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Soap and Detergent

What is soap?

Soap is a salt that is formed from the reaction between an alkali and a fatty acid, RCOOH


source:http://pernille.typepad.com
-sodium palmitate
-sodium stearate
-sodium laurate
-sodium oleate


What is the history of soap manufacturing?






How is soap made?




Stage 1
The two parts of the oil or fat (ester) molecules are separated by heating the oil
with alkaline solution through the hydrolysis process.
In this process, the oil or fat (ester) molecule is broken up into fatty acid and
glycerol by water in the presence of alkali which acts as a catalyst.
Example:




Stage 2
The fatty acid that is released in Stage 1 reacts with alkali to form sodium salt
fatty acid which is soap
Example:







What is detergent?


Is a salt that is produced from the reaction between an alkali and a sulphonic acid.
Detergent is also the sodium salt of sulphonic acid. Examples:-


-sodium alkyl
-sodium dodecyl sulphate ( sodium lauryl sulphate)




How is detergent made?


-This is a process diagram of detergent production.




-Sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared through a neutralisation reaction between an alkyl sulphonic
acid with a sodium hydroxide solution.


-The sodium dodecyl sulphate detergent is prepared through a neutralisation reaction
between the dodecyl sulphonic acid and a sodium hydroxide solution.





How Does Soap and Detergent Work?


Generally, the soap ion structure can be represented as below


Soap molecules can reduce the surface tension of water to allow it to wet a material's
surface better.


The soap molecule dissolves in water and reduces the surface tension of water. Water
wets the dirty surface.
The hydrophylic region dissolves in water.
The hydrophobic region dissolves in dirt such as grease.
The tail region emulsifies and breaks up the grease into small drops.


When shaken, the water molecules will attract the soap ions and cause the grease to
detach from the surface of the material.
The soap bubbles to help float the grease emulsion in the water. When rinsed, the
grease will be removed with the water.


How is soap and detergent different in hard
water?


Hard water?
Hard water is the water that contains mineral salts, of which the majority of it
are calcium and magnesium ions.




What are detergent additives for?




My Soap Survey...


1.Shokubutsu


Comments: Uses Potassium Laureate, and Streareth as its soap agent. Also uses orange
peel oil Tetrasodium EDTA as fragrance.


2.Detol


Comments:Uses Sodium Laureth Sulfate as its soap agent.




3.Guardian, Syringa cream hand wash


Comments:Uses Sodium Laureth Sulfate as its soap agent.


References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-Google Images
Posted by Sarah at 6:06 AM 1 comment:
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Labels: Chemicals for Consumers
Tuesday, December 13, 2011
Food Additives
The Purpose of Food Additives






Example and Function of Food Additives






My Food Additive Survey
Chupa Chups: Contains mixed fruit pure as flavouring, and colouring.

Sunquick cordial: Contains flavouring, conditioner, preservatives and colouring.

Fitnesse Cereal: Contains artificial flavour, emulsifiers and stabilizers.

Heinz Farley's Rusk: Contains emulsifiersand fish oil as flavouring.

Lee Choco Chips: Contains flavouring.

Mum's Bake Cookie: No additives detected.

Oriental Rota Prawn Crackers: Contains artificial colouring and MSG as flavour enhancer.

Lee Special Cookies: Contains emulsifiers, conditioner and flavouring.

Choki Choki: Contains emulsifiers.

Sunsweet Dry Prunes: Contains preservatives.

Prego: Contains conditioner.

Nutella: Contains emulsifiers and flavourings.





Disadvantages of Food Additives
Effects on health
Food additives if taken in access can cause side effects. For instance, the colourings in food can
cause hyperactivity in children. And also, some people are allergic to food additives such as
flavourings and preservatives.


Effects on the environment
Food additives require chemicals and processing, which require the use of more energy to produce the food. So
food additives contribute to ahigher carbon footprint for whatever food product it is, which thus contributes to
the carbon greenhouse gases that should be curbed right now. The food products are like Monosodium
Glutamate (MSG) to make food tastier.


Advice
I would advice to reduce the intake of processed food, especially the ones that contain a lot of food
additives because not only you risk your own life but also the environment as said above. And you
know who uses the environment, rite? =)

References
http://greenanswers.com/q/66107/food-agriculture/beverage/how-do-additives-hurt-environment
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
Posted by Sarah at 8:03 AM 2 comments:
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Labels: Chemicals for Consumers
Medicine
Traditional Medicine
Source: usually comes from plants (herbs) or animals.
Example and uses:
Aloe Vera: Treats skin disease, Relieves skin wounds resulting from contact with hot things.
Garlic: Treats high blood pressure, Prevents cancer and flu.
Turmeric: Treats ringworm and liver disease, Cures diarrhoea.
Bee's Honey: Relieves pain of skin that has been scalded by hot things.


Traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional medicine


Modern Medicine




Side Effects of Medicine
Traditional
Photosensitivity
Individuals taking St. John's wort to treat depression or anxiety may find their skin becoming more
sensitive to the sun. They may burn more easily. Typically, fair-haired and light-skinned Caucasians have
the highest incidence of photosensitivity, but this herbal side effect is thankfully rare. Typical cases of
photosensitivity occur when people take very high doses of St. John's wort, or take it over a long period of
time. If taking St. John's wort, avoid too much sun exposure.
Skin Irritation
Topical herbal antifungal and antibacterial agents such as tea tree oil and lavender may cause rashes or
skin irritation, especially if used at full strength. Before using any topical herbal product, try a skin patch
test. Place a small amount of the product on the inside of the elbow on one arm only. Wait a few days. If
the area remains clear, proceed with using the herbal product.
Sleepiness
Everyone's body is different, and some people are more sensitive to herbs than other people. Herbs used
to treat anxiety, depression and insomnia may cause excessive daytime sleepiness in certain individuals.
These herbs include chamomile, valerian and kava kava, with valerian and kava being the most likely
culprits. Avoid driving or using machinery until you're sure of the effects of the herb.
Drug Interactions
Drug interactions are serious side effects of herbal medicine. Many commonly used medications interact
with herbs. Herbs may amplify the effect of the medication, as in the case of sedatives, anesthetics, and
blood thinners. Others may block the drug from working. This can lead to dangerous consequences.
Interaction with General Anesthesia
One of the most common side effects of herbal medicine is its interaction with pharmaceutical drugs. Of
particular danger is the interaction between herbs and anesthetics. Many people undergo general
anesthesia for outpatient procedures and diagnostic tests as well as major surgical procedures. Certain
herbs, such as kava kava and valerian, may magnify the effect of sedatives and general anesthetics.
Patients must tell their anesthesiologist about all herbs, supplements, vitamins, pharmaceutical
medications and alternative remedies they are taking to avoid dangerous drug interactions. TheAmerican
Society of Anesthesiologists advises patients not to take herbal remedies two weeks prior to receiving any
anesthesia because so many herbs can interact with anesthetics as well as cause other complications
during surgical procedures. Many doctors also advise against taking dietary supplementsprior to surgery
for the same reason.
Liver Inflammation
Echinacea, one of the most popular herbs used to boost the immune system and battle colds, may also
cause liver inflammation when it interacts with certain pharmaceutical compounds. Echinacea may also
prevent certain medications used to treat lupus and other immune-system disorders from working.

Modern
1. The inability to truly cure, which results in 40% of the American population suffering from a serious
chronic disorder.
2. Adverse side effects, which result in 180,000 deaths per year.
Examples
High blood pressure (hypertension). Modern medicine uses various drugs to drop the blood
pressure - without considering why the body had elevated it in the first place.
Angina - Modern medicine uses drugs to "cover-up" the symptoms of angina and other
forms of heart diease, without telling you you can actually reverse the damage that is causing it!
High Cholesterol - modern medicine uses drugs to artifically force lower cholesterol levels,
without thinking about WHY the body raised them in the first place (clue: it is a defensive
mechanism!)
Depression - modern medicine dopes adults and (increasingly) kids with toxic drugs to
cover up pyschiatric / psychological issues that are caused by malnutrition, plain and simple.
(specifically, a chronic lack of omega-3 fatty acids)

3. Iatrogenic disease of epidemic proportions.
4. Escalating costs that prohibit many from seeking appropriate modern health services.
5. The failure to prevent disease and suffering.


Correct Usage of Traditional and Modern Medicine
Modern
Modern medicine like antibiotics, analgesics and psychotherapeutic medicines can only be taken
under doctor's supervision or obtained through a prescription.
Antibiotics given by the doctor must be consumed within the stipulated time frame this is important to
ensure that all the bacteria that is causing the sickness has been killed by the antibiotics. Otherwise
some of the bacteria that are still alive in the body may develop a resistance towards the antibiotic.
when this happens, the same antibiotics will not be able to cure the disease or a very high dosage is
needed to cure the same disease in the future.
Analgesics such as paracetamol and aspirin must be taken only upon the advice of a doctor. Long
term consumption of analgesics can damage the liver and kidneys.
So, my advice is, follow the doctors advice always as they know better. =)


DRUG ABUSE
Usual Drugs Abused
Tobacco
Alcohol
Heroin
Marijuana


Why Teenagers Take Drugs
Teenagers that feel pressured and are not able to handle that are prone to drug abuse because the
drugs mentioned above stimulate relaxation and this makes them forget about their problems and
thus will lead to addiction from frequent consumption.


Side Effect of Drugs on Health
Nicotine: Increased blood pressure, and heart rate/chronic lung disease; cardiovascular
disease; stroke; cancers of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas,
cervix, kidney, bladder, and acute myeloid leukemia; adverse pregnancy outcomes;
addiction

Alcohol: In low doses, euphoria, mild stimulation, relaxation, lowered inhibitions; in
higher doses, drowsiness, slurred speech, nausea, emotional volatility, loss of
coordination, visual distortions, impaired memory, sexual dysfunction, loss of
consciousness/increased risk of injuries, violence, fetal damage (in pregnant women);
depression; neurologic deficits; hypertension; liver and heart disease; addiction; fatal
overdose

Marijuana: Euphoria; relaxation; slowed reaction time; distorted sensory perception;
impaired balance and coordination; increased heart rate and appetite; impaired learning,
memory; anxiety; panic attacks; psychosis/cough, frequent respiratory infections;
possible mental health decline; addiction

Heroin: Euphoria; drowsiness; impaired coordination; dizziness; confusion; nausea;
sedation; feeling of heaviness in the body; slowed or arrested breathing/constipation;
endocarditis; hepatitis; HIV; addiction; fatal overdose



Impact of Drug Abuse to Society
The abuse of drugs cause social and economic issues. As crime rate in society increases, the
demand of drug trafficking also increase. This effects nearly all aspects of our lives.


How to Prevent Drug Abuse
A number of different prevention approaches have been found to be effective in
decreasing the risk of drug abuse and addiction. Simple lifestyle changes, like
increased physical activity, are thought to help prevent drug abuse in teens.
There is also formal programs that are found helpful in preventing drug abuse.



References
http://www.mum.edu/physiology/hazards.html
http://www.natural-health-information-centre.com/modern-medicine.html
http://herbs.lovetoknow.com/Side_Effects_of_Herbal_Medicine
http://drugabuse.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-Google Images
Posted by Sarah at 6:20 AM No comments:
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Labels: Chemicals for Consumers
Saturday, September 3, 2011
Ammonia
Uses






The Properties of Ammonia






Haber Process
Ammonia is commercially produced by the Haber Process. This is a flow chart to show the stages in
the manufacture of ammonia, starting with the raw materials.



Ammonium Fertilisers
examples of ammonium fertilisers:
Ammonium phosphate
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium sulphate
The Effectiveness of Ammonium Fertilisers

It could be measured through determining its percentage of nitrogen content. Plants needs nitrogens to
grow. Usually nitrogen is absorbed by plants in soluble nitrate ions from soils. Ammonium fertilisers consist of
ammonium ions. Bacteria in the soils convert ammonium ions into nitrate ions which absorbed by plants
together with water. fFertiliser with higher percentage of nitrogen content is more effective.
To determine nitrogen content in ammonium fertilizer,



Comparison of Common Fertilizers



Fertiliser Ammonium Sulphate,
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4

Ammonium Nitrate,
NH
4
NO
3


Molar mass

(14+(1)4)2+32+(16)4=132

14+(1)4+14+(16)3=80

Percentage of
nitrogen in 1 mol

16/132 x 100% = 12.121%

28/80 x 100% = 35%



You should calculate the percentage of nitrogen content in each fertiliser and compare which one has
higher percentage of nitrogen content. You'll know which fertiliser from the list is more effective.
From this example, ammonium nitrate is more effective.
Preparation of Ammonium Nitrate
Aim: To prepare ammonium nitrate
Material: 1 mol dm
-3
ammonia solution, NH3
Material : 1 mol dm
-3
ammonia solution, NH
3
(aq), 1 mol dm
-3
nitric acid, NO
3
, red litmus paper.
Apparatus : 250 cm
3
beaker, glass rod, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, wire gauze, filter funnel,
filter paper, measuring cylinder, dropper, asbestos tile.





Procedure :
1. Measure 50 cm
3
of 1 mol dm
-3
nitric acid, HNO
3
, with a measuring cylinder and pour into a 250 cm
3
beaker.
2. Add 1 mol dm
-3
ammonia solution, NH
3
(aq), drop by drop from a dropper into the nitric acid, HNO
3
, while
stirring until an excess amount is used (when ammonia is smelt).
3. Pour the mixture into an evaporating dish.
4. Boil the mixture until it evaporates to form a saturated solution.
5. Cool the saturated solution to room temperature until crystal salts form.
6. Filter and rinse the crystals with a little cold distilled water.
7. Dry the salt crystals on a filter paper.

Analysis : Neutralisation occurs between nitric acid, HNO
3
, and ammonia solution, NH
3
(aq), and
can be represented by the chemical equation below:

2NH
3
(aq) + HNO
3
NH
4
NO
3


Conclusion : Ammonium nitrate, NH
4
NO
3
, salt can be prepared from the reaction between nitric
acid, HNO
3
, and ammonia solution, NH
3
(aq).

Discussion :
1. The mixture formed in the beaker can be tested from time to time with red litmus paper. The adding of ammonia
solution, NH
3
(aq), drops are stopped when the red litmus paper turns blue.
2. The chemical equation of the reaction between ammonia aqueous solution and nitric acid, HNO
3
, can be written
as below:

HNO
3
(aq) + 2NH
4
OH(aq) NH
4
NO
3
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l)

However, only about 2% of the dissolved ammonia forms ammonium and hydroxide ions.

References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM

Posted by Sarah at 10:08 AM 2 comments:
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Labels: Manufacture Substances in Industry
Sulphuric Acid
Its Uses




Contact Process
Sulphuric Acid is manufactured through the contact process. This is a flow chart to show the steps in
the production of sulphuric acid by the Contact Process, starting from the raw materials until you
finally get the sulphuric acid.



Sulphur Dioxide
This is one of the by-products of the Contact Process. It causes environment pollution. But before
that, let us see the main sources of sulphur dioxide.



Now that we know the sources of sulphur dioxide, let us see the effects of sulphur dioxide towards
human health.
Severe airways obstruction,
Hypoxemia (insufficient oxygenation of the blood),
Pulmonary edema (a life threatening accumulation of fluid in the lungs)
Skin irritation
Eye irritation
Smarting of the eyes and lachrymation (tears)
Permanent pulmonary impairment (prolonged exposure)
may cause Cancers such as lung cancer, stomach cancer or brain tumours

Acid Rain

Acid rain has a pH below 5.6 due mainly to the reaction of water vapour with sulfur dioxide and the oxides of
nitrogen.

Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid (H
2
SO
3
):
SO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) H
2
SO
3
(aq)
Sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) can be oxidised gradually to sulfur trioxide (SO
3
):
2SO
2
(g) + O
2
(g) -----> 2SO
3
(g)

Sulfur trioxide (SO
3
) reacts with water to form sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
):
SO
3
(g) + H
2
O(l) -----> H
2
SO
4
(aq)

source: http://www.nzdl.org


Effects of Acid Rain



References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-http://www.nzdl.org
Posted by Sarah at 10:00 AM 3 comments:
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Labels: Manufacture Substances in Industry
Wednesday, June 1, 2011
Composite Materials
Definition

Composite materials are produced from the combination of two or more different compounds such as
alloys, metals, glass, polymers and ceramic.

Uses



Composite
Materials
Composition Properties Uses
Reinforcement
Concrete
Cement
Gravel
Sand
Water
Iron or Steel
Strong
High textile
strength
Cheap
- Construction
materials
Superconductor Niobium
Germanium
Zero resistance
Functions only
under extremely
low temperatures
- Transportation
-
Telecommunications
- Astronomy
industry
- Medical field
Fibre Glass Silica
Sodium carbonate
Calcium
carbonate
Good insulator of
heat and electricity
- Protective apparel
for astronauts and
firefighters
Fibre Optics Glass
Copper
Aluminium
Enables
information to be
transmitted in light
form at light speed
- Electrical cables
- observe internal
organs without
surgery
Photochromic
Glass
Molten silica
Silver cloride
Dark in colour
when exposed to
light and bright
when in the dark
- Optical lenses
- Glass windows
Ceramic Glass Produced by
exposing glass that
contains certain
amounts of metal to
- Cooking materials
- Rocket heads
ultraviolet rays and
heating it at high
temperatures
Plastic
strengthened with
glass fibres
Plastic
Glass
Very strong
Light
Easily formed
Withstands
corrosion
- Helmets
- Body of cars and
aeroplanes
- rods




Fibre Glass

Glass fibre is formed when thin strands of silica based or other formulation glass is extruded into fibres with
small diameters suitable for textile processing.
Glass is unlike other polymers in that it has little crystalline structure and can be considered a substance
frozen in its amorphous stage. The properties of the structure of glass in its softened stage are very much like its
properties when spun into fibre.

Advantages of Photochromic Glass as Spectacles


The main advantage is that they will darken into a sunglass when exposed to U.V. light, thus obviating the need
to carry a separate pair of sunglasses for protection against harmful U.V. rays from the sun.
Secondly, they provide a better visual health through UV protection than traditional prescription sunglasses.


References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochromic_lens
-http://www.eyewearcanada.com/eyeglasses/advantages-and-disadvantages-about-photochromic-sunglasses/
-http://www.madabout-kitcars.com/kitcar/kb.php?aid=106

2. bahagian pada molekul sabun.Lihat gambar dibawah




head -hydrophilic part iaitu larut dalam air dan bercas negative (terdiri daripada COO-)
tail -hydrophobic part iaitu larut dalam minyak(grease)(terdiri daripada rantai hydocarbon yang
panjang)
Dalam bahagian ini juga pelajar harus dapat membezakan antara struktur sabun dan detergent.



3. Cleansing action of soap and detergent:
Dalam bahagian ini pelajar harus mengetahu bagaimana tindakan sabun dan detergent dalam
aktiviti pembersihan.Antara soalan yang kerap ditanya ialah


"Why cleansing action of soap not effective in hard water than detergent"?
Jawapannya:
dalam "hard water" mengandungi ion magnesium dan calcium.Sabun akan membentuk mendakan
tidak larut yang dikenali kekat (scum) apabila berada dalam hard water.Ini menyebabkan kekat
tersebut akan melekat pada permukaan baju dan susah untuk ditanggalkan.Manakala detergent
tidak bertindakbalas dengan ion Mg dan Ca.
contoh persamaan:
long chain carbon--COO- + Mg2+ ...> long chain carbon---COOMg (scum)

*Kekat (scum) boleh diperhatikan pada permukaan kolar baju kebiasaanya bewarna kuning atau
kelabu.

"Why soap not effective in acidic water"?
because anion from soap will react with hydrogen ion in acidic solution to form carboxylic acid

long chain carbon--COO- + H+ ...> long chain carbon---COOH (carboxylic acid)

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