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The document discusses models of teaching and strategies used in the information-processing family of models. It describes three models: the inductive thinking model, concepts attainment model, and picture-word inductive model. For each model, it provides details on the instructional approach, syntax or sequence of activities, and the instructional and nurturing effects on students. The overall purpose of the models in the information-processing family is to help students learn skills for seeking, organizing, and applying information through inductive reasoning.
The document discusses models of teaching and strategies used in the information-processing family of models. It describes three models: the inductive thinking model, concepts attainment model, and picture-word inductive model. For each model, it provides details on the instructional approach, syntax or sequence of activities, and the instructional and nurturing effects on students. The overall purpose of the models in the information-processing family is to help students learn skills for seeking, organizing, and applying information through inductive reasoning.
The document discusses models of teaching and strategies used in the information-processing family of models. It describes three models: the inductive thinking model, concepts attainment model, and picture-word inductive model. For each model, it provides details on the instructional approach, syntax or sequence of activities, and the instructional and nurturing effects on students. The overall purpose of the models in the information-processing family is to help students learn skills for seeking, organizing, and applying information through inductive reasoning.
1.0 INTRODUCTION A model of teaching may be defined as a blueprint designed in advance for providing necessary structure and direction to the teacher for realizing the stipulated objectives (Joyce and Weil, 1972). Educators use models of teaching to meet learning needs of heterogeneous groups. There are a wide range of students learning style and preference present in a classroom. Therefore, there is a need for educators to be aware of individual differences in order to match their teaching model used in the classroom to enhance students learning. It would be not enough for a teacher to know only one or two teaching models, because education has so many different types of approach and context. There is no one models for all. A thorough knowledge of a number of models could lead to greater teacher flexibility and efficiency. Understanding of several models could facilitate the ability to adapt those models or to combine them with others, and offer valuable approaches that enrich a teacher's repertoire (Zhang and Collis, 1995).
2.0 THE FOUR FAMILY OF MODELS The models of teaching have been grouped into four families that share orientations toward human beings and how they learn. These are the social family, the information-processing family, the personal family, and the behavioral systems family.
2.1 THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS The models in this family are designed to teach students the skills of learning through thinking. They aim at increasing students ability to seek and master information, organize it, build and test hypotheses, apply what they are learning in their independent reading and writing and their exploration of themselves and the world around them. The models in this family emphasize "Ways of enhancing the human being's innate drive to make sense of the world by acquiring and organizing data, sensing problems and generating solutions to them, and developing concepts and language for conveying them" (Joyce and Weil, 1992, as cited in Zhang and Collis, 1995).
2 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 2.1.1 Inductive Thinking Model This model attempts to increase the individuals ability to seek and master information, organize it, build and test hypotheses, and apply what has been learned in independent reading, writing, and the exploration of themselves and the world about them. This model is designed to help develop inductive mental processes, especially the ability to categorize and use categories. The model has a cooperative system, but the teacher is the initiator and controller of activities. They match tasks to students level of cognitive activity and determine students readiness. In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction makes use of student noticing. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples, the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is used. Basically, inductive reasoning goes from particular to general. This model can be used effectively for teaching science concept and grammar.
Syntax The essence of the inductive process is the continual collecting and sifting of information; the construction of ideas, particularly categories, that provide conceptual control over territories of information; the generation of hypotheses to be explored in an effort to understand relationships better or provide solutions to problems; and the conversion of knowledge into skills that have practical application (Joyce, 2009). The sequences of different activities make syntax of the teaching strategies. Each and every strategy has its three phases as under: (i) Concept Formation: Phase One: Enumerate and list Phase Two: Group Phase Three: Label, categorize Concept formation includes identifying and numerating the data that are relevant to a problem, grouping those items according to some basis of similarity and developing categories and labels for the groups. The teacher tries to encourage the students to find out, enumerate and make the list of
3 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING significant information related to a problem. On the basis of similarity, the students further try categories and label for the groups. (ii) Interpretation of Data Phase Four: Identify dimensions and relationships Phase Five: Explain dimensions and relationships. Phase Six: Make inferences This teaching strategy depends on the whole mental operation consisting the process of interpreting, inferring and generalizing. The teacher may use the questions to elicit the activities for identifying points. (iii) Application of Principles: Phase Seven: Hypothesize, predict, consequences Phase Eight: Explain and/or support the predictions and hypotheses Phase Nine: Very the prediction At this stage, the teacher induces the students to explain new phenomena.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects This model is designed to instruct students in concept formation and at the same time teach concepts. It nurtures attention to logic, language and the meaning of words, and the nature of knowledge.
2.1.2 Concepts Attainment Model This model is designed primarily to develop and achieve reasoning skill but also for concept development and analysis. Concept attainment is the search for and listing of attributes that can be used to distinguish exemplars from non-exemplars of various categories (Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin, 1967 as cited in Joyce et al., 2009). This model helps the individual learn categories and study how to learn and apply them. The structure is moderate whereby teacher controls the sequence, but open dialogue occurs in the latter phase. The principle of reaction of this model include give support and help students balance one hypothesis against another; focus attention on specific features of examples;
4 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING assist students in discussing and evaluating their thinking strategies. This model is particularly effective in meeting the objectives related to comprehension, comparison, discrimination, and recall.
Syntax As stated by Joyce (2009), the concept attainment model consists of three phases. (a) Phase one: presentation of data and identification of concept Teacher presents labeled examples. Students compare attributes in positive and negative examples and generate a hypothesis about the nature of the concept. (b) Phase two: Testing attainment of the concept Students identify additional unlabeled examples as yes or no. Teacher confirm hypothesis, names concept, and restates definitions according to essential attributes. (c) Phase three: Analysis of thinking strategies Students describe their patterns. They discuss role of hypotheses and attributes as well as type and number of hypotheses.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects The concept attainment strategy is designed for instruction on specific concepts and on the nature of concepts. Besides, they also provide practice in inductive reasoning and opportunities for altering and improving students concept building strategies. The strategies nurture an awareness of alternative perspectives, sensitivity to logical reasoning in communication, and a tolerance of ambiguity (Joyce, 2009).
2.1.3 Picture-word inductive model This instructional approach focus on the use of familiar pictures of objects, actions and scenes (Calhoun, 1999). It is an inquiry-oriented strategy that uses pictures to elicit words from learners from children's listening and speaking vocabularies. This model is designed by Calhoun aiming at primary level beginning readers and older beginning or early stage readers (Joyce & Weil, 2009). Teachers use the PWIM with
5 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING classes, small groups, and individuals to lead them into inquiring about words, adding words to their sight-reading and writing vocabularies, discovering phonetic and structural principles, and using observation and analysis in their study of reading, writing, comprehending, and composing. This model can be used to teach phonics and spelling both inductively and explicitly. However, the model is designed to capitalize on children's ability to think inductively. The PWIM enables them to build generalizations that form the basis of structural and phonetic analysis. And it respects their ability to think. Thus, a major principle of the model is that students have the capability to make generalizations that can help them to master the conventions of language.
Syntax The sequence for carrying out PWIM in the classroom is shown below: (a) Select a picture; (b) Ask students to identify what they see; (c) Label the picture parts; (d) Read and review the picture chart; (e) Ask the students to classify the words in several groups; (f) Read and review the word chart; (g) Add words (h) Have students think of a title for their picture-word chart, and (i) Ask students to generate the phrases/sentences.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects The model is designed to teach students learn how to build their sight vocabularies; to inquire into word and sentence structures; generate writing; create an understanding of the reading or writing connection; develop skill in phonetic and structural analysis; develop interest and ability to express through writing; increase reading of nonfiction; develop cooperative skills in working with others in the reading/writing area (Joyce 2009).
6 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 2.1.4 Inquiry Training Model Inquiry training is designed to bring students directly into the scientific process through exercises that compress the scientific process into small periods of time. The training has resulted in an increased understanding of science, more creative thinking, and skills for obtaining and analyzing information The students are active learners involved in exploration, questioning, problem solving, inductive reasoning, invention, labelling, and discovery. Inquiry encourages a system of cooperation, intellectual freedom and equality. The inquiry process will help students approach future problems with confidence in their abilities to seek out the solution; to begin to consider success and failure as information rather than reward or punishment; practice the process to develop the ability to sense the relevance of variables, make intuitive leaps, and put problems into forms with which they know how to work; and improve their memory process because when they integrate material into their own cognitive structure, thus material is made more readily retrievable.
Syntax Inquiry training includes five phases: (a) Phase one: Encounter with the Problem Teacher gives the problem situation in the classroom. The teacher explains the procedures of inquiry. At this phase, the teacher formulates objectives and also the procedures of yes and no question. On the basis of simple ideas, they make a very simple inquiry at the initial stage. This includes logical phenomena which conflict with the reality. It is a discrepant event. (b) Phase two: Data Gathering-Verification The learners try to collect information about the problem on the basis of observation, the learners got many experiences with the available information in their surroundings. (c) Phase Three: Data Gathering Experimentation At this phase, the learners introduce some latest elements into the situation to observe if the activity appears differently. The teachers role is to restrain students
7 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING whenever they assume that a variable to has been disapprove when it has not. Teacher also develops the inquiry by increasing the obtained different kind of information. (d) Phase Four: Organizing, formulating and explanation Students formulate various rules or explanations on the basis of information collected by them. The students could leave the essential details at the time of providing explanations or formulating rules. The teacher may ask more students to provide their rules and explanations for revealing the level of differences. (e) Phase Five: Analysis of the Inquiry process The teachers direct the learners to make the analysis of their ways of inquiry. The most effective questions might be ascertained by the learners. This phase is important so that the students can make further improvement based on the feedback.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects The instructional effects include the promotion of strategies of inquiry which are process skills that include observation, collecting and organizing data; identifying and controlling variables; formulating and testing hypotheses and explanations; and making inferences. This model nurtures active and autonomous learning, verbal expression and listening skills, tolerance of ambiguity, persistence, logical thinking, and attitude that all knowledge is tentative.
2.1.5 Memory Model Memory models, which include a Link, Loci, Memory through Motion, and Names and Faces, provide techniques to which both teachers and students can improve their memory skills. An increase in the ability to memorize increases learning power, saves time, and leads to a better storehouse of information. The social system is cooperative. Teacher helps the student identify key items, pairs, and images, and offering suggestions. The familiar elements must be primarily from students storehouse of material.
8 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Syntax (a) Phase One: Attending to the Material The learners focus on the learning material and organize it in a way that helps them to remember. Generally, it emphasis on what need to be remembered the major ideas and examples. This can be done by using technique of underlining, listing and reflecting. (b) Phase Two: Developing connections At this phase, several memory techniques should be used to develop connections with what is to be learned. It includes using techniques such as link words, substitute words, and key words for long or complex passages. It is to connect the new materials to familiar words, pictures or ideas, and to link images or words. (c) Phase Three: Expanding sensory images. At this phase, the images can be enhanced by asking the student to associate them with more than one sense and use techniques of ridiculous association and exaggeration. The images can be revised for greater recall power. (d) Phase Four: Practicing recall. Students are asked to practice recall of the material until it is completely learned.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects This model is specifically designed to increase the capacity to store and retrieve information. This model nurtures a sense of intellectual power-- a growing consciousness of the ability to master unfamiliar material, as well as imagery skills and attention to ones environment
2.1.6 Synectics This model encourages creative thought by developing information-processing skills. It enhances the ability to go beyond the known and synthesize fresh ideas and solutions. This model encourages openness, non-rational, and creative expression. Synectics uses group interaction to stimulate creative thought through metaphorical analogies. The Synectics model is particularly effective for those objectives related to exploration, comparison, identification, and insight.
9 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Syntax Syntax for creating something new is: (a) Phase I: Description of the Present Condition The teacher has students describe situation or topic as they see it now. (b) Phase II: Direct Analogy The teacher suggests an analogy and asks students to explain it (c) Phase III: Personal Analogy Students 'become' the analogy they selected in phase two. (d) Phase IV: Compressed Conflict Students point out the similarities between the new material and the direct analogy. (e) Phase V: Direct Analogy Students generate & select another direct analogy, based on the compressed conflict. (f) Phase VI: Re-examination of the Original Task1 Teacher has students move back to original task or problem & use the last analogy and/or the entire Synectics experience. (g) Phase VII: Generating Analogy Students repeat the analogy process in small groups, this time creating their own analogies.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects This model enhances the development of general creative power and creative responses and capacity in a variety of subject-matter domains. The nurturant effects of this model include interpersonal understanding and a sense of community; achievement in a subject domain; and group cohesion and productivity (Miller and Anderson, 2007). This model nurtures a sense of intellectual power-- a growing consciousness of the ability to master unfamiliar material, as well as imagery skills and attention to ones environment
10 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 2.5.7 Advance Organizer Advance organisers were introduced by Ausubel (1963) who believes that the role of a teacher is to organise subject matter and present information through lectures, readings and providing tasks to the learner to integrate what has been learned (Joyce et al., 2009). Advance Organizers are organizational clues, tools that help to connect the known to the unknown, and frameworks for helping students understand study materials. This model designed to increase efficiency of information processing capacities meaningfully absorbs and relate bodies of knowledge. It is designed to strengthen students cognitive structures. Strengthening students cognitive structure in this way facilitates acquisition and retention of new information and is one of the models primary goals. Ausubel describes two types of organizers and identifies their optimal applications. There are two types of organizers Expository and Comparative. The organizers, which provide ideational anchorage, for completely unfamiliar material, are called expository organizers. Expository Organizers are especially helpful because they provide ideational scaffolding for unfamiliar material. On the other hands, comparative Organizers are used most with relatively familiar material. They are designed to integrate new concepts with basically similar concepts existing in the cognitive structure; yet they are also designed to discriminate between the old and new concepts in order to prevent confusion caused by similarity.
Syntax It consists of three phases: (a) Phase one: Presentation of Advance Organizer Teacher clarifies aims of the lesson and present organizer. It is especially important to prompt awareness of learner prior knowledge and experience that might be relevant to this learning task and organizer at this phase. (b) Phase two: Presentation of Learning Task or Material The learning material is presented through lectures, films, scripts, discussion, experiences, extra reading material etc. The learning is organized in logical order. Attempts are made to maintain motivation and interest.
11 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING (c) Phase three: Strengthening Cognitive Organization: The purpose of this stage is to anchor new material with old. This is where integrative reconciliation is brought about. It can be done by asking the students to prepare the summary of major attributes of new material, repeat definitions, and ask students to differentiate the closely related subject.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects The instructional effects are the ideas that are used as well as the information presented to the students. Additionally it nurtures the ability to learn from reading, lectures, and other media used for presentations. This model nurtures an interest in inquiry and precise habits of thinking.
12 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 2.2 THE SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS The models associated with the social interaction family are focused on developing the concepts and skills needed to work in groups. The models in this family emphasize the relationship of the individual with the society or other person. The core objective is to help students learn to work together, to identify and solve problems, either academic or social in nature. It emphasise the relationship to society, and to other persons, and give priority to the importance of democratic process, and the importance of society.
2.2.1 Group I nvestigation Model This model encourages cooperative inquiry into social and academic problems. Teachers facilitate students in group work that incorporates the scientific methodology for research. It is designed to lead students to define problems, explore various perspectives on the problems, and study together to master information, ideas, and skills (Joyce and Weil, 2004). It is designed for the development of skills for participation in democratic social process through combined emphasis on interpersonal skills and academic inquiry skills. Teacher plays a role as facilitator and academic counsellor.
Syntax Joyce and Weil (2004) present the group investigation model as consisting of six phases: (a) Phase One: Encounter Puzzling Situation First, the teacher presents a multi-faceted problem to the class, and students choose an interest group. (b) Phase Two: Explore Reactions to the situation Groups plan their investigation the procedures, tasks and goals consistent with the chosen subtopic. (c) Phase Three: Formulate study task and organize for study Groups carry out the investigation as planned in the above step. The teacher's role at this step is to follow the investigative process, offering help when required: suggesting resources, ensuring a variety of skills is being used.
13 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING (d) Phase Four: Independent and Group Study Groups plan their presentation. They evaluate what they have learned, and synthesize it into a form that can be understood by the class. (e) Phase Five: Analyse progress and process Students analyze the required roles, organize themselves. Then, students conduct the presentation. (f) Phase Six: Recycle activity Finally, the teacher and students evaluate the investigation and resulting presentations. Throughout the process, group representatives often make reports to the class, helping group members appreciate that they are part of a larger social unit.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects This model is a very direct and efficient way of teaching academic knowledge as well as social process. Interpersonal warmth and trust is nurtured along with respect for negotiated rules and policies, independence in learning, and respect for the dignity of others.
2.2.2 Role-Playing Model This model focuses on the study and development of social behavior and values. Role play deals with the problems through actions, a problem is delineated, acted out, and discussed. The Role Playing serves as a vehicle for students to i) explore their feelings ii) gain insight into their attitudes, values, perceptions iii) develop their problem solving skills and attitudes iv) explore subject matter in varied ways (Rajendrakumar, 2012). This model is moderately structured. Teacher act as a guide throughout the activity. They are reflective and supportive as well as given encouragement to the students for free and honest expression of ideas and feelings. As stated by Joyce et al. (2009), the teacher must adhere to the following principles: (i) Teacher should be non- evaluative (ii) Teacher should provide avenues to explore learning (iii) Teacher should effectively synthesis and consolidate learning.
14 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING The purpose of role playing is to help learners to understand an issue from different points of view by acting it out either taking different roles or observing. It lets learners develop and practice new language and behavioural skills in a relatively non- threatening setting and can create the motivation and involvement necessary for learning to occur.
Syntax The Shaftels in Joyce and Weil (2009) suggest that the role-playing activity consists of nine steps: (a) Phase One: Warm up the group The teacher introduces the problem to the learners who discuss the topic and come up with real or imaginary examples. The teacher might use short film clips or refer to television programme as illustrations. The teacher asks the learners to predict what might be the outcomes of the situation. (b) Phase Two: Select participants The teacher discusses the various characters with the learners who consider what they are like, how they feel and what they might do. The teacher could ask for volunteers. Alternatively the teacher could allocate roles. (c) Phase Three: Set the stage The role players outline the scene but do not provide any dialogue, they talk through the action. The teacher might prompt by asking a few simple questions. (d) Phase Four: Prepare observers Teacher allocates specific roles to observers such as commenting on the realism or effectiveness of the actions taken, or defining the feelings characters experienced and their thought processes. Observers comment on what the role players were trying to achieve, what helped, what didnt and what else they might have done. (e) Phase Five: Enact The role players assume their roles and live out the situation responding realistically.
15 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING (f) Phase Six: Discuss and evaluate If the observers are fully involved both intellectually and emotionally, the learners may begin the discussion spontaneously. The teacher through careful questioning could bring out different perceptions and interpretations, and then focus on the characters motivations and the consequences. (g) Phase Seven: Re-enact Re-enactment could take place many times, to explore different actions and interpretations, covering new possibilities for cause and effect. (h) Phase Eight: Discuss and evaluate This follows each enactment and learners consider whether the outcome or solution is acceptable and realistic. (i) Phase Nine: Share experiences and generalize The teacher shapes the discussion so the learners begin to develop generalisations about approaches to situations and the consequences of the approaches taken.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects As stated by Joyce (2009), role-playing helps learners in the following aspects: (a) Develop skills to analyse personal values and behaviour; (b) Develop strategies for problem solving especially in the area of interpersonal or even personal conflicts; and (c) Develop the empathy for others. Nurturant effects include the acquisition of information about social problems and values, and comfort in expressing ones opinions.
2.2.3 Jurisprudential Inquiry Model This model is concerned with learning to think about social policy. It utilizes the case study method of law to explore social problems and policy. Students identify the problem, look at various options and come to understand policy formulation. This model can be used in any area where there are public policy issues for instance ethics in science, business and sports etc. It is built around the analysis of case studies containing problems
16 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING that can only be solved by clarifying values and resolving conflicts and competing demands. As the students are researching, discussing, and debating, the teacher should encourage the students to commit themselves to one side of the issue, but be supportive if they change their minds when confronted with new evidence, and encourage them to consider other points of view. At all times, the teacher should remain neutral on the issue, encourage differentiation of positions, and promote synthesis of the different positions presented to the class. This model intended to develop students competency in social dialogue, enhances students involvement in social issues and social action, and develop students in value synthesizing attitude.
Syntax (a) Phase one: Orientation to the Case The initial step of this model introduces students to the selected issue. For example, discussing an incident in the lives of students, school or community. After that, teacher review the facts by outlining the events in case. (b) Phase two: Identifying the Issues The students, working in their cooperative teams, use the library and other resources to gather, clarify, and synthesize facts about the issue. The students begin to identify values and value conflicts and raise questions about opposing views. (c) Phase Three: Taking Position At this stage, students are asked to articulate position on the issue and state the basis for their positions. (d) Phase Four: Exploring the Stance, Patterns of Argumentation Teacher asks for the basis or reasons for the positions. Students are asked to establish the point at which value is violated. Students clarify the values conflict through analogies. At the same time, students are asked to prove desirable or undesirable consequences of a position and set value priorities.
17 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING (e) Phase Five: Refining and Qualifying the Position During this time the students clarify their best arguments in support of the side of the issue they represented. (f) Phase Six: Testing Factual Assumptions behind Qualified Positions The students take what they have learned and apply it to their surroundings. Students must be able to see the value in the science they have learned and see that, with this knowledge, they can have an impact.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects Instructional effects include the mastery of the framework for analyzing issues. Included is the ability to identify policy questions; application of social values to policy stances; application of social values to policy stances; the use of analogies to explore issues; and ability to identify and resolve definitional, factual, and value problems. Nurturant effects include the capacity for social involvement and a desire for social action; the values of pluralism and a respect for the point of view of others. It advocates the triumph of reason over emotion in matters of social policy.
18 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 2.3 THE BEHAVIORAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS This family attempts to build efficient environments for sequencing activities and for shaping behaviour by manipulating reinforcement. These models were guided and developed from an analysis of the processes by which human behaviour is shaped and reinforced, and are based on behaviour modification, behaviour therapy, and cybernetics theories. This family of models attempts to change the behaviour of the learner or transmit the culture by teaching skills and knowledge. For instance, the learner is considered to be a system that can be influenced by feedback. It is based on the concept that information and abilities are best learned by doing. Teachers guide students through tasks or processes step by step and give corrective feedback to establish understanding and comprehension. It emphasis on the process itself is important to bring about understanding.
2.3.1 Mastery Learning Mastery Learning is an instructional strategy based on the principle that all students can learn a set of reasonable objectives with appropriate instruction and sufficient time to learn. It put the techniques of tutoring and individualized instruction into a group learning situation and brings the learning strategies of successful students to nearly all the students of a given group. Carroll suggested that instruction should focus more on the time required for different students to learn the same material. In Carolls view, student with very low aptitude with respect to a particular kind of learning simply take a much longer time to reach mastery than students with a higher aptitude. It means that students differ in the amount of learning time they need. Carroll identified two factors that affected the learning rate of a student, perseverance of the student, and the opportunity to learn. Bloom suggested that although students vary widely in their learning rates and modalities, if teachers could provide the necessary time and appropriate learning conditions, nearly all students could reach a high level of achievement (Guske, 2010). In other words, all learners can have the potential to learn any instruction given if they are given sufficient time and quality instruction.
19 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Syntax (i) Teachers clearly state the objectives representing the purpose of course. (ii) Teachers organize the important concepts and skills they want students to acquire into learning units, each with their own objectives and assessment. (iii) Learning materials and instructional strategies are identified; teaching, modeling, practice, formative evaluation, re-teaching, reinforcement, and summative evaluation are included. (iv) Each unit is preceded by brief diagnostic test, or formative assessments. Following high-quality initial instruction, teachers administer a formative assessment that identifies precisely what students have learned well and where they still need additional work. (v) The results of formative tests are used to provide supplementary instruction, or corrective activities to help the learner overcome problems.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects This model allows struggling students an opportunity to master critical concepts before new content is introduced. Besides, feedback that is given during this process is helpful for the student. It also develops self-initiation and self-direction of learning. Furthermore, each pupil will be able to develop a demonstrable degree of mastery.
2.3.2 Direct instruction Model Direct instruction is skills-oriented, and the teaching practices it implies are teacher-directed. These teaching functions included teaching in small steps with student practice after each step, guiding students during initial practice, and ensuring that all students experienced a high level of successful practice. It is a highly structured model used most effectively when teaching basic skills such as reading and mathematics when the tasks to be learned can be broken into small discreet pieces. This model is also effective when teaching cognitive objectives related to recall and recognition of facts and data. Psychomotor skills, such as holding a pencil, playing the violin, and throwing a baseball are also effectively taught through this model (Gunter et.al. 1995).
20 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Syntax (a) Phase One: Orientation Teacher establishes content of the lesson. Teacher makes connections between what is already known and what is to be learned by reviewing previous learning. The teacher explains clearly the learning objectives and learning outcomes for the session and explains how they fit into the topic/course as a whole. (b) Phase Two: Presentation Teacher explains the new concept or skills and provides demonstration and examples. During the demonstration the teacher explains clearly and carefully, describing the process, both how and why, and explaining by thinking out loud throughout the demonstration. The material should be organized step by step with each step building on the last. After that, teacher checks to see that students have understood the new information before they apply it in the practice phase. (c) Phase Three: Structured Practice The teacher leads students through practice examples, working through each step. The teacher checks and corrects any errors at this stage. (d) Phase Four: Guided Practice Students practice on their own with support. At this phase, teacher access students abilities to perform the learning task. Teacher also monitors students work, providing corrective feedback through praise, prompt and leave. (e) Phase Five: Independent Practice Learners could work individually or in pairs with supervision as required. The teacher checks and corrects learners work and provides positive feedback. Teachers could ask learners to check and review each others work.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects The instructional effects of this model include mastery of content material and skills; Student motivation; and self pacing ability. Through success and positive feedback this model enhances self-esteem (Miller and Anderson, 2007).
21 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 2.3.3 Simulation Model Simulation is a representation of reality in which learners can receive instruction and acquire concepts and skills. It represents the natural way of learn by doing. Instruction is designed to create an environment for the learner in which full feedback takes place. Learning objectives and learning outcomes are concerned with acquiring concepts, performing tasks and solving problems in simulated realistic conditions.
Syntax The simulation model has four phases, as defined by Joyce et al (2008): orientation, participant training, the simulation itself and debriefing. (a) Phase One: Orientation The teacher presents the topic to be explored and the concepts within the simulation. The teacher could provide an overview and explanation to contextualise the simulation. (b) Phase Two: Participant Training The learners begin to get involved in the simulation. The teacher explains all the rules, roles and procedures for the simulation and could organise a brief practice or dry run so the learners understand exactly what they need to do. (c) Phase Three: Simulation Operation Students take part in the simulation, and the teacher acts as referee and coach. The teacher could stop the simulation at various points to provide feedback or clarification and so that learners can evaluate their performances. (d) Phase Four: Participant Debriefing Teacher helps student to summarize the events and their perceptions. At the same time, they analayse the process of simulation and compared it to the real world. They could relate the activity to the course content or reappraise and redesign the simulation.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects The instructional effects of this model include the acquisition of skills and concepts and knowledge of political and economic systems. It nurtures the development
22 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING of concepts and skills; critical thing and decision making; empathy; knowledge of political, social, and economic systems; awareness of the role of chance; facing consequences; and a sense of effectiveness.
23 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 2.4 THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS The models in this family focus on the individual and give emphasize on the development of integrated feeling, thinking self the personal identity. They shape the environment around the capacity for self-education and the need to develop self-awareness and understanding. The personal family models begin with the perspective of the individual and allow teachers to impact self awareness so that learners become responsible of their own growth. The emphasis of this model is on developing an individual into an integrated confident and competent personality. They attempt to help students understand themselves and their goal, and to develop the means for educating themselves.
2.4.1 Non-directive Teaching Model The non-directive model brings student and teacher together in a cooperative effort to guide the student to autonomy as a learner. The teacher acts as a facilitator providing coaching assistance whereas student initiates. In this model, the teacher reaches out to students, conducts empathetic communication which nurtures and develops the students self-confidence and direction to help students define problems and take action to achieve solutions. We use nondirective techniques when we are counselling the students, synectics to enhance creativity, classroom meetings to build the community of learners.
Syntax The nondirective interview has a sequence divided into five phases of activity: (a) Phase I: Defining the helping situation. The instructor encourages the students to express their expressions freely. (b) Phase II: Exploring the Problem Students are encouraged to define problem and teacher accepts and clarifies feelings. (c) Phase III: Developing insights Student discuss problem and support is given by the teacher.
24 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING (d) Phase IV: Planning and Decision Making Students plans initial decision making. Teacher clarifies possible decision. (e) Phase V: Integration Students gains further insight and develop more positive actions. Teacher is supportive.
I nstructional and Nurturant Effects The activities of this model are determined by the learner as he or she interacts with the teacher and other learners. The instructional effects are dependent on its success in nurturing more effective self-development. The model can be thought of as entirely nurturant in character dependent for effects on experiencing the Nondirective environment rather than carrying content and skills through specifically designed activities. The nurturant effects of this model include self-development; personal awareness; and a variety of social and academic goals.
2.4.2 Developing Positive Self-concepts Self concept is a persons perception of him or herself. The enhancement of students self-concepts is valued as a goal of education, and as a moderator and perhaps a cause of scholastic achievement.
Students can learn, not only academic content and social skills, but how to become integrated selves that reach out into the world and reciprocally contribute to and profit from their transactions with it. (Joyce at. el, 2009).
Understanding differences in personalities can help the teacher develop a learning community that is sensitive to students and responsive to their needs. Joyce, Weil and Calhoun mention that the Omnivores are self-actualizing, the Passive-Consumers feel competent but dependent, and the Reticent-Consumers feel that they live in a threatening world. Thus, it would appear that the Omnivores are the only ones that will develop positive self-concepts.
25 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Since the learning community influences how students feel about themselves, how they interact, and how they learn, it is important that the environment be welcoming to all types of individuals. There are a few suggestions that can help foster growth in all students: teacher should have high expectations for all students and push all towards excellence; the teacher should model activity and openness and encourage students to reach out the world; provide continuous and positive feedback to students.
3.0 CONCLUSION The study of teaching models is essential for educator to explore different teaching strategies, pedagogical and curricular design, instructional materials and learning sources, and even the design of learning environments. An intelligent use of these approaches enables the teacher to adopt him to the learning needs of the students.
26 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING References: Carnine, J., Silbert, E.J., Kame'enui, S. G. (2004). Direct Instruction Reading edition. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/what-direct- instruction/ Guskey, T. R. (2010). Lessons of Mastery Learning. Interventions That Work, 68(2). 52- 57. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational- leadership/oct10/vol68/num02/Lessons-of-Mastery-Learning.aspx Huitt, W. (2003). Models of teaching/instruction. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/instruct/instmdls.html Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of Teaching. United States of America: Pearson Education. Inc. Miller, A.S., Anderson, S.E. (2007). Development of a Matrix of Teaching Models Based on Instructional and Nurturant Effects. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED497958.pdf Mujibul, H. S. (2013). Nondirective Teaching Model: An Effective Way of Counseling. GRA Global Research Analysis, 2(4). Retrieved from http://theglobaljournals.com/gra/file.php?val=NjU4 Rajendrakumar, P. (2012). Effectiveness of Role Playing Model (RPM). Indian Streams Research Journal, 2(8). Retrieved from www.isrj.net Satheesh, K. (2009). Teaching and Learning Models. Educational Technology For all. Retrieved from http://sathitech.blogspot.com/2009/03/teaching-and-learning- models.html Shamnad, N. (2005). Effectiveness of Concept Attainment model on Achievement in Arabic Grammar of Standard IX students. School of Pedagogical Science: Mahatma Chandhi University. Retrieved from http://arabicuniversitycollege.yolasite.com/resources/Faculty/NS/Dissertations/Eff ectiveness%20of%20Concept%20Attainment%20Model%20on%20achievment% 20in%20Arabic%20grammar%20of%20standard%20IX%20%20Students.pdf
27 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Zhang, J. P., Collis, B. (1995). A Comparison of Teaching Models in the West and in China. Journal of Instructional Science and Technology, 1(1). Retrieved from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/e-jist/docs/vol1no1/article3.htm
28 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING TASK II: Planning, designing and implementing a teaching-learning model
1.0 Description of the Learners Learning Concern.
This science lesson is designed for students in the age of 8 who study in 3K at SJK(C) Chung Hua Engkilili. There are 21 pupils in the mixed ability class.
Students who perform well take part actively in the class. Generally, they are innovative and participating actively in scientific inquiry. They are eager to ask questions in the Science lesson whenever they were puzzled. They do not easily give up on finding solutions for the problems they face. They always show their effort by doing research on the questions until they get the answer. Most of them are independent learners and able to solve problem independently. They have good observation on things happened in their surrounding and they like to discover by their own.
Besides, they love to do with hands-on activity and experiments. They are willing to contribute materials or specimens voluntarily during hands-on activity or experiments as requested by teacher. Not only that, they are able to create model such as model of respiration system to share and explain about the models to their friends in class. They did show enthusiasm and curiosity towards Science worlds. It can be seen through their active participation in the activities held by Science committee in the schools such as Science invention competition, handmade recycled materials for selling, planting vegetables competition, decorating Science board with recycled materials and so on.
These students are able to understand concept deeply and pose higher achievement. This can be shown by their performance in the monthly and yearly assessment in school as well as practical assessment (PEKA). They did very well in both assessments.
Students who perform average in the class are better in memorizing facts but weak in application. They are weak in Science process skills such as observation,
29 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING categorising, analyzing, and communicating skills. This is shown by their score in the paper test assessment and practical assessment (PEKA). They did well in the paper test assessment but perform low achievement when comes to practical assessment. These students did raise questions in class but not frequently. They do not have good questioning skills and seldom figure out answers by their own. They used to be spoon feeding rather than exploring by them. Hence, sometime they are passive in learning and cannot work independently.
They have lower ability to explain the concept compared to good performance students. However, they show their interest during group work. This might due to language barrier. After a verbal interview with the language teacher, it is found that this group of learners shows low ability and test score in language. The language teacher also mentioned that this group of students seldom express their thought and give opinion in class. Due to language barrier, they are lack of confidence to present and raise question in the class.
There are 5 poor learners in the classroom who are passive in Science learning. They are lack of confidence to work independently and have less social interaction in the classroom. They do not interact with people, share their insights or contribute to the conversation. In addition, they are weak in questioning and problem solving compared to the good learners. This is due to the problem they faced in communication skills. They only do what is required of them and they do not participate in class. They also show short attention span in the Science class. Hence, this group of learners is disadvantaged and they have less understanding in the content area.
These students received low or failing grades, which in turn caused them to lose confidence in their ability to do well in Science. As a result, they developed a sense of inferiority and became discouraged. They quietly take in new information and knowledge, but they typically do not engage with the information they get.
30 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 2.0 Description and Justification of the Choice of Model.
The model I have selected to design the lesson plan is the inquiry training model which is one of the models from information-processing family. Inquiry training is designed to bring students directly into the scientific process through exercise that compress the scientific process into small periods of time (Joyce, Weil and Calhoun, 2009). Schlenker (1991) cited in Joyce et al. (2009) reported that inquiry training resulted in increased understanding of science, productivity in creative thinking and skills for obtaining and analysing information.
Inquiry training was developed by Richard Suchman (1962) to teach students a process for investigating and explaining unusual phenomena. The general goal of inquiry training is to help student develop intellectual discipline and skills necessary to raise questions and search out answers stemming from curiosity (Joyce, Weil and Calhoun, 2009).
The theory given by Suchman indicate that people inquire naturally when they are puzzled, they can become conscious of and learn to analyze their thinking strategies, new strategies can be sought directly and added to the students existing one, cooperative inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the tentative, emergent nature of knowledge and to appreciate alternative explanations.
Inquiry training model gives more emphasis on developing awareness of and mastering the inquiry process. Inquiry training model of teaching has five phases which are encounter with the problem data gathering verification, data gathering experimentation, formulating an explanation, analysis of the inquiry process
The teachers role is to construct the problem situation, to referee the inquiry procedures, to respond to students inquiry probes with the necessary information, to help students establish a focus in them, and to facilitate discussion of the problem situation among the students.
31 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Inquiry training teaching model allow students questions and curiosities to drive curriculum. Inquiry training capitalizes on their natural energetic explorations (Joyce et al., 2009). It begins with gathering information though applying the human senses seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. It also involves learners in developing questioning, research and communication skills. Besides, learners involve in solving problems or creating solutions.
I chose inquiry training model to implement in the lesson in order to address the average group of students in 3K who are weak in scientific process skills. This model intended to develop their ability in creative and critic thinking as well as problem solving skills. Through this model, students are encouraged to interact with others and express their ideas. This will be able to improve on their communication skills too.
Inquiry training model encourage students take part actively in scientific process. This encourages students-centered learning in the Science class. Thus, students from the average group will be able to develop deep understanding of content knowledge rather than rote memorizing via meaningful learning.
At the same time, this model intended to address the learning concerns of the students from poor group who are passive in Science learning. Based on the model, it promotes active role of students. Students learn by doing so that they have better attention span through an attractive activity. Inquiry training begins by presenting students with puzzling event. Suchman believes that individuals faced with such a situation are natural motivated to solve the puzzle. The models also help this group of learners to build self confident and to elaborate and explain on problems. Students are expected to be curious, active, and creative, solve problem and independence in learning through the inquiry model.
In addition, group investigation model from the social family was integrated into the lesson plan too. As Lesh and Doerr (2003) described, collaboration can increase motivation and perseverance, since, working collaboratively provides a diversity of
32 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING personal cultures and experiences from which the group can draw to make sense of the situation.
Thus, through the implementation of group investigation model, it is expected that good performing students in the classroom are able to lead and guide poorer students in the inquiry process. Involving in the group investigation result in rich discussions and hence deepening student understandings. It aims to motivate and develop thinking skills as well as collaborative skills in passive learners.
All in all, in a rapidly changing information environment, memorizing facts and information is not the most important skill. What is needed is an understanding of how to get and make sense of the mass of data. Educators must move toward the generation of useful and applicable knowledge. This is a process supported by inquiry learning.
33 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 3.0 MODELS OF INQUIRY TRAINING LESSON PLAN Subject Area: Science Specific Content: Magnet Grade Level: Year 3 Length of Lesson: 60 minutes Learning Objective: At the end of this lesson, students will be able to distinguish between magnets and non magnets.
Learning Outcomes: At the end of this lesson, students will be able to: 1. Demonstrate that certain materials are attracted to magnets and some are not after the experiment.
Prerequisite Knowledge or Behaviours Needed: Students already learned the proper way to handle magnets properly. Students know some metal attract materials. They learned about metal and non metal.
Materials: Variety of objects including some that will and some that will not be attracted by a magnet (paper clip, nail, aluminiums can, tin can, spoon, coins, pieces of cloth, piece of paper, small comb) Strong magnet.
Phase One: Confrontation with the Problem (5 minutes)
The teacher presents a discrepant event, which motivates the students to find out the answer. Students are introduced and confronted with the puzzling situation.
Procedures: 1. Teacher prepares probes to use in the set induction before the lesson: Begin by cutting a piece of string about 2/3 the length of the jar (from bottom to top).
34 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Tie the paper clip to one end of the string. With the pencil, draw a small ghost image on the white construction paper Cut out the ghost image. Insert the ghost cut-out into the paperclip Tape the free end of the string to the inside of the bottom of the jar. Tape the magnet to the inside of the jar lid. Place the lid on the jar and turn it upside down so that the paper clip with ghost hangs from the string. Carefully turn the jar right side up. The paper clip will be pulled by the magnet and the ghost will remain upright. It will appear that the paper clip is suspended in the air, and that the ghost is magically floating. 2. Teacher shows a magic as set induction - Ghost Floating as describe above to begin the lesson. 2. Teacher presents the problem: Why was the ghost floating magically? 3. Teacher explain the inquiry procedures to the students
Observing this event, the students are surprised and a question comes to their mind, "How can this happen?" or "Why does the paper ghost behave in this manner? In this way, they are naturally motivated to solve the puzzle. The goal is to arouse students interest and curiosity in the lesson and promote students thinking towards the problems presented. It also helps students to develop skills necessary to raise questions and search out answer stemming from their curiosity. Students use the technique of inquiry training to find out why things are as they are.
Phase Two: Data Gathering Verification (10 minutes)
In order to find out the answers for this question then the teacher explains the procedure of inquiry. Now the students have to ask questions to the teacher, which can be answered only in the form of "Yes" or "No. Students gather information by asking question about the magic or problem they see or experience.
35 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING Procedures: 1. Teacher ask children to formulate hypothesis by asking eliciting question: What can you see from the magic shown? Do you have any ideas on the floating ghost? Can you guess what is inside the jar? 2. Teacher allows students to ask question on the puzzling event. 3. Teacher introduces the students with the rules of questioning. 4. Students begin to identify the materials that make up the ghost and the events that took place by asking question to the teacher.
The students ask question based on their hunches and assumptions and also modify their questions on the basis of information they get from the teacher while answering other's questions. This continues till the students find out the answer. Though the role of teacher is very important in this process, it is the students who are fully involved in finding out the solution. In this stage, students are taught to verify the facts of the situation and identify the identity of the objects, the events and the conditions surrounding the puzzling event. They begin to develop hypotheses and it guide further inquiry. This activity gives the students and experience in collecting information (through asking questions, listening to others, by experimenting) as well as generating and testing hypotheses.
Phase Three: Data Gathering Experimentation (20 minutes)
In this phase, students conduct experiments to test the hypotheses. Students design an investigation.
Procedures: 1. Teacher divides the class into groups, providing each group with the materials and several magnets. 2. Students are going to be investigator that discover what the magnets do and how they affect other objects.
36 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 3. Students hang out a pair of magnets and discover what the magnets do when place them close to each other. Teacher asks: What happens when you put the two magnets together? Do the magnets act differently if you put different ends of the magnets towards one another? 4. Students discover how magnet affects other objects. Teacher asks: Why do you think that the magnet will attract these objects? What are we supposed to do with the objects? [Put the objects and the magnets close together and see what happen.] What we are supposed to record on the chart? [Write what happened when the magnet and objects are placed close together.] 5. Students predict which materials will be attracted by the magnet and which will not. Students devise charts on which to record their predictions. 6. Have group members take turns testing each object with the magnet. On their charts, they record what was attracted by the magnet and what was not. Were their predictions confirmed?
Students are actively seeking solutions, designing and asking new question. Students learn to think and problem solve.
Phase Four: Organising, Formulating an Explanation (15 minutes)
After the experiments, teacher calls on the students to organize the data and to formulate an explanation. Together with the group, they can shape the explanation that fully responds to the problem situation. Procedures: 1. Students talk about their observation, that is, what happened when you placed the magnet near to the other object. 2. Students explain the results of their experiments.
37 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING 3. The explanation should include reasons that the specific materials with which students experimented were or were not attracted by a magnet. 4. Have students share their explanations with their groups. Teacher guide students explanation by asks questions: Which objects were attracted to the magnet? Which objects were not attracted to the magnet? Are there any differences or similarities? What is the same and different about the objects that makes them attracted to the magnet? Were most of the objects attracted to the magnet? What were the objects that are attracted to the magnet made of? 5. Finally, teacher guide students to solve the puzzling situation. Can you explain why the paper ghost in jar is floating? Now, do you know what is the paper ghost made of?
Students actively involved in making observations, collecting and analyzing information, synthesizing information, and drawing conclusions. In this way, they are developing useful problem-solving skills.
Phase Five: Analysis of the Inquiry Process (10 minutes)
In this phase, students examining the process they have worked through - considering the stages of the process and the effectiveness of the different questions which have been asked. 1. Teacher asks the students to analyze their pattern of inquiry. The teacher analyses the process of inquiry by asking the following questions. What kind of questions did you ask first? Did those questions help you in getting the answer to your problem? What hypotheses did you frame after gathering certain facts? How did you arrive at the solution? 2. Students discuss ways that they could have improved their inquiry.
38 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING References: Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of Teaching. United States of America: Pearson Education. Inc. Nada, S. A. (1998). Inquiry Model and Lesson Plan. Instructional Procedures. Retrieved from:http://www.nadasisland.com/nada-inquiry.html Lesh, R. & Doerr, H. (2003). Beyond constructivism: Models and modelling perspectives on mathematics problem solving, learning, and teaching. Mahwah, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Mujibul, H. S. (2013). Inquiry Training Model of Teaching: A Search of Learning. International Journal of Scientific Research, 2(3). Retrieved from http://theglobaljournals.com/ijsr/file.php?val=NjEz