1

ABSTRACT
Biodiesel, a promising substitute as an alternative fuel has gained significant attention
due to the predicted shortness of conventional fuels and environmental concern. The
utilization of liquid fuels such as biodiesel produced from Jatropha oil by
transesterification process represents one of the most promising options for the use of
conventional fossil fuels. The Jatropha oil is converted into jatropha oil methyl ester
known as biodiesel prepared in the presence of homogeneous acid catalyst. The
physical properties such as density, flash point, Kinematic viscosity, Cloud point and
Pour point were found out for Jatropha oil and Jatropha methyl ester. The same
characteristics study was also carried out for the diesel fuel for obtaining the base line
data for analysis. The values obtained from the Jatropha methyl ester is closely
matched with the values of conventional diesel and can be used in the existing diesel
engine without any modification
The fuel properties of Jatropha biodiesel are comparable to those of fossil diesel and
confirm to the American and European standards. The objective of this review is to
give an update on the J. curcas L. plant, the production of biodiesel from the seed oil
and research attempts to improve the technology of converting vegetable oil to
biodiesel and the fuel properties of the Jatropha biodiesel. The technological methods
that can be used to produce biodiesel are presented together with their advantages
and disadvantages.







2

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Energy
The ever-growing demand for petroleum products has led to an immense pressure on
fossil fuel reserves, which are diminishing very fast. The current patterns of energy
production and use have destructive impacts on the environment and, in recent years,
environmental issues such as possible climate change resulting from greenhouse gas
emissions have thrown the spotlight onto the links between energy and the global
environment. At the same time, there is a need, especially in developing countries, for
higher levels of energy supply and use to fuel economic development - at present,
'Energy poverty' hinders the economic and social development of very large numbers
of people. Coal, oil, gas and nuclear energy are the major sources of primary energy,
followed by renewable combustible wastes (biomass, animal products, municipal wastes,
industrial wastes) and other sources.

Crude Oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid found in rock formations in the
earth consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights,
plus other organic compounds. The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes,
cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic compounds
contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel,
copper and vanadium. Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its
composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish or even
greenish). It is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms
a gas cap over the petroleum, and saline water, which
being heavier generally floats underneath it. Crude oil may also be found in semi-solid
form mixed with sand, as in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it may be
referred to as crude bitumen. Crude oil prices are highly volatile. Supply is price
driven and there is still untapped potential worldwide. World oil consumption by
3

developing countries is around 22 million barrels per day. Industrialized countries
consume about 43 million barrels a day.

Coal is a non-renewable fossil fuel formed in ecosystems where plant remains were
preserved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation, thus sequestering
atmospheric carbon. It is composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen along with small
quantities of other elements, notably sulfur. It is the largest source of fuel for
generation of electricity worldwide, as well as the largest worldwide source of carbon
dioxide emissions, which according to the IPCC, contribute to climate change and
global warming. In terms of carbon dioxide emissions, coal is slightly ahead of
petroleum and about double that of natural gas.

Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane but including
significant quantities of ethane, propane, butane, and pentane, heavier hydrocarbons
are removed prior to use as a consumer fuel as well as carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
helium and hydrogen sulfide. It is found in oil fields (associated) either dissolved or
isolated in natural gas fields (non associated), and in coal beds (as coalbed methane).
When methane-rich gases are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic
material, these are referred to as biogas.

Hydro and renewable energy is generated from natural resources such as
sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished.
Renewable energy technologies range from solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity,
biomass and biofuels for transportation. In 2006, about 18% of global final energy
consumption came from renewable, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, such
as wood-burning. Hydropower was the next largest renewable source, providing 3%,
followed by hot water/heating, which contributed 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as
geothermal, wind, solar, and ocean energy together provided some 0.8% of final
energy consumption. It is predicted that the share of renewable energy sources will
remain at around 8 percent of the worlds total energy consumption. Many hydro-
4

electric power projects are being pursued in Asia where 3.7% annual growth in
renewable energy sources is envisaged over the next decade. With increasing capacity
and development efforts, the capital costs of renewable technologies are falling.

1.2 World Energy Scenario
Self-reliance in energy is a basic requirement for socio-economic development of any
nation. Table 1 and 2 given below shows that most countries depend on fossil fuels
such as crude oil, coal, natural gas etc. to meet their energy requirements. Due to
depleting sources of fossil fuel, regulated production by OPEC, unrest in Iraq, Nigeria,
Venezuela and wide fluctuations of crude oil prices, several countries have now
undertaken well-defined programmes on development of biodiesel. As shown in the
Table 1, 2801.3 MTOE energy is consumed by North America i.e. 26% of total
worlds energy consumption. Developed regions like North America and Europe
consume around 55% of total worlds energy consumption. Almost 36% of worlds
energy requirement is completed by use of crude oil, one of the prime reasons for
depletion of crude oil reserves.
Table.1 World Energy Consumption by Fuel (2005)
Region
Million tonnes of oil equivalent (MTOE)
Oil
Natural
Gas
Coal
Nuclear
Energy
Hydro-
Electricity
Total
North America
1132.6
697.1 613.9 209.2 148.6 2801.3
South America 223.3 111.7 21.1 3.7 131.7 501.4
Europe 963.3 1009.7 537.5 286.3 187.2 2984.0
Middle East 271.3 225.9 9.0 - 3.9 510.2
Africa 129.3 64.1 100.3 2.9 19.9 316.5
5

Asia Pacific 1116.9 366.2 1648.1 125.0 167.4 3423.7
Total World 3836.8 2474.7 2929.8 627.2 668.7 10537
(Source: BP of World Statistical review Energy June 2006)
Table 2 represents the production capacity and consumption of different regions.
North America with 29.5% is the largest consumer of crude oil followed by Asia
pacific region and Europe whereas Middle East with 31% is the largest producer of
crude oil followed by Europe and North America.

Table.2 World Oil Production & Consumption (2005)
Region
Production Consumption
MTOE %
MTOE
%
North America
642.5
16.5 1132.6 29.5
South America 350.6 9.0 223.3 5.8
Europe 845.0 21.7 963.3 25.1
Middle East 1208.1 31.0 271.3 7.1
Africa 467.1 12.0 129.3 3.4
Asia Pacific 381.7 9.8 1116.9 29.1
Total World 3895.0 100 3836.8 100
(Source: BP of World Statistical review Energy June 2006)
1.3 Indian Energy Scenario
India is importing crude oil to meet the oil-based demand for energy. About 70% of
the domestic demand is met through imported oil. The price of oil in the international
market is ever increasing, this is putting heavy burden on scarce foreign exchange of
the country as the price for imported oil is paid in foreign currency. Our oil resources,
6

5.5 billion barrels, are only 0.5% of the world oil resources. Gas resources at 760
billion cubic meters are also less then 1% of world resources. The demand of
petroleum product for meeting Indian energy requirements is on the rise and may be
around 300 MT in 2025 against 120 MT today. Increase will be mainly due to increase
in vehicle population, industrial growth and infrastructure development needs. Indias
energy consumption is also much higher (6-7%) than the world average (2%) because
of the higher economic growth. So, for energy security, the cheapest and most
beneficial methodology is conservation i.e. efficient usage on one hand and use of
Biofuels on the other.
Estimated Energy Demand in India














1.4 Bioenergy
190.0
254.9
15.5
22.1
144.6
185.4
42.7
57.6
12.7
18.5
6.0
14.2
0.4
1.0
0.0
50.0
100.0
150.0
200.0
250.0
300.0
(
i
n

M
M
T
o
E
)
Coal Lignite Oil Natural Gas Hydro Power Nuclear Power Wind Power
Primary Source
2006-07
2011-12
7

Bioenergy is the energy contained in living
or recently living biological organisms, a
definition which specifically excludes fossil
fuels. Plants get bioenergy through
photosynthesis, and animals get it by
consuming plants. Organic material
containing bioenergy is known as Biomass.
Humans use this biomass in many different
ways, through something as simple as
burning wood for heat, or as complex as
genetically modifying bacteria to create
cellulosic ethanol (Bio-Fuel). Since almost all bioenergy can be traced back to energy
from sunlight, bioenergy has the major advantage of being a renewable energy source.
A few examples are discussed here.

Biofuels
Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel derived from living or
recently dead biological material, most commonly plants. This distinguishes it from
fossil fuel, which is derived from long dead biological material. Biofuel can be
theoretically produced from any (biological) carbon source. The most common by far
is photosynthetic plants that capture solar energy. Many different plants and plant-
derived materials are used for biofuel manufacture. One of the most important biofuel
today is: Biodiesel, which is a non-petroleum based fuel that consists of alkyl esters
derived from either transesterification of triglycerides or esterification of FFAs with
low molecular weight alcohols. The flow and combustion properties of biodiesel are
similar to petrodiesel and thus it can be used either as a substitute for petrodiesel or
more commonly in fuel blends. As a point of comparison, pure biodiesel i.e. B-100
releases around 90% energy as petrodiesel does. Hence the expected engine
performance is nearly the same in terms of engine torque and horsepower. Biodiesel,
however, is made from renewable resources, is biodegradable, non-toxic & has a
higher flash point. In addition biodiesel increases lubricity (even in blends as low as
8

2% or less), which prolongs engine life. Another significant feature of biodiesel is its
low emission profile and its oxygen content of 10-12%.


1.5 Advantages of Biodiesel Over Fossil Fuels

Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel to have completed the rigorous health effect-
testing requirement of US Clean Air Act. Biodiesel is non-toxic, biodegradable, and
essentially sulphur free. It significantly reduces emission of carbon monoxide,
particulate matter, unburnt hydrocarobons, sulphides and cancer causing aromatics.
Biodiesel does not contribute additional carbon dioxide into atmosphere, which makes
it most favorable Green House Gas Mitigation. Biodiesel has higher cetane number,
which improves the ignition quality even when blended in the petroleum diesel and
does not require separate infrastructure. Biodiesel can be helpful in utilization of
wasteland and combating desertification. For countries with oil scarcity like India,
biodiesel can help reduce dependence on petroleum import thus relieving huge
pressure on the economy of developing countries. Biodiesel is an emerging field and
has a high employment potential. It also offers potential to support energy security,
environmental sustainability, agricultural poverty reduction and a decentralized form
of energy.

Bioenergy Crops and J atropha curcas

Bioenergy Crops
Crops like rapeseed, soybean, sunflower and many other oil seed bearing plants are
regarded as bio energy crops because they are being used worldwide for the
production of biofuels especially biodiesel. The depletion of the world petroleum
reserves coupled with the global environmental problems has stimulated the search for
an alternative source for petroleum fuel to meet the increasing world's energy
requirement. As per the planning commission of India, the most eligible bioenergy
9

crop for biodiesel production is Jatropha curcas. As a non-edible crop, it can also be a
solution to the global food v/s fuel dilemma.

J atropha curcas is a drought-resistant perennial,
growing well in marginal/poor soil. It is easy to
establish, grows relatively quickly and lives,
producing seeds for 50 years.
Jatropha grows in many areas of India and even
thrives on infertile soil. A good crop can be
obtained with little effort. Depending on soil quality
and rainfall, oil can be extracted from the Jatropha nuts after two to five years.
The annual nut yield ranges from 1.5 to 12 tons. The kernels consist of oil to about 60
percent. The harvested part of Jatropha is the fruit, mostly containing three seeds. The
seeds make up approx. 70% of the total weight of the fruit (30% fruit coat), the mature
fruits have a moisture content of approx. 15%, the seeds approx. 7%. The oil is stored
in the interior of the seed: the kernel, which makes up approx. 65% of the total mass of
the seed. The moisture contents are approx. 10% for the hull and approx. 5% for the
kernel.

Physically, it appears as a small tree or shrub with smooth grey bark, which exudes
whitish colored, watery, latex when cut. Normally, it grows between three and five
meters in height, but can attain a height of up to eight or ten meters under favourable
conditions. It has large green to pale-green leaves, alternate to sub-opposite, three-to
five-lobed with a spiral phyllotaxis. Fruits are produced in winter when the shrub is
leafless, or it may produce several crops during the year if soil moisture is good and
temperatures are sufficiently high. Each inflorescence yields a bunch of approximately
10 or more ovoid fruits. The seeds become mature when the capsule changes from
green to yellow, after two to four months. The trees are deciduous, shedding the leaves
in the dry season. Flowering occurs during the wet season and two flowering peaks are
often seen. In permanently humid regions, flowering occurs throughout the year. The
seeds mature about three months after flowering
Image: Jatropha plantation at IOC, R&D
10



1.6 Chemical Composition of Jatropha Oil
The chemical composition of Jatropha oil is tabulated below. Table 3 shows the oil
composition and various lipid classes present in terms of percentage whereas Table 4
represents the percentage of different fatty acids like palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic
acid etc. The various physicochemical properties of jatropha oil are shown in Table 5.







Fig: Jatropha Oil
11





Table.3 Percentage oil Composition and
Lipid Classes
Composition Percentage
Triacylglycerol 88.2
Free fatty acid 3.4
Diacylglycerols 2.5
Sterols 2.2
Monoacyglycerols 1.7
Polar lipids 2.0
Table.4 Fatty Acid Composition
Composition Percentage
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 14.1-15.3
Patmitoleic acid 0-1.3
Oleic acid (C18:1) 34.3-45.8
Linoleic acid (C18:2) 29.0-44.2
Stearic acid (C20:0) 3.7-9.8
Total 100
12















Advantages and Uses of J atropha curcas
Jatropha curcas can be grown in areas of low rainfall (200 mm per year) and in
problematical soils. In high rainfall and irrigated areas too it can be grown with much
higher yields. Jatropha curcas has the highest oil yield per hectare amongst the tree
borne oil seeds. It is easy to establish, grows relatively quick and is hardy. It starts
giving seeds in a maximum period of two years after planting. Being rich in nitrogen,
the deoiled cake is an excellent source of plant nutrient. It can be used to reclaim
wastelands in the forests and outside. Jatropha can be established from seed seedlings
and vegetatively from cuttings. Due to its poisonous nature, animals do not browse
Jatropha plants. Jatropha is capable of assimilating around 10 tons of carbon per
hectare, which can be internationally traded. Biodiesel produced from Jatropha is one
of the most promising solution to the food v/s fuel issue worldwide.

Table.5 Physicochemical
Properties
Properties Percentage
Colour Golden
Yellow
Specific gravity 0.8601
Refractive index 1.4735
Acid value (mg.
KOH. g
-1
)
3.4
Saponification value
(mg.KOH.g
-1
)
169.9
Iodine value (mg. I
2
.
g
-1
)
111.6
Peroxide value (mg
reac. O
2
g
-1
)
3.5
13

History
The history of biodiesel begins in 1880s. fatty acids were believed to first be used in
creation of soap products. They would filter the grain and wood products to generate
the special oils that are required. The groups would initially use peanut oils, hemp and
soybeans to design the foundation of this new type of fuel. Ethanol and methanol were
generated from these products.
Rudolf diesel designed the compression engine in late 18 that this form of fuel can be
the only source needed. Steam engines were run off of coals and processed oils.
Rudolf desired to show that there was a far better method than the use of fossils. This
technique was present in diesel engine until around the 1920s. The manufacturer
started to use petroleum fuel as an alternative measure.
Oil entrepreneurs began locating wells based on petroleum. People started becoming
rich and well off searching of this type of product. The same individuals began
creating rumors to this credit the hemp oil products. They began using a newspaper to
refer to hemp as marijuana. The marijuana tax act was put into place because of the
fears that William Randolph Hurst launched. This act prevented any one to legally
own marijuana without a government certificate however, the government was not
issuing these papers to anyone. With this act in place the biodiesel failed. When the
panic hit the streets, people believed that if they used hemp oil, they would be
breaking the law as well as damaging their health. With this new stigma, hemp
received a bad reputation and the factories had to close for lack of funds.


14

2 Literature Review
Transesterification of vegetable oil was conducted as early as 1853 by scientist E.
Duffy and J. Patrick. Many years before the first diesel engine became functional.
Rudolf Diesels prime model a single 10ft iron cylinder with a fly wheel as its base ran
on its own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on 10 August 1893,
running on nothing peanut oil. In remembrance of this event, 10
th
August has been
declared International Biodiesel Day.
In 1912 speech diesel said the use of vegetable oil for engine fuel may seem
insignificant today but such oils may become, in the course of time, as important as
petroleum as coal, tar products in the present time. During 1920 and 1930s countries
like Belgium, France, Italy, The United Kingdom Portugal, Germany, Brazil, Japan
and China were reported to have tested and use vegetable oil as diesels during this
time.
On 31
st
august 1937 G. Chavannes of the University of Brussels (Belgium) was
granted a patent for a Procedure for the Transformation of vegetable oil for the uses
as fuels. More recently in 1977 Brazilian Scientist Expedito Parente invented and
submitted for patent the first industrial process for the production of biodiesel.
Research into the use of transesterified sunflower oil, and refining it to diesel fuel
standards, was initiated in South Africa in 1979. By 1983 the process for producing
fuel quality, engine tested biodiesel was completed and published internationally. In
September 2005 Minnesota became the first US state to mandate that all diesel fuel
sod in the state contained part by biodiesel, requiring a content of at least 2%
biodiesel.

15

3MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 SELECTION OF OIL FOR PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is fatty acid of ethyl or methyl esters made from oils. Most of the production
of biodiesel is based on edible oil like soybean oil, rapeseed oil, canola oil, or
sunflower oil in developed countries. In India the edible oil demand is higher than its
domestic production. So there is no encouragement of diverting this oil for the
production of biodiesel. The main commodity for the biodiesel can be non-edible oils
obtained from plant species. There are many species which bear seeds rich in oil. Off
these some promising plant species have been identified. These are Jatropha curcus
(Ratan Jyoti), Pongamia pinnata (karanja) and Jojoba. Out of these the work has
already been done on biodiesel production from Jatropha, karanja, in Indian Institute
of Technology, New Delhi and Kharagpur; Institute of Science, Bangalore and Indian
Petroleum Institute, Dehradun.
Therefore it is proposed to characterize other potential oil seeds bearing plants for
biodiesel production along with karanja seeds. Karanja trees are widely grown in Agra
region, and could be seen along the highway sides and Keetham forests. These trees
are highly saline and drought resistant and grow in adverse environmental conditions,
leading to afforesting wastelands. For rural development the promotion of nonedible
oilseed bearing plants such as Jatropha and Karanja is must.
Adopting biodiesel from nonedible oil seeds will create enormous potential for rural
development in terms of employment opportunity for youth and infrastructure
development. There is a large scope for private entrepreneur and self-help group of
Agra to take the advantage of the newly developed technology of biodiesel policy of
government of India.
The proposed project has been formulated by considering various nonedible oilseeds
bearing plants such as karanja, neem, jatropha, mohwa, that are native to this region as
an ideal plant as it is wildly grown and cultivation can be promoted in wastelands and
on path sides.
16

3.2 Work plan (including material and manpower)
During the first six months, procurement of equipments and biodiesel plant and raw
material will be carried out. Dry karanja seeds will be decorticated and karanja oil will
be extracted and stored for further treatment. Eight tons of karanja oil will be treated
(250 l per charge) and processing will be carried to the final production of biodiesel.
Various physio-chemical properties will be studied at HCST and optimum blending
ratios will be studied using diesel engine testing.
3.3 Methodology
For making available fuel grade biodiesel the following sequence of attributes need to
be ensured.
1. Availability of raw material of desired quantity.
2. Chemical treatment to produce biodiesel.
3. Testing of biodiesel.
4. Use of biodiesel in agricultural machinery at village level.
5. Blending of biodiesel into diesel.
6. Application for farm production.
Jatropha oil was obtained from Hindustan College Of Science And Technology.
Methanol having a density of 0.0791 g /ml was of laboratory grade and was procured
from the local market. It was used for the reaction without any purification. Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) of laboratory grade was used as the base catalyst for the reaction.
3-Neck round bottom flask was used to carry the reaction mixture. Condenser was
attached to prevent loss of methanol by reflux of methanol vapours back to the flask.
Chiller was used to maintain a particular temperature in the condenser during the
reaction. Hot plate was used for controlled heating of the reaction mixture at around
60-70

C. An oil bath bowl provided uniform heat across the RB Flask. Magnetic bead
was added for continuous stirring of the reaction mixture. Asbestos rope was used to
coil the oil bath bowl to prevent heat loss.

17









Image: Reaction Setup at IOC, R&D Synthesis Lab

3.4 Synthesis Procedure
Jatropha oil was measured on an electronic balance and 320 g was taken in a properly
cleaned and dried 3-neck round bottom flask. After that, 81 ml of methanol and 3.21 g
of NaOH were mixed in a flask at room temperature till NaOH dissolved completely.
This mixture of methanol and NaOH was slowly added to the RB flask containing
vegetable oil. The RB flask was then placed on oil bath bowl and the hot plate was
switched on. A proper sized and well-cleaned magnetic bead was then added for
continuous stirring of reaction mixture and condenser was attached properly on top of
the RB flask. The oil bath bowl was coiled around with asbestos rope to prevent heat
loss. After this initial setup, the reaction was carefully monitored and the time of
reflux initiation was noted.

3.5 Reaction Work-up
After the completion of synthesis step, the resulting reaction
mixture was separated into two different layers by allowing it
to stand in a separating funnel for 2-3 hours. Glycerol settled in
the bottom layer and was separated as a by-product and the
Image: Separating funnel
18

remaining solution was the required product containing biodiesel, which was then
concentrated to remove excess methanol using rotavapor followed by washing of
biodiesel. Biodiesel was washed twice with brine solution to remove all the water-
soluble impurities and the gummy materials and later, once with distilled water. A
drying agent, anhydrous sodium sulphate, was then used to remove any trace of water
present in the biodiesel. The dried biodiesel was then filtered and transferred to a pre-
weighed sample bottle.







Image: Rotavapor Image: Pure biodiesel
The pure biodiesel obtained was weighed; yield calculated and tested for BIS
specifications.

3.6 Process description
Catalyst Preparation
Sodium Hydroxide flakes are fed into the reactor ( R 01) a screw conveyor (CV 01) or
a hopper arrangement. Methanol from the storage tank (T01) is also pumped into the
same reactor. The reactor is jacketed with steam and reaction time is 15 minutes with
agitation using a propeller type agitator. The stoichiometric amount of methanol
required is 12.5% by volume of karanja oil but almost 60%-80% excess is added to
ensure complete reaction. An iodine number volume of karanaja oil (to ascertain the
amount of fatty acids) is obtained and the amount sodium hydroxide is added
accordingly. This can vary from 0.1% to 1% by weight of oil feed. If the free fatty acid
level is too high it may cause problems with soap formation and the separation of the
glycerin by product downstream.
19


Reaction Process
The sodium methodize catalyst is pumped to the main reactor. Karanja oil is preheated
to around 55
o
C through a heat exchanger and pumped into reactor. Sodium methoxide
is now added to the karanja oil while stirring is continued for approximately an hour.
A propeller type impeller agitator is used and intense agitation out. This is so because
even though the reaction is homogenous, two immiscible products are formed (methyl
esters and glycerin). The reaction takes place at a temperature of 60-70
o
C and at a
pressure of 1.4atm. This is to prevent methanol from vaporizing as its boiling point is
64
o
C. Reaction proceeds to 99% completion in just over an hour.
Seperation of biodiesel from glycerin
The solution is pumped to a decanter and allowed to settle and cool for at least 1-3 hrs.
Methyl ester (biodiesel) floats on top while the denser glycerin settles at the bottom.
The glycerin remains in a semi liquid state and both biodiesel and glycerin are
removed after separation is complete. Biodiesel is stored in storage tank, while
glycerin is stored in storage tank.
Methanol recovery and recycle
Methanol is removed from both crude biodiesel and glycerin by flash distillation
process. The streams are pumped to separate heat exchanger where they are heated to
100
o
C. At this temperature methanol vaporizes while biodiesel and glycerin remain in
liquid form. Flash vessels are used from both these schemes, and are combined and
sent to condenser for condensation. The condensed liquid goes to a knock out drum
and any leftover vapor is compressed by a reciprocating compressor and sent back to
the inlet of the condenser. The liquid methanol stream is now sent back to the
methanol storage tank.
Crude biodiesel purification
The biodiesel stream leaving the flash vessel is free from methanol but still contains
other impurities. It is now fed to a continuous neutralization tank. Here acetic acid is
added to neutralize and remove any NaOH suspended in the biodiesel.
20

Final purification and polishing
Biodiesel leaving is now sent to an evaporator. Here steam is used to boil off any
water present in biodiesel and dry neutral biodiesel is obtained. It is now sent to a high
speed centrifugal separator, where any suspended particle such as dust, soap particles,
oil impurities are removed and clear biodiesel is obtained.
Glycerin disposal
Glycerin is a byproduct of this reaction and it is removed from flash vessel and sent
for further processing to Bio-gas digester to produce Bio-gas.


21

3.7 Flow chart of a biodiesel production setup



Waste nonedible oil >4.5% FFA

Esterification SulphuricAcid +
Methanol
Methanol+NaOH Transesterification

Crude Biodiesel Glycerol
Methanol Recovery
Washing

Finished Biodiesel





22

4 RESULT
4.1 Chemical Mechanism Involved in Biodiesel Production
The chemical phenomenon leading to the conversion of Vegetable oil (triglycerides) to
biodiesel is known as Trans-esterification.
In the trans-esterification process an alcohol e.g. methanol reacts with the triglycerides
present in vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases, forming fatty acid alkyl
esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. The reaction requires heat and a strong base catalyst,
such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.
The alcohol is deprotonated with a base to make it a stronger nucleophile. The carbon
on the ester of the triglyceride has a slight positive charge, and the carbonyl oxygen
have a slight negative charge. This polarization of the C=O bond is what attracts the
RO- to the reaction site. This yields a tetrahedral intermediate that has a negative
charge on the former carbonyl oxygen. These electrons then fall back to the carbon
and push off the diacylglycerol forming the ester. The two more RO groups react via
this mechanism at the other two C=O groups. This type of reaction has several limiting
factors. RO- has to fit in the space where there is a slight positive charge on the C=O.
So MeO- works well because it is small. As the R on RO- gets bigger, reaction rates
decrease. This effect is called steric hindrance.
4.2 Testing physio chemical properties of biodiesel
Biodiesel produced must meet the specification in order to use it as a fuel component
for transportation fuel. It is recommended that some critical tests for example water
content and acidity may be done at the plant level while the other test could be done at
any centralized location. The physio-chemical properties are such as:
a) Relative density or specific gravity
Relative density or specific gravity is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume)
of a substance to the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity usually
23

means relative density with respect to water. The term relative density is often
preferred in modern scientific usage.
If a substances relative density is less than one then it is less dense than the reference;
if greater than one then it is denser than the reference. If the relative density is exactly
one then the densities are equal, that is, equal volumes of the two substances have the
same mass. If the reference material is water then a substance with a relative density
less than one will float in water.
Relative density (RD) or specific gravity (SG) is a dimensionless quantity, as it is the
ratio of either densities or weights.
RD= ( Substance) /( reference)
Where RD is relative density, substance is the density of the substance being
measured, and reference is the density of the reference.
b) Kinematic viscosity
We are concerned with the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force (i.e. the
Reynolds number, Re = Vd / ), the former characterized by the fluid density . This
ratio is characterized by the kinematic viscosity, defined as follows:
= /
c) Gross heat of combustion
Heat of combustion (Hco) is the energy released as heat when a compound
undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions. The chemical
reaction is typically a hydrocarbon reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water
and heat.
Gross heating value accounts for water in the exhaust leaving as vapor, and includes
liquid water in the fuel prior to combustion. This value is important for fuels like wood
or coal, which will usually contain some amount of water prior to burning.
d) Flash and fire point
Flash point of a volatile liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to
form an ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a liquids flash point requires an ignition
24

source. At the flash point, the vapor may cease to burn when the source of ignition is
removed.
Fire point, a higher temperature, is defined as the temperature at which the vapor
continues to burn after being ignited. Neither the flash point nor the fire point is
related to the temperature of the ignition source or of the burning liquid, which is
much higher.
e) Cloud and pour point
Cloud point of a fluid is the temperature at which dissolved solids are no longer
completely soluble, precipitating as a second phase giving the fluid a cloudy
appearance.
Cloud point of a non-ionic surfactant or glycol solution is the temperature, at which
the mixture starts to separate into two phases, thus becoming cloudy. This behavior is
a characteristic of non-ionic surfactants containing polyoxyethylene chains, which
exhibit reverse solubility versus temperature behavior in water and therefore cloud
out at some point as the temperature is raised.
f) Cetane number
Cetane number or CN is actually a measure of a fuels ignition delay; the time period
between the start of injection and the first identifiable pressure increase during
combustion of the fuel. In a particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels will have
shorter ignition delay periods than lower cetane fuels. Cetane numbers are only used
for the relatively light distillate diesel oils.






25

4.3 Table 6. Physical and chemical properties of karanja oil
PROPERTY
KARANJA OIL
Viscosity (cSt) (30
o
C) 29.65
Specific gravity (15
o
C/4
o
C) 0.912
Solidifying point (
o
C) 2.0
Cetane value 56.64
Flash point (
o
C) 241
Carbon residue (%) 0.64
Diesel index 47.79
Sulfur (%) 0.13-0.16
Acid value 1.0-38.2
Saponification value 188-198
Color Pale yellow
Odour Strong pungent


26

4.4 Table 7. Physical and chemical properties of jatropha oil
PROPERTY
JATROPHA OIL
Viscosity (cSt) (31
o
C) 40.4
Specific gravity (50
o
F) 0.918
Solidifying point (
o
C) 2.0
Cetane value 51
Flash point (
o
C) 240
Carbon residue (%) 0.64
Calorific value 9470 Kcal/kg
Sulfur (%) 0.13
Acid value 1.05-38.2
Saponification value 188-198
Color Pale yellow
Odour Strong pungent

Analysis: We have tested the four non edible oils and came across the results in the
form of their physical and chemical properties.

27

5 DISCUSSION
As we have to produce biodiesel we require oil seeds and these seeds are crushed to
extract oil. Oil extracted will produce biodiesel on the basis of 91-92% conversion.
In India, it is estimated that the cost of bio-diesel produced by trans-esterification of
oil obtained from Jatropha curcas oil and Karanja oil seeds shall be less than that of
petrol diesel.
a. The seed contains 30% oil, and extraction can be 91-92%.
b. 1.05 kg of oil will be required to produce 1kg of bio-diesel; recovery from
sale of crude glycerol will be at the rate of Rs. 10 per kg.
c. The price of glycerol is likely to be depressed with processing of such large
quantities of oil and consequent it production of glycerol raising, the cost of
biodiesel.
d. The byproducts of biodiesel from karanja seed are the seed oil cake and
glycerol, which have good commercial value. The seed oil cake is a very
good compost being rich in plant nutrients. It can also be used as compost.
Hence oil cake will fetch good price.
e. Glycerol is produced a byproduct in the trans-esterification of oil. These
byproducts shall reduce the cost of biodiesel to make it at par with
petroleum diesel.
In India, it is estimated that the cost of biodiesel produced by trans-esterification varies
between Rs. 20-29 per litre. Assumptions are that the seed contains 35% oil, oil
extraction will be 91-92%, 1.05 kg of oil will be required to produce 1 kg of biodiesel
and recovery vary from sale of crude glycerol will be at the rate of Rs. 10-15kg. The
price of glycerol is likely to be depressed with processing of such large quantities of
oil and consequent the production of glycerol by raising the cost of the biodiesel. The
components of biodiesel are the process of seed, seed collection and oil extraction,
trans-esterification of oil transport of seed and oil. Furthermore new applications are
likely to be found crating additional demand and stabilizing its price. With volatility
the price of crude, the use of biodiesel is economically feasible and a strategic option.
28

5.1 BLENDING
In India, biodiesel is used in the blended form. Begin using B20 before going on to
B100 to ensure a smooth conversion to biodiesel and given users time to become
familiar with the biodiesel (use, maintenance, precautions, etc)
i. Verify with engine manufacturers whether guarantees remain valid after
converting to biodiesel .
ii. Use B20 since it offers excellent performance and maximizes engine
efficiency without affecting fuel consumption.
iii. Tune diesel engines, example by adjusting injection tuning and duration, to
optimize efficiency and performance before any use of B100.

29

5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS IN COMPARISON TO
PETROLEUM BASED OIL INCLUDE
1. Biodiesel reduces emission of carbon monoxide (CO) by approximately 50%
and carbon dioxide (CO
2
) by 78.45% on a net recycle basis because the carbon
in biodiesel emissions is recycled from carbon that was already in the
atmosphere, rather than being new carbon from petroleum that was sequestered
in the earths crust.
2. Biodiesel contains fewer aromatic hydrocarbons benzo-fluoranthene: 56%
reduction; benzo-pyrenes: 71% reduction.
3. It also eliminates sulfur emissions (SO
2
), because biodiesel does not include
sulfur.
4. Biodiesel does produce more NO emissions than petro diesel, but these
emissions can be reduced through the use of catalytic converters. Petro diesel
vehicles have generally not included catalytic converters because the sulfur
content in that fuel destroys the devices, but biodiesel does not contain sulfur.
The increase in NO
x
emissions may also be due to the higher cetane rating of
biodiesel properly designed and tuned engines may eliminate this increase.
NO
x
emissions from biodiesel increase or decrease depending on the engine
family and testing procedures. NO
x
emissions (a contributing factor in the
localized formation of smog and ozone) from pure (100%) biodiesel increase
on average by 10%.
5. It has a higher cetane rating than petro diesel, and therefore ignites more
rapidly when injected into the engine.
Pure biodiesel can be used in any petroleum. Diesel engine though is more
commonly used in lower concentrations. Some areas have mandated ultralow
sulfur diesel (ULSD) petroleum, which reduces the natural viscosity and
lubricity of the fuel because the sulfur and certain other materials have been
removed. Additives are required to make it properly flow in engines, and
biodiesel is one popular alternative. Range as low as 2% have restored
lubricity. Also, many municipalities have started using 5% biodiesel in snow-
removal eqipments and other systems.

30


REFERENCES
S.Antony Raja, D.S.Robinson Smart, and C.Lindon Robert Lee, 2011,
Biodiesel production from jatropha oil and its characterization, Research
Journal of Chemical Sciences Vol. 1 (1)
Wilson Parawira, 2010, Biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas: A review,
Scientific Research and Essays Vol. 5(14), pp. 1796-1808,
Ofori-Boateng Cynthia, Lee Keat Teong, 2011, Feasibility of Jatropha oil for
biodiesel: Economic Analysis, World Renewable Energy Congress-2011.
R. K. Singh and Saroj K Paridhi, 2009, Characterization of Jatropha Oil for
the preparation of biodesel, Natural Product Radiance, Vol. 8(2), pp 127-132.
African Journal of Biotechnology, 2006, Vol. 5 (10), pp. 901-906.
www.jatrophabiodiesel.org
www.biodiesel.org
www.biodiesel.com
www.iocltech.com
www.chempro.in