OWEN THOMAS
and only if all of p, q, r, and s are true. This obviousness should not detract from the
interest in solving the problem as a sort of puzzle; it certainly does not detract from
the value of the exercise in understanding the very important algebraic ideas.
This is a good time to introduce the implication operation “⇒”. One can define
this by its truth table or by
p ⇒ q :≡ q ∨ ∼p
(I like to avoid using “∼p ∨ q” since this is ambiguous when read aloud). Both the
truth table and the identity should be mentioned frequently. Note that “⇒” is neither
associative nor commutative. Exercises like
p ⇒ (q ∨ ∼s) ≡ s ⇒ (∼p ∨ q) ,
or (the law of contraposition)
p ⇒ q ≡ ∼q ⇒ ∼p ,
should now be worked out both by truth tables and by algebra. One must take care in
choosing such exercises to keep the algebraic solutions fairly simple; it may be wise to
avoid requiring the use of distributive, absorbing, identity, or DeMorgan laws at first.
IV. Further Developments. Any treatment of symbolic logic should proceed at
least this far, in my opinion. Once the class is familiar with implications, there are a
number of different directions to go in. For example, one might return to the verbal
level and explore argument forms (syllogisms, modus ponens, and so on). This is also
a good time to begin study of set theory—the set operations of intersection, union,
and complementation are easily explained in terms of conjunction, disjunction, and
negation. In particular, I’ve found truth tables to be very useful in explaining Venn
diagrams (and am surprised not to have found this idea in the standard texts).
Here are a few more ideas for further developments in symbolic logic:
The Sixteen Boolean Functions. One of the nice things about logical variables
(as opposed to numerical) is that there are only finitely many values that the log-
ical variables can take (to wit, two of them: t and f). It follows that there are
only a finite number of operations—i.e., logical valued functions of two logical vari-
ables. Students can be asked to find all (sixteen) of them. Or given the various
functions, one might ask: which are commutative? which are associative? how can
each be expressed in terms of ∧, ∨, and ∼? and such like questions. If the class
has already done some set theory, students can match these functions up with the
sixteen two-set Venn diagrams. A connection can also be made with binary num-
bers for classes familiar with those (the sixteen numbers from 00002 to 11112 ).
f p ↓ q q − p ∼p p − q ∼q p4q p ↑ q p ∧ q p ⇔ q q p⇒q p q ⇒ pp ∨ q t
f f f f f f f f t t t t t t t t
f f f f t t t t f f f f t t t t
f f t t f f t t f f t t f f t t
f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t
The Sixteen Boolean Functions
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA FOR ALL (COLLEGE STUDENTS)! 5
Advanced Calculations. Consider the distributive laws algebraically. Show that one
of them can be derived from the other (by repeated application of DeMorgan’s laws).
Create a table of identities to be used in deriving other identities. Define the bicon-
ditional ⇔ and the symmetric difference 4 by
p ⇔ q :≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼p ∧ ∼q) and p4q :≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ ∼(p ∧ q)
(say), and show using truth tables (easy) and by algebra (hard) that these are asso-
ciative operations. Show that
p4q ≡ (p ∧ ∼q) ∨ (∼p ∧ q) .
Or consider the “nand” (or “Sheffer stroke”) operator ↑:
p ↑ q :≡ ∼(p ∧ q) .
Show how all of the standard logical operations can be described in terms of nand
alone. And so on. The possiblilities for interesting calculations are limited only by
time and patience.
V. Conclusion. No one will have failed to notice that my title is overly ambitious.
I haven’t made a case for “Boolean Algebra For All College Students”. I believe
such a case could and should be made; but this is not the time or place. I mention
here only that the perrenial question “When will I ever use this in real life?” can
be realistically answered by “Probably sooner than you think” in our increasingly
computer-dominated environment. For example, symbolic logic is useful in using the
catalogues of most libraries.
I hope I have persuaded some readers of the usefulness of logic as a supplement to,
or a replacement for, the standard “high school algebra” material often presented in
the college liberal arts course. This has been one of the major projects of my brief
professional life; I’d very much appreciate hearing from other teachers about these
ideas.