime.
Effectofheatingonsomepalatabilityfactorsassociated
withmuscletissuearelistedasfollows:
1.Tenderness-Tendernessisaffectedbyanumberof
factorsassociatedwithheatingandthetwoprincipal
464
ones are:
a.Muscle fibers become tougher during heating:This is
caused primarily by the coagulation of sarcoplasmic
and myofibril proteins.
b. Connective tissue becomes more tender on heating: This
isdue to the conversion of collagen togelatin at
approximately 212F (100C). Most cooking ofmeat may
be divided into twogeneral types:
(1)Long time,moist heat: Ismost effective in
the conversion of collagen to gelatin.
(2)Short time,dryheat:This type ofheat is
least effective at tenderizing the muscle
fibersbut also improves the flavor of muscle
tissue.
Considering these factors, it is apparent that meat with a
large percentage of connective tissue should be cooked by moist
heattosoftentheconnectivetissueandmeatwithsmallamountsof
connective tissue should be cooked with dry heat which will
slightlytoughenthemusclefibersbuttheflavorwillbeimproved.
Muscle differences, alternate methods of cooking and the
numerous factors that affect tenderness explain why some muscle
tissue becomes more tender and some tougher during cooking.
Atenderpieceofmeatbroiledwillbemoretenderintherare
than thewell-done state.
2.NutritiveValue -Underthenormaltemperaturesof canning
465
andprocessingmeatthereisaslightdecreaseindigest-
ibilityandaslightdecreaseinbiologicalvalue.Under
severeheatprocessingtherecanbeareductioninthe
availabilityofthefollowingaminoacids:
a.Lysine (121Cfor80min.=10%loss).
b.Methionine
c.Tryptophane
3.Color-Heataltersthecolorofmeatbydenaturingthe
globinportionofthepigment.Thistakesplaceat
approximately149F (65C).
Type Color PigmentName
Fresh Brown Denaturedglobinhemochrome
Cured Red (higher Nitroso-hemochrome
thetemperature
themoreintense
theredcolor)
Theinternalcolorofbeefisoftenusedasacrude
internaltemperatureindicator.
Temperature Degreeof
ColorofInterior : Cooking
140 60 Rare Brightred
140-158
60-70 Medium Pink
158-176 70-80 Well-done Graybrown
TheMaillardorbrowningreactionisalsoresponsiblefor
some alteration inmeat color onheating.Conditionswhich
affectthiscolorare:
a.Reducingsugars
b.Aminogroups
c.Temperature
Carmelizationofcarbohydratesalsodarkensmeatcolor.
466
4.Proteincoagulation-Proteincoagulationusuallytakes
placearound120Fandalloftheproteinisusually
coagulatedat150-160F.
5.Emulsifyingcapacity-Emulsifyingcapacityisloweredas
themeatproductisheated.
90
.2a
SO
UJ
40
10 60
6.Flavorisalsoimprovedbyheating.Someofthe
precursorsresponsibleforthisflavorhavebeenisolated
butthechemicalpictureofthesereactionsisfarfrom
completeatthistime.
7.Juicinessisaffectedbyheatingandthefactors
influencingjuicinessare:
a.Moistureinmuscletissue.
b.Fatinmuscletissue.
c.Searingofsurfacetoformacrusttoretainjuices.
467
d.Typeofcooking.
âbel
Safehandlinglabelrequiredonnon-readytoeatmeat.
SAFEHANDUNGINSTRUCTIONS
THIS PRODUCT WAS PREPAREDFROMINSPECTEDAND
PASSEDPOULTRY.SOMEANIMALPRODUCTSMAYCONTAIN
BACTERIATHATGOULDCAUSEILLNESSIFTHEPRODUCTIS
MISHANDLED ORCOOKED IMPROPERLY. FOR YOUR
PROTECTION,FOULJOWTHESESAFEHANDUNGINSTRJCTONS.
KEEP REFRIGERATED OR FROZEN.
THAW IN REFRIGERATOR OR MICROWAVE.
KEEPRAW POULTRYSEPARATEFROMOTHER
ISOAPl FOODS. WASHWORKSURFACES (INCLUDING
CUTTING BOARDS),UTENSILS,AND HANDS
AFTER TOUCHING RAW POULTRY.
COOK THOROUGHLY.
1
REFRIGERATE LEFTOVERSWITHIN 2HOURS
SausageManufacturing
Coarsegroundproductshouldhaveafinalgrindtemperatureat
28-32Fandthiswillrequirelongersmokehousetimetoraisethe
temperature of this product during cooking. Fresh pork sausage
grindtemperatureof24-26Fwillpreventfatsmear.
Chopperbladestomakeanemulsionproductshouldbeadjusted
frequentlytoallowclearanceofashippingtagbetweentheblades
and the bowl. During chopping salt and water extract the salt
468
solubleproteinsfromtheleanmeat (separationofleanmeatfrom
fatwillincreaseyieldbyabout10%)andtheproductischoppedto
42-45F [(temperaturesbelow37F (3C)intheinitialstagesof
choppingwillincreasethewaterholdingcapacity].Thefatmeat,
spicesandremainingiceisaddedandthechopperisrununtila
temperatureof50Fforpork,60-65Fforbeef,and70Fforlamb
is reached. Lower temperature (Max: 555F, ideal below 40F)
shouldbeusedforchickenproducts.Ifproductishighincollagen
atemperatureof50Fshouldnotbeexceeded.Foruseoffatwith
caseinateorpre-emulsifiedfatproductthefollowingtemperatures
arerecommended:
STERILIZEDMEAT PASTEURIZEDMEAT
Porkfat 113F (45C) 77F (25C
Beeffat 122F (50C) 95F (35C)
Overchoppingdrasticallyincreasesthefatsurfaceareaand
consequently increases the strain on the emulsion stability.A
typicalemulsionwillincorporate35mlofairperkgofemulsion.
Grindingofhotbonedporkshouldbedoneabove80Ftoreduce
fatsmearing (onehourfromslaughtertopackage).
Forliversausageproductionporkshouldbechilledto32F
andgroundthrougha1/4 in.plate.Blanchliversin180Fwater
for2minutes.Choplivers (3-5minutes)untilbubblesappear.Add
milkproductsandchop4bowlrevolutions.Blanchjowlsin180F
water and add to chopper. Next add salt, seasoning and dry
ingredients.Liverproductsexpandduringcooking.
469
SausageCookingSchedules
In sausage cooking there are many different schedules
followed. Smoke is usually applied in this step and relative
humidityiscontrolledtoregulateyieldandtoaidinthepeeling
operation.After stuffingsausageshouldgodirectlytocooking.
Product should have a temperature of 65-70F when entering the
smokehouse.Holdingatthispointwilltendtoweakentheemulsion.
Somegeneralcookingschedulesareasfollows:
REGULARCASINGS (CELLULOSE)
Time Wet Dry %Relative LiquidSmoke
Bulb
F
Bulb
F
Humidity (spray,dip,
atomize)or
WoodSmoke
SmallDiameter
Sausage
30min.dryand 100- 140 Drydown, 1/3Liquid
smoke 110 period: Smoke
1/3Water
30-40% 1/3Acid
Citricor
Malicor
Vinegar
pH2.5
3sec.130F
or
Woodsmoke
Tointernal 130 180 30-40%
temperatureof
160
b
For165F
ofproduct
containing
poultry
Coldshowerto100F.
Storeatroomtemperaturefor30Min. (cookshrink8-10%).
Chill34Fovernightorchillin6-8%brine/icewater.
Peelandpackagewhenbelow40F.
470
REGULARCASINGS (CELLULOSE)
Time Wet
Bulb
F
Dry
Bulb
F
%Relative
Humidity
LiquidSmoke
(spray,dip,
atomize)or
WoodSmoke
SmallDiameter
Sausage
30Minutes 100 130-
140
DamperOpen:
20-30%
NoSmokeor
WoodSmoke
30Minutes 110 150-
160
DamperClosed:
20%
NoSmokeor
WoodSmoke
30Minutes 140 180 DamperClosed:
30-35%
NoSmokeor
WoodSmoke
ToInternal
Temperature
of160F
140 180 DamperClosed:
30-35%
NoSmokeor
WoodSmoke
Coldshowerto100F.
Storeatroomtemperature30minutes.
Chill34Fovernightorchillin6-8%brine/icewater.
Peelandpackagewhenbelow40F.
EASYORRAPIDPEEL (CARBOXYLMETHYLCELLULOSE-HIGHWATER
ATTRACTION -WILLDRAWWATERTOSURFACE;ALSOFATATTRACTION
Time Wet
Bulb
F
Dry
Bulb
F
%Relative
Humidity
LiquidSmoke
(spray,dip,
atomize)or
WoodSmoke
30Minutes
(Dryand
Smoke)
100-
105
140 DryDown
Period,
25% (20-30%)
1/3Liquid
Smoke
2/3Water
pH4.0-4.5
or
WoodSmoke
ToInternal
Temperatureof
155-160F
130 180 25% (20-30%)
4 7 1
SHEEPCASINGS
Time Wet Dry- %Relative LiquidSmoke
Bulb
F
Bulb
F
Humidity (spray,dip,
atomize)or
WoodSmoke
HangatRoomTemperatureUntilCasingsBecomesTacky-
Desired 87 130 DamperOpen, WoodSmoke
Colorand 15-20%
140F
internal
temperature
3-5minutes 145 165 DamperClosed, NoSmoke
until 60%
internal
temperature
or
is155F
steam
cook
Coldshowerto100Finternaltemperature.
Storeatroomtemperaturefor30minutes.
Chill34Fovernight.
Packagewhenbelow40F.
472
LARGEDIAMETER SAUSAGE
Time
1Hour (dry)
1Hour
(smoke)
1Hour
(cook)
ToInternal
Temperature
of155F.
Normally3-5
Hours.
(165Fif
product
contains
poultry)
Wet Dry
Bulb Bulb
F F
110- 140
125
120 150
130 160
145 180
%Relative
Humidity
DryDownperiod
38-60%
Smoke;38-40%
38-40%
38-40%
LiquidSmoke
(spray,dip,
atomize)or
WoodSmoke
1/3Liquid
Smoke
1/3Water
1/3Acid
Malicor
Vinegar
pH2.5
3Seconds
130F
or
WoodSmoke
WoodSmoke
Coldshowerto100F.
5-15%shrinkage.
Storeatroomtemperaturetillsurfacedries.
Chill34Fovernight.
Sliceandpackagewhenbelow40F.
473
LARGEDIAMETER (FIBROUSORCELLULOSE)
Time
Wet
Bulb
Dry
Bulb
%Relative
Humidity
LiquidSmoke
(spray,dip,
Op
Op
atomize)or
WoodSmoke
1Hour 90 140 DamperOpen: NoSmoke
15-20%
1Hour 130 150 DamperClosed: WoodSmoke
55%
1Hour 140 160 DamperClosed: NoSmokeor
57% WoodSmoke
ToInternal
Temperature
145 180 DampersClosed:
38%
NoSmoke
of155F
(165Fif
product
contains
poultry)
Normal3-5
Hours.
Coldshowerto100F.
Storeatroomtemperaturetillsurfacedries.
Chill34Fovernight.
Sliceandpackagewhenbelow40F.
SUMMER SAUSAGE (1-1/2IN.DIAMETERCASINGS)
Time Wet
Bulb
Op
Dry
Bulb
Op
%Relative
Humidity
LiquidSmoke
(spray,dip,
atomize)or
WoodSmoke
18-24Hours
Sweating
Period
87 90 Damper50%Open:
86%
LightorHeavy
WoodSmoke
1Hour 110 130 DamperClosed:
52%
HeavyWood
Smoke
48%
HeavyWood
Smoke
49%
HeavyWood
Smoke
ToInternal
Temperature
of142F
135 160 DamperClosed:
49%
474
SUMMER SAUSAGE
Time Wet Dry %Relative WoodSmoke
Bulb
F
Bulb
F
Humidity
4Hour,Dry 78 90 55-60 NoSmoke
5Hours, 89 100 60 WoodSmoke
Smoke
Fermentedto 92 100 70 NoSmoke
DesiredpH
Cook,1Hour 115 130 60 NoSmoke
LIVERSAUSAGEWATERCOOK
Moistureproofcellulosecasingorbeefmiddlesorhogbungs.
WaterTemperatureat170-190F.
Completelysubmergecasingsusingaweightedcover.
Maintainwatertemperatureat160F.
Cooktointernaltemperatureat152F (approximately2-1/2hrs.
NoSmoke Smoke
i
T
Chillinicefor1-1/2Hrs. Addto110Fsmokehouse.
Showerwith150Fwaterfor Heavysmokefor3hours.
30sec.toremovegrease. Hotshower150Ffor30sec.
Dryatroomtemperaturefor Dryatroomtemperaturefor1
1hr. hr.
Chillin34Fcooler. Chillin34Fcooler.
475
LOAFCOOKING (BAKEANDDEEPFATFRYBESTFLAVOR)
Bakeinpanina225Fovenuntilinternaltemperatureof155Fis
reached (approximately3hrs.fora4-1/2 lb.loaf).
Roomtemperatureuntilinternaltemperatureof115F.
Coolin34Ffor18hrs.
Removefrompan.
Deepfatfryin375Foil (corn,soy,peanut).
Coolatroomtemperature.
Sliceandpackage.
LOAFCOOKING (STEAM)
Productplacedina4.5X4.5X30in.pan.
Internaltemperatureintocooker60-70F.
Processinsteamcookerat165F.
Process4to4-1/2hrs.tointernaltemperatureof155F(160-165F
forproductcontainingpoultry).
Quick chill in ice water to 40F before packing; 28F before
slicing.
HAMCOOKINGSCHEDULE
(BOTHBONE-INANDSECTIONEDANDFORMEDHAMS)
Time Wet
Bulb
F
Dry
Bulb
F
%
Relative
Humidity
Damper Smoke
2Hours 0 145 - Open No
Smoke
1Hour 0 155
-
Closed Smoke
2Hours 135 165 41% Closed Smoke
2Hours 144 175 42% Closed Smoke
ToInternal
Temperatureof150F
156 185 48% Closed Smoke
30min.coldshowertointernaltemperatureof90F.
Placein36Fcoolerovernight.
476
SEMI-DRYSAUSAGEPROCESSINGSCHEDULE-(2-25%WEIGHTLOSS)
1.Meatchoppedandground.
2.Cure (sodiumnitrite),saltandseasoningmixed.
3.Starterculture (PediocococcuscerevisiaeorLactobacillus
plantarumorP.cerevisiaeorL.plantarum)thawedand/or
dilutedandmixed.
4.Stuffedintoappropriatecasings.
5.Smokehouse,6-16hours,90-110Fand85-95%relativehumidity.
6.Heatedto140-145Finternaltemperature.
7.Cooledandmovedtoholdingcooler.
DRYSAUSAGEPROCESSINGSCHEDULE-(25-40%WEIGHTLOSS)
1.Meatgroundandchopped.
2.Cure,saltandseasoningadded.
3.Startercultureadded.
4.Stuffedintoappropriatecasing.
5.Hungingreen (ordrip)room,2to10days,70-80F,75-80%
relativehumidity.
6.Dryroom,10-120days,45-70F,65-75%relativehumidity.
HAMS,SLOWCOOK,GRAVITYHOUSE
Time DryBulbF Damper Smoke
2Hours 125 Open NoSmoke
2Hours 145 2/3Closed Smoke
2Hours 160 2/3Closed Smoke
ToInternal 175 2/3Closed Smoke
Temperatureof
148
b
F
FORREADYTOEAT
ToInternal 175 2/3Closed Smoke
Temperatureof
155F
477
HAMS,FASTERCOOKANDSMOKE,GRAVITYHOUSE
Time
Wet Dry- Relative Damper
BulbF BulbF Humidity
2Hours
130 Open
2Hours
115 140 40-50 MOpen
ToInternal
165 MOpen
Temperature
of145F
FORREADYTOEAT
Internal 145 175 40-50 VtOpen
Temperature
of155F
HAMS,HUMIDITYCONTROLLED
Time Wet Dry Relative
1Hour 140 -
3Hours 100 150 25%
2Hours 145 170 50%
InternalTemperature 145 170 50%
of140F
FORREADYTOEAT
ToInternalTemperature 145 170 50%
of155F
BONELESSHAMS,HUMIDITYCONTROLLED
Time Wet Dry- Relative Damper
2Hours (canbe 117 160 25-30 Open
donefasterwith
lowerRH)
1Hour,Smoke
134 170 36% Closed
1Hour,Smoke
143-150 180 36-45% Closed
4Hours,Cook
150-155 175-190 38-60% Closed
Smoke
NoSmoke
Smoke
Smokeor
NoSmoke
NoSmoke
Smoke
No
Smoke
Smoke
Smoke
No
Smoke
No
Smoke
Smoke
No
Smoke
Wood
Smoke
Wood
Smoke
No
Smoke
478
BACON,SLOWCOOKANDSMOKE
Time Wet Dry Relative Damper Smoke
1.5Hours 90-100 125 25-30% Open No
Smoke
2Hours 105 135 35-40% 2/3 Smoke
Closed
ToInternal 100-127 132-165 30-35% 2/3 No
Temperatureof Closed Smoke
128F
BACON,ROUND
Time Wet
BulbF
Dry
BulbF
Relative
Humidity
Smoke
3Hours 86 104 44% NoSmoke
1.5Hours 115 122 80% Smoke
2.5Hours 115 122 80% NoSmoke
ToInternalTemperature 149 167 63% NoSmoke
CORNEDBEEF,WATERCOOKINBAG
To165-170F
CORNEDBEEF,STEAMCOOKINBAG
Time SteamTemperature
30Minutes 180F
- 165FtoInternalTemperature
of155-160F
30Minutes 160F
CORNEDBEEF,STEAMCOOKINABAG
Time CookTemperature
15Minutes DryCook175F
- Steamat165Fto
InternationalTemperatureof
155-1601F
30Minutes Steamat160F
479
SMOKEFISH
1.Cureinhambrine,2hoursorcureinsaturatedbrine5-10
minutes.
2.Usenowetbulbornohumidityduringsmokeorcookcycles.
3.Drybulbof120Ftogetcolor,smoke.
4.Drybulbof180Ftocooktointernaltemperatureof165-170F
r
smoke.Someprocessorscookto210F
5.Don'tvacuumpackage.
TURKEYSMOKE
1.Turkeycure:
110lbs.ofsalt
25lbs.sugar
22lbs.curingsalt (6.25%sodiumnitrite)
35lbs.sodiumphosphate
3.5lbs.sodiumerythorbate
Enoughwatertomake100gal.ofbrine.
Use14%pickupfrominjectionandcoverpickle.
Pumpbreastwith8%ofbrine.
Coverpicklefor3-4days.
Time Wet
Bulb
F
Dry
Bulb
F
Relative
Humidity
Damper Smoke
1Hour
1Hour
1.5Hours
1.5Hours
3-4HourstoInternal
Temperatureof165F
104
123
137
160
120
135
150
165
180
-
35%
45%
45%
60
Open
Closed
Closed
Closed
Closed
Off
On
On
On
Off
HIGHRELATIVEHUMIDITY
1.Makescasingseasiertoremove.
2.Lowerdevelopmentofproteinaceousskin.
3.Reducescookingtime.
480
4 Decreasesshrinkage.
5.Iftoohighcausesmuddycolor
6.Increaserelativehumidityifproductcontainpoultry
7 Increasepermeabilityofcasingtosmoke.
8.Lowersemulsionstability
9.Reducessurfacecolor
SMOKEHOUSERELATIVEHUMIDITYOFTENUSED
StrongEmulsion Morethan45%RH
AverageEmulsion 35-45%RH
WeakEmulsion Lessthan25%RH
TEMPERATURESOFTENUSEDDURINGCOOKING
SMOKEHOUSETEMPERATURES
Starting Final Rateof
Temperatures Temperature Rise
LOWVELOCITYHOUSES
SmallDiameter 120-140F 168-180F 1OF/15
min.
LargeDiameter 120-140F 168-180F 10F/2hrs.
HIGHVELOCITYHOUSES, 169F 169For 0
AIRCONDITIONEDHOUSE above
ANINCREASEINFINALINTERNALTEMPERATUREWILL
1.Reducebacterialnumbers. 3.Improvecolorstability
2 Improvecuredcolor. 4.Increaseshrinkage.
SMOKEHOUSECONDITIONS
1.Productshouldbeloadeduniformlyonracks,spacedevenly,
staggered,trucksnotpushedtogetherbutlessthan14inches
apart (chimneyeffect)
2 Productshouldbeatleast12inchesabovethefloorandat
least12inchesfromthesidewalls.
481
3.Wetanddrybulbinstrumentsshouldbeaccuratewithin2F
4.Wetsockshouldbechangeddaily
5.Airvelocityshouldbeatleast183m/min. (600ft/min)
DELTACOOK
Smokehouseisaspecificnumberofdegrees (e.g.15F)above
producttemperature.Thelowerthisvalue,thelongerittakesto
cookbutthereislessshrinkage.
SHOWERAFTERCOOKING
1.Threeto10minutesincoldwater
2.Willhelpproductpeel.
3.Willpickup3%moisture.
4.Willleachoutpreservativessuchassalt,phenolsandsmoke.
BRINECHILL
1.Productwillpickupsomesalt.
2.Productwillbecomelighter
CHILLINCOOLER
1.Frankswillshrink2-3%.
2.Peelproductassoonasitischilledtoreduceshrinkage.
FatsandOils
Rancidity in fats is caused by hydrolytic and oxidative
reactions, both of which are influenced by heat.Lipases which
encouragehydrolyticrancidityaredestroyedbyheatbutoxidative
rancidityandnon-enzymatichydrolysisareacceleratedbyheat.The
following changes are noted in fats heated in the presence of
oxygen:
1.Loweringofmeltingpoint.
482
2.Loweringofiodinenumber
3.Increasedacidity.
Fatsheatedintheabsenceofoxygenarerelativelystable.
Kettlerenderedlardisfrequentlyrenderedat240F Wateris
initially added to the rendering kettle to keep the fat from
stickingandtohelphydrolyzethecollagencellwallsurrounding
the cell. Partially defatted tissue isground, subjected tolow
temperature (90-120F)and thencentrifuged. The latter process
doesnotdenature thetissueproteinandconsequently itmaybe
usedinsausageproducts.
Drying
Indryingitisimportantnottoremovewaterfromthesurface
oftheproductfasterthanitcanbetransferredfromthecenter
Ifthis isnot doneyouwillgetadark ringorcase hardening
whichwillactasabarrierforadditionalwatertransfer
Scalding
Poultry Thepurposeofscaldingistoloosenthefeathers
andexcessivetemperatureortimehasatougheningeffectonthe
tissue.Timeandtemperatureoftenusedincludethefollowing:
483
TYPE TEMPERATURE TIME YIELDS
OF
SCALD C F
SEC.
Kosher 2 36
Keepsbloodfromsetting
Soft 50.6 123 100 Intactskin (epidermisislefton
carcass)
Increasedbacterialprotection
Increasedshelflife
Morediversemethodsofchilling
andpacking
Totalfeatherremovalmore
difficult
Primaryscaldofpoultryindustry
Sub-
scald-
59.0 138 60 Easyremovaloffeathers
Uniformskincolor
ing Skinsurfacemoistandsticky
Skinsurfacewilldiscolorifnot
keptmoist
Hard 71.0 160 45 Skindiscoloration
Skinpuffy
Oftenusedforwaterfowl
Scalding time and temperatures often use.
YOUNG
TURKEYS
CHICKENS
150
145
140
(
a
135
CD
a
130
125
120
40 SO 00 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 100 170 180
Scald Time in Seconds
484
Turkeysaremoredifficulttodefeatherthanchickensandthe
ageofducksisveryimportanttotheeaseoffeatherremoval.
Hogs
Thepropertimeandtemperaturerelationshipisalsoimportant
inhogscaldingtoachieveeasyhairremovalwithoutdamagingthe
leatherpropertiesofthe skin.Temperatureof129to130Fare
oftenusedandthehogsshouldbewithdrawn (rangefewsecondsto
10minutes)assoonasthehairslipseasily.Afewprocessorsuse
140Fat4minutesorlessandafewusetemperaturesof160Fand
upto180Fbutthesehightemperaturesarenottoopopularsince
itisveryeasytoover-scaldinthisrange.Ifthehogsarenot
removed assoonasthehairslips,over-scaldingwill causethe
skin to contract around the base of the bristles making them
difficulttoremoveandthisiscalled"settingthehair" Season
of the year also affects hair removal with the most difficult
periodbeinginthefallandtheleastdifficultperiodbeingin
February and March. Breed of hogs adds another variable with
difficultyofdehairingincreasingfromwhite,toblackandwhite,
toblackandthentored.Manureandscurfpreventsthescaldwater
inmakingcontactwiththebaseofthehairandthusretardshair
removal.The ratioofwater tocarcassandwateragitationwill
alsoinfluencethewashingactioninthescaldtank.Anumberof
scaldingaids (SeeHogScaldingAgentsinFoodAdditivesChapter)
areapprovedandmostraisethepHofthescaldingwater,soften
theproteinandenhancethewashingpropertiesofscaldingwater
Processingplantsthataresavingpigskinsforleatherproduction
485
usuallyuseamaximumof137Fscaldingtemperature.
After passing through the dehairing machine, the hogs are
oftensingedtoremovethefinalhairorinafewcasesaredipped
inadepilatoryagent.Thisagentisamixtureofrosinandcotton
seedoilandtheentirecarcassissubmergedinthe250F (harmful
forskinsthataregoingtobeusedforleather)solutionfor6to
8seconds.Aftercoolingtherosincontainingthehairisstripped
fromthecarcass.
Canning
Considerable heat is required to destroy all the
microorganismsthatmaybepresentinmuscletissueandthissame
heatwilllowermusclequalitytherefore2approachesaretakento
canningmeatandtheyare:
1.Pasteurization-Inthisprocessonlyamoderateamountofheat
(internal temperature of 68 to 70C) is used to destroy most
vegetative cells (but fewmicrobial spores) andthisproduct is
capableofonlyverylimitedshelflifeandmustberefrigerated
(lessthan5C)whenstored.
2. "Commercially sterile" In this process sufficient heat
(internal temperature of 105C) is applied to destroy all the
vegetative cells and most of the bacterial spores. This will
produceaproductthathastheabilitytobestoredforextended
periodsoftimewithoutrefrigeration (ambienttemperature) This
product will usually still contain some viable spores (99.999%
destroyed)
Organolepticdifferenceshavebeennotedbetweencookedand
486
cannedmeatandthisdifferenceinflavorisoftentermed"retort
flavor" Discoloration problems have also been associated with
cannedmeatsandtheymaybeclassifiedasfollows.
1.Green oxidizingbacteriasuchas
Lactobacillus
Ach.romoba.cter
Streptococcusviridons
2.Darkening
ReactionofH
2
0incansthatarenotlacquered:
sodiumnitrite;
Sulphur
inmeat;
Sulphur
dioxide
>
Hydrogen
sulfide
Ironin polyphosphate
+tinplate
Black
>iron
sulfide
ingelatin
Cured meat lacquer epoxy phenolic lacquer containing
aluminumpowder
Meatreleaseagent foodgradeparaffin.
Solder-lead/tinalloy,puretinreducestheriskofblack
leadsulfite.
Non-curedmeatlacquer zincoxidepigmentedlacquers.
Inlargecansusedformeatthereisanaluminumanodeplacedin
thecenterofthecan.Thisanodeperferentiallycorrodes (sulfite
frommeatcombineswithaluminumoriron)andthuspreventsblack
iron sulfite formation as well as can corrosion due to curing
salts.
487
Termsoftenencounteredinmeatcanningaredefined;
F
Q
=timeinminutes z=numberofdegrees
toachieve Fahrenheitrequiredto
sterilityat decreasebacterialnumbers
250F byonelogcycle.
C. bot-
ulinum 2. 45-2. 8 min. 18F (10C)
in phos-
phate
buffer
488
References
AmericanMeatInstituteFoundation.1960.TheScienceofMeatand
MeatProducts.W.H.FreemanandCompany,SanFranciscoand
London.
Briskey,E.J.,E.G.CessansandJ.C.Trautman.1966.The
PhysiologyandBiochemistryofMuscleasaFood.The
UniversityofWisconsinPress;Madison,MilwaukeeandLondon.
Bull,Sleeter 1951.MeatfortheTable.McGraw-HillBookCompany,
Inc.;NewYork,Toronto,London.
Capson,D.A.1975.MicrowaveHeating.AVIPublishingCo.Westport
Conn.
Everson,C.W.1966 ManufacturingProcesses:DryandSemi-Dry
Sausage.AMIShortCourse,Atlanta,Ga.
Goldblith,S.A.1973 AnAnnotedBibliographyonMicrowaves.MIT
Press.Cambridge,Mass.
Lawrie,R.A.1966.MeatScience.PargamonPress;Oxford,London,
Edinburgh,NewYork,Toronto,Paris,Braunschweig.
Peterson,WilliamH.1943.ElementsofFoodBiochemistry.
Pristley.R.J 1979 EffectsofHeatingonFoodstuffs.Applied
Sci.Pub.,London.
Stumbo.1983.CRCHandbookofLethalityGuideforLowAcidCanned
Foods.CRCPress,BocaRaton,Fla.
Tang,W.T.1983.EffectsofIngredientsonthepHChangeofMeat
andKineticsofMeatMuscleProteinsonHeating.Thesis,The
OhioStateUniversity,ColumbusOhio.
>LXI
COOLING
Freezing:
Water (alarge percentage ofmuscle tissue) expands ata
temperatureaboveandbelow39F(4C) Onfreezing (changingfrom
aliquidtoasolidat32F.0F)itexpandsinvolumeapproximately
10percent. Nonsaltedmeattissuefreezes(becomesfirm)at28to
29F(-0.6to1.2C)andsaltedmeatfreezesat24-25Falthougha
portionofthewaterisstillintheliquid state. Evenat0F
approximately 5to6%ofthefreewaterisstillintheliquid
stateandthis contains most ofthesoluble componentsofthe
tissueinahighly concentrated form. Theseconcentrationscan
oftendenatureprotein(lowerbindingability)andaccelerateother
chemicalreactions.
Preservation:
Theprimaryreasonforfreezingmeatispreservation. Most
bacteria andmost enzymes have a minimum growth or reaction
temperatureof50F (10C)butafewpsychrophilic (coldloving)
bacteriacangrowattemperaturesaslowas23F(-5C) Freezing
and thawing kills some bacteria inmuscle tissue andbacteria
slowlydieinfrozentissuebut,ingeneral,freezingonlystops
bacterialgrowthandonsubsequentthawingmeatshouldbetreated
asfreshtissue.
Freezingrate:
Therateoffreezingisquiteinfluentialonsubsequentmeat
behavior
489
490
1. Fastfreezing (ideal) Withfastfreezing,icefreezes
betweentheactinandmyosinfilamentswithinthemuscle
fiber Thisdoesnotdrasticallydisruptthetissue
structure. Fastfreezingalsogivesabettertextureto
groundbeefproducts. Atemperatureof-40Fis
recommendedforfreezingmeat.
2. Slowfreezing (Mostcommercialfreezingandtheinterior
ofalllargecuts) Withslowfreezing,thefollowing
stepstakeplace:
a. Icecrystalsformontheoutsideofthefiber
becauseosmoticpressureislessherethan
withinthefiber.
b. Asfreezingproceeds,thewateroutsidethefiber
increasesinionicstrength.
c. Waterisdrawnbyosmosisfrominsidethefiberto
outsidethefiber
d. Thiswaterfreezeswithexistingiceandthecrystal
grows.
e. Largeicecrystalsareformedandthiscausesa
disruptionofmusclefibers.
Thefreezingrateisaffectedbyanumberoffactorsandafew
ofthemarelistedasfollows:
1. Sizeofmeatcut.
2. Temperatureofrefrigerationenvironment.
3. Natureofrefrigerationenvironment.
a. Blast fastest.
b. Directplatecontact-intermediate.
c. Stillair-slowest.
Typeofwrappingmaterial. 4
491
FreezingCurve:
25e
& ''.''.^'.Large Meat Sample!'/.-
20
* V i*
V . W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
" "*" ' ; ; Small;Meat;S;amp1e
o
10
v . \
*
OB
Q.
' . " . . . . "i.*i..'_k . " . . " . .*"... . ' . ' . . J ^ ^ . J .'.' .i .'.'.'.'.'.'
E
-5
I* * *I^
-10
"I." > \
-15
."- 30- - MHV
-20
0
Time (hours)
The timerequired formeattopass throughthetemperature
zonefrom0Cto-5Cisreferredtoasthethermal-arresttime.
A quick freezing rate is often considered asone that hasa
thermal-arresttimeoflessthan2hours(curvelabeled"SmallMeat
Sample"onpreviousgraph).
Brine Chilling -Should notbe used onproducts that contain
aluminumclipsduetocorrosionproblems.
ShowerProductAfterCooling-manyshowerto90-95F.
StorageTemperature:
Oncethemeattissueisfrozenthesizeoftheicecrystals
492
canchangeifitisstoredatjustbelowfreezing. Thefollowing
sequenceofeventswilloccur:
1. Smallicecrystalswillsublime (solidtovaporstate)
2. Vaporwillrecrystallizeonlargericecrystals.
3 Increasedicecrystalsizewilldevelop.
4. Fiberdamage.
5. Increaseddriponthawing.
Itisrecommendedthatmeatbestoredat-10Forbelow.
Maximumshelflifeguidelinesforfrozenmanufacturingproduct
isoften: 60daysforpork
90-120daysforleanbeef
Freezinghotcarcasses:
Rapidfreezingpriortochillinghasalsobeen investigated
withthefollowingresults:
1. Onthawing-Whenthetissueiswarmed "thawrigor"
willtakeplace. Exudationofdripwilloccurwhen
themusclefibersshortenifthemuscleisnotheld
inastretchedpositionbytheskeleton.
2. Glycolysiswillproceedslower,yieldingahigherpH
andlessdrip.
3 Tenderization-Ifmeatisfrozenatnormalcommercial
rates (24hourspost-mortem)itwillbetougherthan
iffrozenat3dayspost-mortem.
Oxidation:
Even though bacterial growth may be stopped by low
temperatures,oxidativeranciditycontinuestocausedeterioration
493
(downtoatleast0F) Oxidationismoreprevalentinunsaturated
fatssuchasporkandrabbitthanitisinthemoresaturatedbeef
orlamb. Saltalsoincreasestherateofoxidation. Attemptshave
beenmadetoretardoxidationby:
1. Usinganoxygenimpermeablewrap.
2. Antioxidantsadded-notmuchhelpinmeatcuts.
3. Leavingsaltoutofcuredproductsandaddingpriorto
cooking.
4. Coldertemperatures (fattyproductsshouldbestoredat
-10to-20F)
Oxidative deterioration is the main reason for different
recommendedmaximumstoragetimeformeatproductsandtheyareas
follows:
MeatProduct
MaximumFrozen(-10F)StorageTime
Beef
12months
Lamb
12months
Liquideggs
12months
Wrappedfish
8months
Freshpork
6months
Poultry
6months
Sausage (nosalt)
2months
Slicedbacon
1month
Thawing:
Itisgenerallyrecommendedthatmeatbethawedslowly(under
refrigeration) inorder toallow dehydrated portion to reabsorb
494
tissuefluidsthatmayhavemigratedduringfreezing.
DripLosses:
Frozenmeatonthawingoftenlosesliquidandthisiscalled
drip. This loss insome cases can amount to 15 to 20%. This
liquidcontainsproteins,lacticacid,purinesandB-vitaminsand
is the primary nutritional loss due to freezing. Some of the
factorsthatinfluencethequantityofdripinclude:
a. Ratioofsurfaceareatovolume.
b. Orientationofmusclefibertocutsurface.
c. Specie: beefhasmoresurfacesduetolargersize.
d. Bloodvessels.
e. Evaporationand/orcondensationintheareawherethemeat
isthawing.
f. Rateoffreezing (slowfreeze moredrip)
g. ThepH (highpH-lessdrip)
h. Variationbetweenmuscles.
i. Rateofthawing (slowthawinggivestissuetimeto
reabsorbpartofdrip,butalsoincreasestimeinwhich
thetemperatureisfavorableformicrobiologicalgrowth)
Waterholdingcapacity:
Relatedtodriplossisthedecreaseinwaterholdingcapacity
offrozentissue. Thisiscausedby:
1. Watertranslocationfrominsidefibertooutsideof
fiberduringfreezing.
2 Denaturationofmuscleproteinduetohighionicstrength.
495
DestructionofTrichina:
Freezing can destroy certain parasites and one method of
removingTrichinellaspiralisfromporkisbyfreezingtheproduct.
A time, temperature, and thickness of product relationship is
recommendedbyUSDAregulations.
Freezerburn:
Another frozenmeatpropertywhich shouldbeconsidered in
freezing,istheconditionknownasfreezerburn. Thesearethe
whitepatchesthatappearonthesurfaceoffrozenmeat. Thecolor
is caused by air pockets in the tissue which scatter light.
Freezerburniscausedbythesublimationoficecrystals(inmeat)
intotheatmosphere.
Freezerburnisretardedbythefollowing:
1. Skintight,waterimpermeablewrap.
2. Diporspraycoating.
3. Iceglaze.
Freezerburnisoftenmoresevereinrapidlyfrozenmeatthan
inslowly frozenmeat and isexplainedbythe increased surface
areaofcavitiesleftbysmallericecrystals.
Color:
Meat Freezingdarkensthecolorofmeatbutitregainssome
ofthefreshmeatcoloronthawingandexposuretoair
Poultry Freezingrateisthecontrollingfactorin
determiningfrozenpoultrycolor Slowfreezingwhich
produceslargeicecrystalsallowsthelighttopenetrate
thetissueandshowsthedarkredmyoglobintissueand,
496
consequently,givesadarkappearance. Rapidfreezing,which
producessmallicecrystals,reflectsmorelightandgives
thetissuealighterappearance.
Bone Darkening - Poultry This condition in poultry can be
summarizedbynoticingthatthelongboneandsurroundingmuscle
tissuebecomesdarkwhenpoultryhasbeenfrozenandthawed. No
alteration canbe detected inthe flavorof this tissue. This
conditionoccursinyoungpoultryandiscausedbytheleachingof
hemoglobinfromthebonemarrowandtheoxidationofthiscompound
tomethemoglobin. Thisoccursonlyinyoungbirdsdueto:
1. Morehemoglobinispresentinthebonemarrow.
2. Incompletecalcificationpermitsthehemoglobintoescape.
Flavor:
Rapidfreezingoffishmuscleretardsthetissueandbacterial
enzyme actions which are responsible for the "fishy" odor
(trimethylamine: (CH
3
)
3
N)ofstoredseafood.
SaltPenetration:
Saltpenetration (forcuring)isfasteronmuscletissuethat
hasbeen frozenandthawedwhencompared tofreshtissue. When
makingsausageitisessentialthatthemeatbecompletelythawed
oralackofcuredevelopmentwillbeobtainedbecauseoftheice
crystals.
FreezerWrap:
Propertiesofagoodfreezerwrappingmaterialshouldinclude:
1. Skintightandmoisture-prooftopreventfreezerburn.
2. Durableatfreezertemperature.
497
3. Highwetstrength.
4. Impermeabletoodorandflavor
5. Impermeabletooxygen:
a. Helpsreduceoxidation.
b. Disadvantage:Causesmeattobedarkerincolor
Thawing:
Temperingtissueat26-28Fyieldsthemaximumwaterholding
capacity. Force thawing at high temperatures results in a
considerableloweringofthisproperty
Specific Heat The heat (or cold) required to change the
temperature of meat compared totheheat (orcold) required to
change the temperature (samenumber of degrees) ofwater (same
weight)iscalledspecificheat. Thiscanbeestimatedinunfrozen
foodbythefollowingformula:
Specificheat=0.008(%waterinfood)+0.20
Theremovalofheat (orcold)requiredtochangethewaterinmeat
from a liquid to a solid (freezing) without changing the
temperatureoftheproductiscalledlatentheat.
--
--
--
498
B.T.U./lb. F
SpecificHeat
a
LatentHeat
Product
Beef
LeanMeat
FatMeat
Veal
Pork
PorkCured
Bacon
DriedBeef
Mutton
Poultry
Fish
Franks
Liver
Lard
Fresh
0.60-0.84
0.90
0.50
0.70-0.77
0.51-0.90
0.52-0.56
0.50-0.55
0.22-0.34
0.65-0.76
0.70-0.80
0.76-0.82
0.86
0.72
0.38
Frozen
0/30-0.43
0.32-0.42
0.32-0.33
0.30-0.31
0.19-0.26
0.30-0.51
0.37-0.48
0.40-0.44
0.56
0.40
79-100

66-86
29-30
83-106
99-106
101
94
Asfatcontentincreasesspecificheatdecreases.
Product
Beef,60%lean
Beef,45%lean
Chicken
Fish,Whole,Tuna
Fish,Codfillet
Ham,74%Lean
Lamb
Turkey
Moisture
Content
%w.b.
49
45
74
70
80
56
90
64
SpecificHeat
kJ/kgC
Fresh Frozen
2.90 1.46
2.80 1.41
3.53 1.77
3.43 1.72
3.43 1.72
3.08 1.55
3.89
3.28 1.65
499
Thermal Conductivities and/or Thermal Diffusivities ofMeat and
MeatProducts.
Product
Moisture Thermal Apparent Thermal
Content Conductivity Density Diffus-
%w.b. W/mK kg/m
3
ivities
m
2
/hr
Meat,Ground
74.6 0.452 1057 --
Round,3%Fat
Pork,Leg6%Fat, 72 1.23 -- --
-8C
a
Pork,Leg6% 72 1.41 -- --
Fat,-8C
b
Pork,LoinStrip
0.388 1056 3.72X10"

4
Chicken,Dark -- 0.488 -- --
Meat,10C
Chicken,White -- 0.480 -- --
Meat,10C
a
Thermalconductivitymeasuredperpendiculartodirectionof
fiber.
b
Thermalconductivitymeasuredparalleltodirectionof
fiber.
Fat in tissue lowers the rate of heat transfer and
consequentlythetissuedoesnotheatasrapidly. Layersoffat
(i.e.ham,backfat)insulatetheproductandthereforethechange
intemperatureisslower
EfficiencyofMeatProcessingEquipment
Smokehouse- 33% (Range1to40%)
Cost
Onecubicfootofgas 1,00 0BTU's
Onekilowatthour 3,500BTU's
Tocalculatetheheatremovalrequiredtofreezeaproduct,
thefollowingprocedureisused:
500
Lowerthetemperaturetothefreezingpoint
Starting Specific
BTU temperature 30F X heat: X [Pounds]
of product fresh
Freezing product
BTU= [Latent Heat] X [Pounds]
Lower temperature below freezing point
Final
BTU=
30F temperature X [Specificheat:frozen]X[Pounds]
ofproduct
TotalBTUrequired
TotalBTU=BTUtofreezingpoint+BTUforfreezing+BTUbelow
freezing
totalBTU Thisonlyaccountsfor
Tonsofrefrigeration= freezingofmeatandnot
288,000 fortheotherrefrigeration
losses.
Inheatingandcoolinginthemeatareagenerally2/3oftheBTU's
arewastedduetoequipmentinefficiency
Bonehas agreaterheatconductivity than softtissueand,
therefore,acarcasswillchillorcookquickerthanabonelesscut
ofthesame weight. Fatis apoor conductorofheatandthis
retardsthelossofbodyheat,slowsdownthechillingrateand
retardsthecookingrate.
CHILLING
The chilling curveofatypical beef carcass wouldbeas
follows:
501
1OO
90
00
Tint*(hours)
CONDENSATION
Condensateisthefreemoistureformedwhenthereistoomuch
watervaporintheairtostayinsolution. Knowingthewetand
drybulbtemperature (accuracyof0.1Frequired)andconsultinga
psychometric chartyoucandeterminethedegreeofsaturationof
theair Anytimetheaircanbemadelesssaturatedthereisless
possibilityofcondensationbutmorecarcassshrinkage. Theideal
situation is to maintain the air with as high (above 95%) a
relativehumidity(RH)aspossiblebutbelow100%. Controlfactors
thatwillaidinloweringcondensationareasfollows:
1. Donotpre-chillcoolerpriortoloadingwithcarcasses
andturnoffcoolerwhencarcasseshavereacheddesired
temperatureandallowcoolertowarmuptocarcass
temperaturebeforerestarting.
2. Increaseairflowfromcoilsovercarcassesanddonot
502
havestaticpocketsofairorairturbulence. Clean
coilsandfansfrequently Donotallowairtoshort
circuitandgodirectlyfromdischargetosuctionside
ofevaporator.
3. Usewarmercoiltemperatures (highsuctionpressure)and
operatewithawetcoilandthereforethereisnoneed
foradefrostcycle. Ifsufficientcoolingisnot
achievedbyoperatingwithawetcoilthensuction
pressurecanbeloweredduringthelatterpartofthe
coolingcycle.
4. Keepdoorsclosedandlightsturnedoffexceptwhen
necessary
5. Donotusehotwaterinthecoolerduringheavy
coolingperiods.
ColdShortening
Coldshorteningincreasesmuscletoughnessandcanbecaused
bychillingbelow 50F (10C)inlessthan14hourspost-mortem.
This isparticularly noticeable insmaller leananimals suchas
lambs. Coldshorteningseemstobecausedbyaninactivationof
theCa
++
pumpatlowtemperatures. IftheCa
++
pumpcannotreturn
theCa
++
tothesarcoplasmicreticulinthentheCa
++
concentration
increases and muscle contraction (rigor) is initiated. Cold
shortening ismore evident inpredominantly red muscle than in
whitemuscle.
Cutting
Meattemperatureforcuttingisapproximately45P
503
Grinding
Thebestgrindingtemperatureformeatisbetween20-30F.
ToExtractProteinforEmulsionFormation
Chop2to3minutes,
1/3addedwater (togivehighersaltconcentration)
Leanmeat
Salt
PackagingRoom
Shouldbe40Forbelow,thiswillgive3-7daysextrashelf-
lifeoverusualhighertemperatures.
LiverSausage
Tomakeliversausagechoplivertillitbubbles --airhas
beenincorporatedandtheliverischoppedfineenough.
Addthemeat.
Addthesalt --addedlastbecausethereislittleemulsion
formingproteintoextract.
504
REFERENCES
London.
Anderson,R.W 1982. HowtoEliminateCondensate. USDA,
Washington,D.C.
Bennion,M.1995.IntroductoryFoods.MacMillanCollegePub.Co.,
N.Y.,N.Y
Berry,C.L.1989.MeatFreezing.Clsevier N.Y.,N.Y
Borgstrom,George. 1969.PrinciplesofFoodScience. Collier-
MacMillan,CanadaLtd.,Toronto,Canada.
Bull,Sleeter 1951. MeatfortheTable. McGraw-HillBook
Company,Inc.,NewYork,Toronto,London.
Cutting,C.L.1974.MeatFreezing --WhyandHow.MeatRes.
Inst.,Bristol,England.
Desrosier,N.W. 1970. TheTechnologyofFoodPreservation. The
AVIPublishingCo.,Inc.,Westport,Conn.
Estnon,E.M.1975.TheCanning,FreezingandSmokingofMeat,Fish
andGame.GordenWayPublishingCo.,Charlotte,Vt.
Geary,D.andF Gerrard. 1968.MeatandRefrigeration. Meat
TradeJournal,London.
Lawrie,R.A. 1966. MeatScience. PergamonPress;Oxford,
Tressler,D.K.,W.B.VanArsdelandM.J Copley. 1968. The
FreezingPreservationofFoods.AVIPublishingCo.,Westport,
Conn.
Ziegler,P.Thomas. 1966. TheMeatWeEat. TheInterstate
PrintersandPublishers,Inc.,Danville,Illinois.
MEATHANDLINGEQUIPMENT
The equipment inmeat plants are never the same even for
accomplishingthesamejob. Forthesereasons,guidelinesforone
plantmaynotworkinanother. However,afewgeneralprinciples
areapplicable;and,theyareoutlinedasfollows:
UseofGrinder:
1. Grinderknivesshouldbesharpeneddaily.
2. Thesameknifeandplateshouldalwaysbeusedtogether
3. Platesshouldnotbegroundbelowthecase-hardenedarea.
4. Wornworm orwornrifling will cause slowdeliveryof
meat.
5. Toomuchpressureontheringwillcausefrictionand
heatandwillalsocausewear.
6. Non-free-flowingusuallymeanstheneedforanewknife
andplate.
7. Thecylindershouldbekeptfullofmeat. Idlerunning
willruinknivesandplates.
8. Bonesandgristlesshouldberemovedfrequentlyfrom
behindtheplateandfromtheholesintheplate.
9. Meatshouldnotbeallowedtobackupagainsttheoutlet
ofcylinder
10 Don'tforceoroverloadthegrinder Frozenortoughmeat
shouldfirstbebroken;and,thenrunthroughafine
plate.
505
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
506
CHOPPINGORGRINDING-FRESHPORKSAUSAGE:
Grinder:
1. Wormandbarrelshouldnotbeworn.
2. Knifeandplatemustbematchedandsharp.
ChopperUsage:
1. Meatshouldbelessthan30Foradd5-6lbs.ofcrushed
dryice/100lbs.ofmeat.
2. Slowspeedshouldbeusedforchopping.
GrinderUsage:
1. Meatgroundat30Foradd5-6lbs.crusheddryice/100
lbs.ofmeat.
2. Mixtrimmingwithsalt,seasoningandwater.
3. Usea3/6inchplateonthegrinder.
Stuffing,Linking&Packaging:
1. Roomshouldbebelow50F
2. Oftencrusheddryiceisaddedtothecarton;or,
packagedproductismovedtoa10Ffreezer.
PRERIGORFRESHPORKSAUSAGE:
. Porkcarcassisskinned.
. Porkcarcassisbonedafterslaughter.
Carcassiscutintostrips.
. Stripsaregroundthrougha1 1.5 inchplate.
. Meatismixed3minuteswithseasoningandsalt.
. Regrindthrougha3/16inchplate.
Packinashallow (3in.)trayandchillto28F
. Stuffinequipmentwhichis45Forlower.
9. Placeina10Ffreezer.
507
EMULSIFICATION:
GrindingPriortoEmulsifying:
1. Leanmeatisgroundthrougha1/8-3/16inchplate.
2. Fatmeatisgroundthrougha3/8-5/8inchplate.
SilentCutter-Maintenance:
1. Washandsanitizeeverynight.
2. Knivesshouldbesteeledeverynight.
3. Knivesshouldbehonedevery50,000lbs.ofproduct.
4. Knivesshouldberemoved,sharpenedandbalancedevery
250,000lbs.
5. Knivesshouldbesetasclosetobowl (shippingtag)as
possiblewithouttouching.
SilentCutter-Usage:
1. Beef (28-36F)orleanmeatshouldbeaddedfirst.
2. One-halfoftheiceorwater;and,allofthesalt,sugar,
seasoningandcureshouldbeevenlydistributed.
3 Chopfor3minutes.
4. Balanceoficeorwateristhenadded (warmwatermaybe
addedifnecessarytoraisetemperature)
5. Porkadded: Highspeedcutter Lowspeedcutter
Morethan30%leanadded Before45F
30%leanadded at45-48F
Lessthan30%leanadded at50F 40-45F
6. Extenderssuchasmilkpowder,cornsyrupsolidsorsoy
productsareaddedat55F
7 Ascorbatesorerythorbatesareaddedat55F
508
8. Emulsioncompletedat:
60-62F Beefandporkproduct.
62-70F Beeformuttonproduct.
Usuallyrequires6-8minutesofchoppingtime.
SilentCutter-Emulsifier:
1. Addbeeftothecutterwith1/2thewater;and,allofthe
salt,sugarseasoningandcure.
2. Chop1minute.
3. Addpork,binder (milkpowder,soy,etc.),ascorbateand
therestofwater
4. Chopfor31/2minutes.
5. Transfertoemulsifier
Temperatureoutofemulsifier:
Beef fat - 61-70F
Pork fat - 60-65F
Grinder-Mixer-Emulsifier:
1. Weighandgrindmeatingredientsthroughgrinder.
2. Mixmeatandotheringredients(water,salt,spices,cure,
binders)inmixer
3. Runmixthroughemulsifier.
Stuffing:
1. Pumptypestuffersarenecessarywithhighspeedlinkers.
2. Airpressurestuffers-dangerousduetoairpressure.
a. Bottomplatemustberemoveddailyandbottom
partofstufferwashed.
b. Plungermustberemovedatleastonceaweek
andcleaned.
METHODOFANALYSIS
Sampling:
Samplingisthemostimportantstepinanyanalysisandsince
meatissodifficulttosample,thisstepisevenmoreimportant.
Anaccurateanalysisofapoorsampleisworthless.
Inthemeatareapoorsamplingprobablyaccountsforalarge
percentageofthemistakesthatwerebasedonchemicalanalysis.
Grindingandmixingisaprerequisiteforanygoodmeatsample
andgrindingatleastthreetimesisalwaysrequired. Sampling
timeisalsoimportant andshouldbeasshortaspossible since
evaporation is normally occurring during the sampling steps.
Proper meat temperature and a good grinder and mixer are also
essentialduringsamplingtokeepmeatfromseparatingduringthe
grindingstages.
Moisture:
Moistureinmeatproductsmaybedeterminedbyseveralmethods
andafewareoutlined:
1. Drying-Thepercentmoisturemaybedeterminedby
placingthemeatsampleatanelevatedtemperature
foradesignatedlengthoftimeandconsideringthe
weightlossasmoisture. Thedryingtimecanbe
shortenedifthetemperatureisraisedorifmore
samplesurfaceareaisexposedtothedryingenvironment.
Adryingschedulethatisoftenusedis212F(100F)for
18hours. Highertemperaturesandashortertimemaybe
usedifspeedofanalysisisaprimeprerequisite.
509
510
2. Vacuumdrying-Dryinginavacuumalsoshortensthe
dryingtimeormaylowerthedryingtemperature.
3. Azeotropicdistillation-Watercanbedistilledand
collectedfromameatsample. Thisisnormallydone
withtheaidofanazeotrope. Anazeotropeisamixture
oftwoormoreliquids (waterplusaddedchemicalwhich
isoftentoluene)whichdistillataconstant
temperature.
4. Titration-Thesampleistitratedwithareagentwhich
reactsquantitativelywithwater. TheFischerreagent
isthemostpopular.
Fatty tissue islow inmoisture and innormalmeat tissue
thereisaninverserelationshipbetweenthemoistureandthefat
content. Innormalmeat tissuethereisalsoafairlyconstant
relationshipbetweenproteinandmoisturewiththepercentmoisture
beingabout4times (range3.0to4.7)thepercentprotein.
Anexampleoftheusualmoisturerangeisasfollows:
MeatProduct UsualRangeofPercentMoisture
Freshmuscletissue 55-73
Fat 8-10
Organs 60-80
Bacon (cured) 15-25
Fat:
1. Quantityoffat-Thereareseveralgeneralprocedures
fordeterminingthequantityoffatinmeatandmeat
productsandafewofthemorepopularonesareoutlined:
511
a. Solventextraction-Anon-polarsolventisused
toextractthenon-polarcompounds (lipids)from
meatproducts. Alargeportionofthesenon-
polarcompoundsaretriglycerides. Thequantity
offat (lipids)isdeterminedbythelossof
sampleweightorbyevaporationofthesolvent
andcollectionofthefat. Acommonprocedure
isextractionwithanhydrousethyletherfor
8hours.
b. Aciddigestion-Theproteinisdigestedwithacid
andthefatismeasuredvolumetricallyinanarrow
calibratedneckofaspeciallyconstructedbottle.
Thisprocedureisfastandsimilartothepopular
milk-fattest.
c. Cooking-Arapidfatanalysismethodinvolves
thecookingofthemeatproductandcollecting
andmeasuringthefatvolumetrically. Thevolume
offatcollectediscorrelatedwiththetotal
fatcontentofthesample.
d. Capacitance-Fatisextractedfrommeatwitha
solventandthesolventisplacedinacelland
thecapacitanceofthesolutionismeasured.
Thecapacitancewillvarydependingonthe
fatcontentofthesolventandbyusinga
standardcurvethefatcontentofthesample
maybeestimated.
512
e. Density-Fatandleantissueshavedifferent
densities;therefore,ameasureofdensity-
torspecificgravity)willbeproportional
tothequantityoffatinthesample. This
procedurehasbeenusedinthemeatareato
estimatethefatcontentofthefollowing
typesofsamples:
Groundmeatsamples
Totalcarcassesorwholesalecuts
Liveanimal
f. Raypenetration-Thequantityofraysthat
penetrateasamplemaybeusedtoestimate
thelean-fatratio.
g. K
40
-Potassium-40whichisradioactiveis
normallyevenlydistributedinallpotassium.
Whenananimaleatsfeeditalsoconsumes
potassium (agivenratioofwhichis
potassium-40)andthiselementisdeposited
intheleantissue. Byplacingaliveanimal
ortissueinaradioactivecountertheK
A0
can
becountedandthetotalpotassiumestimated
alongwiththequantityofleantissue.
The percentage fat found in carcasses varies tremendously
dependingonthedegreeoffinishoftheanimal. Someoftheusual
rangesareshownbelow:
513
MeatProduct UsualRangeofPercentFat
Trimmedretailcuts 5 - 5 0
Backfat 88-93
Porkbelly 40-70
Organtissue 2 - 3 5
2. Meltingpoint (MP)offat-Solidappearingfatisa
combinationofsolidandliquid. Themeltingpoint
isnormallydeterminedbythefollowingmethods:
a. Capillary-Fatisplacedinaclosedend
capillarytubeandslowlywarmeduntilall
ofthesoliddisappears (fatbecomestransparent).
Thisisnormallyconsideredthehighestmelting
point (meltingpointofhighermeltingfractions).
Fat CapillaryMeltingPoint
F C
Lard 82 -118 28-48
Beeftallow 104 -122 40-50
Muttontallow 104 -124 40-51
b. Wiley-Thismeltingpointisdeterminedby
suspendingasolidflatdiskoffatina
water-alcoholsolutionandslowlywarming
thesolution. Themeltingpointisthe
temperaturewhentheflatdiskistransformed
toasphere. Thisisconsideredthe
averagemeltingpointandisnormallylower
thanthecapillarymeltingpoint.
514
3. Iodinenumber-Thisisachemicaldeterminationofthe
degreeofunsaturationofafat. TheHanusandtheWijs
methodsarethemostcommonanddifferonlyinchemicals
used. Thefatisdissolvedinasolvent;anexcessof
iodineisadded;theiodineattachestodoublebondsof
thefat;and,theunusediodineistitratedtodetermine
thequantitythatisattachedtothefat.
H H H H
| | catalyst | |
-C=C- +I
2
> -C- C-
I I
Bydefinition,theiodinenumberisthenumberofgrams
ofiodineabsorbedby100gramsoffatoroil.
Fat IodineNumber
Lard (varieswithanimaldiet) 44-66
Beeftallow 35-55
Muttontallow 32-61
Horsefat 75-86
4. Saponificationnumber-Thesaponificationnumberisthe
numberofmilligramsofpotassiumhydroxidenecessary
tosaponify1gramoffat.
H 0 H
SAPONIFICATION;
H-
C- 0- C- R H-- C- OH
1
H-
0- C- R
i ~>T-TlTT
H-
"
C
1
\'
OH + 3K- 0- C- R
\\ \\
-
0 H-
- C
OH 0
H- C- 0-
c-
R
\\
H
H
0
lyasridc Potassium Glycerol Potassiumsalts
Hydroxide ofFattyAcids
515
Excesspotassiumhydroxideisaddedtoafat,thefat
issaponifiedandthesurpluspotassiumhydroxideis
titratedwithanacidtodeterminethequantityused.
Fromthesaponificationnumbertheaveragelengthof
thefattyacidchainsmaybecalculated.
S. RefractiveIndex-Thisisameasureoftheamountof
bendingofalightbeamasitpassesintoafat. The
refractiveindexmaybeanaidto:
a. Checktheidentityofafat.
b. Checkthepurityofafat.
c. Estimatethechainlengthsinceitincreased
withincreasedchainlength.
d. Checkthesaturationsinceitincreaseswith
increasingunsaturation.
5. FreeFattyAcid (FFA)-Fattyacidsarenormallyattached
toaglyceroltoformtriglycerides. Underprolonged
storageorunderpoorprocessingconditionsafewofthe
fattyacidsbecomeunattachedorfree. Thequantityof
thesefreeacidsaredeterminedbytitrationwithaweak
base.
H - O - C - R + NaOH > Na-0-C- R + H
?
0
\\ W
o o
FreeFatty Sodium Saltof Water
Acid Hydroxide FattyAcid
(base) (soap)
Thehigherthequantityoffreefattyacidsthelower
thesmokepointofthefat. Thelowerthesmokepoint
thelessdesirablethefatbecomesforcooking.
516
7. PeroxideValue-Peroxidevaluesareanattempttomeasure
thedegreeoffatoxidationwhichlowersthequalityof
thefat. Sinceoxidationtakesseveralpathwaysany
attempttomeasureitisatbestonlyanestimation.
Peroxidesareintermediateinoxidationoffatandthis
alsomakesthesevaluesmoredifficulttoevaluate.
2
Fat
(double
> Peroxides > EndProducts
(odorforming)
bonds)
Ifperoxidesarebeingformedfasterthantheyarebeing
brokendownthenperoxidevalueswillparalleltotal
oxidation. Ifthisisnotthecaseperoxidevaluescould
decreaseasoxidationcontinues.
8. AOM-Thetimerequiredforafattoreachaspecific
peroxidevalueunderacceleratedoxidationconditions
(increasedtemperatureand/orairflow)isusedto
measuretheeffectivenessofanantioxidant. This
evaluationprocedureiscalledtheactiveoxygen
method (AOM).
9. FattyAcidSeparation-Currently,mostfattyacid
separationsareconductedwiththeaidofagas
chromatographyunit. Usuallythetriglycerideis
brokenandthefattyacidsareconvertedtotheir
respectivemethylesterswiththeaidofacatalyst
(oftenHCl)asfollows:
517
H 0 H
II
3 CH
3 - 0 - C
H
- C -
0
- c
R
H - C - OH
\ \
-
0
1
H
- C - 0
- c -
R H- 3 [CH
3
-OH] > H - C - OH + or R
1
w
or R
1
1 1
0
H - C - OH
H - C - O - C - R I
I \\ H
H 0
Triglyceride Methanol Glycerol MethylEsterof
FattyAcids
Themethylestersofthefattyacidsaretheninjected
intoagaschromatographycolumn. Eachfattyacidester
requiresagivenamountoftimetotravelthroughthis
column;therefore,theyexitfromthecolumnatdifferent
intervals. Asensitivetemperaturedetectororan
ionizationdetectormeasuresthisdischargefromthe
columnandplotstherelativequantityofmethylesters
onagraph.
10. Titer-Titerisoftenconsideredtobemore
representativeofafatthanthemeltingpoint. The
preliminaryprocedurefordeterminingtiterconsists
ofsaponifyingthefat,acidifying (changingthesalts
tothefattyacids),separatinganddryingthefatty
acids. Thefattyacidsareheatedandallowedtocool
andwhentheybegintosolidify,theheatoffusion
isliberated. Thepointatwhichariseintemperature
occursisthetiterpoint.
Titerisanindextoconsistencyandiseffectedby
fattyacidchainlengthandunsaturation.
518
Thetiter (withmeltingpoint)ishelpfultodetermine
thevalueofafatasastiffeningagentwhichisuseful
inmanufacturingmargarine,shortening,soapandcandles.
11. Specificgravity-Specificgravityisthecomparisonof
theweightofagivenquantityofproductwiththeweight
ofthesamevolumeofwater. Infats,itisnormally
determinedby:
a. Hydrometer-aflotationdevicewithagraduate
stemandaweightedbottom. Thelevelof
floatingdeterminesthespecificgravity.
b. Pyknometer-Asmallflasktomeasurevolumevery
accurately. Theweightofthisflaskcontaining
fatcomparedtoitsweightcontainingwateris
usedtocalculatethespecificgravity.
Forsizingmeathandlingequipmenttheratioof40lbs/cufoot
isusuallyused.
519
CONSTANTSFORFATSANDOILS
8
FatorOil
ButterFat
Coconut
CornOil,
Maize
CottonseedOil
Lard
OliveOil
PalmOil
PeanutOil
SoybeanOil
TallowBeef
TallowMutton
SpecificGravity %FatContent
Cow'sMilk3.3-5.4%
Copra63-70%
Germ50%
Seed18-28%
RawPorkCarcass,
totaledible42-66%
LeanMuscle6-11%
Fruit25-60%
FruitPulp30-70%
Kernels40-50%
Seed11-25%
RawCarcass,total
edible18-41%
LeanMuscle5-11%
RawCarcass,total
edible15-40%
LeanMuscle4-8%
Value
.901-.920
.930-.940
.863-.874
.926-.926
.920-.927
.920-.925
.859-.864
.934-.938
.915-.918
.921-.924
.911-.926
.921-.931
.860
.895
.858-.860
.937-.953
Temperature
ReportedC
37.8/37.8
15.5/15.5
100/15
15.5/15.5
15.5/15.5
15.5/15.5
100/15.5
15.5/15.5
15.5/25.5
15.5/15.5
15.5/15.5
15.5/15.5
99/15.5
15/15
99/15.5
15/15
520
FatorOil
ButterFat
Coconut
CornOil,
Maize
CottonseedOil
Lard
a
OliveOil
PalmOil
PeanutOil
SoybeanOil
TallowBeef
TallowMutton
a
8
RefractiveIndex
Value
1.445-1.449
1.453-1.458
1.460
1.439-1.443
1.448-1.450
1.453-1.456
1.475-1.477
1.470-1.472
1.473-1.476
1.441-1.454
1.450-1.461
1.467-1.468
1.450-1.452
1.453-1.458
1.471-1.474
1.471-1.475
1.475-1.476
1.449-1.452
1.450-1.451
1.454-1.458
Temperature
ReportedC
60
40
25
60
40
15
15.5
25
15.5
60
40
15
60
40
15.5
25
15.5
60
60
40
MeltingPoint
C
28-36
22-28
SolidPoint,
-10to-15
SolidPoint,
3to4
28-48
SolidPoint,
-6to+10
27-50
SolidPoint,
0to3
SolidPoint,
-8to-18
40-50
40-49
See previous table
521
0
FatorOil IodineNumber AcidValue TiterC
ButterFat 26-45 0.45-35.4 33-42
Coconut 6-10.5 2.5-10 20-25
CornOil, 103-130 1.4-2.0 14-20
Maize
CottonseedOil 103-115 0.6-0.9 32-38
Lard 46-66 0.5-0.8 34-46
OliveOil 77-95 0.3-1.0 17-21
PalmOil 44-59 10 40-47
PeanutOil 80-100 0.8 26-32
SoybeanOil 120-142 0.3-1.8 20-24
TallowBeef 35-55 0.25 38-47
TallowMutton 32-61 1.7-14 39-52
a
Woodman1941,Halliday&Noble1943,Jacobs1958,
Kirschenbauer1960,USDA1963,Johston1992,AMI1994
Protein:
1. Totalprotein-Totalquantityofproteinisdetermined
asfollows:
a. Kjeldahl-Totalcrudeproteinisdeterminedby
themacro-Kjeldahlmethod. Theterm"crude"
indicatesthatthismethodconsidersallnitrogen
asprotein. Themeattissueisoxidizedbyan
acidandthenitrogenisconvertedintoammonium
salts. Theammoniaisliberatedbytheaddition
ofanalkalianddistilledfromthesample. The
ammoniaisthentrappedandtitratedtodetermine
thequantityofnitrogenpresent. Thenitrogen
522
ismultipliedby6.25 (thisfactorassumesthat
meatproteincontains16%nitrogen)toconvert
ittopercentprotein.
b. DyeBinding-Inthismethodanexcessofdyeis
addedtoameatsampleandallowedtocombine
withtheprotein. Theunuseddyeistitrated
todeterminethequantitythatreactedandthe
quantityofproteininthesample.
2. AminoAcids-Inaminoacidanalysistheproteinis
separatedfromthemeatsampleandtheproteinis
hydrolyzed (using:acid,orbase,orenzyme,and
temperatureandpressure)intoaminoacids. A
columnisusedtoseparatetheacidsandtheyare
determinedby:
a. Combiningwithachemicalanddeterminingthe
quantityoflightabsorption.
b. Colorreactionaftercombinationwithachemical.
Ash:
1. TotalAsh-Ashinfoodconsistsofmineralelementsand
is determined by measuring the residue after
incineration.
FoodProduct UsualRangeofPercentAsh
Freshmuscletissue 0.6 -2.0
Totalcarcassincludingbone 2.1 -4.4
Sausages 2.2 -4.0
2. Mineral-Eachmineralisdeterminedbyadifferent
chemicalprocedurebut,ingeneral,theyareextracted
523
fromthefood,chemicallycombinedwithacompound
thatwillprecipitatethemandthenweighed. Placing
theelementsinahightemperatureflame (flame
photometer)andmeasuringtheemittedlightata
specificwavelengthisalsousedtodeterminethe
quantityofaspecificelement. Activationanalysis
andatomicabsorptionaretwoothermethodsthatare
alsobeingusedformineralanalysis.
Salt:
Salt analysis of food, in general, consists of chlorine
analysisbythefollowingsteps:
1. Digestionoftissuewithanacid.
2. Excesssilvernitrateisaddedtoprecipitatethe
chlorine (Cl)assilverchloride (AgCl).
3. Theunusedsilvernitrateistitratedandtheamount
usediscalibratedandconvertedtopercentsodium
chloride.
Apaperstripchromatographymethodhasbeendevelopedfor
saltanalysisinfoodandiscurrentlybeingused.
Saltconcentrationinabrineismeasuredbyafloatingdevice
calculated in degrees of salimeter. A 100 degree salimeter
solutionisasaturatedsodiumchloridebrine. Asaroughruleof
thumb:
%saltX4=degreesalimeter or
degreesalimeter
=%salt
4
524
Nitrate&Nitrite:
1. Nitrate (Xylenolmethod)-Nitrateanalysisconsistsof:
a. Extractionfromtissuewithwater.
b. Oxidationofnitritetonitrate.
c. Removalofinterferingcompounds.
d. M-Xylenolisaddedandthecoloredcomplexformedis
distilledintoalkali.
e. Colorismeasuredspectrophotometrically (light
penetration)ataspecifiedwavelength.
f. Quantityisdeterminedbycomparisonwitha
standardcurve.
g. Nitritecontentisdeterminedseparatelyand
subtractedfromtheresults.
2. Nitrite-Nitriteanalysisconsistsof:
a. Extractionfromtissuewithwater.
b. Additionofsulfanilicacidandalpha-naphthylamine
toreactwiththenitriteandyieldacolored
solution.
c. Thecolorismeasuredspectrophotometrically (light
penetration)ataspecifiedwavelength.
d. Theresultsarecomparedtoastandardcurveand
nitritecontentofthesamplecalculated.
Horsemeat:
Horsetissueisdifficulttodetectincomminutedtissue. The
following approaches have been suggested for detection of this
tissuewithvaryingdegreesofsuccess.
525
1. Iodinenumber-Theiodinenumberofintramuscularfat
ofhorseflesh (75-86)ishigherthanthatofbeefor
lardandthisisoftenusedasanindicator.
2. Glycogenlevel-Horsemuscletissuenormallyhasa
slightlyhigherglycogencontentthanothermeatanimals
andtheglycogenlevelofthetissuehasbeenusedas
anindicator.
3. Precipitintest-Thistestisbasedontheformationof
precipitinsinthebloodserumofanimals,suchas
rabbits,whichhavebeenrepeatedlyinoculatedwithblood
serumortissueextractsofanotheranimal (horse).
Thisprocedureusuallydoesnotworkwithcookedmeat.
EmulsifyingCapacity:
The emulsifying capacity of a protein is an attempt to
evaluatehowmuchfatagivenquantityofproteinwillemulsify.
Basically,theprocedureisasfollows:
1. Aprotein-saltsolutionisplacedinahighspeed
chopper.
2. Fatisgraduallyandconstantlyaddeduntilthe
emulsionbreaks (determinedvisuallyandby
chopperspeedorelectronically).
3. Theemulsifyingcapacityiscalculatedfromthequantity
ofproteinandfatusedatthebreakingpoint.
Often stability of an emulsion is as important as the
emulsifyingcapacity. Inthiscasetheemulsionismixedwitha
givenquantityof fatandthe timerequired fortheemulsionto
526
breakunder stress (standing,temperature,centrifugal force)is
evaluated.
WaterBindingCapacity:
Waterinmuscletissueisnormallyconsideredtobesubdivided
intotwoportions,freeandboundwater,andthewaterbindingtest
isanattempttoevaluatethisratio. Thefollowingtwomethods
arethemostpopular:
1. Pressmethod-Muscletissueisplacedonfilterpaper
andpressureisapplied. Tworingsareproducedand
theratiooftheexternalringareatothesample
weightisproportionaltothefreewatercontent.
2. Centrifuge-Acentrifugetubecontainingtwo
compartmentsseparatedbyglassfilter(orfilterpaper)
isconstructed.Meatisplacedintheupperchamberand
centrifuged,allowingtheliquidtoflowthroughthe
filterintothelowerchamber. Thevolumeofliquidin
relationtosampleweightisagainproportionaltothe
freewatercontentofthesample.
Calories:
Caloriesinfoodmaybecalculatedorphysicallydeterminedby
burningthefoodandmeasuringtheheatliberated.
1. Calculationofcalories-Ifthecompositionofafoodis
knownthecaloriescanbecalculatedbyknowingthe
averagecaloriecontentofthecomponents. The
calculationisasfollows:
527
a. Multiplythepercentcompositionforeachcomponent
by100toobtainthenumberofgramsofthis
componentin100gramsofmeat.
b. Multiplythenumberofgrams (obtainedin#1)bythe
caloriespergramforthatcomponentandtheyare:
Calories(largeorkg.Cal.)fromonegram
Component
ofdriedmaterial
Fat
9
Protein
4
Carbohydrate 4
Ash
0
Water
0
c. Totalthecomponentcaloriestoobtainthetotal
numberofcaloriesper100grams.
Thefollowingisatypicalmeatexample:
%Composition Component Gramsper100 Caloriesper100grams
gramsofmeat ofmeat
70% Water 70 70X0= 0
18% Protein 18 18X4=72
11% Fat 11 11X9=99
1% Ash 1 1 X 0 = 0
0% Carbohydrate 0 0 X 4 = 0
100% Total
171Calories
per100grams
ofmeat
2. BombCalorimeter-Forthisanalysisthesampleisplaced
inametalcontainerwhichisfilledwithoxygen. The
sampleisquicklyburnedandtheamountofheatreleased
isabsorbedbywaterandmeasured. Theheatisconverted
tocaloriesandthesamplecaloriecontentiscalculated.
ColorandReflectance:
Colorofmeatisadifficultquantitytomeasureduetothe
effect of background color, type of lighting and observer
528
differences. A fewofthemorepopulartechnique formeasuring
colorareasfollows:
1. Visual-Apanelevaluationusing:
a. Descriptiveterm.
b. Colorphotographs.
c. Colorpaddlesorpaintchips.
d. Spinningdiscwheretheratioofprimarycolors
maybevaried.
e. Coloredsolutions.
f. Coloredglass.
2. Pigmentextraction-Thequantityofpigmentisextracted
fromthetissueandmeasured.
3. Reflectance-Awhitelightisseparatedintoitsvisual
spectrumandaportionofthisspectrumisdirected
towardthemeatsample. Thelightreflectedfromthis
tissueismeasuredelectrically.
4. Colordifferencemeter-Thisinstrumentuses3selected
filtersandphotocellstoevaluatesamplecolor.
SensoryPanel:
Sincetasteistheultimateevaluationoffood,sensorypanels
areoftenusedinanattempttoquantifytheseresults. Sincethis
evaluation isverysubjectiveinnatureanumberofstrictrules
mustbe followed inconductingatastepanel. Themostpopular
types of evaluations a sensory member is asked to give may be
outlinedasfollows:
1. Selectionofbestsamplefromaseries.
529
2. Hedonicscale(continuousscale):placingasampleonsome
absolutescale (Example:1through9).
3. Triangular: Selectionoftheoddsampleoutofagroup
of3.
Sensory panels may be quite accurate if the members are
trainedandoftenthisistheonlyprocedureavailabletoevaluate
afoodcharacteristic.
Juiciness:
Thismeatcharacteristicsisprimarilymeasuredbytastepanel
results. It is related to the percent expressible fluid ina
sample. Pressmethodsofevaluationhavebeenproposedbutthe
resultshavebeendisappointing.
Tenderness:
Meattendernessistestedbysensorypanels,chemicalmeans
(aminoacid-hydroxyproline)histologicalmeans (microscopic) ,and
anumberofshear,penetratingorextrudingdevices. Someofthe
morecommonare:
1. Warner-BratzlerorInstronshear-Acoreofmeatis
placedinatriangularopeningandthistriangularplate
isscrewpulledbetweenparallelshearbars.
2. Motorizedfoodgrinder-Tissueisgroundinanelectric
foodgrinderandthewattageconsumedisdetermined.
3. KramerShearpress-Apressureandtimemeasurementis
obtainedforforcingaplungerthroughthefood
material.
530
WaterandSewagetest:
FundamentaltesttoevaluatesewagearePermanganate (4hr),
BiochemicalOxygenDemand (B.O.D.)andSuspendedSolidsTest. The
firsttwoindicatethestenchofsewageandthelattertheamount
ofinsolubleorganicandmineralsolids.
1. Permanganate-measurestheoxygentakenupbythesample
fromadilutesulfuricacid-potassiumpermanganate
solutionincubatedforastandardperiodoftime.
a. 3minutetest-measurestheoxygendemanddueto
oxidizableinorganicmatter (e.g.nitrites,
sulphides,sulphites,thiosulfatesandferrous
salts)andeasilyoxidizableorganicmatter
(e.g.-phenols).
b. 4hourtest-roughmeasureoftheorganic
impurityofthesewage. (Canbeusedtogive
anapproximationofthebiochemicaloxygen
demand (B.O.D.)whichisusually3to5times
ashigh. Sedimentationwillreducethisvalue
30%,andbiologicaltreatmentofsewagewill
reduce75-85%. Wellpurifiedeffluentshould
haveavaluebelow15mg/1.
2. BiochemicalOxygenDemand (B.O.D.)-abiochemicaltest
basedonbacteriawhichinthepresenceofoxygenfeed
uponorganicmatterfromthesample. Biochemicaldemand
determinesthelevelsofpollutioninabodyofwater.
Itisatestwhichmeasurestheoxygenwhichisdepleted
531
fromwaterbyaerobicmicroorganismsduringagiven
periodoftimeandataspecifiedtemperature (5days
at20C)whenthesemicroorganismsdecomposespecific
organicwastes. TheB.O.D.canbeexpressedasmgof
0
2
/l ofH
2
0necessarytodegradewaterorasppmof0
2
.
TheB.O.D.willincreaseinabodyofwaterwithan
increaseinorganicmatterbystormwaterrun-off,
floods,andhighsedimentloadscarryinganimal
wastes,rottingvegetationanddirtinthewater.
Theresultsaremostoftenexpressedasoxygen (mg)
consumedbyoneliterofsampleat20Cin5days.
RoyalCommissionstandardis20mg/1. Sedimentation
ofsewagelowerstheB.O.D.value30-50%andaerobic
biologicalpurificationabout90-98%.
3. Suspendedsolids-determinationofsuspendedsolidsin
sewage. Sedimentationshouldreducethevalue50-90%.
RoyalCommissionstandardis30mg/1. Suspended
solids (SS)aretheparticlesinaliquidwhichmaybe
partiallyremovedbygravitysettlingandcompletely
removedbyfiltration. Thisvalueisusedasanindex
toturbidconditionsofliquid,thepotentialformation
ofsludgeandtheoperatingefficiencyofsystems. It
isdeterminedbyfilteringwastewaterandthendrying
anddeterminingtheresidue. Thesuspendedsolidsmay
befurthersubdividedintofixedsuspendedsolids (SS)
andvolatilesuspendedsolids (VSS)bycombustion.
532
LaboratoryresultsareexpressedasmgSS/l. Limitations
areoftenexpressedinpoundsandtheconversionisas
follows:
SS(Mg/l)Xtotalflow (gallons)X8.34
PoundsSS=
1,000,000
Thesuspendedsolidsforatypicalslaughterhousehave
beenreportedtobefrom3to17pounds/1000lblive
weight (allspecies). Hampackingplant (noslaughter)
SShavebeenreportedat350Mg/l.
PoultryprocessingSSdataarereportedasfollows:
Process SS (Ma/1)
Scalderentryarea 687
Scalderexitarea 473
Wholebirdwash 81
Finalbirdwash 281
Gibletchiller 976
Featherflume 512
Evisceratingflume 302
Planteffluent 375
Acasehistoryofwastewatertreatmentfromahog
slaughteringplant.
Process SS (Mg/l)
Untreated 3700
Aftergravitysettling 800
Aftergravitysettling+
dissolvedairflotation 440
Aftergravitysettling+
dissolvedairflotation+
chemicaltreatment 230
Slaughterhouse waste water has a very high B.O.D./4 hr.
permanganateratio(7-11)indicatingthatbiochemicaloxidationof
533
thissewageisveryeasilyaccomplished. Meatareadataonwaste
maybefoundinthefollowingtables:
STOCKYARDWASTES
Characteristics Concentration (mg/1.)
SuspendedSolids 175-200
VolatileSuspendedSolids 125-150
OrganicNitrogen 10-15
AmmoniumNitrogen 7-10
B.O.D. 55-70
C.O.D. 75-100
SLAUGHTERHOUSEANDPACKINGHOUSEWASTES
Typeofkill Volumeper Suspended Organic B.O.D.
animal,gal. solids,ppm nitrogen,ppm ppm
Mixed 359 929 324 2240
Cattle 395 820 154 996
Hogs 143 717 122 1045
Mixed 996 457 113 635
Cattle 2189 467 448
Hogs 552 633 1030
534
PACKINGHOUSEWASTES
Soluble Organic B.O.D. pH
Sources solids nitrogen DDm
ppm ppm
Killingfloor 220 134 825 6.6
Blood&TankWater 3,690 5,400 32,000 9.0
ScaldingTub 8,360 1,290 4,600 9.0
MeatCutting 610 33 520 7.4
CutWasher 15,120 647 13,200 6.0
SausageProduction 560 136 800 7.3
LardProduction 180 84 180 7.3
By-products 1,380 186 2,200 6.7
COMPOSITIONOFPOULTRY-PLANTWASTES
Characteristic Concentration
Volume 3.26gal/bird
TotalSolids 26.6lb/1000birds
SuspendedSolids 15.3lb/1000birds
SettleableSolids 9.4lb/1000birds
Grease 1.3lb/1000birds
BOD,5-day- 30 lb/1000birds
535
REFERENCES
London.
AmericanMeatInstituteFoundation. LaboratoryMethodsofthe
MeatIndustry.
AMI,1994.HACCP.AMI,Washington.
AssociationofOfficialAgriculturalChemists. 1950. Official
MethodsofAnalysis. AssociationofOfficialAgricultural
Chemists,Washington,D.C.
Chow,C.K.1992.FattyAcidsinFoodsandtheirHealth
Implications.Dekker,N.Y.,N.Y.
Halliday,E.G.,andI.T.Noble. 1943. FoodChemistryand
Cookery. TheUniversityofChicagoPress,Chicago,Illinois.
Jacobs,M.B. 1958. ChemicalAnalysisofFoodsandFoodProducts.
D.VanNostrandCompany,Inc.,Princeton,NewJersey.
Johston,D.E.1992.TheChemistryofMuscleBasedFoods.Royal
SocietyofChemistry.London.
Kirschenbauer,H.G. 1960. FatsandOils. ReinholdPublishing
Corporation,NewYork.
Kramer,AmihudandBernardA.Twigg. 1966. Fundamentalsof
QualityControlfortheFoodIndustry. TheAVIPublishing
Company,Inc.,Westport,Connecticut.
Ockerman,H.W. 1985. QualityControlofPost-MortemMuscle
Tissue. OhioStateUniversity,Columbus,Ohio.
Patterson,R.L.S. 1985.BiochemicalIdentificationofMeat
Species.ElsevierAppliedSci.Pub.,N.Y.,N.Y.
Pearson,A.M. 1963. ObjectiveandSubjectiveMeasurementsfor
MeatTenderness. ProceedingsMeatTendernessSymposium.
CampbellSoupCompany.
Shahidi,F.1994.FlavorofMeatandMeatProducts.Blackie,
London.
Wertheim,E. 1942. IntroductoryOrganicChemistry. TheBlakiston
Company,Philadelphia.
Woodman,A.G. 1941. FoodAnalysis. McGraw-HillBookCompany,
Inc.,NewYork.
APPENDIX
ComparisonofInchesandtheMetricSystemofMeasurement
Inc
1
2 3 4 5 6
Cent meters
7 8 10 11 12
13 14 15
T
10 Millimeters
Conversion:
1inch
= 2.54centimeter = 25.4millimeters
1centimeter
= 10millimeters = 0.394inches
1millimeter
= 0.0394inch = 0.1centimeter
536
537
COMPARISONOFCENTIGRADEANDFAHRENHEITTEMPERATURESCALES
CENTIGRADE FAHRENHEIT(Most
commoninU.S.)
100C<-
BoilingPointofWater
->212F
Conversion
FahrenheittoCentigrade
C=5/9 (F-32)
CentragetoFahrenheit
F=9/5C+32
100
>Divisions
180
Divisions<-
0C<-
FreezingPointofWater
>32F
-17.8
U
C<- ->0F
i
SameTemperature
-40C<- ->-40F
538
COMPARISONOFENGLISHANDMETRICSYSTEMOFMEASURINGWEIGHT
X=1gram
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 1Ounce
(28.3g)
XXX
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
1Pound
(453.6g)
1Kilogram
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
(lOOOg)
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX CONVERSION
1Kilogram
2.2pounds
1000grams
1Pound
453.6
Grams
0.4536
Kilograms
1Gram
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.001
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX Kilogram
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.0022
Pound
539
COMPARISONOFENGLISHANDMETRICSYSTEMOFMEASURINGLIQUID
Milliliteror
CubicCentimeter
CONVERSION
1liter=
\1OOO/
1.06quart
1000milliliter
00 ml
1 quart =
946.4milliliter
0.946 liter
or
1milliliter =
cc
0.001 liter
0.0011quart
700
i
measuring
_ 1 liquid
J1
400
quart
236.6 ml
1
mlor
ounce
cc
29Sml
540
MUSCLECONSTRUCTION
MUSCLEFIBER
Diameter-0.1mm
Covering-Sarcolemma
MYOFIBRIL
Diameter-0.001mm
Striated
RELAXATION
MYOSIN ACTIN
ATPase
MUSCLE
Diameter-100mm
Covering-Epimysium
MUSCLEBUNDLE
Diameter-1mm
Covering-Perimysium
CONNECTIVETISSUE
Network
Endomysium
NETWORKOFTUBULES
Sarcoplasmic
Reticulum
LIQUIDMATRIX
Sarcoplasm
(glycolysis)
iiiiiiiii i
TTTTTTTTT
MITOCHONDRIA
(citricacid
cycle)
ENZYMES
GLYCOGEN
ATP
CREATINE
MYOGLOBIN
CONTRACTION
ACTOMYOSIN
541
MUSCLECONTRACTIONANDRELAXATION
StepsinContraction
1.Centralnervoussystemsendsstimulustomusclefiber.
2.ReleaseofCaionsfromsarcoplasmicreticulum.
3.Ca
++
ionsreleaseATPfromitsinertmagnesiumcomplex.
(Mg-ATP;relaxedmuscle)
4.Ca
++
stimulatesmyosinATPase.
ATPase
5.ATP+H
2
0 > ATP+H
3
PO
4
+ energy
6.Musclecontractionbyslidingactinovermyosin.
7.Formationof:contractile actomyosin
StepsinRelaxation
1.Oncessationofstimulus.
2.Ca
++
ionsareremovedbya"relaxingfactor"tothe
sarcoplasmicreticulum (calciumpump).
3.ATPaseisinhibited.
4.Mg-ATPcomplexisreformed.
5.Thiscomplexkeepsaparttheactinandmyosinfilaments.
RegenerationofATP
ATP:creatine
1.ADP+creatinephosphate< >ATP+creatine
Phosphotransferase
2.Glycolysis (takesplaceinsarcoplasm)-anaerobicprocess
Glucose+2NAD
+
+2ADP+2H
2
PO
4
>2pyruvate+2NADH+
2H
+
+2ATP+2H
2
O
3.Krebsorcitricacidcycle (aerobicoxidationwhichtakes
placeinmitochondria)
Pyruvate+2-1/2(0
2
)+15ADP+15H
3
PO
4
>3CO
2
+15ATP
+17H
2
0
542
LessNoble
Aluminum
Zinc
Steel
Castiron
Nickel
410Stainlesssteel
50-50Solder
300Stainlesssteel
Tin
Lead
Brass
Copper
Bronze
Silver
Chlorine
MoreNobel
FMFSERIES
Morecorrosive (willdepositonmore
nobelmetal)
Lesscorrosive

Chemistry of Meat Tissue

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Chemistry of Meat Tissue

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

C - C - N - C - C

H-C >O-C-R H-C-OH

0.388 1056 3.72X10"

Anda mungkin juga menyukai