1.

Chapter 1: Introduction
a. Background to the Study (Introduces subject area under study and current
situation)
b. Problem Statement and Justification (to be precise and focused)
c. Purpose of the Study
d. Objectie of the Study
i. !eneral Objectie
ii. Specific Objectie (Specific" #easurable" $chieable" %ealistic &
'ime bound)
e. %esearch (uestions ()ypotheses)
f. Significance (to e*plain the benefits and the beneficiaries of the findings of
the study)
g. +elimitations, Scope of the study (!ies the e*tent to -hich the study -ill be
carried out)
h. .imitations (anticipated shortcomings)
i. $ssumptions
2. Chapter 2: Literature Review
3. Chapter 3: Methodology
4. Chapter 4: Finding and !icuion
". Chapter ": #u$$ary% Concluion and Reco$$endation
1. Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. &ac'ground to the #tudy (Introduce u)*ect area under tudy and current
ituation+
/omen comprise 012 of the population of 3epal (4BS" 1567)" but lag behind in eery
socioeconomic" legal" and political sphere of life. 4oinciding -ith the large geographic
ariation of the country" there e*ist considerable differences in traditions and the culture
of the different ethnic communities on -omen8s mobility" marriage options" and access to
resources and social status. !ender based differences are ery common among all ethnic
groups ho-eer9 the degree of disparity aries. !ender based e*clusions are in terms of
education" health" social" economic and political opportunities. 'his is particularly the
case for rural -omen.
#ore than :5 percent of people liing in the rural areas of 3epal depend on traditional
fuel for fulfilling their household8s energy re;uirements" -hich is primarily managed by
-omen. In addition" -omen are largely responsible for hulling and grinding actiities
-ith indigenous technologies. In rural mountain areas" -omen -ake up in the morning
and -alk four to fie hours to collect a bundle of fire-ood. In such circumstances"
-omen8s roles in managing the household energy system cannot be underestimated. 'able
(<) presents the status of energy use in 3epal.
'able <= %ural >nergy Situation in 3epal
'ypes of ?uel @sed (uantity of ?uel @sed
?uel /ood AA.A52
Petroleum :.152
$nimal +ung 0.A52
$gricultural %esidue B.A52
>lectricity 1.552
4oal <.752
Biogas 5.652
Solar 5.552
#icro hydro 5.552
#ource: ,-C#% .uly 2/1/
$bout :: percent of the total energy consumption in 3epal is met by biomass" of -hich"
the major percentage comes from fuel -ood and only a lo- percentage is shared by
animal -aste and agricultural residue respectiely. 'he rest is met by commercial energy
sources. Only about <C percent of the total population has access to electricity" and this
drops to just B percent of the rural population (Banskota and Sharma" <777=<5A).
>*cessie use of biomass energy is not only a threat to the enironment due to the high
use of forest resources" but also results in a trade off in agricultural productiity due to
consumption of agricultural residues and animal -aste from farms to the fireplace. 'his
situation is -orsened by the lo-Dleel efficiency of these fuels" -hich are also a health
haEard due to the increased air pollution -hen they burn and this particularly affects rural
-omen -ho do most of the cooking ($matya and Shrestha" <77:).
'here are rene-able energy technologies (%>'s) that offer significant potential in terms
of reducing -omen8s drudgery" improing health conditions" allo-ing -omen to hae
enough time to be inoled in incomeDgenerating" social and community deelopment
actiities for their selfDenhancement and empo-erment. 'hese rene-able energy
technologies include biogas" improed cooking stoes" microDhydro po-er" and solar
photooltaic ($matya and Shrestha" <77:=::).
1.2. 0ro)le$ #tate$ent and .uti1ication (to )e precie and 1ocued+
!ender is an important aspect of energy. It defines access" -ays of utiliEation"
opportunities" and control oer resources. It also determines the needs" priorities" and
perspecties of men and -omen in different societies. %ene-able energy technologies"
too" are not genderDneutral. 'here is ample eidence to indicate that rene-able energy
technologies can play a major role in addressing energy security and gender issues in the
long term. 'herefore" it is essential to e*amine the gender dimension of energy" in order
to cater to the needs of both -omen and men.
1.3. 0urpoe o1 the #tudy
%ural energy technology is one of the central areas -here -omen8s roles and
responsibilities should not be underestimated since they are the ones -ho are directly
inoled in consumption and management of energy resources. In rural areas of 3epal"
energy needs at the household leel are directly related to -omen8s -orkloads and their
time. ?or instance" -omen in rural mountain areas still spend fie to si* hours in
collecting fire-ood and t-o to four hours in processing grains. 'he -omen8s metabolic
energy is often made inisible and almost forgotten by the rural energy planners. ?or
instance" -ater mills for grinding grains fall under the energy sector" -hereas -omen
doing the same task -ith other indigenous technologies do not. Ignoring human energy
disadantages -omen in particular" since -omen proide more labor and longer hours in
managing the household energy system (4ecelski" <7709 4lancy" <77:). In many cases"
uterine prolapsed among rural -omen in 3epal is attributed to carrying heay fire-ood
and similarly -omen often face a risk of miscarriages -ith such heay -orkload. $ study
in 3epal indicated that highest percentage of infant mortality is associated -ith acute
respiratory infection ($%I)" -hich is mainly caused" by indoor air pollution. Similarly" the
girl children are kept out of school to assist in -ood collection.
$nother important issue in the energy sector is the gendered access to and control oer
energy resources and technologies. /omen rarely hae control oer resources and
technologies" een if they hae access to the same. ?or instance" in 3epal" operation of
biogas plants (mainly mi*ing dung -ith -ater) is -omen8s task" -hile men select the land
(location) for installing the biogas plant. Fet -omen8s inolement in selection of the
location is ery important since they are the ones inoled preparing for operating the gas
plant for e*ample" fetching -ater" carrying dung from the stable and so forth.
Since -omen and men hae different roles" needs and interests" the rural energy
technologies hae different implications and impacts on men and -omen. ?or instance"
installation of biogas plants has direct positie effect on cooking" collecting -ater and
fire-ood" and cleaning utensils. $t the same time" it also adds to the -omen8s -orkload
in collecting -ater and grasses for stallDfeeding and changes the -orking structure of
-omen. )ence" the positie effect of haing biogas has to be compared -ith its negatie
conse;uences -hen planning such technologies from a gender perspectie. In addition"
-omen alue the conenience and smokeless state of the plant" -hile men alue the
manure benefit and the social status of haing a biogas plant.
>nergy analysts and policy makers at a macroDleel hae not paid enough attention to
gender issues and the little attention that has been paid in this regard is confined to the
household sector (Parikh" <770=AC6). )o-eer" much of -omen8s -ork goes beyond the
household sector and spills into agriculture and food processing" serices and
manufacturing (4ecelski" <77<). /omen play key roles in the collection" management
and use of energy resources and technologies and thus their indigenous kno-ledge and
skills become immensely important in planning and designing rural energy technologies.
+espite kno-ing the aboe facts" the majority of energy planners (normally male) rarely
sit do-n -ith -omen for -hom they are planning and discuss the problems from their
perspecties (Skutsch" <770=B). /omen8s e*pertise in management of energy resources
has been discounted as irreleant to energy policy and planning (4ecelski" <771= :).
%ural energy policies in 3epal are mostly influenced by an interest in reducing fuelD-ood
consumption and increasing modern energy supplies in rural areas rather than saing the
human energy (-hich mostly comes from -omen) that could be best utiliEed for other
productie actiities. ?or instance" -omen could use their free time to be inoled in
smallDscale actiities" like knitting" -eaing and other cottage industries" -hich help them
to generate more income. )ence" -omen hae practical gender needs to meet the daily
household energy re;uirements" -hile they hae strategic gender needs to gain their selfD
confidence and independence by haing access to time and opportunities. @nless
-omen8s practical and strategic needs are addressed and internaliEed by policies and
genderDbased programs are planned and implemented" the rural energy programs are
likely to remain ineffectie and unsustainable ($matya and Shrestha" <77:=<56).
!ender and rene-able energy
!ender refers to the socially constructed roles and socially ac;uired behaiors and
e*pectations associated -ith men and -omen (/orld Bank" 155<). It defines the different
needs" priorities and perspecties of men and -omen in different societies. %ene-able
energy on the other hand is energy generated from natural resources such as sunlight"
-ind" rain" tides and geothermal heat" -hich are rene-able (naturally replenished). 'hese
include
Biofuels
Biomass
!eothermal
)ydro po-er
Solar po-er
'idal po-er
/ae po-er
/ind po-er
>nergy is considered an enabling medium for economic deelopment. It helps people in
cooking" heating or cooling their homes" pumping -ater" lighting houses and -ork places"
receiing information and getting entertainment. >nergy plays a critical role in increasing
productiity" liing standards" health" literacy" education and lielihoods. #any energy
analysts e*press surprise -hen -omen are mentioned -ith regards to energy saying G>nergy
is there for all to use. /hat difference does it make -ho uses itHI (Parikh"<770). 'his
response fails to take into account the fact that men and -omen may e*perience energy
differently. 'he roles of men and -omen differ and as such their usage of rene-able energy
differs. /omen especially in the rural areas" tend to use energy more for income generating
actiities like cooking and selling food items.
'oday as the a-areness in gender issues gro-s" it becomes important to e*amine the gender
dimension of eery aspect of life" in order to better sere both men and -omen e;ually.
!ender is also important not only because men and -omen use" benefit from and access
energy differently" but because sometimes the opportunity of one of the se*es may impact the
opportunity of the other. #oreoer" e*amining the gender concerns -ill help determine the
barriers to-ards e;ual access" use and control oer energy resources and help find solutions
to sere men and -omen. 'his includes e*amining and understanding ho- men and -omen
differ in terms of usage and control oer resources as -ell as addressing -omen8s needs"
roles and priorities in addition to bridging the gender gaps.
'he key challenge facing 3igerian energy sector is the proision of modern energy serices
to a majority of the population" to facilitate economic deelopment and poerty reduction. $
significant proportion of the 3igerian populations lie in rural and periDurban areas" -here
access to modern energy is lo-est and its improement more costly. In the electricity sector
loadDshading is a recurring strategy in some cities but most part of the country in recent times
are in total darkness. 'his is the problem of insufficient electricity supply -hich in fact has
major implications for industry and the national economy.
$lthough it is increasingly documented that energy serice and not energy per se" is the issue
(@3+P" 155<9/amukonya 155<)" proiding an affordable and desirable serice that eleates
productiity remains a challenge. Proision of the energy is not by itself a sufficient condition
to meet deelopment objecties. 'he additional challenge is to integrate the appropriate
energy serice into national and sectoral deelopment planning" -hile aailing the other
complimentary factors to trigger sustained deelopment.
In the face of these challenges the ;uestions remain9 ho- can -omen access rene-able
energy considering the rural conditions and ho- this energy if accessed can impact on their
lies.
,o$en2 acce to renewa)le energy
$ccess of -omen to energy as a -hole differs from that of men especially -hen dealing -ith
the poorer categories of society. $ccess to energy is also linked to arious limitations and
social and financial barriers. %ural conditions including harsher traditional gender diision of
labor and social restrictions as -ell as poorer demographic e*periences impose greater
constraints at 1 leels. ?irst" as members of the female gender and second" as rural female
gender. 'he interaction of these 1 leels of disadantage -ith poor demographic profile
present formidable obstacles to rural -omen8s e*ercise oer their human,-omen8s rights in
most spheres of life including access to energy" education and public actiities.
%estricted freedom to mobility for e*ample in some communities limits the access of -omen
to some forms of energy and the serices they make possible. /omen and girls for e*ample
are sometimes restricted from moing during night hours or using the internet for those" in the
urban areas because of social barriers and limitations.
Scarcity of ruralDgender disaggregated data restricts the e*tent of analysis. ?or e*ample" the
@3+P8s effort in <770 human deelopment report to relate rural to urban -omen8s literacy
produced only limited results for the aboe reason.
?urther -hen financial resources are limited" the distribution of resources -ithin the
household is impacted by gender" among other factors. #en and -omen may hae different
priorities and as such" the priorities of men are more likely to be taken into consideration.
/hile -omen8s priorities in accessing resources of rene-able energy may lie in haing
access to machines that facilitate domestic chores as -ell as those that may lead to income
generation. #en8s priorities may lie in improing their o-n income generation opportunities
or on seeking information" training or entertainment.
/hile access to energy resources may be aailable to men and -omen" control oer these
resources remains only in the hands of men. 'o improe access of -omen to energy
resources" proision of credit" technical information and kno-ledge are necessary for them.
$ll these facts influence -omen8s access and control oer rene-able energy as -ell as their
ability to respond and be included in programmes and deelopmental interentions and to
address gender differences.
3ow renewa)le energy can help wo$en
Poor -omen in rural areas of deeloping countries generally hae a more difficult time
compared to men due to their traditional socioDcultural roles. 'hey often spend long hours
collecting fuel -ood and carrying it back home oer long distances. 'he time and labor
e*pended in this -ay e*hausts them and limits their ability to engage in other productie and
incomeDgenerating actiities. 'heir health suffers from hauling heay loads of fuel and -ater
and from cooking oer smoky fires. 'heir opportunities for education and income generation
are limited by lack of modern energy serices and as a result their families and communities
are likely to remain trapped in poerty (@3+P" 155<).
Shifting to rene-able energy -ill positiely impact -omen8s health as they -ill no longer be
e*posed to smoke and carbon mono*ide -hen they cook as it is -ith -ood and charcoal.
%ene-able energy -ill also alleiate the drudgery of fuel -ood collection and promote
gender e;uality and -omen8s empo-erment. Shift to modern energy for lighting" cooking
and productie actiities -ill positiely impact -omen8s literacy" education and economic
actiities. Particularly" education of -omen is kno-n to produce po-erful effects on nearly
eery dimension of deelopment" from lo-ering fertility rates to raising productiity to
improing enironmental management.
4he I$portance o1 5ender Iue
It is becoming clear to energy and deelopment practitioners that addressing gender issues as
part of rene-able energy projects improes project deliery and can enhance the ;uality of
life of rural -omen (e.g. 4ecelski" <770" <77:" 15559 Parikh" <7709 Skutsch" <77:9 ?arinelli"
1555). )emmati and %ohr (155A) note that gender analysis adds to the ;uality" effectieness
legitimacy" and likelihood of implementation of climate protection efforts (-hich increasingly
focus on energy projects due to the mitigation potential of such initiaties). 'heir research
emphasiEes that all economic conse;uences of climate change and associated response
measures need to be analyEed by gender to identify and address disproportionate
disadantages for -omen ()emmati and %ohr" 155A" p.A).
!reater attention to the needs and concerns of -omen can improe the effectieness of
energy policies and projects" and help to promote oerall deelopment goals" such as poerty
alleiation" increased employment" and improed health and education leels (@3+P" 1555"
p.B).
'his is especially true -ith regard to technology transfer actiities. (?$O" 1555" p.07). #ost
decentraliEed systems re;uire that energy endDusers perform periodic maintenance. In many
cases" project implementers hae only trained men to perform maintenance functions and
hae neglected -omen" resulting in poor system performance (4ecelski" 1555" p.1A).
Balkrishnan (1555" p.B1<) concludes that -hen female users hae been trained in the correct
use and maintenance of solar cookers" improed -ood stoes" biogas" PJ systems" solar
lanterns and solar dryers" the programmes designed to implement these technologies for
residential uses hae been found to be more successful. ?urthermore" training -omen can
sere as a form of empo-erment by helping to increase their status at the local leel.
)o-eer" it must be clearly emphasiEed that different alternaties are aailable to address
gender disparities -ithin energy projects. %esearch by Skutsch (<77:)" -hich is summarised
in 'able 1.<C" illustrates that alternatie motiations hae substantially different
emancipatory potential. Skutsch8s research suggests that policy guidelines that promote the
achieement of strategic needs are the most likely to lead to emancipatory results. 'he
distinction bet-een practical and strategic needs helps to differentiate bet-een policies that
distribute resources in -ays that presere and reinforce ine;ualities" and those policies that by
satisfying -omen8s basic needs attempt to decrease Kand eentually eliminateL ine;ualities
(Mabeer" <77A" p.7<). $s an illustration" consider that an electricity project focused on
satisfying -omen8s needs can allocate resources in arious -ays. ?or e*ample" such project
could ensure that electrical lighting improes -orking conditions at home9 or it could also be
focused to improe outdoor illumination to make streets safer (thereby facilitating -omen8s
participation in actiities such as eening classes and -omen8s group meetings)9 or it could
e*pand -omen8s horiEons through proiding electricity to access radio" 'J" and the internet
(4lancy et al." 155B" p.<C). Such projects can also be designed to foster ne- commercial
initiaties" a focus that should also carefully consider gender issues. ?or e*ample" access to
credit often has a clear gender bias" -hich often limits -omen8s access to capital and
constrains their productiity and social roles (for more
'he notion that facilitating -omen8s access to both credit and skills deelopment
opportunities as part of ne- incomeDgeneration initiaties is becoming -idely promoted (to
increase the efficiency of projects and as a strategy -ith strong emancipator potential).
)o-eer" recent research is beginning to challenge the normatie alidity of these
assumptions. $lthough not focused on analysis of energy projects" Shakya and %ankin
(?orthcoming 155:) note" in their analysis of microfinance initiaties in 3epal and Jietnam"
that -hen financial sustainability becomes the predominant logic (of projects)" social
objecties can be easily compromised. Some of the implications of this important caeat are
considered in the ne*t section.