Vitamin E

1
Vitamin E
Vitamin E
Drug class
The -tocopherol form of vitamin E
Use Vitamin E deficiency, antioxidant
Biological target Reactive oxygen species
ATC code A11H
External links
MeSH
D014810
[1]
AHFS/Drugs.com
MedFacts Natural Products
[2]
Vitamin E refers to a group of eight fat-soluble compounds that include both tocopherols and tocotrienols.
[3]
There
are many different forms of vitamin E, of which -tocopherol is the most common in the North American diet.
[4]
-Tocopherol can be found in corn oil, soybean oil, margarine and dressings.
[5][6]
In the North American diet,
-Tocopherol, the most biologically active form of vitamin E, is the second most common form of vitamin E. This
variant of vitamin E can be found most abundantly in wheat germ oil, sunflower, and safflower oils.
[6][7]
It is a
fat-soluble antioxidant that stops the production of reactive oxygen species formed when fat undergoes
oxidation.
[8][9][10]
Functions
Vitamin E has many biological functions; the antioxidant function being the most important and/or best known.
[11]
Other functions include enzymatic activities, gene expression and neurological function(s). It's also been suggested
that the most important function of vitamin E is in cell signaling (and, that it may not have a significant role in
antioxidant metabolism).
[12][13]
As an antioxidant, vitamin E acts as a peroxyl radical scavenger, preventing the propagation of free radicals in
tissues, by reacting with them to form a tocopheryl radical which will then be oxidized by a hydrogen donor (such
as Vitamin C) and thus return to its reduced state.
[14]
As it is fat-soluble, it is incorporated into cell membranes,
which protects them from oxidative damage.
As an enzymatic activity regulator, for instance, protein kinase C (PKC), which plays a role in smooth muscle
growth, can be inhibited by -tocopherol. -Tocopherol has a stimulatory effect on the dephosphorylation
enzyme, protein phosphatase 2A, which in turn, cleaves phosphate groups from PKC leading to its deactivation,
bringing the smooth muscle growth to a halt.
[15]
Vitamin E also has an effect on gene expression. Macrophages rich in cholesterol are found in the atherogenetic
tissue. Scavenger receptor CD36 is a class B scavenger receptor found to be up-regulated by oxidized low density
lipoprotein (LDL) and binds it.
[16]
Treatment with alpha tocopherol was found to downregulate the expression of
the CD36 scavenger receptor gene and the scavenger receptor class A (SR-A)
[16]
and modulates expression of the
connective tissue growth factor (CTGF).
[17][18]
CTGF gene, when expressed, is responsible for the repair of
Vitamin E
2
wounds and regeneration of the extracellular tissue that is lost or damaged during atherosclerosis.
[18]
Vitamin E also plays a role in neurological functions,
[19]
and inhibition of platelet aggregation.
[20][21][22]
Vitamin E also protects lipids and prevents the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs.)
[23]
So far, most human supplementation studies about vitamin E have used only alpha-tocopherol. This can affect levels
of other forms of vitamin E, e.g. reducing serum gamma- and delta-tocopherol concentrations. Moreover, a 2007
clinical study involving alpha-tocopherol concluded that supplementation did not reduce the risk of major
cardiovascular events in middle aged and older men.
[24]
Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency can cause:
spinocerebellar ataxia
[25]
myopathies
[6]
peripheral neuropathy
[8][26][27]
ataxia
[8][26][27]
skeletal myopathy
[8][26][27]
retinopathy
[8][26][27]
impairment of the immune response
[8][26][27]
erythrocyte hemolysis
[23]
Supplementation
While it was initially hoped that vitamin E supplementation would have a positive effect on health, research has not
supported these conclusions.
[28]
Vitamin E does not decrease mortality in adults, even at large doses,
[29]
and may
slightly increase it.
[30][31]
It does not improve blood sugar control in an unselected group of people with diabetes
mellitus
[29]
or decrease the risk of stroke.
[32]
Daily supplementation of vitamin E does not decrease the risk of
prostate cancer and may increase it.
[33]
Studies on its role in age related macular degeneration are ongoing as, even
though it is of a combination of dietary antioxidants used to treat the condition, it may increase the risk.
[34]
A
Japanese study in 2012 found that vitamin E may contribute to osteoporosis.
[35]
Dietary sources
mg/(100g)
[36]
Some foods with vitamin E content
[8]
low high
150 Wheat germ oil
41 Sunflower oil
34 Safflower oil
15 26
Nuts and nut oils, like almonds and hazelnuts
[37]
15
Palm oil
[38]
1.5 3.4
High-value green, leafy vegetables: spinach,
turnip,
beet, collard, and dandelion greens
[39]
2.1 Avocados
1.1 1.5
Asparagus
[40]
Vitamin E
3
1.5 Kiwifruit (green)
0.78 1.5
Broccoli
[41]
0.8 1
Pumpkin
[42]
0.26 0.94
Sweet potato
[43][44]
0.9 Mangoes
0.54 0.56
Tomatoes
[45]
0.36 0.44
Rockfish
[46]
0.3 Papayas
0.13 0.22
Low-value green, leafy vegetables: lettuce
[47]
Recommended daily intake
The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences report
the following dietary reference intakes for vitamin E:
[8][48]
mg/day Age
Infants
4 0 to 6 months
5 7 to 12 months
Children
6 1 to 3 years
7 4 to 8 years
11 9 to 13 years
Adolescents and Adults
15 14 and older
One IU of vitamin E is defined as equivalent to either: 0.67mg of the natural form, RRR-alpha-tocopherol, also
known as d-alpha-tocopherol; or 0.45mg of the synthetic form, all-rac-alpha-tocopherol, also known as
dl-alpha-tocopherol.
[8]
History
The first use for vitamin E as a therapeutic agent was conducted in 1938 by Widenbauer. Widenbauer used wheat
germ oil supplement on 17 premature newborn infants suffering from growth failure. 11 out of the original 17
patients recovered and were able to resume normal growth rates.
[11]
Later on, in 1948, while conducting experiments
on alloxan effects on rats, Gyorge and Rose noted that the rats receiving tocopherol supplements suffered from less
hemolysis than those that did not receive tocopherol.
[49]
In 1949, Gerloczy administered all-rac--tocopheryl acetate
to prevent and cure edema.
[50][51]
Methods of administration used were both oral, that showed positive response, and
intramuscular, which did not show a response.
[11]
This early investigative work on the benefits of vitamin E
supplementation was the gateway to curing the vitamin E deficiency caused hemolytic anemia described during the
1960s. Since then, supplementation of infant formulas with vitamin E has eradicated this vitamins deficiency as a
cause for hemolytic anemia.
[11]
Vitamin E
4
Forms
The eight forms of vitamin E are divided into two groups; four are tocopherols and four are tocotrienols. They are
identified by prefixes alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-. Natural tocopherols occur in the RRR-configuration only.
The synthetic form contains eight different stereoisomers and is called all-rac--tocopherol.
[52]
-Tocopherol
Sample of -tocopherol, one of the various forms of Vitamin E
-Tocopherol is an important lipid-soluble
antioxidant. It performs its functions as
antioxidant in what is known by the
glutathione peroxidase pathway
[53]
and it
protects cell membranes from oxidation by
reacting with lipid radicals produced in the
lipid peroxidation chain reaction.
[25][9]
This
would remove the free radical intermediates
and prevent the oxidation reaction from
continuing. The oxidized -tocopheroxyl
radicals produced in this process may be
recycled back to the active reduced form
through reduction by other antioxidants, such as ascorbate, retinol or ubiquinol.
[54]
However, the importance of the
antioxidant properties of this molecule at the concentrations present in the body are not clear and it is possible that
the reason why vitamin E is required in the diet is unrelated to its ability to act as an antioxidant.
[55]
Other forms of
vitamin E have their own unique properties; for example, gamma-tocopherol is a nucleophile that can react with
electrophilic mutagens.
[56]
Tocotrienols
Compared with tocopherols, tocotrienols are sparsely studied.
[57][58][59]
Less than 1% of PubMed papers on vitamin
E relate to tocotrienols.
[60]
The current research direction is starting to give more prominence to the tocotrienols, the
lesser known but more potent antioxidants in the vitamin E family. Some studies have suggested that tocotrienols
have specialized roles in protecting neurons from damage
[60]
and cholesterol reduction
[61]
by inhibiting the activity
of HMG-CoA reductase; delta-tocotrienol blocks processing of sterol regulatory elementbinding proteins
(SREBPs).
Oral consumption of tocotrienols is also thought to protect against stroke-associated brain damage in vivo.
[62]
Until
further research has been carried out on the other forms of vitamin E, conclusions relating to the other forms of
vitamin E, based on trials studying only the efficacy of alpha-tocopherol, may be premature.
[63]
Notes
[1] http:/ / www. nlm. nih.gov/ cgi/ mesh/ 2011/ MB_cgi?field=uid& term=D014810
[2] http:/ / www. drugs. com/ npp/ vitamin-e.html
[3] Brigelius-Flohe, B; Traber (1999). "Vitamin E: function and metabolism". FASEB 13: 11451155.
[4] Traber, MG (1998). "The biological activity of vitamin E" (http:/ / lpi. oregonstate. edu/ sp-su98/ vitamine. html). The Linus Pauling Institute.
. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
[5] Bieri, JG; Evarts (1974). "-Tocopherol: metabolism, biological activity and significance in human vitamin E nutrition". American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition 27 (9): 980986. PMID4472121.
[6] Brigelius-Floh R, Traber MG (1 July 1999). "Vitamin E: function and metabolism". FASEB J. 13 (10): 114555. PMID10385606.
[7] Reboul E, Richelle M, Perrot E, Desmoulins-Malezet C, Pirisi V, Borel P (15 November 2006). "Bioaccessibility of carotenoids and vitamin
E from their main dietary sources". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (23): 87498755. doi:10.1021/jf061818s.
PMID17090117.
Vitamin E
5
[8] National Institute of Health (4 May 2009). "Vitamin E fact sheet" (http:/ / ods. od. nih. gov/ factsheets/ VitaminE. asp). .
[9] Herrera; Barbas, C (2001). "Vitamin E: action, metabolism and perspectives". Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry 57 (2): 4356.
doi:10.1007/BF03179812. PMID11579997.
[10] Packer L, Weber SU, Rimbach G (2001). "Molecular aspects of -tocotrienol antioxidant action and cell signalling" (http:/ / jn. nutrition.
org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 131/ 2/ 369S). Journal of Nutrition 131 (2): 369S73S. PMID11160563. .
[11] Bell, EF (1987). "History of vitamin E in infant nutrition". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46 (1 Suppl): 183186. PMID3300257.
[12] Azzi (2007). "Molecular mechanism of alpha-tocopherol action". Free radical biology & medicine 43 (1): 1621.
doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.013. PMID17561089.
[13] Zingg; Azzi, A (2004). "Non-antioxidant activities of vitamin E". Current medicinal chemistry 11 (9): 111333. PMID15134510.
[14] Traber, Maret G.; Stevens, Jan F. (2011). "Free Radical Biology and Medicine Vitamins C and E: Beneficial effects from a mechanistic
perspective". Free Radical Biology and Medicine 51 (5): 100013. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.05.017. PMC3156342.
PMID21664268.
[15] Schneider, C (2005). "Chemistry and biology of vitamin E". Mol Nutr Food Res 49 (1): 730. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200400049.
PMID15580660.
[16] Devaraj, S; Hugou, I., Jialal, I. (2001). "-Tocopherol decreases CD36 expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages". J Lipid Res 42
(4): 521527. PMID11290823.
[17] Azzi, A; Stocker, R. (2000). "Vitamin E: non-antioxidant roles". Prog Lipid Res 39 (3): 231255. doi:10.1016/S0163-7827(00)00006-0.
PMID10799717.
[18] Villacorta, L.; Graca-Souza, A. V., Ricciarelli, R., Zingg, J. M., Azzi, A (2003). "-Tocopherol induces expression of connective tissue
growth factor and antagonizes tumor necrosis factor--mediated downregulation in human smooth muscle cells". Circ. Res. 92 (1): 104110.
doi:10.1161/01.RES.0000049103.38175.1B. PMID12522127.
[19] Muller, D.P. (2010). "Vitamin E and neurological function. Review". Mol. Nutr. Food Res 54 (5): 710718. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200900460.
PMID20183831.
[20] Dowd, P; Zheng, Z. B. (1995). "On the mechanism of the anticlotting action of vitamin E quinone". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 92 (18):
81718175. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.18.8171. PMC41118. PMID7667263.
[21] Brigelius-Floh; Davies, KJ (2007). "Is vitamin E an antioxidant, a regulator of signal transduction and gene expression, or a 'junk' food?
Comments on the two accompanying papers: "Molecular mechanism of alpha-tocopherol action" by A. Azzi and "Vitamin E, antioxidant and
nothing more" by M. Traber and J. Atkinson". Free radical biology & medicine 43 (1): 23. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.05.016.
PMID17561087.
[22] Atkinson; Epand, RF; Epand, RM (2008). "Tocopherols and tocotrienols in membranes: a critical review". Free radical biology & medicine
44 (5): 73964. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.11.010. PMID18160049.
[23] Whitney, Ellie; Sharon Rady Rolfes (2011). Peggy Williams. ed. Understanding Nutrition (Twelfth ed.). California: Wadsworth,Cengage
Learning. ISBN0-538-73465-5.
[24] Sesso, H. D.; Buring, J. E.; Christen, W. G.; Kurth, T.; Belanger, C.; MacFadyen, J.; Bubes, V.; Manson, J. E. et al. (2008). "Vitamins E and
C in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Men: The Physicians' Health Study II Randomized Trial". JAMA: the Journal of the
American Medical Association 300 (18): 212333. doi:10.1001/jama.2008.600. PMC2586922. PMID18997197.
[25] Traber; Atkinson, J (2007). "Vitamin E, Antioxidant and Nothing More". Free radical biology & medicine 43 (1): 415.
doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.024. PMC2040110. PMID17561088.
[26] [26] Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press, 2000.
[27] Kowdley KV, Mason JB, Meydani SN, Cornwall S, Grand RJ (1992). "Vitamin E deficiency and impaired cellular immunity related to
intestinal fat malabsorption". Gastroenterology 102 (6): 213942. PMID1587435.
[28] Haber, David (2006). Health promotion and aging : practical applications for health professionals (http:/ / books. google. ca/
books?id=cxWOnrsxj-MC& pg=PA280) (4th ed.). New York, NY: Springer Pub. p.280. ISBN978-0-8261-8463-4. .
[29] Abner, EL; Schmitt, FA, Mendiondo, MS, Marcum, JL, Kryscio, RJ (July 2011). "Vitamin E and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis".
Current aging science 4 (2): 15870. PMID21235492.
[30] Miller Er, 3.; Pastor-Barriuso, R.; Dalal, D.; Riemersma, R. A.; Appel, L. J.; Guallar, E. (2005). "Meta-analysis: High-dosage vitamin E
supplementation may increase all-cause mortality". Annals of internal medicine 142 (1): 3746. PMID15537682.
[31] Bjelakovic, G; Nikolova, D, Gluud, LL, Simonetti, RG, Gluud, C (16 April 2008). Bjelakovic, Goran. ed. "Antioxidant supplements for
prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) (2):
CD007176. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007176. PMID18425980.
[32] Bin, Q; Hu, X, Cao, Y, Gao, F (April 2011). "The role of vitamin E (tocopherol) supplementation in the prevention of stroke. A
meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials". Thrombosis and haemostasis 105 (4): 57985. doi:10.1160/TH10-11-0729.
PMID21264448.
[33] Haederle, Michael. "Vitamin E Supplements Raise Risk of Prostate Cancer" (http:/ / www. aarp. org/ health/ drugs-supplements/
info-10-2011/ vitamin-e-supplements-raise-prostate-cancer-risk-health-discovery. html). Health Discovery. AARP. . Retrieved 11 November
2011.
[34] Olson, JH; Erie, JC, Bakri, SJ (May 2011). "Nutritional supplementation and age-related macular degeneration". Seminars in ophthalmology
26 (3): 1316. doi:10.3109/08820538.2011.577131. PMID21609225.
Vitamin E
6
[35] "Taking vitamin E linked to osteoporosis: research" (http:/ / sg. news. yahoo. com/
taking-vitamin-e-linked-osteoporosis-research-053043309. html). .
[36] "USDA Nutrient Data Laboratory" (http:/ / www. nal.usda. gov/ fnic/ foodcomp/ search/ ). . In notes 211, USDA NDL Release 24
numbers are given as mg/(100g). Low and high values vary some by raw versus cooked and by variety.
[37] [37] 26 almonds, 15 hazelnuts.
[38] "Wolfram Alpha" (http:/ / www.wolframalpha. com/ input/ ?i=palm+ oil+ 100ml). http:/ / www. wolframalpha. com. .
[39] [39] Spinach (2.0 raw, 2.1 cooked), turnip (2.9 raw, 1.9 cooked), beet (1.5 raw, 1.8 cooked), collard (2.3 raw, 0.88 cooked), and dandelion greens
(3.4 raw, 2.4 cooked)
[40] [40] 1.1 raw, 1.5 cooked.
[41] [41] 0.78 raw, 1.5 cooked.
[42] [42] 1. raw, 0.8 cooked.
[43] [43] 0.26 raw, 0.94 boiled.
[44] 0.94 mg/(100g) corresponds to 1.6kg of boiled sweet potatoes per day of the recommended intake for adults. The desired amount of
vitamin E food's E value = amount of food. Thus, (15 (mg/day))((0.94 mg)/(100 g)) = (15 (mg/day))*((100 g)/(0.94 mg)) = (15*100
g)/(0.94 day) 1596 g/day 1.6kg/day.
[45] [45] 0.54 raw, 0.56 cooked.
[46] [46] 0.36 raw, 0.44 cooked.
[47] [47] Lettuce (0.18 iceburg, 0.22 green leaf, 0.13 romaine, 0.15 red leaf, 0.18 butterhead).
[48] Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. (2000). Dietary Reference Intakes: Applications in Dietary Assessment. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press. p.289. OCLC45618946.
[49] Gyorgy, P.; Rose (1948). "Effect of dietary factors on early mortality and hemoglobinuria in rats following administration of alloxan".
Science 108 (2817): 716718. doi:10.1126/science.108.2817.716. PMID17752961.
[50] Gerloczy F (1949). "Clinical and pathological role of d, 1-alpha tocopherol in premature infants; studies on the treatment of scleroedema".
Ann Paediatr 173 (3): 17186. PMID18140084.
[51] Brion LP, Bell EF, Raghuveer TS (2003). Brion, Luc P. ed. "Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortality in
preterm infants" (http:/ / www. nichd. nih.gov/ cochrane/ brion7/ brion. htm). Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD003665.
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003665. PMID14583988. . "These observations explain why even a small dose of 5mg of dl-alpha-tocopheryl
acetate provided enterally has proven to be more efficient than larger intramuscular doses (30mg) in treating scleredema (Gerlczy 1949)"
[52] Traber, MG. "Chapter 15: vitamin E". In Bowman BA and Russell RM. Current Knowledge in Nutrition. I (9 ed.). Washington DC, USA:
ILSI. ISBN978-1-57881-199-1.
[53] Wefers, H; Sics (1988). "The protection of ascorbate and glutathione against microsomal lipid peroxidation is dependent on Vitamin E".
European Journal of Biochemistry 174 (2): 353357. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1988.tb14105.x. PMID3383850.
[54] Wang; Quinn, PJ (1999). "Vitamin E and its function in membranes". Progress in Lipid Research 38 (4): 30936.
doi:10.1016/S0163-7827(99)00008-9. PMID10793887.
[55] Brigelius-Floh (2009). "Vitamin E: the shrew waiting to be tamed". Free radical biology & medicine 46 (5): 54354.
doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2008.12.007. PMID19133328.
[56] Brigelius-Floh; Traber, MG (1999). "Vit amin E: function and metabolism". The FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of
American Societies for Experimental Biology 13 (10): 114555. PMID10385606.
[57] Traber, MG; Packer, L (1995). "Vitamin E: beyond antioxidant function" (http:/ / www. ajcn. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 62/ 6/ 1501S).
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62 (6): 1501S1509S. PMID7495251. .
[58] Traber; Sies, H (1996). "Vitamin E in humans: demand and delivery". Annual review of nutrition 16: 32147.
doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.16.070196.001541. PMID8839930.
[59] Sen; Khanna, S; Roy, S (2004). "Tocotrienol: the natural vitamin E to defend the nervous system?". Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences 1031: 12742. doi:10.1196/annals.1331.013. PMID15753140.
[60] Sen; Khanna, S; Roy, S (2006). "Tocotrienols: Vitamin E Beyond Tocopherols". Life Sciences 78 (18): 208898.
doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.12.001. PMC1790869. PMID16458936.
[61] Das; Lekli, I; Das, M; Szabo, G; Varadi, J; Juhasz, B; Bak, I; Nesaretam, K et al. (2008). "Cardioprotection with palm oil tocotrienols:
comparison of different isomers". American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology 294 (2): H9708.
doi:10.1152/ajpheart.01200.2007. PMID18083895.
[62] Khanna, S.; Roy, S.; Slivka, A.; Craft, T. K.S.; Chaki, S.; Rink, C.; Notestine, M. A.; Devries, A. C. et al. (2005). "Neuroprotective
Properties of The Natural Vitamin E -Tocotrienol". Stroke 36 (10): 225864. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000181082.70763.22. PMC1829173.
PMID16166580.
[63] Sen, C; Khanna, S; Roy, S (2007). "Tocotrienols in health and disease: the other half of the natural vitamin E family". Molecular Aspects of
Medicine 28 (56): 692728. doi:10.1016/j.mam.2007.03.001. PMC2435257. PMID17507086.
Vitamin E
7
References
Further reading
Brigelius-Flohe, Regina; Kelly, F; Salonen, J; Neuzil, J; Zingg, J; Azzi, A (2002). "The European perspective on
vitamin E: current knowledge and future research". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76 (4): 70316.
PMID12324281.
External links
Vitamin E bound to proteins (http:/ / www. ebi. ac. uk/ pdbe-srv/ PDBeXplore/ ligand/ ?ligand=VIT) in the PDB
Vitamin E (http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ medlineplus/ ency/ article/ 002406. htm) Medline Plus, Medical
Encyclopedia, U.S. National Library of Medicine
Vitamin E (http:/ / dietary-supplements. info. nih. gov/ factsheets/ vitamine. asp) Office of Dietary Supplements,
National Institutes of Health
Jane Higdon, " Vitamin E (http:/ / lpi. oregonstate. edu/ infocenter/ vitamins/ vitaminE/ / )", Micronutrient
Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University
Vitamin E Food Charts (http:/ / healthyeatingclub. com/ info/ books-phds/ books/ foodfacts/ html/ data/ data3d.
html)
Article Sources and Contributors
8
Article Sources and Contributors
Vitamin E Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=516527935 Contributors: 11 Arlington, A2-25, Aitias, Alansohn, Anypodetos, Arcadian, Arjayay, BD2412, BSW-RMH,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Tocopherol, alpha-.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tocopherol,_alpha-.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Calvero.
File:Sample of alpha-tocopherol.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sample_of_alpha-tocopherol.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: LHcheM
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
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