1

INTEGRATION
CHAPTER 12

Approximation Leading To Integrals

There are many methods which give us good estimates for calculating the
area under a curve.
Left Endpoint Estimate
| | ) ( ... ) ( ) (
1 1 0
+ + +

=
n n
x f x f x f
n
a b
L

For a decreasing function over
[a,b], the Left Endpoint estimate
True Area.
For an increasing function over
[a,b], the Left Endpoint estimate
True Area.


Right Endpoint Estimate
| | ) ( ... ) ( ) (
2 1 n n
x f x f x f
n
a b
R + + +

=

For a decreasing function over
[a,b], the Right Endpoint estimate
True Area.
For an increasing function over
[a,b], the Right Endpoint estimate
True Area.


A further estimate can be found by taking the average of the two above
methods.


2
. . . . . . EST E R EST E L
Average
+
=


Ex 12A Q1, 2, 3a, 5, 6

y
x
0
x
0
= a x
1
b = x
n

0
x
0
= a x
1
b = x
n

y
x
2
Antidifferentiation
In year 11 we saw that antidifferentiation is the reverse of
differentiation. Antidifferentiation allows us to find the function for a
particular gradient and as we will see allows us to calculate the area under
the curve.

Eg1. Find the antiderivative of 5 2 3
3 4
+ + x x




In general, if 1 , ) ( = = n ax x f
n
then
antiderivative is c
n
ax
n
+
+
+
1
1
where c is a constant.

If ) ( ) ( ' x f x F = then
}
+ = c x F dx x f ) ( ) ( where c is an arbitrary real
number.

Notation
As stated we often use a capital letter associated with the original
function symbol. Eg. the antiderivative of f(x) is given by F(x). Some
texts use the large capital A, Af(x). The antiderivative has also been
called an indefinite integral with Leibnitz notation
}
dx x f ) ( .

Linearity of the antiderivative
For any two functions f(x) and g(x) and constants a and b.
| |
} }
} } }
=
+ = +
dx x f k dx x kf
and
dx x g b dx x f a dx x bg x af
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (


Eg2. Find
}
+ dx x x ) 2 (
3




Eg3. The gradient function for a particular curve is given by
x x x f 6 21 ) (
2
= . Find the equation of the curve given that the curve
passes through (1,9).


3
{ } 1 , 0 \ , ) ( ) ( '
1 , , ) ( ) ( , :
1
< e + =
> e + =

r Q r b ax ar x f
r Q r b ax x f R R f
r
r
c x x F then
x x f
+ =
=

0
1
0
1
) (
) (
For a function
using chain rule.

So for a suitable domain
}
= + +
+
= +
+
1 , ) (
) 1 (
1
) (
1
r c b ax
r a
dx b ax
r r


Eg4. Find the antiderivative of the following.
a)
4
) 1 2 ( + x b)
3
) 2 3 (

x






Roots and Reciprocals
Roots and reciprocals are easily handled by the rules governing powers
except in one special case.

Eg5. Find F(x) for the following,
a) x x f = ) ( b)
2
1
) (
x
x f =




Eg6. Find F(x) if
x
x f
1
) ( = .




This is using our rule but this is not possible. So our rule does not work
when n=-1.

The rule for antidifferentiation of the reciprocal function is;
0 , log
1
=
}
+ = x for c x dx
x
e


So
}

= + + =
+ a
b
x for c b ax
a
dx
b ax
e
, log
1 1

Note: a and b are constants where a 0

4
Eg7. Find
a)
}
+
dx
x 3
4
b)
}

dx
x 1 2
3







Antiderivatives of other component functions
Antidifferentiation sometimes requires us to have the function in
expanded form.

Eg8. Find ( )
}
+ dx x x 1 2 4





In general
} } }
= dx x g dx x f dx x g x f ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

There is no equivalent product rule, quotient rule or chain rule in
antidifferentiation. We need to use a number of tricks to find the
antiderivative of compound expressions where this is possible.

Eg9. Find
}
+
dx
x
x
1






Exponential Functions
The exponential function has its own derivative,
i.e.
x x
e e
dx
d
= so
}
+ = c e dx e
x x
.
The exponential function is also its own antiderivative (to within a
constant)
The rule for antidefferentiation of exponential functions is;
}
+ = c e
k
dx e
kx kx
1

5
Eg10. Find the antiderivative of
2 2
4 ) ( x e x f
x
+ =

given the curve passes
through the point ).
2
1
, 0 (





Using CAS

To use Integral template: b42







Ex 12B: Q1-6

Ex 12C: Q1-3(1/2), 4-7

Ex 12D: Q1-4

Area The Definite Integral

Sums and Intergrals used to find the Area under a Curve

To calculate the area between a curve and the x-axis a limiting process
can be considered. The process of finding a limit of a sum of areas is the
basis of Integral Calculus. We need to find the area of the region of the
plane surface bounded by the graph of a continuous function, the x-axis
and the lines x=a and x=b where b>a.
-We know how to find the area
of a rectangle.
-The area of the curve bounded
by the x-axis, x=a and x=b is less
than the area of ABCF and more
than the area of ABDE.
-This is a rough estimate.

y
x
A B
C
D E
F
a b
y=f(x)
0
6
-The interval [a,b] can be divided
into n equal parts by the points
x
0
, x
1
, ,x
n
where a=x
0
and b=x
n
.
-Each strip has a width of x o .
-The area of each strip is given
by x x f o ) ( .
-So the area of the rectangular
approximation between a and b
is the sum of the areas of all the
strips between a and b.
That is,

=
= + + +
n
i
n n
x x f x x f x x f x x f
1
2 1
) ( ) ( ... ) ( ) ( o o o o

Area of the region enclosed by ) (x f y = is
=

n
i
n
x
x x f
1
0
) ( lim o
o

- Here the Greek S, is used to show sum.
- The limit replaces with an elongated S, , called the Integral
Symbol.
So enclosed area=
}

=
=

b
a
n
i
n
x
dx x f x x f ) ( ) ( lim
1
0
o
o

- The terminals or values at the top and bottom of the integral
symbol revert back to the original boundaries of the area, a and b
in this case.

The area of a region enclosed by the graph of a function and the x-axis
for the interval [a,b] is symbolised by the definite integral
}
b
a
dx x f ) (
.

The Fundamental theorem Of Calculus

| |
b
a
b
a
x F
a F b F
dx x f Area
) (
) ( ) (
) (
=
=
=
}


- This is a very important Theorem because it indicates a much
method of evaluating definite integrals and calculating areas.

y
x
a b
y=f(x)
0
ox
x
0
x
1
x
n

7
So the area under the curve y=f(x) between a and b is G(b)-G(a) where
G(x) is the antiderivative of f(x).

Definite and Indefinite Integrals
We use the same symbol for integration and antidifferentiation.
| | ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( a F b F x F dx x f
b
a
b
a
= =
}
The terminals a and b are usually real numbers. If this is the case then
the definite integral is a real number, NOT a function.

*
}
dx x f ) ( is called the indefinite integral (no terminals). It is
represented by a family of antiderivatives. | | c x F x f A + = ) ( ) (

Eg11. Evaluate the following;
a)
}
4
3
2 dx x
b)
}
2
0
3
dx x








Eg12. Find the area under the curve
2
x y = between x=0 and x=5.













8
Eg13.
( )
}
+ +
3
1
2
1 2 3 dx x x
Eg14.
dx
x
}
5
2
2
1










Using CAS obtain the Integral template and insert the lower and upper
terminals.

Signed and Unsigned Area
A For a curve which lies above the x-axis in the interval b x a s s , the
}
b
a
dx x f ) ( is positive.
B - For a curve which lies below the x-axis in the interval b x a s s , the
}
b
a
dx x f ) ( is negative.
Eg15.
A -
4
1
0
4
1
4
1
0
4 1
0
3
= =
(

=
}
x
dx x

B -
4
1
4
1
0
4
0
1
4 0
1
3
= =
(

=

}
x
dx x

NOTE - 0
4
1
4
1
4
1
1
4 1
1
3
= =
(

=

}
x
dx x


This is telling us that there is zero area between -1 and 1. Why? From A
and B we see that there is an area. The integral gives the measure of the
signed area. To find the actual area, the absolute value of the signed
area is taken, or if the curve crosses the x-axis the area of the regions
above and below the axis must be calculated separately. In the above eg,
the area of the shaded region is equal to
2
1
4
1
4
1
= + square units.
A
B
y
x
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
y = x
3

9
Eg16. Find the area of the shaded region.


















Eg17. Find the area enclosed by the graph of ) 3 )( 2 ( = x x x y and the x-
axis.















Using CAS
Alternative method to find definite Integral.



y
x
y = x
2
4
1 2
4
10
Properties of Definite Integrals
1.
}
=
a
a
dx x f 0 ) (
* If terminals are the same there is no area*
2.
} } }
< < + =
b
a
c
a
b
c
b c a where dx x f dx x f dx x f ) ( ) ( ) (

3.
} }
=
b
a
b
a
dx x f k dx x kf ) ( ) (

4.
} } }
=
b
a
b
a
b
a
dx x g dx x f dx x g dx x f ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

5.
} }
=
b
a
a
b
dx x f dx x f ) ( ) (
* reversing the limits changes the sign of the
integral*

Ex 12E: Q1-3(1/2), 4, 5

Ex 12F: Q1, 2-3(1/2), 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11

Circular Functions
The circular functions sin x and cos x are related in antidifferentiation as
they are in differentiation.

The rule for antidefferentiation of circular functions is;
}
+ = c kx
k
dx kx cos
1
sin

}
+ = c kx
k
dx kx sin
1
cos


We dont have an antiderivative immediately obvious for x x f tan ) ( = but
we did find that x x
dx
d
2
sec tan = .
So
}
+ = c kx
k
dx kx tan
1
sec
2


Eg18. Find the antiderivative of x x
x
x f 3 sin 2 cos 4
2
) ( + =



So if we have sin or cos functions of the form;
11
}
+ + = + c a kx
k
dx a kx ) cos(
1
) sin(

}
+ + = + c a kx
k
dx a kx ) sin(
1
) cos(



Eg19. Find the antiderivatives of the following;
a) )
3
4 sin(
t
+ x b) )
4
2 cos(
t
x









Eg20. Evaluate
a)
}
+
2
0
2 cos 3
t
dx x
b)
( )
}

4
0
sin 3
t
dx x
















Ex 12G: Q1-3(1/2), 4ac(CAS), 5(CAS)

We often find antiderivatives by using a result found in differentiation.
12

Eg21. Find the derivative of x x y
e
log = and hence find the antiderivative
of x
e
log .









Eg22. Differentiate
3 2
) 5 ( + x x and hence integrate
2 2
) 5 )( 1 2 ( + x x x .












Eg23. Differentiate ) 7 2 sin( = x x y and hence integrate ) 7 2 cos( x x .













Ex 12H: Q1(1/2), 2, 3-6(1/2), 8(1/2), 9, 11, 14(1/2), 16, 18(1/2)

13
Area of a Region Between two Curves
The area between the two curves is found by subtracting the area
between the graph of g(x) and the x-axis from the area between the
graph of f(x) and the x-axis.

( )
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
x g x f If
dx x g x f
dx x g dx x f Area
b
a
b
a
b
a
>
=
=
}
} }



Eg24. Calculate the area of the region enclosed by the graphs with
equations 3 4 ) (
2
+ = x x x f and
2
3 ) ( x x x g = .














Eg25. Calculate the area of the segment of the curve
2
x y = cut off by
the line x y = .







Note: Graphs are essential to see
which graph is greater.
Ex 12I: Q1, 2, 3(1/2), 5, 6, 8
y
x
f(x)
g(x)
a b
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
y
x
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
1
1
2
2
3
3
f(x)
g(x)
y
x
1
1
1
1
1
1
y=x
y = x
2

14
Applications of Intergration

Average value of a function
The average value of a function with rule for an interval [a, b]
is defined as:

In terms of the graph the average is the height of a rectangle
which has the same area under the graph for the interval [a, b].

Eg 26. Find the average value of

for the interval [0, 2].

Illustrate with a horizontal line determined by this value.








Kinematics
Recall:
Kinematics is the study of objects in straightline motion. We look at the
relationship between position, velocity and acceleration of an object.
- Displacement
When considering a particle in motion we need to relate its position to a
reference point or starting point. This point is taken as zero and any
position from this point can be given a positive or negative value. Note:
the fixed point may not always be 0 or O.
- Velocity
The average velocity is the average rate of change in the position over
a period of time.
If a particle moves from d
1
at time t
1
to d
2
at time t
2
, then its
1 2
1 2
t t
d d
time in Change
position in Change
velocity average

=
=

This can actually be found by finding the average value of the velocity
function over the period of time.
15
Speed is the magnitude of Velocity. (Speed is always positive)

time in Change
travelled Distance
speed Average =

This can actually be found by finding the average value of the speed
function over the period of time.

The instantaneous velocity is the instantaneous rate of change, which
specifies the rate of change at a given instant in time.

Instantaneous velocity ) ( ' t x
dt
dx
v = = = where x is a function of time.

- Acceleration

Average acceleration for the time interval [t
1
, t
2
] is defined by
1 2
1 2
t t
v v

where v
1
and v
2
are the velocities at time t
1
and t
2
respectively.

Instantaneous acceleration = ) ( ' '
2
2
t x
dt
x d
dt
dx
dt
d
dt
dv
a = =
|
.
|

\
|
= =

Eg 27. A body starts from O and moves in a straight line. After t seconds
(t0) its velocity (v cm/s) is given by t t v 8 3
2
= . Find
a) its position x in terms of t.





b) its position after 3 seconds.




c) its average speed in the first 3 seconds.




16
d) its average velocity in the first 3 seconds.











Ex 12J: 1ace, 2, 3b, 5, 6, 7,11, 12, 13, 15, 17

Review: ODDS