Fast Solutions of Electromagnetic Fields

FAST SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
IN LAYERED MEDIA
FEI TING
(M.S., NUS)
A THESIS SUBMITTED
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENGINEERING
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
2007
Acknowledgments
I would like to take this opportunity express my most sincere appreciation to my
supervisors, Professor Li Le-Wei, Professor Yeo Tat-Soon and Dr. Zheng Yuanjin,
for their guidance, supports, and kindness throughout my postgraduate program.
I wish to thank the members of Radar Signal Processing Laboratory: Dr. Yao
Haiying, Mr. Xu Wei, Mr. Zhang Lei, Mr. Qiu Chengwei, Mr. Feng Zhuo, Mr. Kang
Kai, Mr. Yuan Tao, Mr. Hwee Siang Tan, Miss Li Yanan, Miss Wu Yuming, Mr.
She Haoyuan, and the lab ocer, Ng Jack. Special thanks to my friends Miss Fan
Yijing, Miss Zhang Yaqiong, Miss Zhu Yonglan, and Miss Feng Yuan. It is a great
time when I live with you through out my Ph.D degree studies.
I wish to thank my family and my boyfriend Andrew for enduring my prolonged
absence during the doctoral study.
Contents
Acknowledgments
Contents
ii
List of Figures
viii
List of Symbols
xiii
1 Introduction
1.1
Fast Methods for Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Planarly Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Spherically Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Motivation and Research Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.3
Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.4
List of Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2 Fields in Spherically Layered Media
17
2.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
2.2
Dyadic Greens Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
ii
CONTENTS
2.3
iii
Dyadic Solution For Spherically Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.3.1
Dyadic Greens Function in Unbounded Media . . . . . . . .
24
2.3.2
Scattering Dyadic Greens Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.3.3
Scattering Coecients for Perfectly Conducting Sphere . . .
26
2.3.4
Scattering Coecients for Dielectric Sphere . . . . . . . . .
27
2.3.5
Scattering Coecients for a Conducting Sphere Coated with

a Dielectric Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
A Perfectly Conducting Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.4.2
A Dielectric Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.4.3
2.5
Eigenfunction Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1
2.4
29
A Conducting Sphere Coated with a Dielectric Layer . . . .
31
Accurate and Ecient Computation of Scaled Spherical Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.6
Radiation of Vertical Electric Dipole on Large Sphere . . . . . . . .
35
2.7
Continuous Form of Field Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
2.8
Radiation Pattern of a Vertical Electric Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
2.9
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3 Convergence Acceleration for Spherically Layered Media
48
3.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.2
Asymptotic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.3
Convergence Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.4
Convergence Property of Scattered Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
CONTENTS
3.5
iv
63
3.5.1
Perfectly Electric Conductor Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.5.2
3.6
Kummers Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dielectric Lossy Spherical Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
4 Fields in Planarly Layered Media
91
4.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
4.2
Sommerfeld Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.2.1
Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.2.2
Singularities in Sommerfeld Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.3
VED in Three-Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
4.4
Comparison of Fields in Thin-Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.5
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5 A Comparative Study of Radio Wave Propagation over the Earth

Due to a Vertical Electric Dipole
112
5.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2
Planar Earth Model and Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.3
Spherical Earth Model and Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.4
Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

5.4.1
5.4.2
5.5
Asymptotic Methods in Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Asymptotic Computation Compared with Exact Computation131
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
CONTENTS
6 Conclusions
138
A Asymptotic Representations of Hankel Functions
141
A.1 Debye Asymptotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

A.2 Watson Asymptotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
A.3 Olver Asymptotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
A.4 Second-Order Asymptotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Summary
The fast solutions of a vertical electric dipole antenna radiated elds in the presence
of planarly and spherically layered media are studied in this work.
For the spherically layered media, the continuity of the eld expressions on
the spherical surface at r = r in the space is discussed, and the fast solution to
the electromagnetic elds due to the presence of a large sphere is presented. Some
examples are considered to demonstrate the special properties of the respective
eld contributions.
For the planarly layered media, a comparative study is carried out for the
electromagnetic elds radiated by a vertical electric dipole on the surface of a thin
dielectric layer. The direct wave and the reected wave are found to attenuate as
1 in the direction; therefore in the far-eld region, the surface wave dominates
the total eld. It is also found out that the method used in [1] at = 200 leads
to a relative error of 7%, as compared with the result by [2]. The contribution of
the pole is compared with that of the branch cut and it is found out that surface
wave mode is dominant for > .
For the radio-wave propagation along the surface of the earth, the electromag-
vi
Summary
vii
netic eld excited by a vertical electric dipole on the earth is studied. Four sets of
formulas for both the planar earth model and the spherical earth model (of large
radius) are compared to nd out their valid ranges. Numerical computations are
also carried out specically for a three-layered earth model. For the planar earth
model, when both the source and observation points are on the surface, and the
planar earth covered with a thick-enough dielectric layer, the method by Zhang
[1] is more accurate; while for the elds above the surface and the thin-enough
dielectric layer, the method by King and Sandler [3] is more accurate. However,
the hybrid modes of the trapped surface wave and the lateral wave were exhibited
in the curves in [1], but they were not shown in the curves in [3]. Numerical calculations also show that the amplitude of the trapped surface wave by [1] attenuates
as 1/2 in the direction as expected. However, the lateral wave given in [1] did
not exhibit 2 decay in the direction. For the layered spherical earth model, the
exact series summation, which serves as an exact solution to the classic problem,
is computed and compared with the residue series. Numerical results show that
the residue series gives a good approximation to the eld, but the smooth curve
illustrates that the hybrid eect due to the trapped surface wave and the lateral
wave was ignored in literature. The eld strength of the trapped surface wave
decreases with the dielectric layer thickness and is aected by the curvature of
the earth. The exact series shows the oscillation of the eld caused by the hybrid
eects, which can be considered as the dielectric resonance between the upper and
lower dielectric interfaces when it is guided to propagate, but none of the other
three approximations can depict the eects.
List of Figures
2.1
Geometry of a multilayered sphere
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.2
A dipole over a PEC sphere with dielectric coating . . . . . . . . .
36
2.3
Field strength distribution |E direct | of a vertical dipole in free space

obtained using the formula in discontinued eld. . . . . . . . . . . .
38
Amplitude and phase of the normalized far eld component E each

as a function of at k0 a = 10 for perfectly conducting and coated
spheres. Dashed curve: t = 0.1; dotted curve: t = 0.01; continuous
curve: perfectly conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
norm
Convergence pattern of the radial component Etotal,r (n) of normalized electric eld E norm (n) dened in (2.60) as a function of n for a
total
perfectly conducting earth at = 0, and for k1 a = 150, k1 b = 151,
and k1 r = 154. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.4
3.1
3.2
norm
Convergence pattern of the normalized scattered electric eld Escat,r (n)
as a function of n for a perfectly conducting earth at = /3, and
for k0 a = 150, k0 b = 151, and k0 r = 154. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3
Convergence pattern of the radial component of normalized electric

norm
eld Etotal,r (n) as a function of n for a lossy earth at = 0 km or
= 0o , and for r = 12, = 0.4, and f = 10 kHz. . . . . . . . . . .
58
Convergence pattern of the radial component of normalized electric

norm
eld Etotal,r (n) as a function of n for a lossy earth at = 200 km,
and for r = 12, = 0.4, and f = 10 kHz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
Convergence of scattered waves versus observation angle for dipole

located on the surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
Convergence of scattered waves versus observation distance r. Dotted curve: a = b; dashed curve: b = a + 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
3.4
3.5
3.6
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
3.7
ix
Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and

Q(- - -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = k0 b = 50, k0 r = 52
and = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
Relative errors of the -components of E total (), E scat ( ), and

Q(- - -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = k0 b = 50, k0 r = 52
and = /3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and

Q(- - -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = k0 b = 50, k0 r = 52,
and = /3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
norm
3.10 Convergence pattern of the normalized correction component Ecorr,r
as a function of n for a PEC sphere at = 0, and for k0 a = 150,
k0 b = 151, and k0 r = 154. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
norm
3.11 Convergence pattern of the normalized correction part Ecorr,r (n) as
a function of n for a PEC sphere at = 3 , and for k0 a = 150,

k0 b = 151, and k0 r = 154. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
3.12 Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat (- - -), and
E corr2 ( ) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = 50, k0 b = 51,
k0 r = 54 and = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
3.13 Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and

E corr2 (- - -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = 50, k0 b = 51,
k0 r = 54 and = 2/3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
3.14 Relative errors of the -components of E total ( ), E scat (), and

E corr2 (- - -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = 50, k0 b = 51,
k0 r = 54 and = 2/3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
norm
norm
norm
3.15 Real and imaginary parts of the electric elds Ecorr,r , Escat,r , Etotal,r ,
norm
norm
Edirect,r and Eimage,r versus the vertical dipole height k0 b for a perfectly conducting sphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
3.16 Truncation errors versus the number of terms for the convergent
solution of the normalized eld components Etotal (), Escat (- - ) and Ecorr ( ) in the case of a PEC sphere at = 0, and for
k0 a = 150, k0 b = 151, and k0 r = 154. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
3.17 Relative errors versus the number of terms for the convergent solution of the normalized eld components Etotal (), Escat (- - -) and
Ecorr ( ) in the case of a PEC sphere at = 0, and for k0 a = 150,
k0 b = 151, and k0 r = 154. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
3.8
3.9
LIST OF FIGURES
norm
3.18 Convergence comparison of the normalized eld component Ecorr,r
for a lossy sphere at = 0, r = 12, = 0.4, and f = 10 kHz. . . . .
88
norm
3.19 Convergence comparison of the normalized eld component Ecorr,r
for a lossy sphere at = 200 km, r = 12, = 0.4, and f = 10 kHz.
89
4.1
4.2
Unit vertical electric dipole at a height of d over a planarly layered

medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
Unit vertical electric dipole at a height of d over a slab surface at

z = 0, dielectric layer thickness is h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
4.3
Unit vertical electric dipole on the thin dielectric surface at z = 0,

dielectric layer thickness is h. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.4
Magnitudes of Ez using method in [1] ( ) and method in [2] (-),

varies from to 200, r = 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5
Magnitudes of Ez using method in [1] ( ) and method in [2] (-),

varies from 10 to 300, r = 2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6
Magnitudes of Ez due to the trapped surface wave (-) and lateral

wave (- - -) for thin-layered case, r = 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.7
Magnitudes of Ez due to the trapped surface wave (-) and lateral

wave (- - -) for thin-layered case, r = 2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.8
Magnitudes of Ez due to contributions of Qsurf () and QBC (- - -)

versus varying from 0.01 to 0.1, r = 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.9
Magnitudes of Ez due to contributions of Qsurf () and QBC (- - -)

versus but varying from to 20, r = 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.1
Amplitudes of Ez varying with horizontal distance , computed using Kings formula (- - -) of planar model, formula in [1] ( ) of
planar model, and residue series formula (-) of approximate spherical model with dielectric layer thickness h = 100 m, at a frequency
of f = 100 kHz, and r = 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2
Amplitudes of Ez varying with horizontal distance , computed by

Kings formula (- - -) of planar model, formula in [1] ( ) of planar model, and residue series formula (-) of approximate spherical
model with a dielectric layer thickness of h = 50 m, at a frequency
of f = 100 kHz, and r = 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
LIST OF FIGURES
xi
5.3
Amplitudes of Ez vary with horizontal distance , compared by

Kings formula (- - -) of planar model, formula in [1] ( ) of planar model, and residue series formula (-) of approximate spherical
model with dielectric layer thickness h = 30 m, at a frequency of
f = 100 kHz, and r = 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.4
Amplitudes of Ez vary with horizontal distance , compared by

Kings formula (- - -) for the planar model, formula in [1] ( )
for the planar model, and residue series formula (-) for the approximate spherical model with dielectric layer thickness h = 2.5
m, 1r = 3.2, 2r = 80, and 2 = 4 S/m, at a higher frequency of
f = 7 MHz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.5
The normalized amplitude of the trapped surface wave ( ), the

lateral wave (- - -) and 1/2 reference (-), zr = 10 m, zs = 0 m,
dielectric thickness h = 100 m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.6
The strength of the trapped surface wave in planar earth model (

) compared with that in approximate spherical earth model (-),
zr = zs = 0 m, dielectric thickness h = 100 m. . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.7

zr = zs = 0 m, dielectric thickness h = 50 m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.8

zr = zs = 0 m, dielectric thickness h = 30 m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.9
The strength of the trapped surface wave in approximate spherical

earth model for dierent dielectric layer thickness, h = 100 m (),
h = 50 m (- - -), h = 30 m ( ), zr = zs = 0 m. . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.10 The strength of the trapped surface wave in planar earth model for
dierent dielectric layer thickness, h = 100 m (), h = 50 m (- - -),
h = 30 m ( ), zr = zs = 0 m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.11 Amplitudes of Ez varying with , compared by approximate image
( ) and residue series (-) with dielectric layer thickness h = 0
m, at a frequency of f = 100 kHz, zs = 0 m, zr = 10 m. . . . . . . . 132
5.12 Amplitudes of Ez varying with , compared by exact series(), and
residue series (- - -) for PEC, zs = 10 m, zr = 500 m, at a frequency
of f = 100 kHz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
5.13 Amplitudes of Ez vary with , compared by exact series(), and

residue approximation (- - -), zs = 10 m, zr = 500 m, r = 1.1,
h = 100 m, at frequency f =100kHz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
residue approximation (- - -), zs = 10 m, zr = 500 m, r = 2.0,
residue approximation (- - -), zs = 10 m, zr = 500 m, r = 15,
List of Symbols
0
permittivity of free space (8.854 1012 F/m)
permeability of free space (4 107 H/m)
free space wave impedance
conductivity
propagation constant
wavelength
electric current density
magnetic current density
electric eld
magnetic eld
electric scalar potential
magnetic scalar potential
GEJ
electric type of dyadic Greens function
GHJ
magnetic type of dyadic Greens function
g(r r)
free-space scalar Greens function
Kronecker delta
!!
double factorial
xiii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
1.1.1
Fast Methods for Layered Media

Planarly Layered Media
The computation of the electromagnetic (EM) elds in planarly layered media has
been a classical subject of numerous investigations over the past century. Although
it is the simplest model of the inhomogeneous media, it serves as an important
prediction tool for the radio wave propagation along the surface of a lossy earth
as well as for the full-wave analysis of radio-frequency integrated circuits (RFIC).
Originally, the eld excited by a source in a planarly layered medium was expressed
in terms of Fourier-type integrals. The exact solution to the problem of radiation
by an innitesimal dipole over a dielectric half-space was rst given by Arnold
Sommerfeld in 1909 [4] in the form of integrals. The work is later extended to
layered media by other researchers using the generalized reection coecients.
Chapter 1. Introduction
However, the closed-form solution to the Sommerfeld integrals (SI) is not known
yet.
Numerous approximation techniques were thereafter developed to obtain more
accurate and faster results. Generally there are two kinds of solutions. One is
asymptotic expansions of the Sommerfeld integrals and the other one is numerical integration techniques. The asymptotic expansion methods include stationary
phase [5, 6], steepest descent (saddle-point method) [5, 7, 8], discrete complex image method (DCIM) [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14], uniform asymptotic expansions [15],
and so on. The asymptotic methods tend to be less accurate if the distance between the source point and the observation point is not electrically large enough.
For the DCIM, if this distance is much larger than the wavelength, the calculated
Greens functions are also not accurate. Therefore to calculate the far eld from
the current on the microstrip patch antenna, some researchers use the reciprocity
theory instead of directly using the Greens functions of the multi-layered media.
Furthermore, these expansions have been obtained only for simple congurations
like two- or three- layer media and the extension of the methods to arbitrary layered media seems to be dicult. On the other hand, due to the highly oscillatory
and slowly decay nature of the Sommerfeld integrals, it is dicult to apply a direct
numerical integration technique such as Gaussian quadrature method. To rectify
the diculty, many numerical integration techniques have been developed, including weighted-average algorithm [16, 17], related extrapolation algorithms [18], the
integration along the steepest descent path (SDP) [19], fast Hankel transformation
[20], and method of total least squares [21]. However, numerical integration is still
a time-consuming process if a high accuracy is required and it is sensitive to the

choice of the break points along the path of integration.
For the radio-wave propagation along the earth surface, many researchers consider the ground to be locally at and thus solve the Sommerfeld integrals problem.
Chew [15] computed the electromagnetic eld of a horizontal dipole on a two-layer
earth. The medium is assumed to be low-loss such that the image-source elds
are important. Thus the elds are due to a dipole over a half-space earth and its
image source elds. Integral representations of image source elds are evaluated
with uniform asymptotic approximations [5] which are valid at the caustics.
Y. L. Chow [11] derived a closed-form spatial Greens function consisting of
the quasi-dynamic images, the complex images, and the surface waves through the
Sommerfeld identity. With the numerical integration of the Sommerfeld integrals
thus avoided, this closed-form Greens function is computationally very ecient.
Koh revisited the problem of the Sommerfeld integrals for an impedance halfplane and presented another method [22]. The integral is evaluated using two series
representations, which are expressed in terms of the exponential integral and the
Lommel function, respectively. Then based on the Lommel function expansion, an
exact closed-form expression of the integral is formulated in terms of incomplete
Weber integrals.
Among the numerous layered medium models, the three-layered structure is
the most intensively investigated because it is mathematically simple but physically
representative. King and Sandler [23] provided formulas for the electromagnetic
eld radiated by a vertical Hertzian dipole above a lossy homogeneous half space
and above a lossy half space coated by a thin dielectric layer. This publication
evoked many questions about its accuracy, valid range, and the contribution of
the trapped surface wave and lateral wave [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Mahmound [27]
numerically integrated the Sommerfeld integrals and obtained dierent results from
King and Sandlers formulas. But the accuracy of the numerical integration was
questioned in the authors reply [28]. Collin [29] used numerical integration and
quasistatic solutions to compute the near zone electric eld and made a comparison.
He concluded that the surface wave makes a signicant contribution to the near
zone axial electric eld. However, the accuracy of the numerical integration is
questioned again at the absence of exact results.
King and Sandler also derived the analytical formulas for the elds at all points
of a three-layered planar geometry [3]. In [1], the discussion was summarized and
the properties of the trapped surface wave were re-examined. They derived a set
of modied analytical formulas where the contributions of the trapped surface
wave and the lateral wave were given explicitly. The method is extended to a
horizontal dipole near the surface of a planar perfect conductor coated with a onedimensionally anisotropic medium [30] or a uniaxial layer in [31]. Tsang et al.
presented a fast solution by numerical modied steepest descent path (NMSP) for
thin-layered media [2].
One numerical integration method is that the integration path is deformed to
the steepest descent path (SDP) or do the integration along the branch cut [2].
Tsang and Kong derived the electromagnetic elds due to a horizontal electric
dipole laid on the surface of a two-layer medium by a combination of analytical
and numerical methods [32].

Another method called exact image theory was proposed by Lindell et al.
[33, 34]. The image source was a line current in complex space. The Sommerfeld
integral was transformed into a line integral along the current for numerical purposes. In this method, starting from the spectral representation of the eld, an
exact Laplace transform was applied to the reection coecients in the Sommerfeld integrals. The resulting expressions consist of a double integral, one in the
original-spectral domain, and the other in the Laplace domain. The integral in
the spectral domain has an analytical expression and the remaining integral expressions in the Laplace domain are dominated by a rapidly decaying exponential
which signicantly improves the convergence speed.
Based on the exact image theory, Sarabandi et al. improved the convergence
properties of the Sommerfeld-type integrals for a dipole of arbitrary orientation
above an impedance half-space. The modied integrand decays rapidly for any
conguration of the source and observation point [35].
In [36], a simplied approach for accurate and ecient calculation of the integrals dealing with the tails of the Sommerfeld integrals was presented. The tail
was expressed by a sum of nite (usually 10 to 20) complex exponentials using the
matrix pencil method (MPM). Simulation results show that the MPM is approximately 10 times faster than the traditional extrapolation methods.
1.1.2
Spherically Layered Media
Electromagnetic elds and waves in a spherical structure have attracted considerable attention over the past several decades, mainly due to its interesting physical signicance and also various potential engineering applications. It has been
used primarily as a model for the analysis of the eects of the Earths curvature
in ground-wave propagation over sea or land. A dipole vertical to the spherical
boundary introduces an axis of symmetry, having only three nonzero spherical
components and these admit eigenfunction expansions of simpler structure. In
principle, the eld can be determined anywhere by specifying the source and the
boundary conditions. In practice, even when closed-form solutions are obtained,
the chosen representations may not be amenable to direct computations. The
earlier research works on electromagnetic scattering by, and dipole radiation in
the presence of, a conducting or dielectric sphere include those of Mie [37], Debye
[38], Watson [39], Norton [40], Sommerfeld [41], Bremmer [42, 43], Levy [44], Wait
[45, 46, 47], Fock [48], Wu [49, 50], Johler [51, 52, 53], Bishop [54], and Hill and
Wait [55]. The recent contributions to the subject are, for instance, those of King
et al. [56, 57, 58], Kim [59, 60], Houdzoumis [61, 62, 63], Margetis [64], Li [65, 66]
and Pan [67].
It is fairly straightforward to obtain exact series solutions for the elds. For
the elds far away from a large sphere and for the wavelength in the air being
much smaller than the radius of the sphere, the series converges slowly. The terms
of the series start to diminish only when the truncation number becomes of the
order of k0 a, with k0 being the wavenumber of free space and a being the radius of
the sphere. Furthermore, convergence problems appear when both the source and
the observation point are approaching to each other or close to the interface of the
layers. In both cases, as a large number of terms is needed for the specication
of the eld, the numerical computation is rendered intractable. Dependent on the
location of the source and observation points and the wave frequency, analytical
approximations for the interference elds have been obtained using the normal
mode expansion method, the geometric optics, the geometrical theory of diraction
(GTD), and uniform theory of diraction (UTD).
The exact solution to the scattering of a plane electromagnetic wave by a
dielectric sphere was obtained by Mie in 1908. The Mie solution given in the form
of an innite series, has a limitation in that it converges very slowly when the
radius of the sphere exceeds a few wavelengths. This diculty was overcome by
Watson in 1918 for the problem of wave propagation around the earth. Watson
appears to be the rst to investigate systematically the radiation of a point source
in the presence of a sphere with radius large compared to the wavelength. In his
formulation the source was an electric dipole located above and vertical to the
surface of a perfectly conducting sphere. His focus was on scalar potentials that
furnish the electromagnetic eld via successive dierentiations. The merits of the
Watsons approach are unquestionable: the slowly converging expansion in partial
waves was converted to an integral which in turn generated a rapidly converging
series. Many series representations for problems involving cylindrical and spherical
structures can be transformed into the complex integral of this form. For a large
sphere, the convergence of the harmonic series is too slow and the integral is more
useful.
Since then, research continued in the directions of extending the theory to
the case of an earth with nite conductivity, supporting theoretical estimates with
numerical calculations and exploring alternative ways for treating this problem
[41, 42, 7, 46, 58].
The radiation of a horizontal dipole above a nitely conducting sphere was
investigated by Fock [48] by use of scalar potentials. He approximated the eld
through air in the shadow region in terms of exponentially decreasing waves, and
gave corresponding attenuation rates as solutions to two uncoupled transcendental
equations. Fock started with an extension of Watsons method by neglecting the
eld that travels through the sphere and not examining the transition to planarearth formulas.
In a remarkable paper, Wu [50] invoked the concept of the creeping wave
in order to study the high-frequency scattering of plane waves by impenetrable
cylinders and spheres in the context of Schrdingers and Maxwells equations. He
o
derived asymptotic expansions for the total scattering cross sections that went well
beyond the standard geometrical optics, and pointed out that a mathematical tool
leading to the creeping wave in the case of a sphere is the Poisson summation
formula:
jn
f (n)e
n=
=
m=
f (v)ejv(+2m) dv.
(1.1)
One of the important practical problems in radio is the determination of the

characteristics of radio-wave propagation over the earth. The theoretical investigation of this problem, however, involved some subtle mathematical analyzes that
attracted attention from a great number of mathematicians and scientists over the
past several decades. Historically, the problem dates back to the work by Zenneck
in 1907, in which he investigated the characteristics of the wave propagating over
the earths surface, now called the Zenneck wave. Sommerfeld in 1909 [41] investigated the excitation of the Zenneck wave by a dipole source. One portion of this
solution had all the characteristics of the Zenneck wave on the surface and thus
was called the surface wave.
Levy [44] investigated the propagation of electromagnetic pulses around the
earth analytically. The pulses are assumed to be produced by a vertical electric
or magnetic dipole. The earth is treated as a homogeneous sphere of either nite
or innite conductivity and the atmosphere is assumed to be homogeneous. It is
found that very short pulses become longer the further they propagate, in addition
to diminishing in amplitude. The duration of a pulse which is initially a deltafunction increases as 3 where is the angle between transmitter and receiver. The
results are represented as products of several factors, which we call the amplitude
factor, the pulse-shape factor, the time-dependent height-gain factors for the source
and receiver, and the conductivity factor.
Andreasen [68] investigated the radiation from and the reaction on a radial
dipole placed inside a thin dielectric spherical shell. Numerical results have been
obtained for the gain pattern and the impedance change of an elementary dipole.
10
The nearer the center of the shell the dipole is placed, the less the pattern is found
to be inuenced by the shell, the opposite being the case for the impedance of the
dipole.
Bishop [54] studied the low-frequency dipole radiated in the presence of a
conducting sphere coated with a thin and lossy dielectric and immersed in an
innite and lossy medium. It was concluded that the magnitude and phase of
the scattered electric and magnetic elds are independent of the dielectric coating
material and weakly dependent on the coating thickness. The amplitude and phase
of the vertical component of the elds are signicantly eected by the coating
compared with the uncoated sphere.
In addition to the applications in planarly layered media, the image principle has also been applied in electrostatics to problems with charges in front of a
dielectric sphere [69]. Lindell [70] generalized a theoretical formula for the problem in a multilayered dielectric sphere in terms of a line-image charge. However,
the explicit expression of the image source was not given and the source is not
time-dependent.
Physically, the problem of electromagnetic wave radiation over a lossless dielectric sphere is more involved than that for the perfectly conducting sphere, since
waves existing within the sphere can also contribute signicantly. Houdzoumis
[61, 62, 63] investigated the radiation of a vertical electric dipole (VED) over an
electrically homogeneous sphere where both the dipole and the point of observation
lie on the spherical interface, using Poisson summation formula. Contributions to
the value of the elds come, on the one hand, from the waves that propagate along
11
the interface and, on the other hand, from the waves that propagate through the
sphere by successive reections if the wavelength is long enough.
Margetis [64] studied the electromagnetic elds in air due to a radiating electric
dipole located below and tangential to the surface of a homogeneous, isotropic and
optically dense sphere via the Poisson summation formula. A creeping-wave structure for all six components along the boundary is revealed that consists of waves
exponentially decreasing through air and rays bouncing and circulating inside the
sphere.
Most of the analysis of such a radiation problem employed ray theory and
asymptotic method to solve integrals. In this thesis, an improved method is provided to give more ecient and accurate computation of the electric elds radiated
in the presence of layered sphere.
Convergence acceleration is used to transform a slowly convergent series into
a new series, which converges to the same limit faster than the original one. The
most common methods are listed as follows:
Richardsons extrapolation
Aitkens process
Poisson summation
Ewalds transformation
Kummers transformation
Shanks transformation
12
Summation by parts
The series representation of the electromagnetic eld radiated due to a dipole
still serves as a good form and especially an exact solution to the problem, now
when the computing facility of the personal computer is so powerful. There are
several convergence acceleration methods for series summations successfully implemented in special cases, such as singularly periodic structures [71], multilayered
planar periodic structures [72], planar microstrip structures [73], general periodic
structures in free-space [74] and rectangular waveguide [75]. Most of these methods
use the property of free space Greens function.
1.2
Motivation and Research Objectives
For the spherically layered media, exact series solutions of electric and magnetic
eld components are obtained, where the associated scalar Greens function and
dyadic Greens function (DGF) are both given in terms of double innite series
[76, 77, 78]. Although the series solutions are rigorous in expression, the summations of the series converge, however, very slowly when the radius of the sphere is
much larger than the wavelength in the air. Furthermore, slow convergence occurs
when the radial distance between source and observation points is very small. In
both cases, a big number of summation terms is needed for achieving the accuracy of the elds, and the numerical computation becomes rendered intractable.
Therefore, most of the previous research works focused on asymptotic methods.
The kernel of these methods is the Watsons transformation by which the slowly
13
converging eigenfunction expansion of waves was converted to an integral which

in turn generates a new but rapidly converging series [79]. However, those methods are neither universally accurate nor even valid regardless of the positions of
the source and observation points [6]. Therefore, in this work, we will investigate
the convergence properties of the series. Convergence acceleration methods are
resorted to enhance the accuracy and to accelerate the solution.
For the planarly layered media, due to the highly oscillating and slow convergent nature of the integrand of Sommerfeld integral, various solutions are not
in agreement. For example, the publication by King and Sandler in 1994 [23] for
the electromagnetic elds of a VED over earth or sea has triggered a discussion
lasting for ten years [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 80, 29]. Therefore, it is necessary to nd
an eective solution to verify the valid range of those methods. Furthermore, since
Sommerfeld integral is dicult to solve, we try to avoid it for the planarly layered
media.
1.3
Outline
In this work, the fast solutions of the electromagnetic elds radiated by a vertical
electric dipole in both planarly layered and spherically layered media are studied.
First, a literature review is presented, then the various asymptotic and numerical
methods are summarized.
In Chapter 2, the classical problem of the vertical antenna radiation in the
presence of a spherically layered medium is revisited. The dyadic Greens functions
14
in spherical coordinates are given rst, and then the electromagnetic elds in terms
of double summations are derived. Two important issues are studied, one of which
is the closed form solution of the direct wave radiated at the observation point (that
can be located anywhere in the space), and the second of which is the continuity
of the eld expressions on the spherical surface at r = r in the space.
In Chapter 3, a convergence acceleration approach is proposed based on the
continuous eld expressions on the spherical surface at r = r and it is used to obtain the fast solution to the innite summation. Dierent from the existing asymptotic methods, the new eld representations are numerically ecient in evaluation
and generally valid in accuracy, independent of the relative positions of the source
and observation points. The convergence number is quantitatively analyzed and
analytically obtained. Some examples are considered to demonstrate the special
properties of the respective eld contributions.
In Chapter 4, the problem of the vertical antenna radiation in the presence of a
planarly layered medium is revisited. The singularities of the Sommerfeld integrals
are discussed. Three dierent sets of methods by [3], [1], and [2] are summarized.
Numerical validations of some fast computational solutions to the electromagnetic
elds in thin-layered media are presented in terms of comparisons. The validation
range is found out from the comparison of these computational results. It conrms
that the trapped surface wave can be eciently excited for > 0.01.
For the problem of radio-wave propagation along the surface of the earth, there
are both planar earth model and spherical earth model. In Chapter 5, a comparative study of the electromagnetic eld excited by a vertical electric dipole on the
15
earth is presented. Four sets of formulas for both the planar earth model and the
spherical earth model (of large radius) are compared to nd out their valid ranges.
Numerical computations are also carried out specically for a three-layered earth
model. The properties of the trapped surface wave and lateral wave are studied.
Numerical results show that the residue series gives a good approximation to the
eld, but the smooth curve illustrates that the hybrid eect due to the trapped
surface wave and the lateral wave was ignored in literature. The exact series shows
the oscillation of the eld caused by the hybrid eects, which can be considered as
the dielectric resonance between the upper and lower dielectric interfaces when it
is guided to propagate, but none of the other three approximations can depict the
eects.
1.4
List of Contributions
In summary, the important contributions of the thesis are the following:

1. For the spherically layered media, the numerical discontinuity of the eld
expressions in terms of eigenfunctions are discussed and a new continuous
form of eld expressions is proposed.
2. The convergence of the Greens function, which is expanded by using the
eigenfunctions, is an important issue and still a great challenge in the solution
of method of moments. An acceleration method is proposed in this thesis
for the fast calculation of electric eld based on the Greens function of
spherically layered media.
16
3. For the planarly layered media, comparative study is carried out. Two different methods are studied and their accuracies are compared.
4. Finally, the radio wave propagation over the earth is studied by using above
mentioned Greens functions. Two earth models: The planar and spherical
model, are considered and their dierences are studied.
Chapter 2
Fields in Spherically Layered
Media
2.1
Introduction
The radiation of an electric dipole over an electrically large sphere has been a
classical subject [41, 81, 49, 7] of numerous investigations over the past half a
century [82, 83, 46, 62, 61, 64, 23, 76, 84, 7, 29]. There are usually two kinds
of investigations conducted over the years, one on the plane wave scattering by a
sphere and the other on the dipole radiation in the presence of a sphere.
Exact series solutions of electric and magnetic eld components are obtained,
where the associated scalar Greens function and dyadic Greens function (DGF)
are both given in terms of double innite series [76, 78, 77]. When the series
representation of the solution to the dipole radiation problem is considered, we
nd that the solution itself has a numerical discontinuity or the Gibbs phenomenon
17
Chapter 2. Spherically Layered Media
18
on the spherical surface which goes through the source point. Therefore, we will,
rst of all, solve the problem of numerical discontinuity. The total eld radiated
by the dipole will be split into two contributions, one due to the direct wave and
the other due to the scattered wave. The Gibbs phenomenon exists in the series
expressions of the direct eld, so we will reformulate this term and then obtain an
alternative expression that does not have the Gibbs phenomenon.
In the subsequent analysis, a time dependence of exp(it) is assumed for
the electromagnetic elds or other related physical quantities but is suppressed
throughout the subsequent documentation.
2.2
Dyadic Greens Functions
The dyadic Greens function plays an important role of solving electromagnetic

boundary value problem. It may serve as kernel for integral method. For a simple planar, cylindrical or spherical geometry or multilayered medium, the dyadic
Greens function has been investigated extensively [85, 86, 87, 88, 76, 89, 90, 91].
Dyadic Greens functions for more complicated geometries, such as the DGF in
a multilayered spherical chiral medium [92], or a cylindrically multilayered chiral medium [93], or a rectangular chirowaveguide [94, 95], or a gyroelectric chiral
medium [96], and an inhomogeneous ionospheric waveguide [97], have also been
presented.
According to Maxwells equations, we can obtain the vector wave equations
19
for the electromagnetic elds by DGF:
E(r) k 2 E(r) = iJ (r)
M (r),
(2.1)
H(r) k 2 H(r) = iM (r) +
J (r),
(2.2)
Then, the dyadic Greens functions can be derived:
GEJ (r) k 2 GEJ (r) = I(r r ),
GHJ (r) k 2 GHJ (r) =
[I(r r )],
(2.3)
(2.4)
where GEJ and GHJ represent the electric and magnetic types of DGFs by an
electric current source J , I is the unit dyadic and () stands for the Dirac delta
function. The vectors, r and r , represent the observation point vector (r, , )
and the source point vector (r , , ), respectively.
An expression for the electric and magnetic elds due to electric source thus
can be developed in terms of the dyadic Greens function. The electric eld is
given by:
E(r) = i
J (r ) GEJ (r , r)dV ,
(2.5)
Vs
J (r )
H(r) =
GEJ (r , r)dV ,
(2.6)
Vs
where Vs identies the volume or space occupied by the sources (which the subscript
s denotes).
Alternatively, Eq. (2.5) can be written as
J (r ) I +
E(r) = i
Vs
k2
g(r r)dV
(2.7)
20
where g(r r) is the unbounded medium scalar Greens function.

The dyadic Greens function can be considered as the sum of an unbounded
dyadic Greens function G0 (r, r ) and a scattering dyadic Greens function Gs (r, r ).
The unbounded DGF corresponds to the contribution from the source in the innite homogeneous space. The scattering DGF describes an additional contribution
of the multiply reected and transmitted waves in the presence of the boundary
of dielectric media, given by
(f s)
s
GEJ (r, r ) = G0 (r, r )f + Gs
(r, r ),
(2.8)
where the superscript (f ) denotes that the eld point r is in the f -th region (where
f = 0, 1, ...) and (s) denotes the source point r locates in the s-th region (where
s = 0, 1, ...), respectively.
For a layered medium, the electric and magnetic elds can be written as:
(f s)
E f (r) = if
Vs
GEJ (r, r ) J s (r )dV ,
(f s)
H f (r) =
Vs
GEJ (r, r ) J s (r )dV .
(2.9)
(2.10)
There are two kinds of structures: with conducting layer or not. Thus two
boundary conditions are considered as follows:
1. Dielectric-dielectric interface: The tangential components of electric and
magnetic elds are continuous. The electric type of dyadic Greens funcf
tion GEJ (r, r ) satises the following boundary conditions at the spherical
21
interfaces r = ak (k = 0, 1, 2, ..., N 1):
(f +1)
GEJ = GEJ ,
r
r
1
r
f
GEJ =
f +1
(2.11a)
(f +1)
GEJ .
(2.11b)
2. Dielectric-conductor interface: For conducting layer, it can be assumed to

be the N th layer if it does exist. The tangential electric eld is null on the
surface of electric conducting layer r = a(N 1) . The electric type of dyadic
f
Greens function GEJ (r, r ) satises the following boundary conditions:
(f +1)
GEJ = GEJ ,
r
r
N
Ns
s
G0 N + Gs
2.3
= 0.
(2.12a)
(2.12b)
Dyadic Solution For Spherically Layered Media
To obtain the solution to the present problem, we use the following spherical vector
wave functions [85, 76]:
e mn r ,
M e mn (k) =
N e mn (k) =
o
Le mn (k) =
o
1
k
e mn .
o
e mn r ,
o
(2.13)
(2.14)
(2.15)
22
In the above expressions in (2.13), (2.14) and (2.15), r denotes a space vector
or piloting vector rr [85], M e mn stands for the electric eld of the TEmn mode
o
while N e mn represents that of the TMmn mode, and the subscripts e and o specify
o
the even and odd modes of the elds. e mn denotes the scalar eigenfunctions of
o
even and odd modes and given by
m
e mn (k) = zn (kr)Pn (cos )
o
cos
n,
(2.16)
sin
m
where zn (kr) denotes the spherical Bessel function of nth-order, Pn (cos ) identies
the associated Legendre function of the rst kind with the order (n, m). In the
m = 0 case, the function is termed a zonal harmonic.
Explicitly, the scalar wave function in (2.16) can be written as
m
emn (k) = zn (kr)Pn (cos ) cos(n),
(2.17a)
m
omn (k) = zn (kr)Pn (cos ) sin(n),
(2.17b)
which means that the upper (or lower) level mode of the subscript e mn corresponds
o
to the upper (lower) level formulas of
cos
sin
The abbreviations e mn , M e mn and N e mn are used for both modes throughout
o
this thesis, where the upper (or lower) level line of the formulas is taken separately.
The vector wave functions dened in Eqs. (2.13)-(2.14) can be rewritten in the
23
following explicit form of functional expansions
M e mn (k) =
o
sin
m
m
zn (kr)Pn (cos )
(m)
sin
cos
zn (kr)
N e mn (k) =
o
m
dPn (cos ) cos
(m),
d
sin
(2.18)
cos
n(n + 1)
m
zn (kr)Pn (cos )
(m)r
kr
sin
m
1 d[rzn (kr)] dPn (cos ) cos
(m)
+
kr
dr
d
sin
sin
m m
Pn (cos )
(m) .
sin
cos
(2.19)
It is found that the spherical vector wave functions have the following properties
M e mn (k) = kN e mn (k),
(2.20)
N e mn (k) = kM e mn (k),
(2.21)
Le mn (k) = 0.
o
(2.22)
2.3.1
24
Dyadic Greens Function in Unbounded Media
Following the standard approach given in [85, 76], we will obtain the dyadic Greens
function for the unbounded medium as follows for r
>
r:
<
2n + 1 (n m)!
iks
0
(2 m )
G0 (r, r ) =
4 n=0 m=0
n(n + 1) (n + m)!
M (1) (k )M e (k ) + N (1) (k )N e (k ),
e
e
s
s
s
s
o mn
o mn
o mn
o mn
M e (k )M (1) (k ) + N e (k )N (1) (k ),
e
e
mn s
mn s
mn s
mn s
o
(2.23)
where the prime denotes the coordinates (r , , ) of the current source J , while
m and n identify the eigenvalue parameters. Under the spherical coordinates,
the electromagnetic elds usually consist of the radial wave modes propagating
outwards and inwards. For our full-wave analysis, both even and odd modes are
considered and therefore the DGF is the summation of both modes.
It is known that there is a singularity of the free-space DGF G0 when the eld
point and the source point are at the same place (r = r ). But it should be also
pointed out that the free-space DGF G0 has Gibbs phenomenon at r = r except
at the source point. Numerically, when r = r , the expressions for r > r and r < r
are not equal although a good accuracy is kept to truncate the series. Analytically,
it can be proved that the upper and lower solutions are the same when r = r .
2.3.2
25
Scattering Dyadic Greens Functions
The geometry of a layered sphere is shown in Fig. 2.1. We use f (f = 0, 1, ...N ) and
s (s = 0, 1, ...N ) to index the regions where the observation point and the source
point are located, respectively. The outer most region is denoted to be region 0.
Figure 2.1: Geometry of a multilayered sphere
The scattering Greens functions take into account all the multiple reection
and transmission in a layered structure.
(f s)
Gs (r, r
iks
)=
4
n
0
(2 m )
n=1 m=0
2n + 1 (n m)!
n(n + 1) (n + m)!
(1)
(1)
fs
N
0
N
{(1 f )M e mn (kf )[(1 s )Af s M e mn (ks ) + (1 s )BM M e mn (ks )]
M
o
(1)
(1)
f
0
N
N
+(1 f )N e mn (kf )[(1 s )Af s N e mn (ks ) + (1 s )BNs N e mn (ks )]
N
o
(1)
fs
fs
N
0
0
+(1 f )M e mn (kf )[(1 s )CM M e mn (ks )(1 s )DM M e mn (ks )]
o
(1)
f
f
0
N
0
+(1 f )N e mn (kf )[(1 s )CNs N e mn (ks ) + (1 s )DNs N e mn (ks )]},
o
(2.24)
26
where the subscripts M and N of the coecients A, B, C, and D specify the

coecients of wave functions M e mn and N e mn , respectively.
o
(1)
In the presentation of the scattering dyadic Greens functions above, M e mn (k0 )

o
(1)
and N e mn (k0 ) as the anterior elements, have been used so as to satisfy the radiation
o
condition at r , and M e mn (k1 ) and N e mn (k1 ) have been used to satisfy the
o
condition that the electromagnetic elds remain nite at r 0.
2.3.3
Scattering Coecients for Perfectly Conducting Sphere

(0,1)0
For a perfectly electrical conducting (PEC) sphere, the coecients BM,N and
(0,1)0
DM,N in (2.33) and (2.34) can be determined from the boundary conditions. As
the elds inside the conductor are null, the following scattering coecients are
easily determined:
00
BM =
00
BN =
jn (a )
(1)
hn (a )
[a jn (a )]
(1)
[a hn (a )]
(2.25a)
(2.25b)
10
DM = 0,
(2.25c)
10
DN = 0,
(2.25d)
where a = k0 a with a being again the radius of the sphere.
2.3.4
27
Scattering Coecients for Dielectric Sphere

(0,1)0
(0,1)0
For a dielectric sphere, the coecients BM,N and DM,N in (2.33) and (2.34) can
be determined from the coupled recurrence equation instead of the boundary conditions. Since s = 0, we have
00
BM = RH0 ,
F
(2.26a)
00
BN = RV 0 ,
F
(2.26b)
10
DM =
1
1 RH0 RH0 ,
F
P
TPH
0
(2.26c)
10
DN =
1
1 RV 0 RV 0 ,
F
P
TPV0
(2.26d)
H,V
H,V
where the equivalent reection and transmission coecients T(P,F )f and R(P,F )f
(f = 0) are shown in Eqs. (2.27a)-(2.27f). The same symbols still apply in the
subsequent subsections except that the number f may increase from 0 up to 1 and
the number of interface here is denoted by 0.
In [76], we have the reection and transmission coecients derived as follows:
RH0 =
P
0 k1 10 h00 1 k0 00 h10
h
h
,
0 k1 00 10 1 k0 00 h10
h
(2.27a)
RH0 =
F
0 k 1
0 k 1
(2.27b)
1 k0 00 10
,
h
10 h00 1 k0 10 00
10
00
28
RV 0 =
P
0 k1 h10 00 1 k0 h00 10
h
h
,
0 k1 00 h10 1 k0 00 10
(2.27c)
RV 0 =
F
0 k 1
0 k 1
(2.27d)
10
1 k0 00 10
,
h
10 00 1 k0 10 h00
00
TPH =
0
0 k1 ( 10 10 10 h10 )
h
,
0 k1 00 10 1 k0 00 h10
h
(2.27e)
TPV0 =
0 k1 ( 10 h10 10 10 )
h
,
0 k1 00 h10 1 k0 00 10
(2.27f)
H
where the symbols T(P,F )f and RH )f represent the centripetal and centrifugal
(P,F
transmission and reection contributions from TE waves (corresponding to the

V
superscript H) while T(P,F )f and RV )f represent the centripetal and centrifugal
(P,F
transmission and reection contributions from TM waves (corresponding to the

superscript V ).
To shorten the notations, we have dened the following inter-parameters
il
= jn (ki al ),
(2.28a)
hil = h(1) (ki al ),
il
1 d[jn ()]
(2.28b)
,
=ki al
(2.28c)
29
(1)
il =
h
1 d[hn ()]
(2.28d)
=ki al
Apparently, the numerator of (2.27e) and (2.27f) can be simplied using the
following Wronskian relation for spherical Bessel functions:
h
10 10
2.3.5
10 h10
= i/(k1 a)2 .
Scattering Coecients for a Conducting Sphere Coated

with a Dielectric Layer
For a three-layered sphere where the innermost region is electrically perfect conductor, the scattering coecients are given by
00
BM =
k0 00 ( 11
h
k0 00 ( 10
h h
00
BN =
k0 00 ( 11
h
k0 h00 ( 10
h10
11 h11
10
11 )
k1 00 (
10 ) + k1 h00 (
10
h
h
11 11
10
11 )
10 h11
10
h
h
10 h11 10
11 )
11 )
+ k1 00 ( 11 h10 11
h
h
h
10 ) k1 00 (J11 h10 11
(2.29a)
10 )
10 )
. 2.29b)
(
2.4
2.4.1
30
Eigenfunction Expansion
A Perfectly Conducting Sphere
For a perfectly conducting sphere, the electromagnetic radiation elds only exist
in the air (region 0). Therefore, the elds E and H are expressed as
(00)
E(r) = if
G0 (r, r ) + Gs (r, r ) J s (r )dV ,
V0
(00)
H(r) =
V0
G0 (r, r ) + Gs (r, r ) J s (r )dV ,
(2.30)
(2.31)
where V0 identies the volume occupied by the sources in the outer region.
The scattering DGF is expanded as
(00)
Gs (r, r
ik0
) =
4
n
0
(2 m )
n=0 m=0
2n + 1 (n m)!
n(n + 1) (n + m)!
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
00
00
BM M e mn (k0 )M e mn (k0 ) + BN N e mn (k0 )N e mn (k0 ) .
(2.32)
The coecients in Eq. (2.32) are given in Eqs. (2.25a) and (2.25b).
2.4.2
A Dielectric Sphere
When the current source of excitation is located in the dierent layers of the
two-layered medium, the scattering dyadic Greens functions are dierent. In
the present case where the radiation source is located only outside the spheri-
31
cal medium (s = 0), the scattering dyadic Greens functions can be constructed as
follows:
(00)
Ges (r, r
ik0
) =
4
n
0
(2 m )
n=0 m=0
2n + 1 (n m)!
n(n + 1) (n + m)!
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
00
00
BM M e mn (k0 )M e mn (k0 ) + BN N e mn (k0 )N e mn (k0 ) ,
(2.33)
(10)
Ges (r, r
ik0
) =
4
n
0
(2 m )
n=0 m=0
2n + 1 (n m)!
n(n + 1) (n + m)!
(1)
(1)
10
10
DM M e mn (k1 )M e mn (k0 ) + DN N e mn (k1 )N e mn (k0 ) .
o
(2.34)
The scattering coecients in Eq. (2.33) and (2.34) are given in Eq. (2.26).
2.4.3
A Conducting Sphere Coated with a Dielectric Layer
The scattering DGF can be simplied from (2.24) as follows:
(00)
Gs (r, r ) =
ik0
4
n
0
(2 m )
n=0 m=0
2n + 1 (n m)!
n(n + 1) (n + m)!
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
00
00
[M e mn (k0 )BM M e mn (k0 ) + N e mn (k0 )BN N e mn (k0 )],
o
(2.35)
(10)
Gs (r, r ) =
ik0
4
n
0
(2 m )
n=0 m=0
2n + 1 (n m)!
n(n + 1) (n + m)!
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
10
10
[M e mn (k1 )BM M e mn (k0 ) + N e mn (k1 )BN N e mn (k0 )
o
(1)
(1)
10
10
+M e mn (k1 )DM M e mn (k0 ) + N e mn (k1 )DN N e mn (k0 )].
o
(2.36)
32
The scattering coecients in Eq. (2.35) and (2.36) are given in Eq. (2.29).
2.5
Accurate and Ecient Computation of Scaled

Spherical Bessel Functions
For a large order of n, the rapid decay of the jn (z) and the rapid growth of the yn (z)
produce factors that underow and overow, respectively, whereas their products
are well behaved. In this section, an accurate and ecient algorithm to normalize
the spherical Bessel functions and the rst derivatives are presented based on the
continued fractions method.
The limiting values of jn (z) and yn (z) as z 0 are given by
jn (z)
1
zn
(2n + 1)!!
yn (z) (2n 1)!!z (n+1)
(2.37)
(2.38)
where the notation n!! denotes the double factorial which is dened by
n (n 2) . . . 5 3 1 n > 0 odd
n!!
n (n 2) . . . 6 4 2 n > 0 even
1
n = 1, 0
(2.39)
(2.40)
Using (2.37) and (2.38), we dene the normalized spherical Bessel functions of
33
the rst and the second kinds as
j n (z) =
jn (z)
(2n + 1)!!
zn
(2.41)
yn (z)
z n+1
(2n 1)!!
(2.42)
y n (z) =
The spherical Bessel function of the rst kind jn (z) have no stable forward
recurrence relation. However, they satisfy the continued fraction, f1 , which is
given by [98]
f1
Jn+1/2 (z)
jn (z)
=
jn1 (z)
Jn1/2 (z)
1
1
1
=
1
3
2(n + 2 )/z 2(n + 2 )/z 2(n + 5 )/z
2
(2.43)
CF1 can be computed by the modied Lentzs method [98]. Also the continued
fraction for the normalized spherical Bessel functions, f2 , can be derived by
f2
j n (z)
= f1 (2n + 1)z 1 .
j n1 (z)
(2.44)
The spherical Bessel functions of the second kind yn (z) have the stable forward
recurrence relation, and jn (z) and yn (z) have the cross product relation
2n + 1
yn (z) yn1 (z),
z
(2.45)
jn (z)yn1 (z) jn1 (z)yn (z) = z 2 .
(2.46)
yn+1 (z) =
34
From (2.42) and (2.45), we obtain
y n+1 (z) = y n (z) y n1 (z)
z2
(2n + 1)(2n 1)
(2.47)
with the staring values

y 0 (z) = cos z
(2.48)
y 1 (z) = cos z + z sin z.
(2.49)
From (2.41), (2.42) and (2.46) we obtain
j n (z)y n1 (z)
z 2
+ j n1 (z)y n (z) = 1.
(2n + 1)(2n 1)
(2.50)
Using (2.43) the above equation leads to
j n1 (z) =
1
.
y n (z) f1 z(2n 1)1 y n1 (z)
(2.51)
and then
j n (z) = f2 j n1 (z)
(2.52)
The rst derivatives of j n (z) and y n (z) can be thus expressed as
dj n (z)
djn (z)
=
(2n + 1)!!
dz
z n dz
1
=
[(2n + 1)j n1 (z) (n + 1)j n (z)]
z
(2.53)
35
dy n (z)
dyn (z) z n+1
=
dz
dz (2n 1)!!
z
n+1
=
y n1 (z)
y n (z).
2n 1
z
(2.54)
The similar normalization method can be well applied to the cylindrical Bessel
functions except that dierent normalizing factors are used.
2.6
Radiation of Vertical Electric Dipole on Large

Sphere
After deriving the eective and stable computational method for the spherical
Bessel functions, we will consider the radiation of a vertical electric dipole on
large sphere. The geometry of the problem consists of a sphere of radius a and a
vertical innitesimal electric dipole of current moment I = I0 z situated on top of
it. The dipole antenna takes the current distribution expressed under the spherical
coordinates in the following form:
J (r ) = I0
(r b)( )
r,
2b2 sin
(2.55)
where I0 denotes the amplitude of the current distribution and b identies the
height of the dipole antenna from the spherical coordinate center. The dipole is
located at a distance of b = a + d from the center of the sphere. The center of the
sphere is at the origin of the spherical coordinate system (r, , ). The medium for
r > a is characterized by permittivity
and permeability 0 of free-space. The
36
conguration is shown in Fig. 2.2. Two cases are studied, one is for a perfectly
conducting sphere, and the other is for a conducting sphere coated with a dielectric
layer characterized by uniform permittivity
and permeability 0 . For the region
0 (air), the wave number is k0 = 0 0 , and for the region 1 (dielectric), the
wave number is k1 = 0 1 .
Figure 2.2: A dipole over a PEC sphere with dielectric coating
In this chapter, based on the exact series representation for the elds, a threeterm representation is presented which provides more ecient computation. The
behaviors of the near zone elds are studied, under the assumption that ka
1.
After the dyadic Greens functions for the sphere (which is either conducting
or dielectric) are obtained, the eld expressions due to the dipole antenna can be
formulated. Substituting (2.55) into (2.9) where f = 0 and integrating the product
37
of the Greens function and the dipole current distribution, we have for r
>
<
k0 0 I0
E(r) =
(2n + 1)
4(k0 b) n=0
j (k b) + B 00 h(1) (k b) N (1) (k ),
n 0
0
e0n 0
N n
(1)
h (k b) N (k ) + B 00 N (1) (k ) ,
n 0
e0n 0
e0n 0
N
(2.56)
00
where BN is given by (2.25b) or (2.26b), respectively, for the case of the perfectly
conducting or lossy dielectric spherical earth.

(1)
N e0n (k) and N e0n (k) denote the even vector eigenfunctions at m = 0. From
Eq. (2.19) we can derive that
(1)
N e0n (k) =
(1)
n(n + 1) (1)
1 d[rhn (kr)] Pn (cos )
,
hn (kr)Pn (cos )r +
kr
kr
dr
(2.57)
N e0n (k) =
n(n + 1)
1 d[rjn (kr)] Pn (cos )
.
jn (kr)Pn (cos )r +
kr
kr
dr
(2.58)
Investigation of the vector wave functions in Eq. (2.57) and Eq. (2.58) shows
that the series term at n = 0 is zero and therefore it is equivalent to start from n =
1. During the integration and the formulation, we have considered the following
limit:
m
lim Pn (cos ) =
1, only if m = 0;
0, otherwise.
38
(2.59)
It is seen that the radiated elds due to the vertical antenna consist of only
the TM modes. It is also seen that the electromagnetic elds for the regions
where r > r and r < r dier in expression. Numerically, it is veried that the
discontinuity exists on the spherical surface where r = r regardless of the spherical
angles of and . To demonstrate this property, Fig. 2.3 shows the radiated eld
strength pattern |E direct | of a vertical dipole in the free space.
Figure 2.3: Field strength distribution |E direct | of a vertical dipole in free space
obtained using the formula in discontinued eld.
39
The eld distribution is obtained using the eld expression in Eq. (2.56) by
00
assuming the scattering coecient BN to be zero. As depicted in Fig. 2.3, except
the singularity shown on the source point where r = r , the numerical discontinuity
is clearly on the point where r = r but = . The discontinuity in the other
points of the sphere is just a manifestation of the Gibbs phenomenon, familiar
in Fourier theory. In fact the results of Fig. 2.3 have been derived numerically
by summing a nite number of terms. If the summation could be carry out to
innity, they would get an almost everywhere continuous eld for points not on
the source, because of the completeness relation for the transverse eigenfunctions.
As the pattern is symmetrical with respect to , so the distribution is actually
depicted on the whole spherical surface. The singularity on the point at r = r
is physically expected but the discontinuity at r = r and = is not physically
feasible. To eliminate the non-physical discontinuity on the spherical surface at
r = r except at = and = , we will try later to re-formulate the problem
and to obtain a new expression.
2.7
Continuous Form of Field Expression
As the discontinuity occurs in the contributions of the unbounded Greens function

even though the interface or the boundary is absent, it means that the discontinuity
occurs in direct wave mode. To compute the eld in Eq. (2.56) eciently, we split
40
the total eld into the direct and reected (or scattered) elds as follows:
E(r) = E direct (r) + E scat (r)
k0 0 I0
=
4(k0 b)
k0 0 I0
=
4(k0 b)
E norm (n)
total
n=0
norm
norm
Etotal,r (n)r + Etotal, (n) .
(2.60)
n=0
norm
norm
where Etotal,r (n) and Etotal, (n) denote r- and -components of the total electrical
eld normalized by the factor of [k0 0 I0 ]/[4(k0 b)] and
k0 0 I0
E direct (r) =
4(k0 b)
k0 0 I0
4(k0 b)
k0 0 I0
E scat (r) =
4(k0 b)
k0 0 I0
4(k0 b)
E norm (n)
direct
n=0
jn (k0 b)N (1) (k0 ), r > b;
e0n
(2n + 1)
n=0
(1)
h (k b)N (k ), r < b;
n 0
e0n 0
(2.61)
E norm (n)
scat
n=0
(1)
00
(2n + 1)BN h(1) (k0 b)N e0n (k0 ).
n
(2.62)
n=0
To resolve the discontinuity problem, we notice that from the denition of the
41
vector wave functions, we have
N e0n (k) =
1
k
Pn (cos )h(1) (kr)r ,

n
(2.63a)
N e0n (k) =
1
k
[Pn (cos )jn (kr)r] .
(2.63b)
(1)
We employ the following series expansion for the free space scalar Greens
function at r
>
b:
<
eikR
=
ikR
jn (kb)h(1) (kr),
n
(2n + 1)Pn (cos )

n=0
(2.64)
(1)
hn (kb)jn (kr);
where the distance R between the source point and the eld point is dened as
follows:
R = |r r | =
b2 + r2 2br cos .
(2.65)
Equation (2.64) shows that the free space scalar Greens function is continues
at r = r . Since the scalar Greens function is related to the potential function,
it can be derived that the potential function is also continuous. We consider the
following operator
1
k
[r] .
(2.66)
42
Taking its operation on both sides of Eq. (2.64), we have
1
k
eikR
r
ikR
(2n + 1)
n=0
j (kb) 1
n
Pn (cos )h(1) (kr)r , r > b;

n
(1)
h (kb) 1
n
k
(2.67)
[Pn (cos )jn (kr)r] ,
r < b.
Therefore, Eq. (2.67) becomes
1
k
ikR
e
r =
ikR
j (kb)N (1) (k),

n
e0n
(2n + 1)
n=0
r > b;
(1)
hn (kb)N e0n (k), r < b.
(2.68)
With this expression, the direct wave in Eq. (2.61) can be expressed below:
E direct (r) =
k0 0 I0 1
4(k0 b) k0
eik0 R
r .
ik0 R
(2.69)
Consider the following scalar Greens function
eikR
ieik b +r 2br cos
G(r, r ) =
.
=
ikR
k b2 + r2 2br cos
(2.70)
Taking the curl of the Greens function with a radial position vector r, we have
ik b +r 2br cos
br sin e
[G(r, r )r] =
i + k b2 + r2 2br cos . (2.71)
3
k[b2 + r2 2br cos ] 2
2
43
Further taking the curl of both sides of Eq. (2.71) and dividing it by the
factor of k, we can derive the eld normalized by the coecient in the front of the
summation sign in Eq. (2.61), i.e., (k0 0 I0 )/(4k0 b). In scalar form, we have
the following explicit expressions of electric eld components:
norm
Edirect,r =
(1)
(2n + 1)n(n + 1)jn (k0 b)

n=0
hn (k0 r)
Pn (cos )
k0 r
beik0 R
4br cos2 [i + k0 R]
2
k0 R 5
+br 3i + k0 ik0 b2 + r2 + 3R
sin2
2
+2i cos i b2 + r2 (i + k0 R) + b2 k0 r2 sin2
norm
Edirect,
n=0
(2.72)
(1)
(2n + 1)jn (k0 b)
d[rhn (k0 r)] Pn (cos )

k0 rdr
beik0 R
2
2
sin i r2 + k0 r4 + 2b2 1 + k0 r2
2
k0 R 5
ibr cos 1 + k0 b2 k0 + 3k0 r2 iR
+k0
2b2 r2 R + ib2 k0 r2 cos(2)
(2.73)
norm
The third component Edirect, is found to vanish. Moreover, the series rep-
resentations for the direct elds in Eq. (2.61) are divergent at r = r [79]. The
nal expression of the direct-wave electric eld is expressed in component form as
follows:
0 I0 norm
E
4b direct,r
0 I0
E norm (n),
=
4b n=0 direct,r
Edirect,r (r) =
(2.74)
0 I0 norm
E
4b direct,
0 I0
=
E norm (n).
4b n=0 direct,
44
Edirect, (r) =
(2.75)
norm
norm
In (2.74) and (2.75), the expressions of Edirect,r (n) and Edirect, (n) are given
by those formulas inside the summations in the rst lines of (2.72) and (2.73),
respectively.
Therefore, the above formulas in (2.72) and (2.73) have the following two
contributions:
(1) We have already obtained the direct wave in continuous form in Eqs. (2.72)
and (2.73). This form does not have the numerical problem or the Gibbs
phenomenon at r = r ; Although some of the results in this Section can be
found in text, the results given here are derived from dierent way and they
are directly related to the series expressions.
(2) The closed form expressions given here can be considered as an exact solution
and a reference to the series solutions involving with the spherical Bessel
functions and Legendre polynomials. This property will be found very useful
in various future practical applications.
These results will be used in Chapter 3 for the convergence acceleration. Because the radial component is the dominant one, so we will focus our discussions
on the radial component only unless it is specically highlighted.
2.8
45
Radiation Pattern of a Vertical Electric Dipole
The normalized electric eld therefore can be explicitly expressed as
1
00
h
(2n + 1) BN h(1) (k0 b) + jn (k0 b) (k0 r)Pn (cos ).
n
En, =
(2.76)
n=0
When r , we have the following asymptotic formulas:
h(1) (kr) (i)n+1

n
(kr) (i)n
h
eikr
,
kr
eikr
,
kr
R r r cos .
(2.77a)
(2.77b)
(2.77c)
We consider the dipole located on the surface of the sphere, and the far eld
is
En, = i(k0 a)
eik0 R
T ().
k0 R
ik0 a cos
(2n + 1)
T () = e
n=0
(2.78)
(i)n 00 (1)
1
BN hn (k0 a) + jn (k0 a) Pn (cos ).
ik0 a
(2.79)
T () is shown as a function of for perfectly conducting sphere and coated
46
sphere in Fig. 2.4. The electric dimension k0 a = 10 and the coating is characterized
by
2.2 + i1.2. Two dierent thicknesses of the coating are considered:
k0 t = 0.01 and k0 t = 0.1. When the thickness is very small, the radiation pattern
is almost the same as the one for a perfectly conducting sphere. It shows that the
thickness aects the radiation pattern but the changing of the dielectric constant
does not aect the radiation pattern.
2.9
Conclusion
This chapter re-visits the classical problem of the vertical dipole radiation in the
presence of a spherical earth which is considered to be either perfectly electric
conducting or lossy dielectric. Three important issues are considered: (1) the
closed form solution to the direct wave radiated by a vertical electric dipole (that
can be located anywhere in the space), (2) the continuity of the eld expressions
on the spherical surface at r = r in the space, and (3) the radiation pattern versus
the thickness of the dielectric layer.
47
3
4
1.5
1.25
T
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
2
Deg
3
4
(a) Amplitude
3
4
Arg T Deg
3
2
3
2
0
0
2
Deg
3
4
(b) Phase
Figure 2.4: Amplitude and phase of the normalized far eld component E each as
a function of at k0 a = 10 for perfectly conducting and coated spheres. Dashed
curve: t = 0.1; dotted curve: t = 0.01; continuous curve: perfectly conductor
Chapter 3
Convergence Acceleration for
Spherically Layered Media
3.1
Introduction
Historically, there were many research works focusing on the summation of the
spherical harmonics [51, 52, 53, 99]. Because of the slow speed of convergence,
in the analysis of the electromagnetic elds in both near and far zones (radiated
by a dipole in the presence of, or scattered by, a dielectric or conducting sphere),
however, the immediate attention was always drawn and given to the formulation using the Sommerfeld-Watson approach to convert the series solution to the
integral solution, for instance, in those formulations by Houdzoumis [63, 62, 61]
and Margetis [100, 64]. Although the solutions generated by using these contour
integrals or saddle point integrals are inaccurate and thus invalid everywhere in
the whole space, this was necessary in the old days especially when the computer
48
Chapter 3. Convergence Acceleration
49
was not available. This is because it was very tedious and sometimes impossible
to calculate the summation of a couple of thousands of terms which involve the
spherical harmonics (including Bessel and Hankel functions and associated Legendre functions, too). Extra care must be exercised when the slow convergent series
is summed up to a very large number. It was very dicult to maintain the high
accuracy for calculating all the functions especially when the argument and the
order of these functions are comparable and large (in the cases where the order
is smaller than, equal to, and larger than, the argument, for instance, the Bessel
functions of jn (x) where n = 10, 000 and x = 9, 000). Toward this direction, there
has been a number of contributions. Some of them for spherical structures were
listed earlier while the others for the planar structures are those by Sommerfeld,
King, Felsen, Wait, and Collin, et al. [41, 58, 7, 101, 29, 102].
However, this chapter will still focus on the series representation of the solution
to the radiated eld due to a vertical dipole, in terms of the spherical harmonics.
The primary reasons for us to choose this direct way for the classical problem are
listed below:
(i) The computer technology has been signicantly developed to the advanced
stage nowadays. Therefore, it is not a big problem to compute the electromagnetic elds surrounding the dipole in the presence a sphere or a planar
slab by using the series solution.
(ii) Some of the present research works have indicated that in order to obtain
the closed form solutions or the fast convergent solutions, certain conditions
50
must be applied [72, 74].

(iii) A series representation of the radiated electromagnetic eld due to a dipole
still serves as an exact solution for the problem. The solution is valid everywhere except at the source point.
We will investigate the slow convergence of the series. To enhance the accuracy
and to accelerate the solution, we extract the contribution of an image from the
scattered eld and then obtain another series which converges faster than the
original one [103, 104].
3.2
Asymptotic Methods
The Watson transform is given by
f (n)ejn =
n=0
1
2j
C1 +C2
f (v)ejv()
dv
sin v
(3.1)
where C1 and C2 are the contours enclosing the zeroes of sin v along the positive
real axis in the complex v-plane.
(1)
In the above formulas, if = 0, the Legendre functions in N e0 (k) should be

converted to Hypergeometric series Pv ( cos ) which satisfy:
Pv ( cos ) = F (v, v + 1, 1,
1 + cos
).
2
(3.2)
Then, the integral was evaluated using the residual theorem or saddle point
51
integrals to convert the solution into another series which is faster in convergence
than the original series solution. There are three ways to proceed from the integral
form of Eq. (3.1). Each provides a good representation in dierent regions of space
[6].
1. Residue series representation: the integral by the Watson transform may be
evaluated at the poles of f (v), yielding a series of residues. This representation is highly convergent, requiring only a few terms in the shadow region.
In this region the wave is creeping wave in mode.
2. Geometric optical representation: the integral by Watson transform may be
evaluated by means of the saddle-point or stationary-phase method, which
gives a simple and useful representation in the lit region.
3. Fock function representation: in the boundary region between the shadow
region and the lit region, the two preceding techniques are not applicable
and the technique developed by Fock [48] must be used.
Therefore, the above line integral can be easily evaluated by the Poisson summation and residue theorem for the eld in shadow region to investigate the behavior of surface wave diraction [105]. Hitoshi [106, 107] pointed out that the
diracted elds consist of two dierent types of surface waves. One is a creeping wave analogous to that of perfectly conducting spheres, which encircles the
dielectric sphere. The other is a wave which enters the sphere and emerges as a
surface wave in the shadow region, which is unique to a dielectric sphere.
52
For the eld in lit region, the integral path c1 + c2 cannot be deformed into the
contour which encloses the lower or upper half complex v-plane. In evaluating complex integrals, it is essential to examine all the singularities of the integrand:poles,
essential singularities, and branch points. The next step is to investigate the properties of the poles and the saddle points. If they are not close to each other, the
saddle point method can be employed to compute the integral. If the pole is located close to the saddle point, the modied saddle point method must be used
along the steepest descent path.
When the dipole is placed at innity, the problem is equivalent to the scattering
of plane wave incidence. So the results can be compared with the ones by geometric
asymptotic solution [59, 60].
3.3
Convergence Issues
In this Chapter, the focus is on the series summation for the elds in spherically
layered media. Firstly we study the convergence properties of the series. After the
direct wave is expressed in its closed form, we would turn the study to the scattered
eld in Eq. (2.62). The following observations on the convergence numbers are
generally made through the comparative studies of the scattered eld.
In the case of a plane electromagnetic wave incident on a sphere, or a point
source located at an innite distance away from a spherical scatterer, the Mie
scattering series solution was found to converge at the truncation number of
NMie = k0 a+4.3(k0 a)1/3 +1 [108]. When the source point and the observation
53
point are separated far enough and when the radius of the sphere is not
electrically very large, the convergence of the Mie series can be achieved
using the truncation number, NMie .
At the meanwhile, we have carefully checked the truncation number of the
direct and scattered waves and found that the truncation number is deter
mined by Nt = x + 3 x + 2 where x = k0 a whose a denotes the radius of
the sphere when k0 (r b) 1.2k0 a.
The above extracted number is valid for the series solution when the observation and source points are far apart. However, when both the source and
observation points are close to the surface of the sphere, the series representation of the elds is poorly converged and both of the above truncation
numbers are not large enough to achieve a convergent solution of the series.
Series calculation at ELF (f < 3 kHz) for terrestrial guided waves or elds
have been found to take up to 20k0 a terms to converge to three signicant
gures [52, 99] for the case a = b = r.
It is easily found from the above comparison that when the observation and
source points are not located on the same interface or very close to each other,
then the Gibbs phenomenon can be avoided and the convergence number can be
signicantly reduced. Therefore, an important issue that we would look into next
is the convergence of the series especially when the source and observation points
are close to the surface of the earth.
54
To see the property of the terms E norm (n) in summation of the normalized
total
electric eld E norm =
total
n=1
E norm (n), we have plotted, in Fig. 3.1, the variation of

total
norm
the terms Etotal,r (n) in terms of their summation number n for a perfectly electric
conducting (PEC) sphere where we have assumed that k0 r = 154, k0 b = 151, and
k0 a = 150 also at = 0. In this case, we consider the propagation at ELF and
the operating frequency is 1124 Hz. The earth radius is taken to be a = 6370
km. Both the real [in Fig. 3.1(a)] and imaginary [in Fig. 3.1(b)] parts of the terms
norm
Etotal,r (n) are considered. It is found that the truncation number of terms in the
summation is approximately 4k0 a (close to Nt ) to get a relative error up to 105 .

This truncation number is very dierent from the truncation number utilized for
the Mie series summation. It is because a = b = r, so that the convergence number
can be much smaller than 20k0 a. When we consider a = b = r, then the Gibbs
phenomenon will appear and much larger convergence number will be required to
achieve an accurate solution. It is expected that when the source point moves far
way from the earth surface and if the electric size of the sphere is not very large,
the truncation number will be approximated by NMie .
Figure 3.2 illustrates the convergence pattern of radial component of the scatnorm
tered electric eld Escat,r (n) due to the dipole located above a PEC sphere with
an observation angle of = /3. Compared with those in Fig. 3.1, it is shown

that when the observation angle is non-zero, the amplitudes of the terms oscillate
strongly but the envelope curves are very similar in these two cases. It is concluded
that convergence speed is mainly decided by the Bessel and Hankel functions in the
series, and Legendre polynomial of the observation angle causes the local oscillation
55
norm
Re Etotal,r
8
6
4
2
n
25
50
75
100
125
150
(a) Real value
norm
Im Etotal,r
4
2
n
100
200
300
400
2
4
(b) Imaginary value
norm
Figure 3.1: Convergence pattern of the radial component Etotal,r (n) of normalized
electric eld E norm (n) dened in (2.60) as a function of n for a perfectly conducting
total
earth at = 0, and for k1 a = 150, k1 b = 151, and k1 r = 154.
56
norm
Re Etotal,r
0.6
0.4
0.2
n
25
50
75
100
125
150
0.2
0.4
(a) Real value
norm
Im Etotal,r
0.3
0.2
0.1
n
100
200
300
400
0.1
0.2
0.3
(b) Imaginary value
norm
Figure 3.2: Convergence pattern of the normalized scattered electric eld Escat,r (n)
as a function of n for a perfectly conducting earth at = /3, and for k0 a = 150,
k0 b = 151, and k0 r = 154.
57
of the curve.
Figures 3.3 and 3.4 illustrate the radial component of normalized electric eld
norm
Etotal,r (n) in the case of a lossy earth. The wavenumber of the earth medium is
given by k1 =
+ i/( 0 )k0 where k0 denotes the wavenumber in free space.
In this case, a relative permittivity of
= 12 and a conductivity of = 0.4
S/m are assumed, for example, for a wet earth [23]. The operating frequency is
at f = 10 kHz and the observation and source points are located respectively at
r = a + 500 m, and b = a + 100 m. Fig. 3.3 shows the eld at = 0 km or
= 0o while Fig. 3.4 shows the eld at an arc distance of = r = 200 km.
While the real part value begins to converge after 1400 terms, it is found that the
convergence of the imaginary part cannot be achieved yet when both of Fig. 3.3
and Fig. 3.4 are computed by summing up to 6000 terms. This is because we have
the electrical distances of k0 a = 1335.05, k0 b = 1335.07, and k0 r = 1335.16, so
a, b and r are very close in value to each other. To gain more insight into the
variational characteristics of the values versus the summation index number n, we
have purposely chosen dierent scales of n-axis for the plotting. The solutions in
Fig. 3.3(b) and Fig. 3.4(b) seem to diverge because 6000 terms are not enough for
the series to converge. From the convergence pattern of Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2 we
can see that when the series begins to converge, the amplitude will drop to smaller
quantities and the amplitude of the term will approach to zero when n increases
to innity.
From the analysis of the terms in the normalized electric eld expression,
it is apparent that to sum up directly these terms is not an ecient approach.
58
norm
Re Etotal,r
20
15
10
5
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
(a) Real value
norm
Im Etotal,r
n
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
5
10
15
20
25
(b) Imaginary value
Figure 3.3: Convergence pattern of the radial component of normalized electric
norm
eld Etotal,r (n) as a function of n for a lossy earth at = 0 km or = 0o , and for
r = 12, = 0.4, and f = 10 kHz.
59
norm
Re Etotal,r
0.5
n
200
400
600
800 1000 1200 1400
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
(a) Real value
norm
Im Etotal,r
2
1
n
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1
(b) Imaginary value
Figure 3.4: Convergence pattern of the radial component of normalized electric
norm
eld Etotal,r (n) as a function of n for a lossy earth at = 200 km, and for r = 12,
= 0.4, and f = 10 kHz.
60
Therefore, it is necessary to have an alternative approach. To do so, we propose to

extract the contribution of the electric eld due to an image dipole of the real dipole
in the presence of a large-radius sphere or a planar earth. The image location of
a real source at r = b can be approximated as at r = 2a b. In our analysis, we
assume that the source is not far away from the surface of the spherical earth and
in the vicinity of the source, the earth is approximated to a planar one. Therefore,
the image position r = 2a b is kept to be positive. Employing the expression in
Eq. (2.67), we will have, for r
>
2a b, the following expression
<
1
k
where R =
eikR
r
ikR
jn [k(2a b)]N (1) (k),
e0n
(2n + 1)
n=0
(1)
h [k(2a b)]N (k);
n
e0n
(3.3)
r2 2r(2a b) cos + (2a b)2 .
In practice, the upper level condition is almost always satised when the observation point is located in the air region (or outside of the sphere). Therefore,
we will take the upper line in Eq. (3.3) for our subsequent formulation for perfect
conducting sphere and lossy dielectric sphere.
3.4
Convergence Property of Scattered Waves
After the direct wave is expressed in its closed form, we would study the solution
of the scattered eld in Eq. (2.62). The rst thing that we would look into is the
61
convergence of the series.

As discussed before, the total electric eld can be written as:
E total = E direct + E scat ,
(3.4)
and the scattered eld in series form is:
E scat =
k0 0 I0
4(k0 b)
00
(2n + 1)BN h(1) (k0 b)
n
n=0
(1)
rn(n + 1)
hn (k0 r)
1
Pn (cos ) + (k0 r)Pn (cos ) ,
h
k0 r
(3.5)
where
(1)
1 d[k0 ahn (k0 a)]

(k0 a) =
h
.
k0 a
d(k0 a)
(3.6)
The property of the associated Legendre functions is used:
1
Pn (cos ) =
Pn (cos )
.
(3.7)
To investigate the convergence property of scattered eld, rst we plot the

truncation number with observation angle varies from 0 to 180 as shown in
Fig. 3.5 where the truncation error is taken as 106 . It is assumed that k0 a =
k0 b = 20 and k0 r = 25. It is shows that for Er component, the series converges
slowly when 0 or while E 0. For not in the neighborhood of 0 or
, the convergence speed is not of much dierence.
It is known that the series converges slowly when the observation point is close
62
95
Truncation number n
90
85
80
75
30
60
90
Observation angle
120
150
180
150
180
(Deg)
(a) Er component
80
70
Truncation Number
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
30
60
90
Observation angle
120
(Deg)
(b) E component
Figure 3.5: Convergence of scattered waves versus observation angle for dipole
located on the surface.
63
to the source point. Now the convergence with the increase of the observation
distance is quantitatively analyzed. Fig. 3.6 shows the truncation number with
the increase of the radial observation distance from r r = 0 to r r = k0 a. Two
cases are compared: one is assumed that k0 a = k0 b = 20 and = 1.2, the other
is assumed that k0 a = 20, k0 b = 22 and = 1.2. It is shown that if the distance
between the source point and the eld point is less than 0.1k0 a, the truncation
number exponentially decreases with the increase of r r . The convergence rate
is faster when the dipole moves away from the surface. When the relative distance
is of the same order of k0 a, the truncation number almost keeps the unchanged
approximately to be Nmax = k0 a + 4.1 (k0 a)1/3 + 2.
3.5
Kummers Transformation
The Kummers transformation allows the rate of convergence of a series

be accelerated by subtracting a second series
bk with a known sum C =
ak to
bk .
Therefore, the convergence speed is dominated by the asymptotic value of ak . More

precisely, it is necessary to make sure that
ak
= = 0.
k bk
lim
(3.8)
Given a series
S=
ak ,
(3.9)
64
Truncation number
1000
100
10
15
20
r-r'
(a) Er component
Truncation number
1000
100
10
15
20
r-r'
(b) E component
Figure 3.6: Convergence of scattered waves versus observation distance r. Dotted
curve: a = b; dashed curve: b = a + 2.
65
the transformation is
S=
ak =
3.5.1
(ak bk ) +
bk = C +
bk
ak .
ak
(3.10)
Perfectly Electric Conductor Earth
Two cases are investigated: one is the dipole being on the surface of the sphere
(b = a) and the other is a dipole high above the sphere (b > a).
Case 1: b = a
Firstly, the dipole being placed on the surface (b = a) of the conducting sphere is
considered. Investigation of Eqs. (2.57) and (2.58) shows that the series term at
n = 0 is zero and therefore it is equivalent to start from n = 1. The total eld can
be simplied into a more compact form by use of the relationship jn (k0 a) (k0 a)
h
(1)
(k0 a)hn (k0 a) = i/(k0 a)2 :
k0 0 I0 i
E total (r) =
4(k0 a) (k0 a)2
rn(n + 1)
(2n + 1)
n=1
(1)
hn (k0 r)
k0 r
1
(k0 a)
h
1
Pn (cos ) + (k0 r)Pn (cos ) . (3.11)
h
However, investigation of Eq. (3.11) shows that the convergence rate does not
change with the new formulation. Here, the total electric eld still needs to be
split into two parts and we focus on the convergence acceleration of the scattered
66
eld. The scattered eld is:
E scat
k0 0 I0
=
4(k0 a)
(2n + 1)
n=1
(k0 a) (1)
h (k0 a)
(k0 a) n
h
(1)
hn (k0 r)
1
Pn (cos ) + (k0 r)Pn (cos ) .
h
rn(n + 1)
k0 r
(3.12)
In order to accelerate the convergence, we propose to extract the contribution

of the electric eld due to an image source of the real dipole in the presence
of a large-radius sphere. The image location of a real source at r = b can be
approximated as at r = 2a b. Employing the expression in Eqs. (2.69) and (3.3),
we have the electric eld radiated from the image source (for r
>
2a b, if the
<
surface is planar) given by
E image (r) = u
where R =
1
k
eikR
r
ikR
(3.13)
r2 2r(2a b) cos + (2a b)2 .
In the case b = a, we have E image (r) = E direct (r). We rewrite the total electric
eld in Eq. (3.11) as
E total (r) = E direct (r) + E image (r) + E scat (r) E image (r)
= 2E direct (r) + E scat (r) E direct (r)
= 2E direct (r) + E corr (r),
(3.14)
k0 0 I0
E corr (r) =
4(k0 b)
67
(1)
(k0 a)hn (k0 a) + (k0 a)jn (k0 a)

h
(2n + 1)
(k0 a)
h
n=1
(1)
hn (k0 r)
1
rn(n + 1)
Pn (cos ) + (k0 r)Pn (cos ) ,
h
k0 r
(3.15)
where E corr is the correction part of the electric eld due to the curvature of the
sphere and it is expected that with the increase of the radius of the sphere, the
contribution from E corr will decrease since the surface of the sphere approaches to
a planar and the curvature of the sphere gets less important.
The asymptotic values of the product of spherical Bessel functions in Eq. (3.14)
for large orders can be derived from [109]:
jn (z)
ze
1
2 zn 2n
1
ze
yn (z)
zn 2n
as n ,
as n .
(3.16)
(3.17)
Therefore we can derive the following asymptotic expression:
(z)h(1) (z) + (z)jn (z) i

h
n
1
2nz 2
as n .
(3.18)
The asymptotic value in Eq. (3.18) is introduced into the summation in Eq. (3.15)
as an accelerating term to obtain improved results. This choice yields a new series
that converges faster and hence gives better accuracy in the computations
E corr (r) = Q(r) R(r),
(3.19)
68
where
k0 0 I0
Q(r) =
4(k0 b)
r
(2n + 1)
(k0 a)hn (k0 a) + (k0 a)jn (k0 a) +

h
i
2n(k0 a)2
(k0 a)
h
n=1
n(n + 1) (1)
1
hn (k0 r)Pn (cos ) + (k0 r)Pn (cos ) ,
h
k0 r
k0 0 I0
R(r) =
4(k0 b)
r
(1)
(2n + 1)
n=1
(3.20)
i
2n(k0 a)2
(k0 a)
h
n(n + 1) (1)
1
hn (k0 r)Pn (cos ) + (k0 r)Pn (cos ) .
h
k0 r
(3.21)
First the radial component of the correction part E corr is studied and the
components Qr and Rr can be written as
Qr (r) =
k0 0 I0
4(k0 a)
(2n + 1)(n + 1)Pn (cos )

n=1
(1)
(k0 a)h(1) (k0 a) + (k0 a)jn (k0 a)

h
n
a
hn (k0 r)
i
k0 r (k0 a)
h
r
n+2
1
,
2n(k0 a)2
(3.22)
Rr (r) = i
= i
k0 0 I0
4(k0 a)3
k0 0 I0
4(k0 a)3
(2n + 1)(n + 1)Pn (cos )

n=1
(n +
n=1
3
1
a
+ )Pn (cos )
2 2n
r
a
r
n+2
n+2
1
2n
(3.23)
The summation of the series Rr (r) has an analytic representation according

the method mentioned in [79]. Using the generating function for the Legendre
polynomials
2 1/2
(1 2zy + z )
z n Pn (y),
=
n=0
(3.24)
69
we can derive the following coecients p1 , p2 and p3 as
nPn (y)z n+2
p1 =
n=1
= z3
=
1
1 2zy + z 2
z 3 (y z)
(1 2zy + z 2 )
1 2zy + z 2
(3.25)
Pn (y)z n+2
p2 =
n=1
= z2
p3 =
n=1
1 2zy + z 2
1 ,
(3.26)
Pn (y)z n+2
n
= z 2 ln
2
1 2zy + z 2 + 1 zy
(3.27)
where z = a/r and y = cos . Therefore, an exact summation of Rr in Eq. (3.23)

is easily obtained in closed form as follows:
Rr =
iu
2
k0 a2
p1 +
3
1
p2 + p3 ,
2
2
(3.28)
where
a
a
u = 1 2 cos +
r
r
(3.29)
70
For the component, we have
k0 0 I0
Q (r) =
4(k0 a)
1
(2n + 1)Pn (cos )
n=1
(k0 r)
h
i
+
(k0 a) 2n(k0 a)2
h
(k0 a)h(1) (k0 a) + (k0 a)jn (k0 a)

h
n
a
r
2+n
(3.30)
k0 0 I0
R (r) = i
4(k0 a)3
= i
k0 0 I0
4(k0 a)3
1
(2n + 1)Pn (cos )
n=1
(1 +
n=1
a
r
1
a
1
)Pn (cos )
2n
r
n+2
2+n
1
2n
.
(3.31)
Taking rst derivative with respect to of Eq. (3.24), we have
(1 2z cos + z 2 )1/2 =
1
z n Pn (cos ).
(3.32)
n=0
Therefore, the exact summation result of R (r) is readily derived:
R (r) =
2
i0 I0
u1/2 + ln 1/2
.
2 2
4k0 r a
u + 1 a cos
r
(3.33)
The series Q converges faster than the series E corr and detailed computational
results are given in the next section.
In the case of b = a, three series expressions are evaluated: i.e., E total , E scat ,
and Q. The total eld E total means the method of direct summation by Eq. (3.11),
E scat refers to the series representation of scattered eld in Eq. (3.12), and Q
denotes the accelerated series in Eq. (3.22) or Eq. (3.30) accordingly. First of all,
we plot the convergence patterns of these series representations in Fig. 3.7 which
71
shows the real part and the imaginary part of each term of these series expressions
in logarithm scale, respectively. In this case, the Legendre functions Pn (cos ) = 1
regardless of the order n and we can see that the curve of the relative error is very
smooth.
When the observation angle increases to > /2, we use s = to denote
its supplementary angle. Because of the property of Legendre polynomials, we have
Pn (cos ) = Pn ( cos s ) = (1)n Pn (cos s ), so that the series terms will have the
opposite sign to that of Pn (cos s ) when n is odd. The series expressions become
highly oscillating with n in this case. Therefore the convergence number will be
kept to be exactly the same as that of s .
Figures 3.8 and 3.9 depict the convergence comparisons for E and Er respectively, at k0 a = k0 b = 50, k0 r = 52 and = /3. From these gures we can see
that the real parts of these series expressions converge very fast and among them,
the transformed series Q converges most rapidly. However, the imaginary parts of
these three series expressions converge very dierently in each representation. It
can be seen that these series expressions converge faster if is not in the vicinity
of 0 or . Also small ripples occur on the curves compared with the smooth curves
at = 0 and = which indicates the contribution from Legendre functions.
Furthermore, investigation of R shows that the contribution of this part is
very small compared with that of Q; and thus R is an extremely small part of the
total electric eld.
72
Relative error
10
0.1
0.001
0.00001
0
10
20
30
40
50
Number of terms
60
70
(a) Real part
10
Relative error
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0
100
200
300
Number of terms
400
(b) Imaginary part

Figure 3.7: Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and Q(- -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = k0 b = 50, k0 r = 52 and = 0.
73
Relative error
1
0.01
0.0001
1. 10
10
20
30
40
50
Number of terms
60
Relative error
(a) Real part
0.1
0.001
0.00001
1. 10
100
200
300
Number of terms
400
(b) Imaginary part

Figure 3.8: Relative errors of the -components of E total (), E scat ( ), and Q(- -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = k0 b = 50, k0 r = 52 and = /3.
74
Relative error
1
0.01
0.0001
1. 10
10
20
30
40
50
Number of terms
60
(a) Real part
Relative error
0.1
0.001
0.00001
1. 10
100
200
300
Number of terms
400
(b) Imaginary part

Figure 3.9: Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and Q(- -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = k0 b = 50, k0 r = 52, and = /3.
75
Case 2: b > a
In this case, the vertical dipole is located above the surface of a sphere. Numerical
computation results show that the convergence of E scat gets faster with the increase
of the height of the dipole. Therefore, our attention is focused on the situation of
the dipole being near the surface of the sphere where the series is slowly convergent.
The contribution of the electric eld due to an image dipole is given in Eq. (3.13).
The total electric eld is split into three parts
E total (r) = E direct (r) + E image (r) + E corr1 (r),
(3.34)
Therefore, the total eld is split into three parts: (a) the direct eld, (b) the
image eld, and (c) the correction part. It is seen clearly that the scattered wave
can be expressed as a sum of two contributions: one is E image contributed by the
approximate image source or dipole as in Eq. (3.13) while the other is by the
correction term E corr1 which take into account the curvature eects of the sphere.
The convergence of the series E corr1 is also accelerated by applying the Kummers transformation [74]. The asymptotic values of the product of spherical Bessel
functions for large orders (as n ) are given in Eqs. (3.16) and (3.17). According to the condition b a, we can derive, when n , that
jn (k0 (2a b))

(1)
00
BN hn (k0 b)
2a b
b
(3.35)
Since [(2a b)/b]n decreases with the increase of n, we take the leading term
76
at n = 1 and extract it as a coecient of Eq. (3.34) for acceleration. Thus we

calculate the total electric eld in the following way:
E total (r) = E direct (r) +
b
E image (r) + E corr (r),
2a b
(3.36)
where the correction term is given respectively as
E corr (r) =
k0 0 I0
4(k0 b)
00
(2n + 1) BN h(1) (k0 b)
n
n=0
b
(1)
jn [k0 (2a b)] N e0n (k0 ).

2a b
(3.37)
It is seen clearly that the scattered wave can be expressed as a sum of two
contributions: one is E image (r) contributed by the approximate image dipole as in
Eq. (3.13) while the other is by the correction term E corr,r (r) which is employed
to achieve a higher accuracy of the solution as in Eq. (3.37). Figs. 3.10 and 3.11
show the convergence patterns of the correction term using the same modelling
parameters as in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2, respectively.
When the dipole is located above the sphere (b > a), three dierent representations of the total eld E total , scattered eld E scat , and E corr are computed and
compared. In this case, k0 a = 50, k0 b = 51, k0 r = 54 are assumed. Fig. 3.12 shows
the convergence pattern at = 0 while Fig. 3.13 and Fig. 3.14 show the convergence patterns at = 2/3. In the case of b = a, the real parts in Fig. 3.12(a),
Fig. 3.14(a) and Fig. 3.13(a) converge faster than their imaginary counter parts.
It shows again that for = 0 and , all the series expressions converge more slowly
77
norm
Re Ecorr,r
4
2
n
25
50
75
100
125
150
2
4
6
(a) Real value
norm
Im Ecorr,r
4
2
n
50
100
150
200
2
4
(b) Imaginary value
norm
Figure 3.10: Convergence pattern of the normalized correction component Ecorr,r
as a function of n for a PEC sphere at = 0, and for k0 a = 150, k0 b = 151, and
k0 r = 154.
78
norm
Re Ecorr,r
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
n
0.1
25
50
75
100
125
150
125
150
0.2
(a) Real value
norm
Im Ecorr,r
0.3
0.2
0.1
n
0.1
25
50
75
100
0.2
0.3
0.4
(b) Imaginary value
norm
Figure 3.11: Convergence pattern of the normalized correction part Ecorr,r (n) as
a function of n for a PEC sphere at = 3 , and for k0 a = 150, k0 b = 151, and

k0 r = 154.
79
than those of = 0 or . When = 2/3 and for a truncation error of 106 , the
original series needs more than 250 terms but the accelerated formula only need
less than 100 terms. Therefore, the convergence of the original series is accelerated
and a substantial reduction in computational cost is obtained.
In Fig. 3.15, the total eld E norm , scattered eld E norm , direct eld E norm , the
total
scat
direct
correction part E norm are compared. The electrical radius, k0 a, of the sphere is set
corr
to be k0 a = k0 b10, and the observation point is assumed to be k0 r = k0 b+50. The
observation angle is = 0o . The distance of the dipole from the origin increases
from 50 to 200. It is shown that the curve of the correction part E norm is almost
corr
parallel to the x-axis at y = 0 for both the real and imaginary parts. It is observed
that:
The magnitude of E image (r) is much larger than that of E corr (r) so the dominant term has been extracted out from the approximate image contribution,
and the E corr (r) in Eq. (3.37) is included as a ne correction to enhance the
computational accuracy as depicted in Fig. 3.15.
The convergence of |E corr (r)| in Eq. (3.37) is improved as compared to that
originally given in Eq. (2.62) and depicted in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2. Fig. 3.10 and
Fig. 3.11 show clearly that (a) the real part of the scattered eld maintains
the same convergence speed as before in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2; (b) the imaginary
part of the scattered wave, after the dipole image contribution is extracted,
converges much faster in a narrower range of n; and (c) previously the convergence speed of the imaginary values of scattered waves in Figs. 3.1 and
80
Relative error
100
1
0.01
0.0001
10
20
30
40
50
Number of terms
60
70
(a) Real part
Relative error
10
0.1
0.001
0.00001
1. 10
50
100 150 200 250 300 350

Number of terms
(b) Imaginary part
Figure 3.12: Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat (- - -), and
E corr2 ( ) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = 50, k0 b = 51, k0 r = 54 and
= 0.
81
10
Relative error
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0
10
20
30
40
50
Number of terms
60
70
(a) Real part
Relative error
100
1
0.01
0.0001
1. 10
50
100 150 200 250 300 350

Number of terms
(b) Imaginary part
Figure 3.13: Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and
E corr2 (- - -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = 50, k0 b = 51, k0 r = 54 and
= 2/3.
82
Relative error
1
0.01
0.0001
1. 10
1. 10
10
20
30
40
50
Number of terms
60
70
(a) Real part
Relative error
100
1
0.01
0.0001
1. 10
100
200
300
Number of terms
400
(b) Imaginary part

Figure 3.14: Relative errors of the -components of E total ( ), E scat (), and
E corr2 (- - -) versus the truncation number n. k0 a = 50, k0 b = 51, k0 r = 54 and
= 2/3.
83
3.2 is slower that of the real parts, and now in Fig. 3.10 and Fig. 3.11, the
convergence speeds of both the real and imaginary values are almost the
same, thus the convergence is accelerated for the correction part as shown
in Fig. 3.16 and Fig.3.17. The relative errors are dened by the following
denition:
N
m=n+1
fm /
N
m=1
fm where fm denotes the m-th term of the
series and N stands for the truncation number when an accuracy of truncation error 108 is achieved. The computation CPU time on a 2.8 GHz,
1G memory computer for the three series: E total , E sca and E corr are 124.109
second, 30.875 second and 6.906 second to achieve a relative error less than
106 . The computation for E corr is much faster.
84
norm
Er
0.05
0.1
Ecorr
Escat
Etotal
Edirect
Eimage
0.15
0.2
60
80
100 120 140 160 180 200

kb
(a) Real value
0.04
norm
Er
0.02
0
0.02
0.04
Ecorr
Escat
Etotal
Edirect
Eimage
60
80 100 120 140 160 180 200

kb
(b) Imaginary value
norm
norm
norm
Figure 3.15: Real and imaginary parts of the electric elds Ecorr,r , Escat,r , Etotal,r ,
norm
norm
Edirect,r and Eimage,r versus the vertical dipole height k0 b for a perfectly conducting
sphere.
85
Truncation error
1
0.01
0.0001
1. 10
25
50 75 100 125 150 175

Number of terms
Truncation error
(a) Real value
0.01
0.0001
1. 10
100
200 300 400

Number of terms
500
600
(b) Imaginary value

Figure 3.16: Truncation errors versus the number of terms for the convergent
solution of the normalized eld components Etotal (), Escat (- - -) and Ecorr ( ) in
the case of a PEC sphere at = 0, and for k0 a = 150, k0 b = 151, and k0 r = 154.
86
Relative error
100
1
0.01
0.0001
25
50
75 100 125
Number of terms
150
(a) Real value
Relative error
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0
100
200 300 400 500

Number of terms
600
700
(b) Imaginary value

Figure 3.17: Relative errors versus the number of terms for the convergent solution
of the normalized eld components Etotal (), Escat (- - -) and Ecorr ( ) in the case
of a PEC sphere at = 0, and for k0 a = 150, k0 b = 151, and k0 r = 154.
3.5.2
87
Dielectric Lossy Spherical Earth
00
In the case of the dielectric sphere, the reection coecient BN of the series E corr is
given in Eq. (2.26b). Therefore we can derive the following asymptotic expression
as n :
jn [k0 (2a b)]

(1)
00
BN hn (k0 b)
2a b
b
2
2
k0 + k1
.
2
2
k0 k1
(3.38)
Since [(2a b)/b]n decreases with the increase of n, we take the leading term at
n = 1 and substitute it into Eq. (3.38) for acceleration. Thus we calculate the
total electric eld in the following way:
E scat (r) =
2
2
b k 0 k1
E image + E corr2 ,
2
2
2a b k0 + k1
k0 0 I0
E corr2 (r) =
4(k0 b)
+
b
2a b
(3.39)
00
(2n + 1) BN h(1) (k0 b)
n
n=1
2
2
k0 k1
j [k (2a
2
2 n 0
k0 + k1
(1)
b)] N e0n (k0 ).
(3.40)
Figure 3.19 shows the computational results for the correction term in Eq. (3.40)
for a lossy earth, which are obtained using the same parameters as in Fig. 3.3.
Figs. 3.18 and 3.19 demonstrate the convergence patterns of the correction term
for a lossy earth. It shown that the series in Eq. (3.40) converges much faster than
the original solution. The computation was carried on a 2.8 GHz, 1G memory
computer. The CPU time of the series E corr is 11.9 minutes for 1500 terms with
88
norm
Re Ecorr,r
10
5
n
200
400
600
800 1000 1200 1400
5
10
15
(a) Real value
norm
Im Ecorr,r
15
10
5
n
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
5
10
(b) Imaginary value
norm
Figure 3.18: Convergence comparison of the normalized eld component Ecorr,r for
a lossy sphere at = 0, r = 12, = 0.4, and f = 10 kHz.
89
norm
Re Ecorr,r
2
1.5
1
0.5
n
200
400
600
800 1000 1200 1400
0.5
1
(a) Real value
norm
Im Ecorr,r
1.5
1
0.5
n
0.5
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
1
1.5
(b) Imaginary value
norm
Figure 3.19: Convergence comparison of the normalized eld component Ecorr,r for
a lossy sphere at = 200 km, r = 12, = 0.4, and f = 10 kHz.
90
relative error 0.4%. For the series E sca , when it is computed up to 2500 terms
which is far away from getting convergent, it already takes 68.3 minutes.
3.6
Conclusion
In this Chapter, the fast solution to the scattered eld due to the presence of
the earth is presented. The scattered eld is split into two contributions, that is,
(a) the dominant and closed form solution due to an image source and (b) the
summated contribution for the correction. The second summated contribution is
much smaller in value than the rst dominant term; and at the same time, it
has better convergence property than the original scattered eld in summation
form. Some examples are considered to demonstrate the special properties of the
respective eld contributions. The solutions obtained here are exact and there
is no approximation as made earlier in literature. Therefore, the creeping wave
modes appearing at lower frequencies are included inside the full-wave modes in
this Chapter. However, the creeping wave modes decay considerably fast when the
radius of the earth is electrically very large (for instance, at high frequencies).
Chapter 4
Fields in Planarly Layered Media
4.1
Introduction
The formulas of the electromagnetic elds in planarly layered media originated

from Sommerfeld integrals. Due to the singularities along the integration path
and the highly oscillating behavior of the integrand, it is not easy to obtain an
accurate evaluation. Therefore, an extensive research has been carried out over
the last four decades to solve this problem.
In this Chapter, a short introduction of the formulation and singularities of the
Sommerfeld integrals is given rst. Then numerical validations of some fast computational solutions to electromagnetic elds in thin-layered media are presented
in terms of comparisons. The validation range is found out from the comparison
of these computational results. It is found out that the surface wave or the guided
mode TM0 is dominant when > . The mode contribution is at least 109 higher
than the contribution by branch cut for > . It conrms that the trapped surface
91
Chapter 4. Planarly Layered Media
92
wave can be eciently excited for > 0.01.
4.2
4.2.1
Sommerfeld Integrals
Formulation
The electromagnetic elds in a homogeneous medium due to a vertical Hertzian

dipole can be derived from Eq. (2.7) by use of scalar Greens function:
E(r) = i I +
H(r) =
rIl
k2
rIl
eikr
,
4r
eikr
.
4r
(4.1)
(4.2)
The TM component of the eld is thus characterized by [5]
Ez =
iIl
4k 2
k2 +
2
z 2
eikr
,
r
(4.3)
and the TE component of the eld is characterized by
Hz = 0.
(4.4)
Using the following Sommerfeld identity [41]
eikr
i
=
r
2
dk
k (1)
H0 (k )eikz |z| ,
kz
(4.5)
93
and after exchanging the order of integration and dierentiation, we have
Il
Ez =
8
3
k (1)
dk H0 (k )eikz |z|
kz
(4.6)
where
2
2
kz + k = k 2 .
(4.7)
The integrand in Eq. (4.6) consists of a linear superposition of TM-type plane

waves and it is the primary eld generated by the source. For a VED on top of
a layered medium (region 0) as shown in Fig. 4.1, the reection by the downgoing plane wave from the point source is represented by the generalized reection
T
coecient R01M . Hence, the eld in region 0 can be written as
E0z =
Il
8
dk
3
k (1)
T
H (k ) eik0z |z| + R01M eik0z z+2ik0z h1 .
k0z 0
(4.8)
The Sommerfeld integrals can be folded to range from 0 to . Eq. (4.8) can
be rewritten as
E0z =
Il
8
dk
0
3
k
T
J0 (k ) eik0z |z| + R01M eik0z z+2ik0z h1 .
k0z
(4.9)
It should be noted that, in this thesis, the layered medium is labelled from 0,
while in the book of Chew [5], the medium is labelled from 1. The generalized
T
reection coecient used in this thesis is denoted by R01M , while it is denoted by
94
Figure 4.1: Unit vertical electric dipole at a height of d over a planarly layered
medium
95
T
R12M in [5]. Therefore, the indexed symbols in [5] are revised in order to keep the
consistence through this thesis. The reection and transmission coecients are
given by:
T
T T M R12M T T M e2ik1z h
T
T
R01M = R01M + 01 T M 10M 2ik1z h ,
T
1 R10 R12 e
T
R01M =
1 k0z
1 k0z +
0 k1z
(4.10)
(4.11)
T
T01M =
2 1 k0z
,
1 k0z + 0 k1z
(4.12)
T
T10M =
2 0 k1z
,
1 k0z + 0 k1z
(4.13)
T
R12M =
4.2.2
2 k1z
2 k1z +
0 k1z
1 k2z
1 k2z
(4.14)
Singularities in Sommerfeld Integrals
The integrands of the Sommerfeld integrals have singularities on the complex k

plane, i.e., the pole singularity and the branch point singularity. The pole singularity corresponds to guided modes or trapped surface waves in layered medium. The
branch point singularity corresponds to the radiation modes or lateral waves. These
singularities aect the results of asymptotic expansions and uniform asymptotic
expansions. They also aect the denition of the integration path if the Sommerfeld integrals are to be evaluated numerically. Physically, both the trapped surface
96
wave and the lateral wave belong to surface wave, propagating along direction
and evanescent in z direction. However, they propagate in dierent medium and
show dierent attenuation rates which will be illustrated later in this Chapter.
The steepest descent method is valid when distance between source and observation points is large and contributions from poles (surface wave) and branch
cuts (lateral wave) must be accounted for when deforming the contour.
4.3
VED in Three-Layered Media
Now we consider a vertical electric dipole in a three-layered medium as shown in

Fig. 4.2. The height of the dipole is zs while the height of the observation point
is zr , both measured from the surface of the dielectric layer. The medium consists
of a half-space of air (region 0, z 0), a dielectric layer with thickness h (region
1, h z 0), and a conducting or dielectric medium (region 2, z h).
The height of the dipole is d from the surface of the dielectric layer. The wave
numbers of the three regions are denoted by k0 =
k2 =
r2
0 0 ,
k1 =
r1 k0 ,
and
+ i/ 0 k0 , respectively.
For a three-layered medium, the vertical component of the electric eld is given
by the general formulas in Eqs. (4.8) and (4.10)-(4.14). In King and Sandlers paper
(1)
[3], the total electric eld in Eq. (4.8) is rewritten as a sum of the direct wave Ez ,
(2)
the reected wave Ez , and the contributions from the lateral and surface waves
97
Figure 4.2: Unit vertical electric dipole at a height of d over a slab surface at z = 0,
dielectric layer thickness is h
(3)
Ez
as follows:
(1)
Ez
1
i
0 ik0 r1 ik0
e
2
=
3
4k0
r1
r1 k0 r1
zr zs
r1
3
3i
ik0
2
3
r1
r1 k0 r1
,
(4.15)
(2)
Ez
0 ik0 r2 ik0
1
i
=
e
2
3
4k0
r2
r2 k0 r2
zr + zs
r2
3
3i
ik0
2
3
r2
r2 k0 r 2
,
(4.16)
(3)
Ez
0
=
2
4k0
(1)
A()H0 () ei0 (zr +zs ) 3

d,
q()0
(4.17)
where
q() =
0 2
+ 2 i
2
k0 k2
2
0 2 k1 1
+ 2
2 2
k0 k2 1 k1
tan(1 h),
(4.18)
98
2
1
+ i 2 tan(1 h),
2
k2
k1
(4.19)
r1 =
2 + (zr zs )2 ,
(4.20)
r2 =
2 + (zr + zs )2 ,
(4.21)
j =
2
k j 2 .
(4.22)
A() =
King and Sandler [3], and Zhang and Pan [1] applied two approaches to eval(3)
(3)
uate the integral in (4.17) for Ez . In the former paper, the integration part Ez
was simplied as
(3)
Ez =
0 k0
2
k0 r2
r2
eik0 r2 eiP F (P )
(4.23)
where
P =
k0 r 2
2
r2 + zr + zs
1
(1 + i)
2
k0
ik0 h,
k2
F (P ) =
(4.24)
(4.25)
P
0
eit
dt.
2t
(4.26)
99
However, this formulation has a limited validation range as mentioned in [3],

i.e., (4.23) must satisfy the following inequalities:
|k2 |2 ,
2
k1
2
k0
2
k1 h2
(4.27a)
1 or k1 h 0.6.
(4.27b)
In the latter paper, if the second layer is perfectly conducting, the integration
(3)
part Ez
was simplied as [1]
(3)
sur
l
Ez
= Ez + Ez ,
sur
Ez
= 0
(4.28)
1 i 3
e 4
2
1 ( ) tan(1 ( )h)( )5/2 i0 ( )(zr +zs )+i

i
i
i
i
i
e
q ( )0 ( )
i
i
(4.29)
l
Ez =
2
k0 0
2
2k1
tan
1
k0
2
2
k 1 k0
2
2
k1 k0 h ei(k0 r2 +/2) eip F (P )
(4.30)
where
k0
=
2
i =
zr + zs ik0
2
2
ki k0 ,
2
2
k 1 k0
tan
2
k1
2
2
2
k1 k0 h
(4.31)
(4.32)
100
and is the pole of (4.17). The rst term of (4.28) corresponds to the contribution
i
sur
of the surface wave denoted by Ez and the second term represents the contribution
l
of the lateral wave notated by Ez .
The formulas were extended to include an imperfectly conducting substrate

in a later paper [110], where the trapped surface wave and the lateral wave were
rewritten as
sur
Ez
0 ei 4
=
2
2k0
l
Ez =
0
2
5/2
A( )i
i
ei0 (i )(zr +zs )+ii ,
q (i )0 (i )
k0 ik0 r2 iP
e
e
F (P ),
(4.33)
(4.34)
where
P =
k0
2
2 k0
2
k2
+ zr + zs
k 0 1
2
k1
k2
tan 1 h
1 i k1 2 tan 1 h
2
(4.35)
(4.36)
2 1
4.4
Comparison of Fields in Thin-Layered Media
The problem is still considered in three-layered media as shown is Fig. 4.3. In thin
layered media dened, there is no leaky modes between the Sommerfeld integration
path (SIP) and the vertical branch cut. Formulations are carried out here to dene
the electromagnetic elds due to a vertical electric dipole located on the surface
101
of the thin dielectric layer. A ground plane is assumed below the dielectric layer
of thickness h. The electric eld components are computed against a horizontal
distance of far away from the source. It is shown that there is only one surface
mode needed in this case.
Figure 4.3: Unit vertical electric dipole on the thin dielectric surface at z = 0,
dielectric layer thickness is h.
Recently, electromagnetic elds due to a VED which is located on a perfectly

conducting plane coated with a dielectric layer, were reconsidered in both [1] and
[2]. The fast computational solutions to the eld expressions were obtained by
subtracting out the pole contribution and evaluating the integral along the vertical
branch cut 0 . It was pointed out that if
2
2
k1 k0 h < /2 [1] or h < 0.05 [2],
there is only one surface wave mode for the thin dielectric layer case.
In the former work [1], the elds were split into modes of direct wave, reected
wave, lateral wave and trapped surface wave. It also converted the complex k
102
plane to a complex plane, so that the asymptotic analytical expressions of electromagnetic elds can be derived. The properties of the trapped surface wave and
the lateral wave were also investigated. It was found that the amplitude of the
trapped surface wave is larger than that of the lateral wave in the far region. For
a thick dielectric layer, there is an interference between the lateral wave and the
trapped surface wave. However, the formulas were derived based on the condition k0
1 and there is no validation on the accuracy of the derived formulas.
Therefore, this work will re-look into the formulas and investigate the validation
range.
In the latter work [2], the elds were obtained by summing the pole contribution and the branch cut contribution without explicitly describing the wave
components as in [1]. It is because the direct wave and the reected wave were
not subtracted out. For the branch cut contribution, the complex k plane is converted to a complex x plane and numerical modied steepest-descent path (NMSP)
method is used. For the near eld, formulas using the low frequency approximation were derived. The results were validated already in comparison with the
direct Sommerfeld solution numerically evaluated. The formulations are suitable
for thin-layered media and both the source point and the observation point are on
the interface of the dielectric layer. Therefore, it is considered as the basis for the
present comparative studies.
103
For this case z = d = 0, the Sommerfeld integral in Eq. (4.8) is simplied as:
E0z
3
k (1)
T
dk
H0 (k ) 1 + R01M
k0z
Il
=
8
T M T M 2ik1z h
T
T
01M = R01M + T01 T10 e
.
R
T
1 + R10M e2ik1z h
(4.37)
(4.38)
For the method in [1], according to Eqs. (4.28)-(4.30), when both the source
point and the observation point are on the interface between the air and the slab,
the electric elds can be simplied as follows:
dir
ref
Ez = Ez =
0 ik0
e
4k0
1
i
ik0
2
k 0 3
(4.39)
1 i 3 ikp
e 4e
2
k1z (kp ) tan(k1z (kp )h)(kp )5/2
q (kp )k0z (kp )
sur
Ez
= 0
l
Ez =
2
k0 0
2
2k1
tan
1
k0
(4.40)
2
2
k1 k 0
2
2
k1 k0 h ei(k0 +/2) eip F (p )
(4.41)
and
2
2
k1 kp ik0 kp
2
+
tan(k1z h) + ik0 kp h sec2 (k1z h)
q (kp ) =
k0z
k1z
k0
=
2
ik0
2
2
k1 k0
tan
2
k1
(4.42)
2
2
2
k1 k 0 h
(4.43)
F (p ) = erfc
ip
ei 4
(4.44)
104
dir
ref
sur
l
where Ez , Ez , Ez , and Ez denote the direct wave, reected wave, trapped
surface wave and the lateral wave, respectively; k0 (=

space wave number, k1 (= k0
r1
with
r1
0 0 )
stands for the free
being the permittivity of the dielectric
layer) is the wave number in thin slab dielectric layer,
2
2
ki kp (i = 0 or 1),
kiz =
(4.45)
and kp represents the pole satisfying the equation
2
2
k1 k0z ik0 k1z tan k1z h = 0,
(4.46)
and nally the term, erfc, stands for the complementary error function. In evaluating the branch cut integral, the following approximation is used:
(1)
H1 (k )
2 i(k0 3/4) k0 2
e
e
k0
(k0
1).
(4.47)
In [2], there was no approximation made for the non-near eld. So, the computational error comes from the numerical integration. The eld consists of the
surface wave mode contribution and the branch cut contribution, given by
Ez =
1
(Qsurf + QBC )
8 0
Qsurf = 2iRk
(4.48)
(4.49)
ex
QBC =
2 /2
105
(x)dx + iRk erfc
ixp
(4.50)
Rk exp /2
(x) = (x)
x xp
(4.51)
Nx (x)
Dx (x)
(4.52)
(x) =
x
21
3 (2)
(1 + e2ik1z h )k H0 (k )eik
Nx (x) = i eik0
k0z 1 + 0 k1z
(4.53)
T
Dx (x) = e2ik1z h R01M + 1
(4.54)
T
R01M =
k0z
k0z
1+
0 k1z
(4.55)
0 k1z
where Rk stands for the residue given by
R k =
N (k )
dD(k )/dk |k =kp
k = k0 ix2 /(2)
(4.56)
(4.57)
and xp satises kp = k0 ix2 /(2).

p
As the same problem was dened earlier in [1] and [2], therefore we would
expect the same results to be obtained if both approaches are used. To conrm
106
Ez 10
4
3
2
1
0
0
50
100
150
200
Ez 10
Figure 4.4: Magnitudes of Ez using method in [1] ( ) and method in [2] (-),
varies from to 200, r = 4.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
50
100
150
200
250
300
Figure 4.5: Magnitudes of Ez using method in [1] ( ) and method in [2] (-),
varies from 10 to 300, r = 2.2.
107
this, we have computed the elds using the two methods in [1] and [2] and compared
them. In Fig. 4.4, we have obtained the magnitude of Ez versus the wavelength
normalized horizontal distance /, where the same parameters as those in [2]
are taken. The frequency assumed is 10 GHz and the relative dielectric constant
r
is 4.0. The dielectric layer thickness h is 10 mils (or 0.254 mm). It is shown
unexpectedly that in general, the two curves do not agree with each other, although
they tend to get closer when the horizontal distance is increased. For = 200
or = 6 m, k0 = 1256.64 in this case, their dierence is about 7.4% relative to
the formulas in [1] and about 8% relative to the formulas in [2].
To further conrm the observation, we try to reduce the material contrast from
the previous case of
= 4.0 to a new value of
= 2.2 for printed circuit board
(PCB) material. In Fig. 4.5, the magnitudes of electric eld component Ez are
computed (using the two approaches) and compared for the printed circuit board
(PCB) Rogers 5880. In the computations, the operating frequency is assumed to
be 10 GHz, and the dielectric constant
is 2.2. For > 300, the relative error
is greater than 17%. Therefore, the formulas in [1] are not applicable at all for
the electromagnetic analysis of the printed circuit board. However, the far-eld
computation using the formulas in [1] is much faster because it does not involve
the integral of [2].
To gain more physical insight into the modes of the waves in the layered media,
we have split the wave modes and computed them respectively. In [1], the eld
was split into two wave modes, i.e., the surface wave contribution E sw and the
lateral wave contribution E l . We have now computed them respectively by using
108
the formulas in [1]. We have plotted them in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7 using the same
parameters as in Fig. 4.4 and Fig. 4.5 but over an extended horizontal distance,
where the respective contributions of the modes are compared. It is shown that
the trapped surface wave is dominant in the far-eld region, but the lateral wave
mode cannot be neglected if a good accuracy is required.
We also considered the contributions from the surface wave mode contribution
and the branch cut (lateral wave) contribution formulated in [2]. The respective
contributions are computed and plotted in Fig. 4.8 (for the horizontal distance
ranging from 0.01 to 0.1) and Fig. 4.9 (for the horizontal distance ranging
from 1 to 20), when
= 4. From the comparison made, we can see that the
branch cut contribution decreases with the increase of the horizontal distance over
the whole region from near zone to far zone. When > , the magnitude of Ez
due to the mode contribution of Qsurf is about 104 106 times in the region of
(0.01, 0.1), and 109 1011 times in the region of (1, 20), of that of
QBC . So, the branch cut contribution can actually be ignored.
4.5
Conclusion
In this Chapter, the Sommerfeld integrals for the planarly layered media is revisited
rst. Then comparison of the electromagnetic elds obtained using two dierent
approaches in [2] and [1] due to a vertical electric dipole in thin-layered media is
presented. The numerical results are obtained so as to validate the range of the
horizontal distance in terms of the wavelength for the method in [1], depending on
109
10
Ez 10
5
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 4.6: Magnitudes of Ez due to the trapped surface wave (-) and lateral
wave (- - -) for thin-layered case, r = 4.
Ez 10
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 4.7: Magnitudes of Ez due to the trapped surface wave (-) and lateral
wave (- - -) for thin-layered case, r = 2.2.
110
7
6
Log10 Q
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Figure 4.8: Magnitudes of Ez due to contributions of Qsurf () and QBC (- - -)

versus varying from 0.01 to 0.1, r = 4.
Log10 Q
4
2
0
2
4
6
2.5
7.5
10 12.5
15
17.5
20
Figure 4.9: Magnitudes of Ez due to contributions of Qsurf () and QBC (- - -)

versus but varying from to 20, r = 4.
111
the dielectric permittivity. Also the contributions from the pole extraction and the
branch cut integral are compared for two dierent methods. The trapped surface
wave can be eciently excited in the near region.
Chapter 5
A Comparative Study of Radio
Wave Propagation over the Earth
Due to a Vertical Electric Dipole
5.1
Introduction
The radio wave propagation excited by a vertical electric dipole propagation over
the earth has been a subject of many years. Generally, there are usually two
analytical methods for obtaining the electromagnetic elds. The rst method is to
treat the earth as a radially stratied sphere and sum up the spherical harmonics
in spherical coordinates system [48, 47, 67, 64, 65, 76] as discussed in Chapter 2
and Chapter 3. The second method is to model the earth surface as an innite
plane and evaluate the Sommerfeld integrals either by asymptotic expansions or by
numerical integrations [7, 5, 46, 83, 3, 1] as discussed in Chapter 4. By inspection,
112
Chapter 5. Wave Propagation Along Earth
113
the solution to the second problem should be the same as that to the rst one
when the radius of the earth is electrically very large. J. R. Wait gave a historical
review of the ground-wave propagation [111]. He showed that the trapped surface
wave can be a signicant contribution to the total ground-wave eld, when the
earth boundary is suciently inductive.
Both of the planar and spherical earth models can be simplied under certain
approximations, for instance, the residue series approach. Therefore, their accuracy
and validation range need to be studied in detail. In addition, although there
exist in literature a number of results of radiated electric and magnetic elds
derived for the planar stratied media, they are, however, not straightforwardly
veried or validated for the accuracy. Due to this reason, some interests have
been shown along the rst line. It was indicated that to obtain the closed form
solutions or the fast convergent solutions, some conditions must be applied [3,
23, 24, 25, 27, 112, 113], as very well summarized by Collin [29, 102]. In fact,
some other research works were also done earlier to look into the lateral wave
properties [114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119]. The properties of total eld presented
in [114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119] are shown to uctuating in near zone versus the
horizontal distance while the asymptomatic forms given in [1, 110, 30, 31, 3, 23]
cannot predict such eects.
In this Chapter, both of these planar models in [3, 1] and the approximate
spherical model in [48, 46] are re-visited and three sets of results are compared
with the results recently obtained in [103, 104, 76]. For the convenience of the
comparison, it is assumed that the earth is a perfect conductor coated with one
114
layer of dielectric. The paper is organized as it is described subsequently. In Section 5.2, two analytical methods by [3] and [1] based on the planar earth model
are briey summarized. The expressions are derived directly from the Sommerfeld integrals and they are already presented in Chapter 4. In Section 5.3, the
spherical earth model is considered. The exact spherical harmonics series after its
convergence acceleration and the asymptotic residue series expression are given.
Numerical results in the near eld are presented in Section 5.4 rst to compare the
formulas in [3], [1] and [48]. Then the trapped surface waves of planar and spherical models are compared to conrm their fast decay in vertical direction. The
accelerated spherical harmonics series in the spherical model by full-wave method
is compared with the residue series. The accuracy of the residue series is conrmed for the perfect conducting sphere. For the layered sphere, the results show
that the hybrid eects due to the trapped surface wave and the lateral wave were
ignored in the residue series; and according to the full-wave method, the hybrid
eect becomes stronger with the increase of the permittivity of the dielectric layer
[120].
5.2
Planar Earth Model and Formulation
When the earth is assumed to be a plane, the model of planarly layered media
is used. As we discussed in Chapter 4, King and Sandler derived the analytical
formulas for the elds at all points of a three-layered planar geometry [3], and
an extensive discussion about a trapped surface waves was made [121, 122]. Wait
115
pointed out that the authors overlooked the trapped surface wave which can be excited by the source when the coating dielectric layer is low-lossy and the substrate
is a highly conducting half-space [122]. King and Sandler replied that their formulas were derived systematically and rigorously subject only to conditions (3a) and
(3b) in their paper [121]. In [1], the discussion was summarized and the properties
of the trapped surface wave were re-examined. They derived a set of modied
analytical formulas where the contributions of the trapped surface wave and the
lateral wave were given explicitly. They pointed out that the trapped surface wave
can be eciently excited when the dipole is near the surface and that both the
lateral wave and the trapped surface wave cannot be ignored in the far region. Furthermore, it is pointed out that the trapped surface wave is aected signicantly
by the conductivity of an imperfect conductor [110].
The trapped surface wave was proved to have a decay factor of 1/2 in the
direction. It has been also shown that when the inequalities in (4.27) are satised,
l
the lateral wave of Ez in (4.30) is approximately the same as that in (4.23) [110].
However, the properties of the lateral wave were not discussed in detail. In [5],
a physical interpretation of the lateral wave was given and the amplitude of the
lateral wave decays as 2 in the direction. It is evanescent in region 0 and
propagates in region 1. In the expressions of the lateral wave in (4.30), the phase
velocity and amplitude attenuation factor were not explicitly derived. Therefore,
in Section 5.4, numerical results will be presented to illustrate the properties of
the lateral wave.
5.3
116
Spherical Earth Model and Formulation
On the other hand, the layered spherical earth model takes into consideration
of the earth curvature. The elds are expressed by spherical harmonics series
which is usually poor in convergence although the solution is exact. In order
to overcome the poor convergence problem, several research works have focused
on the accelerated summation of the spherical harmonics. Johler [52] and Lewis
[99] calculated the elds at an extremely low frequency (ELF) directly from zonal
harmonics series, using the Kummers transformation with an averaging process
for a sharply bounded ionospheric model. Johler further improved the convergence
of the harmonics series by using the modied zonal harmonics and geometric series
[53].
In addition to the zonal harmonics series solutions, several asymptotic methods
were also explored using the Watsons transformation. Sommerfeld [41] derived the
eld expressions for a perfectly conducting earth. Wait [46] and Fock [48] derived
the formulas of the elds radiated by a dipole in the presence of a homogeneous
earth with a compact notation for the Hankel function of the order one-third.
The boundary conditions on the surface of the sphere were specied by a surface
impedance. The asymptotic formulas for the electromagnetic eld over the spherical conductor covered with a dielectric layer are derived in [67]. The trapped
surface wave was extracted out and it also proved that the trapped surface wave
can be eciently excited when the thickness of the dielectric layer is larger than a
certain value. The elds expressions are further extended for the spherical earth
117
coated with an N -layered dielectric in [66].

For the spherical earth model, the earth is treated as a layered sphere. The
center of the sphere is assumed to be at the origin of the spherical coordinate
system (r, , ). The radius of the earth is a. The dipole is located at a distance
of b = a + zs from the center of the sphere. The radial distance of the observation
point to the center of the sphere is r = a + zr . The wavenumber in the air is k0 .
The exact solution of the electric eld in the outer space is expressed in terms
of series summation and given in Chapter 2 (Eq. (2.56)). However, it is known
that the series converges very slowly for an electrically large sphere. Convergence
acceleration methods have been used to obtain a faster convergent series as stated
in Chapter 3. The Hankel function and the Legendre polynomial can be computed
numerically by recursive formula [98].
For a large order, the computation of these terms takes a long time, which slows
down the convergence speed. Many researchers provided good approximations to
Hankel functions and these are summarized in Appendix A. Compared with the
results by standard recursive formula, the numerical computation shows that the
Debye approximation is not suitable for the transition case (n kr) [41], and the
Watson approximation is suitable for all cases, but we nd that it is very easy to
cause overow or underow for a complex argument. The Olvers representation
is a uniform asymptotic expansion valid for all the regions of the points regardless
of the order [109]. And our numerical computations conrm that the Olvers
representation gives a very good approximation with a high accuracy.
Various asymptotic methods are explored by many researchers to nd an ef-
118
cient solution. Fock [48] and Wait [46] derived the eld expressions in terms of
residue series. The electric eld radial component Er is given by
i/4
Er = E0 e
x
s=1
1 w1 (ts ys ) w1 (ts yr ) its x

e ,
ts q 2 w1 (ts )
w1 (ts )
(5.1)
where
E0
iI0 0 k0 eik0 a
=
,
2
0 a sin
2
k0 a
1/3
ys =
2
k0 a
1/3
yr =
k0 a
a
1/3
x =
(5.2)
q =
k0
k0 zs ,
(5.3)
k0 zr ,
(5.4)
(5.5)
2
2
k1 k0
2
k1
k0 a
2
1/3
tan
2
2
k1 k0 h ,
(5.6)
while w1 (t) denotes the Fock notation of the Airy function, and ts represents the
roots of the equation
w1 (t) qw1 (t) = 0.
(5.7)
The rst term in (5.1) is the trapped surface wave, which is dominant. The
residue series was extended to a spherical earth coated with an N -layered dielectric
119
later by Li and Park [66]. It is stated that the coupling between the trapped
surface wave and the lateral wave is not signicant for the spherical earth model.
In Section 5.4, the exact series representation is compared with the residue series
for a dierent dielectric constant. The phenomenon of the hybrid eects is reexamined and discussed.
5.4
Numerical Results
In the last section, we have presented 4 sets of results for dening almost the same
problem where two approximated results are obtained using the planar geometry
while the other two sets of results are obtained using the spherical geometry. In
the spherical structure, one set of the results is obtained using some approximations and the other set of results is exact solution; and the exact solution has no
approximation made and is thus considered as a reference for the other three sets
of results.
5.4.1
Asymptotic Methods in Comparison
First, we compare two sets of formulas of the planar earth model in (4.23) and
(4.28)-(4.30) with the residue series in (5.1) of the spherical earth model. Since the
earth radius is very large, when the arc distance is less than 1000 km, the angle
of the observation point is less than 9.0 degrees. Thus, the spherical model should
be accurate enough to make very coincident with the planar model. Numerical
results of the spherical model are given below to compare with these of two planar
120
models. For an easier comparison, only the electric eld in the vertical direction
is considered here.
Figures 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 show the vertical electric eld amplitudes of these
three asymptotic formulas varying with the propagation distance . The thickness
of the dielectric layer is taken to be h = 100 m, 50 m, and 30 m, respectively. The
earth radius is assumed to be a = 6370 km for the spherical earth model. The
relative permittivity of the dielectric layer is
= 15.
For the results in Fig. 5.1, h = 100 m and k1 h
0.8, so the inequality con-
ditions in (4.27) are not satised. Therefore the results produced by King and
Sandler are expected to be inaccurate. When both the source point and the observation point are located on the surface of the dielectric layer as illustrated in
Fig. 5.1(a), the curves obtained using the formulas of [1] are closer to those of
spherical model. Furthermore, the oscillation shows the hybrid of the trapped surface wave and the lateral wave which was not predicted in the curves by King and
the residue series [1].
When h = 50 m and h = 30 m, the inequality conditions in (4.27) are satised.
When both the source point and the observation point are located on the surface of
the dielectric layer as shown in Fig. 5.2(a) and Fig. 5.3(a), in the short range around
the source ( 50 km) where the earth curvature can be ignored, the formulas in
[3] are more accurate than the ones in [1], which is evident from their comparison
with the curve of the spherical earth model. When the dielectric thickness is not
too thin, the curve by the formulas in [1] is closer to the one by spherical model as
shown in Fig. 5.2(a). When either the observation point or the source point moves
121
Er 106
100
10
200
400
600
km
800
1000
(a) Source and observation points are both on the surface of dielectric layer,
zr = zs = 0 m
200
Er 106
100
50
20
10
5
0
200
400
600
km
800
1000
(b) Source point on dielectric surface, zs = 0 m, observation point is zr = 100 m

Figure 5.1: Amplitudes of Ez varying with horizontal distance , computed using
Kings formula (- - -) of planar model, formula in [1] ( ) of planar model, and
residue series formula (-) of approximate spherical model with dielectric layer
thickness h = 100 m, at a frequency of f = 100 kHz, and r = 15.
122
Er 106
100
50
10
5
1
0.5
0
200
400
600
km
800
1000
(a) zs = zr = 0 m
200
100
Er 10
50
20
10
5
2
0
200
400
600
km
800
1000
(b) zs = 0 m, zr = 100 m
Figure 5.2: Amplitudes of Ez varying with horizontal distance , computed by
Kings formula (- - -) of planar model, formula in [1] ( ) of planar model, and
residue series formula (-) of approximate spherical model with a dielectric layer
thickness of h = 50 m, at a frequency of f = 100 kHz, and r = 15.
123
Er 106
100
50
10
5
1
0.5
0
200
400
600
km
800
1000
800
1000
(a) zr = zs = 0
Er 106
100
50
20
10
5
2
1
0
200
400
600
km
(b) zr = 100 m, zs = 0 m
Figure 5.3: Amplitudes of Ez vary with horizontal distance , compared by Kings
formula (- - -) of planar model, formula in [1] ( ) of planar model, and residue
series formula (-) of approximate spherical model with dielectric layer thickness
h = 30 m, at a frequency of f = 100 kHz, and r = 15.
124
away from the surface, we can see from both Fig. 5.2(b) and Fig. 5.3(b) that the
curves produced by the formulas of [3] are closer to those of the spherical model.
This is because, in this case the strength of the trapped surface wave is not as
signicant as the one along the surface of the dielectric layer. In other words, this
may demonstrate that the trapped surface wave decays very fast in the vertical
direction.
At a higher frequency, some results are also obtained and their comparison
with those at a lower frequency is made for ice-coated seawater at f = 7 MHz in
Fig. 5.4. In the computation, the relative permittivity of the ice is taken to be
1r
= 3.2; and the relative permittivity and the conductivity of the sea water are
2r
= 80 and 2 = 4 S/m, respectively. The ice layer thickness is h = 2.5 m. In
this case, k0 h = 0.367, k1 h = 0.656, and |k2 h| = 37.17. The inequalities in (4.27)
are not strictly satised but k1 h is an acceptable value [3]. The observation point
is 500 m above the surface while the dipole is placed 2 m above the surface. When
both the source point and the observation point are located on the surface of the
dielectric layer as shown in Fig. 5.4(a), the curve by the formulas in [1] is very close
to that of the spherical model. When both the source point and the observation
point are located above the surface of the dielectric layer as shown in Fig. 5.4(b),
the curve by the formulas in [3] is closer to the one by spherical model. With
the increase of the horizontal or arc distance, the curvature of the earth cannot
be ignored especially at a higher frequency. And because of the fast decay of the
trapped surface wave in vertical direction, where > 50 km in this case, both
models cannot depict the correct wave propagation.
125
Er 104
1000
500
100
50
10
5
1
0
50
100
km
150
200
(a) zr = zs = 0
Er 106
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0
50
100
km
150
200
(b) zr = 500 m, zs = 2 m
Figure 5.4: Amplitudes of Ez vary with horizontal distance , compared by Kings
formula (- - -) for the planar model, formula in [1] ( ) for the planar model,
and residue series formula (-) for the approximate spherical model with dielectric
layer thickness h = 2.5 m, 1r = 3.2, 2r = 80, and 2 = 4 S/m, at a higher
frequency of f = 7 MHz.
126
The trapped surface wave and the lateral wave are explicitly given in (4.29)
and (4.30) in [110]. These two kinds of surface wave have dierent attenuations
in the direction. The trapped surface wave attenuates as 1/2 and the lateral
wave is believed to decay as 2 in the direction. Fig. 5.5 gives the comparison
of the trapped surface wave and the lateral wave along the direction. In order to
depict the attenuation speed, a curve proportional to 1/2 is given as a reference.
It is shown that the trapped surface wave has the exact attenuation as 1/2 , but
the lateral wave in [110] also shows the similar decay tendency which is incorrect
according to the nature of the lateral wave.
Er 106
100
70
50
30
20
15
10
200
400
600
km
800
1000
Figure 5.5: The normalized amplitude of the trapped surface wave ( ), the
lateral wave (- - -) and 1/2 reference (-), zr = 10 m, zs = 0 m, dielectric
thickness h = 100 m.
While both the lateral wave and the trapped surface wave are essential wave
modes in the planar geometry, the trapped surface wave is dominant in the total
127
Er 106
100
70
50
30
20
15
10
200
400
600
km
800
1000
Figure 5.6: The strength of the trapped surface wave in planar earth model (
) compared with that in approximate spherical earth model (-), zr = zs = 0 m,
dielectric thickness h = 100 m.
eld for the spherical model when the dielectric layer is not too thin. The trapped
surface waves obtained using both the planar model and the spherical model are
compared in Fig. 5.6, Fig. 5.7, and Fig. 5.8 where the dielectric layer thickness is
assumed to be 100 m, 50 m, and 30 m, respectively. It is shown that the trapped
surface waves obtained using both models are almost the same for a thick layer,
demonstrating that the curvature does not signicantly aect the creeping property
of the trapped surface wave. However, when the dielectric layer is thin enough, the
trapped surface wave in the spherical model decays faster than the one in the planar
model as shown in Fig. 5.8. This implies that, due to the curvature of the earth,
the ability of trapping the wave along the surface decreases signicantly. Moreover,
the strengths of the trapped surface wave for these two models at dierent layer
128
thickness are compared in Fig. 5.9 and Fig. 5.10. The amplitude of the trapped
surface wave decreases with the dielectric thickness.
129
50
tsw
Er
106
20
10
5
2
0
200
400
600
km
800
1000
tsw
Er
106
30
20
15
10
7
5
3
2
1.5
1
0
200
400
600
km
800
1000
130
tsw
Er
106
100
50
20
10
5
2
1
0
200
400
600
km
800
1000
Figure 5.9: The strength of the trapped surface wave in approximate spherical
earth model for dierent dielectric layer thickness, h = 100 m (), h = 50 m (- -), h = 30 m ( ), zr = zs = 0 m.
100
tsw
Er
106
50
20
10
5
2
1
0
200
400
600
km
800
1000
Figure 5.10: The strength of the trapped surface wave in planar earth model for
dierent dielectric layer thickness, h = 100 m (), h = 50 m (- - -), h = 30 m (
), zr = zs = 0 m.
5.4.2
131
Asymptotic Computation Compared with Exact Computation
The residue series of spherical earth model is asymptotic as well therefore its
accuracy needs to be investigated. In this subsection, the results obtained using
the residue series are compared with those using the exact series expression. When
the thickness of the dielectric layer is zero, the problem degenerates to a dipole
radiating in the presence of a perfectly conducting plane or sphere. In this case, the
image theory can be directly used to obtain the exact result for the planar model,
(3)
i.e., the integral of Ez
vanishes. For the spherical model, the image theory can
be also used to approximate the eld in the near eld
E direct (r) =
E image (r) =
0 I0 1
4b k
0 I0 1
4b k
eikR
r
ikR
b=(a+zs )
eikR
r
ikR
b=(azs )
(5.8)
(5.9)
Figure 5.11 shows the electric eld of an electric dipole above the perfect
conducting sphere. The results obtained using the approximate image in (5.8) and
the residue series in spherical model are compared. The series of the formula in
(5.1) converges slowly when the arc distance < 50 km. It is shown that within the
range 100 km, these two curves are almost the same. As the eld point away
from the source, the dierence between these two methods are increased because
of the curvature eects.
132
Er 106
100
50
10
5
1
0.5
0
50
100
150
km
200
250
300
Figure 5.11: Amplitudes of Ez varying with , compared by approximate image

( ) and residue series (-) with dielectric layer thickness h = 0 m, at a
frequency of f = 100 kHz, zs = 0 m, zr = 10 m.
133
Fig. 5.12 shows the electric eld in the spherical earth model which is assumed
to be perfectly conducting. Results of the exact series summation of (2.56) are
compared with those using the residue series approximation. In this case, the
lateral wave vanishes and these two methods lead to exactly the same results. It
conrms the accuracy of the residue series for the perfect conducting spherical
earth model.
Er 106
10
5
1
0.5
0.1
0.05
200
400
600
km
800
1000
Figure 5.12: Amplitudes of Ez varying with , compared by exact series(), and

residue series (- - -) for PEC, zs = 10 m, zr = 500 m, at a frequency of f = 100
kHz.
Also we consider the situation in which the thickness of the dielectric layer
is not zero. Figs. 5.13-5.15 show the Er eld for a coated spherical earth with a
relative permittivity of
shown in Fig. 5.13, when
= 1.1, 2.0 and 15 for the dielectric layer, respectively. As

r
of the dielectric layer is close to 1, the hybrid modes
of the trapped surface wave and the lateral wave are not strong, so the curves
134
obtained using these two formulas are still smooth and close to each other. The
asymptotic residue formula and the exact series summation leads to almost the
same result when the arc distance 50 km.
In Fig. 5.14 where
= 2.0, the curve obtained using the series summation
begins showing small oscillations. In Fig. 5.15 where
= 15, the oscillation of the
curve obtained using the series summation becomes stronger with the increase of
the permittivity of the dielectric layer while the curve obtained using the residue
series still keeps to be smooth. Comparison among Figs. 11-14 shows that the
curves obtained using the residue series are always very smooth while the oscillations in the curves obtained using the series summation exist due to the hybrid
modes of the trapped surface wave and the lateral wave. Such surface waves can
be considered to be the contribution of the multiply reected guided waves among
the dielectric slab, and the oscillation can be considered as the dielectric resonance
between the upper and lower dielectric interfaces. It implies that the lateral wave
travels along the interface, at the same time it is multiply reected by the upper
and lower dielectric surfaces when the dielectric constant is large. When the relative permittivity of the coating layer is close to unity, then the multiple reections
by the upper and lower dielectric surfaces will be very weak and not so visible from
the eld curves.
135
12
Er 106
10
8
6
4
2
0
50
100
150
km
200
250
300
Figure 5.13: Amplitudes of Ez vary with , compared by exact series(), and

residue approximation (- - -), zs = 10 m, zr = 500 m, r = 1.1, h = 100 m, at
frequency f =100kHz.
50
Er 106
40
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
km
200
250
300

residue approximation (- - -), zs = 10 m, zr = 500 m, r = 2.0, h = 100 m, at
136
80
Er 106
60
40
20
0
50
100
150
km
200
250
300

residue approximation (- - -), zs = 10 m, zr = 500 m, r = 15, h = 100 m, at
5.5
Conclusions
In this Chapter, a comparative study of electromagnetic elds excited by a vertical

electric dipole on the earth is presented for both planar and spherical earth models.
The exact eld expression in the spherical earth model is considered as an accurate
solution and a reference to the planar earth model. From the analysis, the following
important points can be summarized.
The residue series solution of electric eld in the approximate spherical earth
model [48, 46] versus the horizontal distance is usually accurate in the far
zone, but it cannot predict the guided modes with resonance of the trapped
surface waves. Also, it fails ro predict accurately the eects of the heights of
137
the observation point and the source point.

The eld expressions for the planar earth model in [3] and [1] are not always
correct, subject to the satisfaction of conditions assumed. So their valid
ranges for two sets of planar earth models [3] and [1] vary with the given
problem conditions. In addition, the planar earth model did not show correctly the resonance property of the trapped surface waves although it has
some small variations in the near zone.
For both the planar earth and approximate spherical earth models, the solutions derived cannot predict the lateral wave property so nicely.
The present analysis provides a very good picture on the validation studies of
the classic problems dened and their solutions available in literature.
Chapter 6
Conclusions
In this work, fast solutions of a vertical electric dipole radiation in the presence of
planarly and spherically layered media are obtained.
For the spherically layered media, the convergence property of the series summation is investigated and convergence acceleration method is explored to get
faster results. The series summation method is compared with the residue series
after the Watson transform. The following observations are made:
1. The scattered eld is split into two contributions, that is, (a) the dominant
and closed form solution due to an image source, and (b) the summated
contribution for the correction. The second summated contribution is much
smaller in value than the rst dominant term; and at the same time, it has
better convergence property than the original scattered eld in summation
form.
2. The convergence rate is dependent on the position of the source point and
138
Chapter 6. Conclusions
139
observation point but it is a weak function of the dielectric constant of the

dielectric layer.
3. The residue series solution of electric eld in the approximate spherical earth
model [48, 46] versus the horizontal distance is usually accurate in the far
zone, but it cannot predict accurately the guided modes with resonance of
the trapped surface waves. Also, it fails to predict accurately the eects
of the heights of the observation point and source point. The exact series
summation is a full wave analysis and the results show the interference of
the trapped surface wave and the lateral wave.
For the planarly layered media, both asymptotic and numerical methods are
compared. The following observations are made:
1. For thin-layered media like PCB, the surface wave or the guided mode TM0 is
dominant when > . The mode contribution is at least 109 higher than the
contribution by branch cut for > . It conrms that the trapped surface
wave can be eciently excited for > 0.01.
2. The amplitude of the trapped surface wave by [1] attenuates as 1/2 in the
direction as expected. However, the lateral wave given by [1] does not exhibit
2 decay in the direction.
3. When both the source and observation points are on the surface, and the
planar earth covered with a thick-enough dielectric layer, the method by
Zhang and Pan [1] is more accurate; while for the elds above the surface
Chapter 6. Conclusions
140
and the thin-enough dielectric layer, the method by King and Sandler [3] is
more accurate. However, the hybrid trapped surface wave and the lateral
wave were exhibited in the curves in [1], but they were not shown in the
curves in [3].
The solutions for spherically layered media provide a useful tool to calculate
the radiation of conformal antenna or multilayered antenna. It also provides an
alternative approach for obtaining electromagnetic elds in planarly layered media
without evaluating Sommerfeld integral.
Appendix A
Asymptotic Representations of
Hankel Functions
When the operating frequency is up to 1 MHz, the wavenumber k0 a is larger
than 105 . Therefore, for a large order, the computation of these terms takes a
long time that slow down the convergence speed. The computation of the Bessel
functions or the Hankel functions occupies most of the CPU time because of the
iteration algorithm used [98]. For this reason, many researchers resorted to the
asymptotic expansions and good approximations to Hankel functions were obtained
[41, 123, 46, 109, 124].
Sommerfelds integral representations of the Hankel functions of the rst and
the second kinds are given by [41]
(1)
Hn (z) =
b1 i
eiz cos w ein(w/2) dw
a1 +i
141
(A.1)
Appendix
142
(2)
Hn (z) =
b2 +i
eiz cos w ein(w/2) dw
(A.2)
a2 i
where
< a1 < 0
0 < b1 <
0 < a2 <
< b2 < 2.
Starting from the integral in Eqs. (A.1) and (A.2), various asymptotic computation alternatives are obtained. They are summarized subsequently.
A.1
Debye Asymptotics
When both > 1000 and n > 1000, we can use the Debye approximation.
For n < ,
(1),(2)
Hn
() =
2
ei(sin cos )
sin
n = cos .
i/4
(A.3)
(A.4)
Appendix
143
For the spherical Hankel functions, we can derive that
h(1),(2) () =
n
n+
1
ei(sin cos )
sin
i/4
(A.5)
1
= cos .
2
(A.6)
For n > ,
(1),(2)
Hn
() =
2
e( cosh sinh )
sinh
i/2
n = cosh .
(A.7)
(A.8)
For the spherical Hankel functions, we can derive that
h(1),(2) () =
n
n+
1
e( cosh sinh )
sinh
1
= cosh .
2
i/2
(A.9)
(A.10)
The Debye approximation is not suitable for the transition case where n
[41].
Appendix
A.2
144
Watson Asymptotics
For n ,
(1),(2)
() =
Hn
tan in(tan 1 tan3 )i/6 (1),(2)

3
e
H1
3
3
1
n tan3 , (A.11)
3
n = cos .
(A.12)
For n > ,
(1),(2)
Hn
() =
tanh n(tanh + 1 tanh3 )

3
e
3
2i/3
(2),(1)
H1
3
in
n tanh3 (A.13)
,
3
n = cosh .
(A.14)
The Watson approximation is suitable for all the cases, but we nd it is very
easy to cause overow or underow for complex argument.
A.3
Olver Asymptotics
The uniform asymptotic expansion Olvers representation can be used to compute

eciently Bessel and Hankel functions. Taking the leading term of the series [109],
we have
Jn () =
4
1 c2
1/4
Ai (n2/3 ) Ai (n2/3 )
+
b0 ,
n1/3
n5/3
(A.15)
Appendix
145
1/4
4
Ai (ei2/3 n2/3 )
1 c2
n1/3
ei2/3 Ai (ei2/3 n2/3 )
+
b0 ,
n5/3
(1)
Hn () = 2ei/3
(A.16)
1/4
(2)
Hn ()
Ai (ei2/3 n2/3 )
4
= 2e
1 c2
n1/3
ei2/3 Ai (ei2/3 n2/3 )
+
b0 ,
n5/3
i/3
(A.17)
where
c =
,
n
3z
2
(A.18)
2/3
z = Ln(1 +
b0 =
c0 =
(A.19)
1 c2 ) Lnc
5
1
+
2
48
7 1

48
24(2
24(2
1 c2 ,
5
1
,
+
3/2
1)
8 2 1
7
3
.
3/2
1)
8 2 1
(A.20)
(A.21)
(A.22)
The function Ln is to take the principal value of the natural logarithm, and
Ai denotes the Airy function of the rst kind.
(1)
(2)
And the derivatives of Hn () and Hn () also can be derived as follows:
Jn () =
2
z
1 c2
4
1/4
Ai (n2/3 )
A (n2/3 )
c0 + i 2/3
,
n4/3
n
(A.23)
Appendix
146
Hn(1) ()
A.4
4e2i/3 1 c2 4 Ai (ei2/3 n2/3 )

=
c0
c
4
n4/3
ei2/3 Ai (ei2/3 n2/3 )
+
) .
n2/3
(A.24)
Second-Order Asymptotics
A second-order asymptotic expansion of the Hankel function of the second kind

was given in [124]. The expression is accurate when both the order and argument
are large, but with the argument being at least a few percent larger than the order
as follows:
(2)
Hn (z) =
z 2 n2
ei(
z 2 n2 /4n/2+n arctan(n/ z 2 n2 ))
(A.25)
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Fast Solutions of Electromagnetic Fields

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Fast Solutions of Electromagnetic Fields

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FAST SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Fast Methods for Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Planarly Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Spherically Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Motivation and Research Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Fields in Spherically Layered Media

Dyadic Greens Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dyadic Solution For Spherically Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . .

Dyadic Greens Function in Unbounded Media . . . . . . . .

Scattering Dyadic Greens Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scattering Coecients for Perfectly Conducting Sphere . . .

Scattering Coecients for Dielectric Sphere . . . . . . . . .

Scattering Coecients for a Conducting Sphere Coated with

A Perfectly Conducting Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Conducting Sphere Coated with a Dielectric Layer . . . .

Accurate and Ecient Computation of Scaled Spherical Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Radiation of Vertical Electric Dipole on Large Sphere . . . . . . . .

Continuous Form of Field Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Radiation Pattern of a Vertical Electric Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Convergence Acceleration for Spherically Layered Media

Convergence Property of Scattered Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Perfectly Electric Conductor Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dielectric Lossy Spherical Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Fields in Planarly Layered Media

Singularities in Sommerfeld Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VED in Three-Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparison of Fields in Thin-Layered Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

5 A Comparative Study of Radio Wave Propagation over the Earth

Planar Earth Model and Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Spherical Earth Model and Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Asymptotic Methods in Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

A Asymptotic Representations of Hankel Functions

A.1 Debye Asymptotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Geometry of a multilayered sphere

A dipole over a PEC sphere with dielectric coating . . . . . . . . .

Field strength distribution |E direct | of a vertical dipole in free space

Amplitude and phase of the normalized far eld component E each

Convergence pattern of the radial component of normalized electric

Convergence pattern of the radial component of normalized electric

Convergence of scattered waves versus observation angle for dipole

Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and

Relative errors of the -components of E total (), E scat ( ), and

Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and

a function of n for a PEC sphere at = 3 , and for k0 a = 150,

3.13 Relative errors of the r-components of E total (), E scat ( ), and

3.14 Relative errors of the -components of E total ( ), E scat (), and

Unit vertical electric dipole at a height of d over a planarly layered

Unit vertical electric dipole at a height of d over a slab surface at

Unit vertical electric dipole on the thin dielectric surface at z = 0,

Magnitudes of Ez using method in [1] ( ) and method in [2] (-),

Magnitudes of Ez using method in [1] ( ) and method in [2] (-),

Magnitudes of Ez due to the trapped surface wave (-) and lateral

Magnitudes of Ez due to the trapped surface wave (-) and lateral

Magnitudes of Ez due to contributions of Qsurf () and QBC (- - -)

Magnitudes of Ez due to contributions of Qsurf () and QBC (- - -)

Amplitudes of Ez varying with horizontal distance , computed by

Amplitudes of Ez vary with horizontal distance , compared by

Amplitudes of Ez vary with horizontal distance , compared by

The normalized amplitude of the trapped surface wave ( ), the

The strength of the trapped surface wave in planar earth model (

The strength of the trapped surface wave in planar earth model (

The strength of the trapped surface wave in planar earth model (