STRESS

Stress = person's perceived physical, social and environmental demands exceed their perceived ability to
cope; especially when these demands are seen as endangering the person's wellbeing in some way.

Bodys response to acute stress
Sympathomedullary pathway:
1. When an acute stressor is detected, the ANS (Autonomic Nervous System) is aroused.
2. The ANS then releases neurons that travel to the SNS (Sympathetic Nervous System).
3. The SNS is then activated by the neurons.
4. Neurons from the SNS travel to the adrenal medulla, which then activate it.
5. The activated adrenal medulla then releases adrenaline into the blood stream.
6. Adrenaline increases heart rate and breathing rate, and causes dilation of the pupil.
7. These changes prepare the body for fight or flight.
8. The parasympathetic branch (PNS) then returns the animal to a state of normal (rest and digest system).

Bodys response to chronic stress
Pituitary-Adrenal System:
1. When a chronic stressor is detected, the hypothalamus is activated.
2. When the hypothalamus is activated, the hormone CRF (corticotrophin releasing factor).
3. CRF then reaches the pituitary gland, which causes the release of the hormone ACTH.
4. This hormone is then transported through the blood stream to the target site in the adrenal glands.
5. The adrenal cortex is then activated by the arrival of ACTH and releases cortisol (decreases sensitivity to
pain, lowers blood pressure, impairs cognitive performance and weakens the immune system)
STRESS-RELATED ILLNESS: THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Research into the relationship between stress-related illness and the immune system has focused on both
acute and chronic stressors. Research into acute stressors includes that done by Kiecolt -Glaser et al
(1984). They studied blood samples of 75 medical students at a university before and during their summer
exam period, looking at the activity of NK cells. It was found that levels of NK cells in the blood during the
exam period was significantly lower than before the exam period, suggesting that short term stressors can
reduce immune system functioning, increasing vulnerability to illness.

Research into chronic stressors includes that done by:
ACUTE STRESS:
Kiecolt-Glasier (1984) carried out a natural experiment to investigate whether short term stressors
(exams) had an effect on immune system blood samples taken 1 month before (low stress) and
during exam period immune system functioning measured by measuring NK cell activity (natural
killer cells that defend host) in blood samples + questionnaires given to measure other life stressors
found NK cell activity reduced in blood sample during exam period + those reporting with highest level
of loneliness had lowed NK cell activity level = short term stressors reduce immune system functioning.
Supported by Marucha et al (1998) wounds took 40% longer to heal during exam period than
summer.
CHRONIC STRESS:
Kiecolt-Glasier et al (2005) inflicted blister wounds on married couples, and then asked them to have
either a supporting or conflicting discussion with each other. The wounds on the couples that had
conflicting discussions took longer to heal than the wounds on those who had supporting discussions,
suggesting that chronic stressors also reduce immune system functioning.
Further research into the relationship between chronic stressors and the immune system was
conducted by Kiecolt-Glasier (1987). They compared immune system functioning in women who were
separated (and therefore likely to suffer from chronic stress) and women who were still married. It was


found that the immune systems in separated women were weaker than those in women who were still
married, suggesting that chronic stressors reduce immune system functioning.

Evaluation
However, some other research has found that acute stressors can actually boost immune system
functioning. Evans et al (1994) studied the activity of the antibody SIgA on students. They arranged for
students to give talks to elicit acute stress, and found that this caused an increase in sIgA levels in the
blood. This goes against Kiecolt-Glaser's findings, suggesting that acute stressors can actually enhance
immune system functioning.

Similar results were found by Segerstrom & Miller (2004) conducted a metal analysis of 293 studies over
the course of 30 years, and found that acute stressors generally improve immune system functioning, and
chronic stressors suppress immune system functioning. These findings go against research into acute
stressors, suggesting that in fact they can improve immune system functioning. Also, the relationship
between stress and illness is difficult to establish.

Lazarus (1992) said that health is affected by a number of different factors, and therefore any changes
cannot be put down to stress alone. There may be other extraneous variables involved such as genetic
factors. Also, health is generally stable and slow to change, which makes is difficult to demonstrate that
exposure to particular stressors causes health to change. This challenges the validity of Keicolt-Glaser's
findings, suggesting that it may not have been the relationship between stress and illness, which was
measured in these studies.

LIFE CHANGES
A discrete, one off event, which can cause chronic stress

Measuring Life Changes
Holmes and Rahe (1967) are medical doctors who noticed that illness is common after major life changes.
They developed a way of measuring these life changes, called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS),
which consists of 43 life changes taken from 5000 patient records. To develop the SRRS, they asked 400
participants to score each life event on how much readjustment would be required by the average person
using marriage as an arbitrary baseline of 50. Score were totalled and averaged to find the LCU score (life
change units score) for each life event. An LCU score of less than 150 meant you had a 30% chance of being
ill due to stress, and an LCU score above 300 meant you had an 80% chance of being ill due to stress.

Supporting Research
Rahe (1970) then set up an experiment to test for a correlation between LCU and stress related illness. A
military version of the SRRS (the SRE) was given to 2700 men on navy ships. They were asked to fill in the
questionnaire before going on their duty, recalling life events which had occurred in the last 6 months. An
illness score was then calculated, based on the number, type and severity of illness the men had faced over
the next 7 months while they were on duty. A positive correlation of +0.188 was found between LCU score
and illness while on duty, which suggests that life changes cause stress, and therefore increase the chance
of stress related illness.

Evaluation
However there are some problems both with the development of the SRRS and the research by Rahe
(1967). The research by Rahe was only conducted on men in the navy, meaning the research may not apply
to other genders or occupations. It may be that the correlation between life changes and stress related
illness is stronger for females, suggesting that we cannot generalise the study to a wider population. Also,
the correlation between life change units and stress related illness was very weak, being only +0.188. This


suggests the relationship is questionable, and that the experiments is unreliable as we may be unlikely to
get the same correlation again. This correlation also does not be there is a causation. Brown suggests that
there may be other factors such as anxiety in Rahe's research which could attribute for the illness scores in
Rahe's research. Life changes also have different significances for different people. For example, a child
leaving home may be a minor stressor for someone, but a major stressor for others. This is a problems for
the SRRS as it assumes everyone reacts the same way to life changes. Reliability has also been questioned
because Rahe found low test-retest reliability. The validity of research into life changes has also been
questioned. Brown suggests that people who are unwell may feel the need to provide an explanation for
their illness, suggesting that much of the research in this area is invalid.

DAILY HASSLES & UPLIFTS
Daily hassles are minor events that happen on a daily basis. The emotional effects are shot lived but can
accumulate over time which can affect wellbeing.

Daily uplifts are positive every day experiences in life, and can reduce the effect of daily hassles.
Delongis et al devised the Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP) which measures attitudes towards situations,
providing a way of looking at both positive and negative events in life. It consists of 53 items worded to the
respondent can indicate whether the event is a hassle or an uplift.

Research into the HSUP was done by Bouteyere et al (2007) who looked at the link between daily hassles
and mental health in a group of French university students during the transition to university. The students
completed the HSUP and Beck's Depression Index, and 41% were found to show symptoms of depression.
The correlation between HSUP score and depression score was also positive, suggesting that the transition
to university has many hassles, which can cause depressive symptoms.

Research into the HSUP was also done by Gervais (2005), who asked nurses to keep a diary for 1 month
and record any hassles and uplifts they experience while at work, and rate their overall performance. At
the end of the month, it was found that hassles increased strain and decreased performance, but some
uplifts counteracted the negative effects of daily hassles.
Research into the HSUP was also done by Flett et al (1995). 320 students (160 girls and 160 boys) read a
scenario describing a male and female who had experienced either a life event or daily hassles. They rated
the amount of emotional and practical support that the person would receive from others, and it was
found those suffering from life changes were thought to receive more support than those suffering from
daily hassles.

Evaluation
There are two main explanations of why daily hassles can provide a more significant source of stress than
life changes. One of these is the accumulation effect. This is the idea that daily hassles create persistent
irritations and frustrations which can build up over time and cause more serious reactions such as anxiety
and depression. Another is the amplification effect. This is the idea that life changes may make people
more vulnerable to daily hassles, which could cause higher levels of stress even when they are only dealing
with a daily hassle.
There are some problems with the use of the HSUP in rating daily hassles and uplifts. One problem is
retrospective recall, suggesting it may be difficult for respondents to recall aspects of their lives accurately.
Also some categories may be ambiguous, so results may be invalid as different events may be interpreted
differently by different people. Also, we cannot prove a causal relationship between hassles and wellbeing.
There may be other factors such as genetics which could influence a person's wellbeing.





WORKPLACE STRESS
Marmot et al (1997) investigated the job strain model of workplace stress, which suggests that we get
stressed at work due to high workload and low job control. He studied 7327 civil servants in London, some
of these were higher grade employees (high work load) and some were lower grade employees (low job
control). He gave them questionnaires on workload and job control, and obtained an independent
assessment using their job specifications. They were then checked for signs of CHD, and 5 years later they
were checked again. No link was found between workload and stress related illness, but those who had a
lower job control were more likely to suffer from the stress related illness of CHD. This suggests no link
between workload and stress, but a negative correlation between job control and stress.

Evaluation
However, some research has found a positive correlation between workload and stress levels. Johansson
studied sawyers in a Swedish saw mill. They job was repetitive and required lot's of concentration. They
were also responsible for the wage rates of the factory. It was found that they had higher levels of
adrenaline in their urine, and took more days off work due to stress related illness. This goes against
Marmot et al.'s findings, suggesting that high workload can cause stress and therefore stress related
illness. Also, other research has found that in some cases low job control can actually reduce stress rather
than cause stress. Schaubroek et al (2001) found that individual differences exist. He assessed immune
system functioning using saliva samples, and found that in situations with low job control, immune system
functioning was better than therefore illness was lower. This goes against Marmot et al.'s findings,
suggesting that some people can find low control jobs less stressful.
Also, despite the large sample size, the results of this study cannot be generalised to the wider population.
This is because the participants were all civil servants working for the British Government in London. We
do not know if these results would be replicated with a sample of people from a different employment
background. As all the civil servants were British we can also say that this research is culturally biased. We
do not know if these results would be replicated with a sample of people from a different culture.

PERSONALITY FACTORS AND STRESS
Personality Types
There are two main personality types, type A and type B. Type A individuals are competitive, achievement
striving, impatient, urgent, aggressive and hostile, and Type B individuals are easy going, patient and
relaxed. Type A have an increased risk of stress related because their fight or flight response is more likely
to be set off, so they have raised levels of stress hormones in their body which are linked to ill health such
as CHD

Research
Research into the effect of personality types and stress was done by Friedman and Rosenmann (1960). As
part of the Western Collaborative Group study, 3000 men aged 39-59 in California were examined for signs
of CHD. They were then interviewed about how they respond to different situations to categorise them
into type A and type B personalities. The interview was conducted in a provocative manor to elict type A
behaviour, such as talking very slowly. After 8.5 years, twice as many Type A's had died from CHD than
type B's (12% compared to 6%). This suggests that type A's are more likely to suffer from stress related
illness.

Evaluation
There are some problems with this research into the relationship between type A and stress related illness.
Ragland and Brand (1988) conducted a follow up study 22 years later, and found that 214 people (15% of
men) had died from CHD, but they found little evidence between type A and mortality. They suggested
that perhaps there are other factors besides Type A personality that may account for this, such as genetics
and life style factors. This challenges the findings by Friedman and Rosenmann, suggesting extraneous


variables may have caused the deaths, not personality. Also, Myrtek (2001) conducted a meta analysis of
35 studies in this field, and only found a link between CHD and hostility, no evidence of CHD and type A
personality. This suggests that perhaps Type A personality is too general, and that it is just hostility which
increases risk of stress related illness. This challenges Friedman and Rosenmann's findings, suggesting the
link is between CHD and hostility, not CHD and Type A Personality.

Hardy Personality
A hardy personality provides characteristics which act as defences against the negative effects of stress.
There are 3 main traits, control commitment and challenge. Control is where someone sees themselves as
being in control over their lives (internal locus of control) Commitment is where someone is involved with
the world around them and has a strong sense of purpose, and challenge is where someone sees problems
as a challenges to overcome, as an opportunity for development.

Research
Research into the hardy personality was done by Kobasa (1979) who studied 800 American business
executives using the SRRS. 150 of them were classified as suffering from high stress but despite this some
had low illness levels, suggesting that these individuals had a hardy personality, showing control
commitment and challenge.
Research into the hardy personality was also done by Maddi et al (1987) They looked at a US company who
were reducing work force size over the course of the year. 2/3 of employees suffered from stress related
illness, and the remaining 1/3 thrived of this. This suggests some people do have a Hardy personality.
Research into the hardy personality was also done by Lifton et al (2006). They studied students at 5 US
universities to examine the relationship between hardiness and degree completion. Students scoring low in
hardiness were disproportionally represented among drop outs, and those scoring high in hardiness were
more likely to complete their degree.

Evaluation
Some argue that the Hardy personality is too complicated, and that we should use a more simple concept
called negative activity (NA) . Those with a high NA are more likely to report distress and dwell on negative
thoughts. These people are low in hardiness. NA and Hardiness are negatively correlated, suggesting Hardy
individuals are simply those who have low NA
Also, much of the research to support the link between hardiness and health had relied upon data from
self report questionnaires. This means such of this research has low validity as people may misunderstand
questions, or lie due to social desirability bias.

PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT
Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT)
A type of CBT designed by Meichenbaum (1983), which aims to promote resilience to future stressors.
The first stage is conceptualisation, where the therapist and client establish a relationship. The client is
taught about the impact of stress, and taught to see stressful situations as problems to overcome and be
managed.
The second stage is the skills acquisition stage. This is where different coping skills are taught and
practiced, including relaxation and breathing techniques.
The third stage is the application stage. This gives the clients an opportunity to apply these new skills in
different situations, becoming increasingly stressful, often through the use of imagery and role play. Here
skills can be practiced before being used in real life.






Evaluation
There is evidence of this being an effective way to cope with university stress. Sheehy and Horan (2004)
examined the effectiveness of SIT on first year law students. They each received 4 weekly 90 minute
sessions of SIT, and more than half of those predicted to be in the bottom 20% of their classes show
significant improvement in performance after SIT. This shows how SIT can prove effective in real life
situations
Also, unlike many biological methods SIT treats the causes rather than the symptoms of stress. This means
that SIT gives clients the confidence to cope with any future problems, as SIT has long lasting
effectiveness.
However, SIT is very time consuming and requires lots of money. It may not always work and requires high
motivation, so therefore may not be the best method of stress management,
SIT is also unnecessarily complex, focusing on a range of different stages of stress management. When
infact, the effectiveness may just be due to one element, not all of them. The same results could be found
while reducing the number of activities needed in the therapy.

Hardiness Training
A therapy which helps clients to become more hardy to combat the negative effects of stress.
The first stage is focusing. This is where the client learns to recognise the signs and symptoms of stress,
such as an increased heart rate.
The second stage is reliving stressful encounters. This is where clients think about how they currently
respond to stress, and can then think about how they need to adapt or change their coping strategies.
The third stage is self improvement. After gaining an insight into how they react to stress they can move
forward and find a new way of coping, seeing stress as a problem to overcome.

Evaluation
Hardiness training has been used in student support in Utah Valley State College to help at risk students. It
helps them to stay in school and develop. This shows how hardiness training can be effective. Hardiness
training has also been used in GB Olympic swimmers to make sure they are committed and able to manage
and other stressors, which will affect their training. This also shows how hardiness training can be
effective.

BIOLOGICAL METHODS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT
Benzodiazepines:
Benzodiazepines such as Diazepam reduce anxiety and stress levels by calming the brain. They do this by
enhancing the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA, which binds to receptor sites on the receiving
neurone. This causes channels to open on the receiving neurone, so Cl
-
is released into the neuron. The Cl
-
makes the neurone less responsive to other neurotransmitter, which makes the individual feel calmer.

Beta-Blockers:
Beta-Blockers reduce the activity of adrenalin and noradrenalin by binding to receptors on the cells of
organs stimulated by the flight or fight response (e.g. the heart). This causes the reverse effect of stress
hormones, as the stress hormones cannot bind to the receptors. In this case it will cause the heart to beat
slower, making the person more relaxed.

Evaluation
The effectiveness of drugs can be proven through the use of double blind trials using placebos. The
patients and the doctor do not know who is receiving the placebo and who is receiving the stress-reducing
drug. This prevents psychological benefits of taking someone from happening. Kahn et al (1980) studied
250 patients over 8 weeks and found that Benzodiazepines are significantly superior to a placebo,
suggesting they are effective in stress management.



Also, taking drugs as a method of stress management requires very little effort from the user compared to
some psychological approaches. The client just needs to remember to take the drug instead of devote up
to 10 hours a week undergoing therapy.

However, the use of drugs only treats the symptoms rather than the causes of stress. The effect only lasts
as long as the person is taking the drug, and as soon as they stop taking the drug the symptoms may
reappear. Therefore it may be preferable to use psychological methods which can prevent the stress from
reoccurring.
Also, using drugs can pose many different risks. Some of the side effects of BZ's include aggressiveness and
cognitive impairment. This can cause problems suggesting using drugs may not be affecting as they may
just raise other problems and concerns.

Finally, using drugs can pose a risk of addiction. Patients taking even low doses of BZ's have reported
withdrawal symptoms after the end of their prescription. Because of this, Ashton et al (1997) suggests that
use of BZ's should be limited to a maximum of 4 weeks.

SOCIAL INFLUENCE
CONFORMITY
When we adjust our behaviour or opinion to match more closely the behaviour or opinions of others,
normally to fit in with a group of people. There are 2 types of conformity, compliance and internalisation.
Compliance is where we change our views publically but hold different views privately, and internalisation
is where we change our opinions both publically and privately, these become part of our value system.

WHY DO PEOPLE CONFORM?
People conform for two main reasons: normative social influence and informational social influence.
Normative Social Influence is driven by the desire to be liked, so someone conforms to fit in with the group
so others will like us. This is an example of compliance, looking towards others to decide how to behave,
where we hold different opinions privately.

Informational Social Influence is driven by the desire to be right, so someone would look to those we
believe to be right to guide them on how to behave. This is an example of internalisation, and would
normally occur is a situation is ambiguous, a crisis or in the presence of an expert.

Evaluation
There is research evidence of both normative social influence and informational social influence:
Normative Social Influence
Research which supports normative social influence was done by Garandeau and Cillissen (2006) found
that group members who aren't very close can be pressured into complying by a skilful bully, as this gives
the group a common goal, fulfilling the desire to be liked.

Other research was done by Linkenbach and Perkins (2003) who studied 12-17 year olds in 7 counties in
Montana - USA. Both groups were shown a campaign about smoking, one group were told that lots of
young people smoked and one group were not. 17% of the group told that young people did smoke
smoked in the future, where as only 10% of the group not told smoked in the future. Here being
persuaded of the norm influenced their behaviour due to normative social influence.

A final piece of research was done by Schultz et al (2008), who studied 132 hotels and 794 rooms where
guests stayed for 1 week. Guests were exposed to either the control condition or the experimental
condition. In the control condition there was a sign in the guests rooms informing them to reuse their


towels, and in the experimental condition there was the same sign but it also said "75% of guests reuse
their towels". For this experimental group, who were exposed to normative information, the need for new
towels was reduced by 25% compared to the control condition, suggesting that they had conformed to
what they thought was a group norm.

Informational Social Influence
Research which supports informational social influence was done by Jones et al, who studied mass
psychotic illness in a school in Tennesee in 1998. The teacher noticed a petrol smell and then complained
of a headache and nausea. Following this the school was evacuated and 80 students and 19 staff were
treated at hospital. No physical causes were discovered, suggesting they had established a link and
conformed using inappropriate social influence as the teacher would be seem as an "expert".

Other research was also done by Fein et al (2007), who looked at the effect of informational social
influence in political opinions. Participants were shown edited versions of USA president debates with
differing audience reactions. These produced large shifts in judgement of the candidates performances,
suggesting informational social influence will cause people's opinions to change.

Other research was done by Wittenbrink and Henely (1996) who exposed participants to negative
information about African Americans, and were led to believe that this was the majority view. It was later
reported that these people held more negative beliefs about African Americans, suggesting they had
conformed to what they thought was group values.

RESEARCH INTO CONFORMITY
Research into conformity was conducted by Asch in 1956. 123 American male college students from 4
Universities were selected on a voluntary basis to take part in what they thought was a visual judgement
task. Each student was paid $3 to participate. They were tested in groups of 7-9, where apart from one real
participant all the others were confederates of Asch. The real participant always went second from last.
The task involved looking at 2 cards, one with a standard line and one with 3 different length lines -
participants had to say out loud which line was the same at the standard line. There were 18 trials in total,
and 12 of them were critical trials where the confederates all had to say the same obviously wrong answer.
Asch found that 74% of the participants conformed at least once, 26% never conformed, 5% conformed all
the time, and 32% of critical trials were conformed in. This suggests that participants will conform to a
group norm even when the answer is clearly wrong.

(There are also some variations in the research conducted by Asch. When the task became more difficult
and it was less obvious which line was the same as the standard line, conformity was seen to increase.
When there were less than three confederates giving an incorrect answer, there was very little conformity.
The unanimity of the majority also affected conformity. When one of the confederates gave a different
incorrect answer, conformity reduced to 9%, and when one of the confederates gave another correct
answer, conformity reduced to 5.5%. People conformed due to distortion of perception; they came to see
the lines in a different way. Distortion of judgement, they doubted their accuracy. And finally distortion of
action, where they continued to privately believe in themselves but conformed to avoid disapproval.)

Evaluation
However there are some problems with the research conducted by Asch. One problem is that it lacks
ecological validity. This is because a visual judgement task involving lines is not something we would
commonly do in everyday life. Participants may have conformed more due to the laboratory setting,
therefore the results about conformity are not generalisable to real life situations as people may not have
reacted in the same way.



Also, the results may have been due to order effects. Because there were 18 trials in the experiment, by
the end participants may have become bored, and so may have conformed more than they would have
done on the first new trials. This means that the experiment lacks validity as it may not have given a true
representation of how the participants would have conformed.

There are also problems with ethical issues in terms of protection from harm. Many participants were
embarrassed about getting the answer wrong, and felt pressured by the confederates. This is unfair on the
participants and could have caused them not to trust their judgement in the future. However they were
debriefed and had the chance to ask any questions about the experiment.

Also, the experiment and results are biased towards one time period. 1950's America was very
conservative and many people were afraid to be different. This could mean that the participants
conformed more as they didn't want to be different, so if we did the experiment again now people may
conform less. This suggests that the experiment is culturally biased towards the 1950's.

OBEDIENCE
Obedience is when a person acts in response to an order given by another person. This is often another
person with perceived authority over others.

WHY DO PEOPLE OBEY
People obey for three main reasons, agentic shift, role of buffers and gradual commitment.
Agentic Shift
This is the shift from being in the autonomous state, where a person seem themselves acting on their own
, to an agentic state, where a person seem themselves acting as an agent to carry out another person's
wishes. This is normally the case when we will not be held responsible and are instructed by a person with
legitimate authority.

Role of Buffers
This is where a person is protected from the consequences of their own actions, making it easier to carry
out as the person will be unaware of what effect they are having. This is the case with Milgram's study
where the teacher and learner were separated by a wall, making it easier for the teacher to administer the
shocks.

Gradual Commitment
Once a person has completed one harmless request, they find it harder to refuse further tasks. This is due
to a humans innate desire to be consistent in their behaviour. In Milgram's study, after participants had
completed the first shock of 15V, they found it harder to resist going further.

Evaluation
Although Milgram's research has been influential, Mandell (1998) claims that Milgram's obedience
explanations when applied to the Holocaust is oversimplified and misleading.

One reason for this is monocasual emphasis. Mandel suggests that focusing solely on obedience as an
explanation of actions carried out in the Holocaust ignored other plausible explanations. Goldhagen
suggests that anti-Semitism (prejudice towards the Jews) was the primary motivation, not obedience.
Another is the role of agentic shift, emphasised by Browning (1992). In the Holocaust, the men of Reserve
Police Batallion 101 executed 38,000 Jews, but in Milgrams experiment they were assured that there
would be no lasting tissue damage. These differences suggest that the role of Agentic shift can vary, and
therefore is not a good explanation of why people conform.


The final point is the consequence of Obedience Alabi (Mandell, 1998) Milgram claimed that his work
explained the Holocaust, however using obedience to explain such events has negative consequences. It is
unjust given the historical record, as it can be distressing for those involved. Also, if effectively excuses war
criminals of their crimes, suggesting that reasons for obedience cannot always be applied.

RESEARCH INTO OBEDIENCE
Research into obedience was conducted by Milgram (1963). 40 male volunteers were paid $4 to take part
in what they thought was a task on the effect of punishment on learning. Participants always had the role
of teachers and a confederate was the learner, but infact the participant thought they had an equal chance
of being either. Learners were asked 30 questions, and participants had to administer an electric shock to
the learners whenever they answered a question wrong. Shocks started at 15V and each shock increased
by 15V each time up to 450V. No shocks were actually administered. The experiment ended when the
participant refused or when 450V was administered 4 times. All participants reached 300V, and 65%
administered the full 450V. This suggests that in some circumstances, most people will obey orders that go
against their conscience.

(There are some variations in the research done by Milgram which produced different results for
obedience levels. When the teacher was paired with a confederate who threw the switches, obedience
levels increased dramatically to 92.5%. When the venue was moved down to office blocks in a nearby
town, obedience levels decreased to 47.5%. When the teacher and learner were in the same room, and
when the learner agreed to participate if they were let out when they said so, obedience levels decreased
again to 40%. When the teacher had to force the learners hand on a plate to administer the shock and
were aware of the effects, obedience level decreased again to 30%, and when the experimenter instructed
the teacher by telephone from another room, obedience rates fell to 20.5%. Finally when the teacher was
given support by two other confederates who were teachers and refused to take part, obedience levels
decreased again to 10%)

Evaluation
There are some problems with the research conducted by Milgram (1963). The experiments lacks internal
validity, as there is a chance the participants may have discovered the true aim of the experiment. Orne
and Holland (1968) suggested that the participants may not have trusted the experimenter, because when
the learner cried out in pain the experimenter did not react. They may realise that the learner was really
not receiving any shocks, so they may feel more able to continue with the experiment, accounting for the
high obedience rates. This is a problem for Milgram's research as it suggests it wasn't really obedience that
was being measured.

Also, Milgram's research has been seen as ethically questionable. The participants were deceived and told
that the experiment was about the effect of punishment on learning, so they could not give true informed
consent, which is unfair on the participant. They were also deceived as they were told they had an equal
chance of being both learner and teacher, but infact this was fixed. Participants also appeared distressed,
many showing anxiety and discomfort when administering the shocks, this is unfair on the participants,
making Milgram's study ethically flawed.

Also, Milgram's research has low population validity, and therefore cannot be generalised. Kilham and
Mann (1974) conducted a similar investigation on male and female students in Australia. They found that
only 40% of Australian men and 16% of Australian women reached the full 450V. These differences suggest
that Milgram's results can only be applied to American males, and that other genders and cultures may
have lower obedience levels, making it ungeneralisable.



Milgram's research also has a low ecological validity. Rank and Jacobson conducted an investigation into
obedience in a real life setting. Nurses in a hospital were phoned and asked to give a dose of valium to a
patient. This went against hospital regulations about receiving phone calls and dose limits. 89% of nurses
refused to administer the drug, suggesting that obedience in real life situations is actually a low lower, so
Milgram's results cannot be generalised.

INDEPENDANT BEHAVIOUR
Locus of control
Locus of control is an aspect of our personality which refers to the extent to which individuals believe that
they have control over their lives, which is measured on a scale from high internal locus of control to high
external locus of control. Those with an external locus of control believe that what happens to them is
down to fate, luck, and destiny, the idea that your life is influenced by outside factors. Those with an
external locus of control believe that what happens to them is down to themselves because they have
tried hard or are well prepared, the idea that you are in control of your own life.
Your locus of control can influence how willing you are to conform/obey. If you have an external locus of
control, you are more likely to conform/obey because you should follow the orders of others, rely on the
opinions of others and cannot always resist persuasion. If you have an internal locus of control, you are
less likely to conform/obey because you are an active seeker of information, who relied less on the
opinions of others and is therefore more able to resist persuasion.

Evaluation
Locus of control can be applied to changing historical record. A meta-analysis by Twenge et al (2004) found
that young Americans increasingly believe lives are controlled by outside forces. Research has found that
locus of control scores have become more external from 1960-2002, which correlates with poor school
achievement, decreased self control and depression. This is because of social changes such as increasing
divorce rates, violent crime and suicide. Twenge believes that the increase in social factors has caused an
increase in externality as young people feel more out of control in their lives.
Blass (1991) reviewed many studies of locus of control and independent behaviour, and concluded that
there is no clear link between the two as many studies supported a link and others found no link.

Resisting pressures to conform
Using variations in Asch's research we can see ways people can resist conformity, one of these being the
role of allies. The introduction of another dissenter gave social support which caused conformity rates to
decreased from 32% down to 9% when the dissenter gave another incorrect answer, and 5.5% when the
dissident gave a correct answer. The social support gives the individual an independent assessment of
reality, making them more confident in their own decision and more confident in rejecting the majority.
The validity of this social support can also made a difference. Allen and Levine (1971) conducted a study
similar to that of Asch's, but this time with 3 conditions. One was a control condition, one offered social
support from someone with good eyesight (valid social support) and one offered social support from
someone with obviously bad eyesight (invalid social support). It was found that both forms of social
support reduced conformity with the confederates, but valid social support reduces conformity the most.
This suggests that valid social support helps people resist pressures to conform.

Evaluation
People may be more willing to be independent and resist pressures to conform in physical rather than
moral judgements. Most research into conformity uses physical judgements such as judging line lengths. In
these situations, being independent has few psychological costs, where as in moral decisions, the
psychological costs may be higher. Hornsey et al (2003) found that people conform less in morally
significant situations compared to physical situations, suggesting that in this case, research into resisting
pressures to conform only applies to physical judgement tasks, not moral beliefs.


Griskevicius (2006) said that women are also less likely to be independent and more likely to conform to
what they think others believe compared to men. This suggests that there are individual differences in
resisting pressures to conform.

Resisting pressures to obey
Using variations in Milgram's research we can see ways people can resist pressures to obey. There is
evidence that status of location is a key factor in resisting pressures to obey. When the study was moved
away from the prestigious university setting to a downtown office block, more people were able to resist
authority, as obedience rates fell to 47.5%. This suggests less prestigious setting can reduce obedience.
Also, when the teacher and the learner were in the same room, and consequently forced to see and hear
the pain of the learner was experiencing, obedience rates dropped to 40%. This suggests that when you are
aware of the effects of your obedience, you are less likely to obey. Also, when the teacher was given
support from two other confederates who refused to obey, obedience decreased down to 10%. This
suggests social support can help reduce pressure to obey, because it gives them more confidence in their
decisions.

Evaluation
There are some problems with the research conducted by Milgram which can also be applied to his
variations.
The experiments lacks internal validity, as there is a chance the participants may have discovered the true
aim of the experiment. Orne and Holland (1968) suggested that the participants might not have trusted the
experimenter, because when the learner cried out in pain the experimenter did not react. They may realise
that the learner was really not receiving any shocks, so they may feel more able to continue with the
experiment, accounting for the high obedience rates. This is a problem for Milgram's research as it
suggests it wasn't really obedience that was being measured.

Milgram's research also has a low ecological validity. Rank and Jacobson conducted an investigation into
obedience in a real life setting. Nurses in a hospital were phoned and asked to give a dose of valium to a
patient. This went against hospital regulations about receiving phone calls and dose limits. 89& of nurses
refused to administer the drug, suggesting that obedience in real life situations is actually a low lower, so
Milgram's results cannot be generalised.

MINORITY INFLUENCE AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change can occur when a minority influences a majority over a period of time. There are different
conditions necessary for this to occur. Drawing attention to yourself/an issue which opposes the majorities
opinions helps raise awareness of your cause. The role of conflict is also important, creating conflicting
ideas in the mind of the majority can make them think more deeply about an issue. Being consistent is
important to show commitment to your views. Wood et al conducted a meta analysis of 97 studies and
found that the consistent minorities were most influential. The augmentation principle suggests that if
there are risks involved then the minorities views are taken more seriously.

If these conditions are completed, then the snowball effect can happen. This is when the minority succeeds
in attracting enough supporters, more and more people accept the idea until that becomes the new
majority. Perez also suggested social crypto amnesia. This is when the minorities ideas are assimilated into
the majority to become part of our norms and value system.

Evaluation
There is evidence from different social changes. One of these is the role of terrorism (Kruglanski, 2003).
Terrorists are very consistent in what they do, designed to demonstrate their power and determination. In
terms of the augmentation principle, suicide bombers show extreme risk and commitment which makes


the majority believe they are determined. Another example is the Suffragettes. They were successful by
drawing attention to themselves through protests and making their opinions known. Changes to the voting
system were new and unusual ideas, so the role of conflict in the minds of the majority played a big role.
They were also consistent, fighting for 15 years to give women the right to vote. In terms of the
augmentation principle, they also used hunger strikes and suicide to show their determination. Eventually
the majority adopted this change, and now social crypto amnesia has occurred, and women voting is now
part of our social norms.
Moscovici (1976) also found that when the minority is consistent, they can influence the majority.

ABNORMALITY
DEFINITIONS OF ABNORMALITY
1. Deviation from social norms
Social norms include explicit rules (laws, e.g. stealing) and implicit rules (by society, e.g personal space)
that a society has about what are acceptable behaviours. If you break any of these rules, you are deviating
from social norms and therefore seen as abnormal in some way.

Evaluation
There are some problems with this definition of abnormality. Social deviance cannot offer a complete
explanation because it is related to context. For example, it is socially acceptable to wear a bikini on the
beach, but not to a funeral. Therefore this definition cannot always be applied. This definition is also only
culturally relative, as there are no universal standards, social norms vary from culture to culture. For
example, in China, it is a social norm to bow to your grandmother. However in other cultures this would be
seen as abnormal, suggesting this definition cannot be generalised between cultures. Also, social norms
can change over time. What is socially acceptable now may not have been acceptable in the past. For
example homosexuality was a criminal offence in the UK before 1963, whereas now it is socially
acceptable. This suggests this definition isn't generalizable between time periods as norms change.

2. Failure to function adequately
This definition suggests that abnormality can be judged in terms of not being able to function or cope with
everyday life. Someone may experience suffering or distress, displaying an inability to cope with every day
activities such as going to work.

Evaluation
However there are some problems with this definition. Who judges what failure to function adequately
actually is? The person themselves or the people around them? For example, someone who suffers from
Schizophrenia may feel as if they are functioning normally, but to those around them their behaviour is
very abnormal. This suggests a flaw in this definition. Also, is not functioning adequately adaptive or
maladaptive? Some abnormal behaviour can be functional for the individual. For example, some eating
disorders can provide welcome extra attention for the person. Finally, adequate functioning is culturally
relative, related to cultural ideas of how our lives should be lived. Standards of one culture should not be
generalised to another culture. For example, many lower class non-white patients are diagnosed with
mental disorders, suggesting their lifestyles are viewed as abnormal when really they are functioning fine
according to their culture.


3. Deviation from ideal mental health
This definition was put forward by Jahoda (1958). It had the idea that when we diagnose physical illness,
we look for absence of physical health, therefore when we diagnose mental illness, we should look for
absences in mental health. Ideal mental health is defined by: Positive self-attitude, personal growth and


self-actualisation, integration, autonomy, accurate perception of reality and mastery of environment.
Deviation from these will cause abnormality.

Evaluation
However there are some problems with this definition of abnormality. According to these criteria, we are
all abnormal to some degree. There is no indication as to how many of these criteria we need to meet
before we are recognised as abnormal. This suggests a flaw in this definition of abnormality. Also, we can't
always say that physical health is the same as mental health. Many physical illness have a physical cause
which can be diagnosed, but mental illnesses may be a consequence of life experiences. Therefore we
cannot diagnose mental abnormality in the same way as we can for physical abnormality. Also, this
definition is culturally relative. If this is applied to collectivistic cultures, then we will find higher levels of
abnormality. This is because self-actualisation is only relevant in individual cultures, as collectivistic
cultures values groups more than self. This suggests the definition is not generalizable to other cultures.

PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO ABNORMALITY
Freud - abnormality is a result of behaviour driven by the unconscious mind, mental disorders arise as a
results of unresolved conflicts in childhood. Conflicts arise between the Id (pleasure orientated and selfish),
superego (sense of morality) and the ego (balances the Id and Superego). For example, a powerful ego can
account for explanations of bipolar, and an overpowering Id can cause aggression and out of control
behaviour. Freud also argued that abnormal behaviour is caused by the ego's defence mechanisms, which
act to repress psychological conflicts in the unconscious mind from childhood. Later in life, these
unconscious thoughts may re-emerge, causing abnormal behaviour such as depression. He also believed
that fixation in any of the psychosexual stages of development (oral, anal or phallic) could lead to further
abnormalities and psychological problems. For example, fixation in the oral stage could develop into things
such as smoking, the anal stage with OCD, and the phallic stage with antisocial tendencies.

Evaluation
There is evidence from a case study which was studied by Freud. This is the case study of Little Hans who
had a fear of horses. As an explanation of this fear, Freud suggested the horse's muzzles and blinkers
represented his father's moustache and spectacles, and that the fear of castration by his father as they
were rivals for his mother's love was reflected onto the horse. Freud suggested that Little Hans was
therefore fixated in the phallic stage of development, supporting his psychodynamic theories.

However there are also some problems with Freud's theory. His theory was based around abstract
concepts of the unconscious mind, something which is very difficult to investigate experimentally. There is
no way of directly testing the unconscious mind, making us reliant on case study evidence on the Id and
Superego which cannot be generalised beyond that individual. Also, Freud's ideas were sexist, focusing of
the Oedipus complex and developing the theory less for women. This is due to the cultural bias of the
Victorian society, and questions how accurate his theory really is. Finally, it is very difficult to actually
disprove Freud's theories, due to the role of the unconscious mind. If an individual does not display
psychological causes of unresolved conflicts in childhood, then according to Freud this would be due to the
ego's defence mechanisms repressing these memories. This is a problem for Freud's theory, as there is no
way to prove his ideas wrong.

PSYCHODYMANIC TREATMENT - PSYCHOANALYSIS
This is known as the talking cure and aims to bring unconscious repressed memories into the conscious
mind to reveal unresolved conflicts. This is done using 4 main techniques. The first technique is dream
analysis. It is suggested that our unconscious mind is revealed in our dreams, and that by analysing your
dreams we are able to see repressed conflicts from childhood. The second technique is free association.
This is where clients are given a prompt word and told to say the first word that appears in their mind


following this. Without thinking about what is being said, the unconscious mind is being used which reveals
areas of conflict to bring forward repressed memories. Another technique is therapist interpretation. This
is where the therapist looks for signs of resistance (changing the subject) or transference (recreating
feelings onto the therapist) to gain an insight into the unconscious mind. Finally working through is used to
examine the same issue over and over again over a period of years, often 4 or 5 times a week, in an
attempt to gain greater clarity into the causes of their behaviour, which can then be managed.

Evaluation
Research has found psychoanalysis to be an effective treatment. Bergin (1971) analysed the data from
10,000 patient records and estimated that 80% benefitted from psychoanalysis compared to 65% from
eclectic therapies. They also found that there are a great emphasis on the length and intensity of this
treatment being effective. This supports psychoanalysis because it suggests that it can be effective in
treating patients. The length of this treatment being effective has also been supported by Tschuschke et al
(2007), who studied 450 patients and found that the longer the treatment took the better the outcomes
were, supporting the idea of using working through.
However there are some problems with psychoanalysis as a method of treating abnormality. One of these
are theoretical limitations, the idea that if Freud's theories are flawed then the therapy must be flawed as
well. (Eysenck 1980), suggesting that psychoanalysis is therefore not going to be effective.

Also, psychoanalysis fails to take into account individual differences which may occur in treatment,
suggesting that the same theory cannot be imposed upon all. Finally, the idea of repressed memories may
actually be false. Some claim that therapists are not helping patients recover suppressed memories, but
are instead implanting false memories into their heads. The APA take the view that those who were
abused as children are unlikely to forget such a traumatic experience, so this is not something which could
necessarily be repressed. This is a problem for psychoanalysis as it suggests individuals may not actually
have repressed memories.

BIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO ABNORMALITY
The biological approach suggests that mental illness is caused by physical factors in the body. One of these
is genetic links, which have been discovered for certain mental disorders.
One way of investigating these links is to study twins to see if one twin has the disorder the other twin
should too. This provides us with a concordance rate. Joseph (2004) found high concordance rates for
Schizophrenia. For MZ twins the rate was 40.4% and for DZ twins the rate was 7.4%. This suggests that
there is a genetic link for Schizophrenia as the MZ rate is higher.
Also, some mental disorders have been linked to abnormal neuroanatomy. For example, schizophrenics
have been found to have enlarged ventricles in their brains. Mental disorders are also linked to
biochemistry. For example depression has been linked to low levels of serotonin (neurotransmitter) and
high levels of cortisol (hormone). Finally, some mental disorders may be related to viral infection in the
womb. For example, Torrey (2001) found that many mothers of Schizophrenics had contracted a particular
strain of flu during pregnancy.

Evaluation
However, there are some problems with this approach. In terms of genetics, concordance rates are never
100, suggesting mental disorders are not purely caused by genetic factors. It is likely that individuals inherit
a susceptibility to the disorder, but the disorder only develops if the individual is exposed to stressful life
conditions. This is known as the diathesis stress model, suggesting that both nature and nurture play a
role. Also, in terms of neuroanatomy and biochemistry, we do not know if abnormal biochemistry is a
cause or effect of mental disorders, as a link doesn't tell us which one causes the other. Also, in general,
the biological approach has led to more humane treatment of people with mental disorders. Before these


disorders were blamed on the devil, but now there is an explanation which offers a different cause, a
potentially treatable one, showing how influential this model has been.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT - Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
These treatments aim to rectify physical changes in the body which have caused abnormality. ECT is used
on patients who are severely depressed when there is a risk of suicide, and when all other treatments have
failed. First, patients are given a general anaesthetic and a muscle relaxant to prevent pain and injury.
Electrodes are then placed on the patients head in a unilateral way, one on the middle of the forehead and
one above the temple of the non dominant side of the brain. A small electric current of about 0.6 amps is
then passed through the brain between electrodes causing a 1 minute seizure. Patients will normally need
between 3 and 15 sessions of ECT to reduce their symptoms.

Evaluation
There are many strengths of using ECT as a treatment for abnormality, in this case depression. ECT has
saved the lives of many of those at risk of suicide, working well where other treatments such as drugs did
not. This suggests that the benefits of ECT outweigh the risks and that it is therefore effective, supporting
its use. Also, this effectiveness has been proved by Comer (2002) who found that 60-70% of patients
showed significant improvements after using ECT. This proves how effective ECT can be. However there are
some problems with the use of ECT to treat abnormality. Some research has found that ECT is not always
very effective. Sackheim et al (2001) found that 84% of patients has relapsed with 6 months of treatment,
suggesting that ECT may be a good short term solution but offers few long term solutions. Also, tests have
been carried out into Sham ECT. Some patients have been given similar ECT treatment but without the
electric current and seizure. Some of these patient's still showed improvement even though they had not
undergone ECT, suggesting that attention plays a role in recovery, and that therefore ECT may not actually
be effective, it just has psychological improvements. Also, negative side effects of ECT have been found.
Datto (2000) stated that side effects of ECT included headaches, memory problems and heart problems.
Also, the DOH report found psychological side effects, 30% of those who had ECT in the last 2 years
reported permanent fear or anxiety. This suggests that although ECT may appear to work, side effects are
common.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT - Drug Therapies
Drugs are the main treatment for mental disorders, and they aim to rectify abnormal biochemistry. One
type of drug is antipsychotic drugs which are used to treat Schizophrenia by decreasing levels of dopamine.
Conventional antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine block the action of neurotransmitter as a dopamine
antagonist by binding to the dopamine. Atypical antipsychotics such as Clozapine temporarily occupy
dopamine receptors before dissociating to allow normal dopamine transmission. This has less side effects.
Another type of drug is antidepressant drugs which increase levels of serotonin to reduce depression
levels. These work by either reducing the rate of absorbance by the nerve endings (SSRI - SELECTIVE
SEROTONIN REUPTAKE INHIBITOR) or by inhibition the enzyme which breaks down serotonin. These
increase serotonin levels and reduce depression. Another type of drug is anti-anxiety drugs.
Benzodiazepines such as Diazepam reduce anxiety and stress levels by calming the brain. They do this by
enhancing the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA, which binds to receptor sites on the receiving
neurone. This causes channels to open on the receiving neurone, so Cl- are released into the neuron. The
Cl- make the neurone less responsive to other neurotransmitter, which makes the individual feel calmer.
Beta-Blockers reduce the activity of adrenalin and noradrenalin by binding to receptors on the cells of
organs stimulated by the flight or fight response (e.g. the heart). This causes the reverse effect of stress
hormones as the stress hormones cannot bind to the receptors. In this case it will cause the heart to beat
slower, making the person more relaxed.




Evaluation
There are many strengths associated with the use of drugs to treat abnormality. One of these is the
effectiveness of the treatment. the WHO reported that relapse rates after 1 year were high when
schizophrenics were treated with placebos compared to chlorpromazine. This suggests that
chlorpromazine is therefore effective, and these benefits are not due to the placebo effect. Also, drugs are
easy to use, often involving the patient taking a few tablets each day. This is a lot more convenient than
some therapies such as psychoanalysis which can take years. This suggests that drugs are an easy and
efficient treatment. However there are some problems with the use of drugs to treat abnormality. Drugs
tackle the symptoms of abnormality rather than the causes. Once the patient stops taking the drugs, the
effectiveness ceases, suggesting that drugs are not good in the long term for treating abnormality, and the
psychological therapies may be better. There are also side effects associated with drugs. For example,
SSRI's used to treat depression may cause anxiety, insomnia, and suicidal thoughts. Therefore in some
cases the causes may not outweigh the benefits. Also, Kirsch et al (2002) reviewed 38 studies of
antidepressants and found patients receiving placebos faired almost as well as those taking the real drug,
questioning the effectiveness of anti-depressants.

BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO ABNORMALITY
The behavioural approach to abnormality emphasised the role of the environment in causing abnormality,
especially phobias. It suggests that at birth we are a blank slate, have the capacity to learn, and abnormal
behaviour is a consequence of abnormal learning. One way this can happen is through classical
conditioning, the idea that we learn through association. The feared object is associated with fear or
anxiety, which causes the conditioned stimulus to produce a fear response whenever the stimulus is
encountered. Another way this can happen is through operant conditioning, the idea that we learn through
the consequences of our actions. The likelihood of us repeating behaviour depends on its consequence.
Psychological disorders occur when a maladaptive behaviour is rewarded or unpunished, as it can
encourage someone to do this behaviour again. For example, someone who goes on a diet may lose
weight, causing attention from others, this could act as a reward, making someone more likely to lose
weight and possibly lead to anorexia.
Another was this can happen is though Social Learning Theory (Banduras theory). This is learning through
observing a model, and imitating their behaviour. This depends on the observed consequences of their
behaviour; vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. Here abnormality can occur if someone
observes the behaviour of someone else that shows a phobia and therefore receives attention.

Evaluation
There is case study evidence, which supports classical conditioning and Social Learning Theory. Watson and
Rayner (1920) studied classical conditioning in causing phobias using a boy called Little Albert. At first he
was exposed to a rat (NS) and showed no fear, and then exposed to a loud noise (UCS) and showed fear
(UCR). He was then exposed to the rat (NS) and the loud noise (UCS) and showed fear. He then associated
the noise (UCS) with the rat (NS) and proceeded to show fear (CR) just in response to the rat (CS). His fear
was generalised to all white fluffy objects. This research supports classical conditioning, showing how it can
cause phobias to develop. Also, research by Mineka (1984) studied young monkeys who were raised by
parents already showing a fear of snakes. The young monkeys did not have this fear (suggesting there
were not genetic factors involved), but after they had observed their mothers showing this fear, then
developed this fear themselves. This supports the Social Learning theory, suggesting that observation can
cause imitation. However there are some problems with the behavioural approach to abnormality. One of
these is that the research into classical and operant conditioning was based upon animal research. This
means that the research cannot be generalised to humans as this would be extrapolation. Therefore this is
a problem because some of the research in this field would be invalid if applied to humans in the same
way. Finally, the behaviourist approach is reductionist, it reduces a complex behaviour into basic ideas.
This suggests that other factors are not taken into account and therefore does not give a true


representation of why some people have phobias. This is a problem with this approach as it suggests it is
too simple to be applied to explanations of abnormality.

BEHAVIOURAL TREATMENT - Systematic De-sensitisation
Systematic De-sensitisation takes a practical approach based on classical conditioning to replace
maladaptive responses to a stimulus with adaptive responses. (Wolpe et al) The first step of the procedure
involves the client being taught muscle relaxing techniques and deep breathing skills. The therapist will
often play soft music to elict a state of relaxation. The client is then asked to create a hierarchy of anxiety
provoking situations related to their phobia. The client and therapist then work through the hierarchy
while staying in the relaxed state, not moving onto another stage until that stage is completed. The client
begins to associate their feel with relaxation, helping them to overcome their fear and be se-sensitised.
Each stage can be applied through imagination (vitro) and real life (vivo).

Evaluation
There are many strengths with the use of systematic de-sensitisation to treat anxiety or phobias. The
process of SD is quick compared to other psychological methods such as psychoanalysis, as patients do not
need to play such an active part in the treatment. This therefore means that SD can be effective in treating
individuals with learning difficulties, as they will not need to put as much effort into the treatment to get
the same effects. There is also research evidence which supports the use of SD in treating phobias.
McGrath et al (1990) found that 75% of patients with phobias responded to SD treatment, which emphasis
the effectiveness and supports its use. Also, Capafons et al (1998) reported that using SD to treat a fear of
heights caused lower levels of anxiety compared to a control group when placed in a flight simulator. This
supports the use of SD suggesting it is effective in treating fears of heights. However there are also some
problems associated with the use of SD. One of these is symptom substitution, suggesting that although SD
may relieve symptoms of fear, it may also cause other symptoms such as depression to appear. This
questions the effectiveness of SD in relieving symptoms in the long term. Also, other research has found
that SD is not always effective. Ohman et al (1975) suggested that SD may not be as effective in treating
anxieties with evolutionary survival characteristics such as heights, the dark, fire, or wild animals. This is
because in the past this would have helped our ancestors survive, so are harder to shift. This is a problem
for SD suggesting that it may not always be effective.

COGNITIVE APPROACH TO ABNORMALITY
The cognitive approach suggests that abnormality is a result of faulty thinking. Behaviour is controlled by
our thoughts and beliefs, and therefore the individual is the cause of their own irrational thoughts which
cause abnormality. This is shown by Ellis (1962) in the ABC model. The first stage of this model is activation
events, which is a stimulus which can cause different beliefs. These beliefs can be rational or irrational. The
final stage is consequences, which can be either healthy or unhealthy. Irrational thoughts have unhealthy
consequences, which can cause abnormality by increasing the risk of developing anxiety or depression.
Common irrational beliefs also include catasprophizing, where everything is made more dramatic, and
overgeneralization, where you believe you will fail everything. Other irrational thoughts are shown in
Beck's model of depression, which suggests there is a cognitive triad of negative thinking which can cause
depression. These 3 factors are negative view of the self, negative view of the world and negative view of
the future.

Evaluation
However there are some problems with the cognitive model of abnormality. One of these problems is the
fact that the cognitive models ignores situational factors which can also cause depression as well as
irrational thoughts. Ignoring life events or family situations suggests that this model is too simplistic in
explaining the causes of abnormality. Also, it is not clear whether irrational thoughts cause depression or
whether depression causes irrational thoughts. We cannot establish a causal relationship between the two,


suggesting the cognitive model is unclear. It may just be that irrational thoughts increase the risk of
developing depression and therefore being abnormal. Also, some irrational beliefs may actually be realistic
for those who suffer from depression. Alloy and Abrahmsom (1979) suggested that some depressive
people are able to give more accurate estimates of life, and that they may not always have irrational
thoughts and faulty thinking. This is known as the sadder but wiser effect, acting as a problem for the
cognitive approach as it questions the way depressed people can think.


COGNITIVE TREATMENT - CBT
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy aims to teach patients to be aware of their irrational beliefs, and then
improve their thinking to become more rational, which will then have positive consequences. Rational
Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT) was created by Ellis (1952) and is a type of CBT. It aims to change the
irrational thoughts that lead to unproductive outcomes into rational thoughts leading to productive
outcomes. Patients are encouraged to challenge these in 3 main ways. The first was is through empirical
disputing, the idea that self-defeating beliefs are not consistent with reality. Also through pragmatic
disputing, the idea that self-defeating beliefs are useless, and finally logical disputing, the idea that
irrational thoughts are not logical. By challenging these irrational beliefs, having an effective attitude to life
and feeling positive, abnormality can be reduced according the DEF model in extension to the ABC model.
This can reduce catastrophising and over generalising, helping someone to act in a more rational way to
become more self-accepting.

Evaluation
There is evidence which supports the effectiveness of CBT in treating abnormality. Engles et al (2003)
conducted a meta-analysis of 28 studies, and found that REBT is effective for a range of disorders, including
OCD and social anxiety. It was also found that REBT is more effective than other psychological therapies
including systematic desensitisation, showing how REBT can be applied effectively in the real world. Also,
REBT is appropriate as it can be used on the general population to treat minor problems such as exam
anxiety as well as major disorders such as OCD. This supports REBT, suggesting that it can be effective on a
range of problems. Also, computer can deliver REBT. Yoichi et al (2002) developed a computer programme
which allows patients to undergo 50 minute sessions of REBT online, including education about the ACB
model and positive and negative ways of dealing with irrational thoughts. This has been found to reduce
levels of anxiety among patients, showing that REBT is appropriate because a therapist is not always
needed. However there are some problems with using REBT to treat abnormality. One of these problems is
that that treatment fails to take in to account irrational environments such as relationship abuse or
problems at work. This is a problem for REBT as it suggests the benefits of the therapy may not be lifelong,
as situational factors can promote future abnormality.










PSYCHOLOGY AQA A UNIT 1
Attachment reciprocal emotional bond between two people that endures over time, serving the
function of protecting the infant and leading to certain behaviours (seeking proximity, distress on
separation, pleasure on reunion and general orientation of behaviour)
There is a Primary attachment figure (PAF)

EXPLANATIONS OF ATTACHMENT: LEARNING THEORY
Learnt rather than inborn

Classical conditioning: Association
Proposes that food (unconditioned stimulus) naturally produces a feeling of pleasure (unconditioned
response). The feeder (neutral stimulus) becomes associated with the food (unconditioned stimulus) when
the infant is fed. The mother eventually produces the sense of pleasure associated with the food. Pleasure
is now a Conditioned Response, which causes attachment and feeder becomes conditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning: Reinforcement (DOLLARD AND MILLER 1950)
When an infant if hungry, they feel uncomfortable and a drive is produced to reduce this discomfort. When
the infant in fed, the drive is reduced and this produces a feeling of pleasure. The infant learns that the
food is rewarding (Primary Reinforcer) and begins to recognise the person that provided the food
(Secondary Reinforcer). Attachment occurs because the infants seek to be around the person that supplied
the award.

Evaluating learning theory
Research by Harlow (1959) suggests attachment may not totally be based upon the provision of food.
Harlow removed baby rhesus monkeys from their mothers, and placed them into a cage. In the cage there
were 2 wire mesh cylinders. One covered in towelling (contact comfort mother) and the other bare but
with a bottle on the top (lactating mother). Harlow found that the babies spent most of their time clinging
to the contact comfort mother, especially when they were scared, and only visited the lactating mother
occasionally to feed. This does not support leaning theory because it suggests that comfort may be more
important than food in securing attachment.

However there are some problems with the research conducted by Harlow (1959). The use of the non-
human animal (rhesus monkeys) means that the data has been extrapolated, and so may not apply to
further research done on humans.

However there is research by Schaffer and Emerson (1964), which supports Harlows findings. Schaffer and
Emerson observed 60 infants from working class homes in Glasgow in a naturalistic observation. They
found that most of the infants seemed more attached to those who interacted with them and were more
responsive rather than the person who fed them

EXPLANATIONS OF ATTACHMENT: EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
Bowlby
Attachment is an innate and biological process that has evolved because of its survival value. Infants are
born with an innate drive to become attached to a caregiver. Attachment must form in a sensitive period,
(the 2
nd
quarter of the first year of life) or not at all. Attachment is also an adaptive process as infants
produce social releasers which elicit care giving from their primary attachment figure. Bowlby suggested
that infants have a bias towards the primary attachment figure which is called monotropy, and from there,
theres a hierarchy of other important people in the infants life. Bowlby also suggested that our
relationship with our primary attachment figure creates expectation for future life relationships, something


known as the internal working model. From this he suggested a continuity hypothesis, that there is
continuity between attachment and future life experiences.

M: Monotropy bias towards PAF as a result of sensitivity from PAF Secondary attachments
provide safety net and contribute to social skills (supported by Harlow + Tronick et al).
A: Adaptive adaptive behaviours are innate and increase chances of survival and reproduction it
ensures that infants will stay with PAF and be provided with food and protection.
S: Social releasers critical in attachment formation as infants neonatal features elicit caregiving
which is an innate response on the behalf of the caregiver and will provide survival to infant.
S: Secure base attached child will have secure base (caregiver), allowing them to explore the world
w/o fear and fosters independence.
I: Internal working model infants PAF will act as prototype of future relationships generates
expectations of how people behave in long term and gives them an insight into their PAFs behaviour in
the short term.
C: Critical period time-frame of ca. 6 months whereby infant will be sensitive to stimulation to allow
them to form attachment easier and will act as a stepping stone for internal working model affects
infant socially, physically, behaviourally, intellectually etc.

Evaluating evolutionary theory
Bowlby suggests that the primary attachment figure the most important person in an infants life, followed
by many other people in a hierarchy.
However some disagree with the concept of monotropy; Rutter suggested the multiple attachment model,
that infants had a collection of people they seemed equal.
After a meta-analysis by Prior and Glaser (2006), evidence points towards the monotropy and hierarchy
model originally suggested by Bowlby.
Kagen also suggested an alternative explanation of the continuity hypothesis, the temperament
hypothesis, suggesting that infants are born with certain personalities, which contribute to later life
experience, going against Bowlby and his original ideas. Research supporting this: Rovine found link
between certain physiological behaviours and later attachment types after assessing babies 1-3 days old.

There is evidence of primary attachments figures being universal.
Research by Tronick et al in 1992 conducted a naturalistic observation in Zaire, observing the Efe tribe. This
group of people lived in a community, and often shared child rearing responsibilities including
breastfeeding each others children. Even though this happened, the infants still slept with their biological
parents at night. This support Bowlbys theory because it suggests that infants have a primary attachment
figure and because this is universal it provides evidence that attachment has evolved.

There is also evidence, which supports the continuity hypothesis. Research by Sroufe et al. in the
Minnesota longitudinal study found continuance between secure attachment and later adolescence
behaviours. This supports Bowlbys theory because it provides evidence for the continuity hypothesis.

Schaffer and Emerson found that babies who had mothers who showed most responsiveness were strongly
attached (supports caregiver sensitivity hypothesis).

Types of attachment
Investigated by Ainsworth (1978) with aim to investigate behaviour of infants under conditions of stress
and novelty. The Strange Situation involved using 106 American middle class infants and their mothers in
a lab experiment. Infants and their mothers were shown to a lab playroom and observed every 15 seconds
through a two way mirror. There were 8 main stages in the strange situation including being left alone and


reunited with the mother, and each stage lasted 3 minutes. At the end, the infants were categorised into 3
main attachment types: Secure/insecure avoidant/insecure resistant
Stages were:
1. Parent and infant play.
2. Parent sits while infant plays parent is secure base.
3. Stranger enters and talks to parent stranger anxiety.
4. Parent leaves and stranger offers comfort to infant separation anxiety.
5. Parent returns and greets infant and offers comfort if needed and stranger leaves reunion
behaviour.
6. Parent leaves and infant is alone separation anxiety.
7. Stranger enters and offers comfort stranger anxiety.
8. Parent returns and greets infant and offers comfort reunion behaviour.

Findings:
Securely attached infants used the mother as a secure base, were distressed when left alone or with a
stranger but were then easily comforted when the other returned.
Insecure-Avoidant infants used the mother as a secure base, were not distressed when left alone or
with the stranger and did not respond when the mother re-entered the room.
Insecure-Resistant infants did not use the mother as a secure base, were very distressed when left with
a stranger or on their own and showed conflicting desires of love and hate when reunited with the
mother.

In 1986, Main and Solomon proposed a 4
th
attachment type, the disorganised type.

Evaluating types of attachment
Strengths:
Research by Ainsworth (1978) showed a high reliability. The observers reported a high inter-rater reliability
of 0.94, suggesting that they agrees strongly with each other and the results gathered would be similar if
the infants were observed by another person. The strange situation is also easy and simple to replicate in
the future.

Weaknesses:
Research by Ainsworth (1978) has been criticised as lacking validity. The environment was novel to the
infants and took place in a purpose built laboratory, so therefore the experiment lacks ecological validity
because the infants may have reacted differently if the procedure took place in their own home.

Also, the Strange Situation aimed to measure the attachment type of an infant, but this experiment only
uses the infants mother. This suggests that the experiment actually measures the infants attachment to
their mother, not their attachment type in general. This suggests that Ainsworths study lacks validity.

Also, some parts of the experiment may be seen as unethical. This is because the procedure is designed to
put infants under mild stress, so infants do not necessarily have full protection from harm, as they could
not give informed consent. Also, at the 6
th
stage of the procedure when the infants were left alone, 20%
were reported to have cried desperately and were clearly very distressed and upset which could be seen as
unethical.

Effects of attachment type
Research by Prior and Glaser (2006) studied the effects of different attachment types on future behaviour.
They found that securely attached infants showed less emotional dependence and more interpersonal


harmony, insecure avoidant infants showed aggressive behaviour, insecure resistant infants showed
anxiety and withdrawn behaviour.

Hazen and Shaver (1987) also conducted a love quiz using a volunteer sample from a newspaper advert.
They found that securely attached infants believed in enduring trusting love, people who were insecure
avoidant infants found that love was not long lasting and had a fear of finding true love, and people who
were insecure resistant as infants found they were preoccupied by love and fell in love easily.

Factors that influence attachment type
Research conducted by Ainsworth (1978) in the form of a questionnaire for parents after the strange
situation found that maternal sensitivity influences infants attachment type. Mothers who were sensitive
to their children and gave them attention usually formed securely attached infants, mothers who were
rejecting and unresponsive formed insecure avoidant infants, and mothers who were rejecting but were
often preoccupied doing other activities when holding the child formed insecure resistant infants.

Temperament (Kagan)

Maternal reflective functioning

Cultural Variations in attachment
Collectivistic Culture: value groups such as Japan and Israel
Individualistic Culture: value independence such as the UK and USA

Bowlby suggested that attachment has evolved; if this is the case the secure attachment should be the
optimal regardless of culture.

Studies of cultural similarities in attachment
Ainsworth did a 2-year naturalistic observation in Uganda and observed that if mothers were sensitive
to infants needs then they cried less and used the mother as a secure base for exploration. This
suggests maternal sensitivity in terms of influencing attachment type is an evolved process.
Tronick et al undertook a naturalistic observation in Zaire of the Efe tribe. Even though they live in a
community where they raise each others children and even breastfeed each other, they still slept with
their own mothers, suggesting attachment with the primary attachment figure.
Research by Fox in Israel studied children in a childrens home who were cared for regularly by a
communal nurse. The children were tested using the strange situation with the nurse and their
mothers, and found that in terms of reunion behaviour this was stronger with the mothers, suggesting
they still developed a primary attachment figure.

Studies of cultural differences in attachment
- Research by Grossman & Grossman in 1991 found that German infants are less likely to be securely
attached according to the strange situation because their culture involves keeping interpersonal
differences between mother and infant, so they did not seek proximity in the strange situation. This is
considered to be the German norm.
- Research by Takahashi in 1990 studied 60 middle class Japanese infants under the strange situation. He
found that there were no cases of insecure avoidant because child-rearing practices in Japan involve close
interpersonal relationships within close proximity of mother and child.

Meta Analysis
A meta-analysis of cultural variations in attachment was done by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988).
They looked at 32 studies of the strange situation in 8 countries and found:


- Secure attachment is the most common attachment type
- There are little variations between cultures
- Insecure avoidant was the next most common in all countries apart from Japan and Israel (because
collectivist)
- Insecure resistant was the least common in all countries apart from in Japan and Israel (because
collectivist child rearing involves close proximity with PAF at all times).

Explaining the Differences

Researchers found that the differences between cultures were often related to the style in which the child
was brought up and the economy of the country studied. For example, Germany is classified as an
individualist culture. Parents bring their children up to be independent and stand on their own two feet.
German mothers would view what we call 'securely attached' as weak, clingy behaviour (Grossmann and
Grossmann 1991).

Japanese culture is a collective one and therefore parents tend to have grandparents or other family
members they can call on to share child-care during the first few years of the infants life. Consequently,
the Japanese infants have an extreme fear of strangers and don't cope well being left alone in the 'Strange
Situation' (Takahashi 1990). We would classify their behaviour as Type C or Ambivalent.

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg also found that the differences within cultures were 1.5 times greater
than the differences between them. In other words, it would be wrong to assume that a particular culture
raises children in the exact same ways.

This suggests that secure attachment is the norm and important for healthy development, and so is
therefore an innate and biological process. Any other differences are due to cultural variations and child
values.

Evaluating cultural variations
There are some problems with the use of the strange situation across different cultures.
Rothbaum et al (2000) suggested that the strange situation was too based around American culture
(ethnocentric) and that it may therefore not be relevant if performed in other countries, this is known as
imposed etic.
So Western sensitivity hypothesis is inapplicable because sensitivity has opposite objectives in Japan
and West; sensitivity is about promoting dependence in Japan.
Continuity hypothesis also flawed as secure attachment in West is characterised by being socially and
emotionally competent whereas in Japan competence is represented by inhibition of emotional
expression and being group-oriented.
Secure base in West entails promoting independence whereas Japan follows concept of amae hence
why theyre seen as insecure-resistant.
An example of this in the way that Japanese infants are rarely separated from their mothers, and so
therefore do not show any insecure-avoidant attachment traits due to the use of a secure base.
In Japan the use of a secure base for exploration would not be seen as showing secure attachment
whereas it would in the UK.

Therefore Rothbaum suggested that psychologists should develop different theories for different cultures,
known as indigenous theories. But this is argued by Prior and Glaser who argued that core concepts of
maternal sensitivity remain the same + Posada and Jacobs argued a lot of data that supports universality.



There are some problems with Rothbaum's ideas. Cultures is an unfair generalisation as there are
different subcultures within cultures, so research into cultures may be biased if a small sample is used.
Research by Van Ijzendoorn and Sagi (2001) found that in urban areas in Japan attachment types are
similar to those in western countries such as the UK, but in rural areas attachment types show high
amounts of insecure resistant. Similarly, Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg found that there is 1.5 times
more intra-cultural variation than between inter-cultural, so creating indigenous theories for different
cultures may not be a great improvement.

Disruption of attachment separation/deprivation/privation:
Separation = when child separated from primary caregiver = no adverse effects if suitable replacement
available who meets emotional demands of child if prolonged and no replacement = deprivation!
Deprivation = childs attachment is disrupted Ainsworth showed us that physical separation can be
distressing and Bowlbys theory suggests that early life disruption = -e effect on social and emotional
development.
Privation = the lack of attachment due to failure to form one during sensitive period.
Effects of physical separation: researchers in 1930s-40s studied children who experienced prolonged
separation from families and found they that often negative effects on intellectual, emotional and
social development:

E.g. Spitz (1945) looked at children in orphanages and found that they showed signs of depression
including apathy, withdrawal, helplessness and loss of appetite.
Skeel and Dye (1939) found similar children scored poorly on IQ tests.
Spitz and Wolf (1946) looked at 100 psychologically normal in long-term hospital care and found
that they were profoundly disturbed and lagged behind in intellectual development and suffered
depression.

SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF SEPARATION:
PPD response model highlighted by Robertson and Robertson babies go through 3 stages when
caregiver leaves:
1. PROTEST: child cries/screams/protests angrily when parent leaves and will try to cling onto parent.
2. DESPAIR: childs protesting begins to stop and they appear calm but upset seems withdrawn and
refuses others attempts for comfort.
3. DETACHMENT: if continuously prolonged then child will start to engage with others and reject
caregiver on their return and show strong signs of anger.

Research by Robertson & Robertson investigated the effects of disruption of attachment in terms of the
importance of maintaining the emotional bond.

First they took a series of films of young people to investigate the effects of disruption of attachment
without maintaining the emotional bond (PPD).
The first was a 17-month-old boy called John, who stayed in a residential nursery for 9 days while his
mother was having a baby. John was not given much emotional care throughout his stay.
After a few days, he began to show attention seeking behaviour and then started to breakdown and
become angry, he even refused to eat.
He then spent a lot of time with a large teddy bear. When his mother came back he refused her and for the
next few months his behaviour at home has changed.

Robertson & Robertson then investigated effects into disruption of attachment but this time also
maintained the emotional bond.


They fostered 3 children called Jane, Lucy and Thomas. All of them were under the age of 3. They received
a high level of emotional care, visited their family and were allowed to bring toys from home.
They generally were well and happily returned to their parents after. This suggests that if substitute
emotional care is provided, the effects of disruption of attachment are less severe.

Evaluating disruption of attachment
Strengths: There is research to support the idea that emotional care can reduce the severity of the effects
of attachment disruption. Sigvardson studied 600 adopted children from Sweden. At age 11, 26% of them
were identified as problem children, but 10 years later none of them were recognised as any worse off
than the rest of the population. This supports Robertson & Robersons research by suggesting that the
negative effects of disruption can be reversed with substitute emotional care.

Research into the effects of disruption of attachment has influenced real life policies. In 1992, only 25% of
childrens hospitals allowed visitors. However, now families are encouraged to visit their children and
parent suits are often available to encourage them to stay. This is an example of psychological research
influencing real life events.

Weaknesses: Because case studies were used, these findings may not apply to others and different people
may be affected differently.
Bowlby studied 60 children under the age of 4 who had TB; they were in a hospital and experienced no
substitute emotional care. Later they were studied and it was found that some were maladjusted, even
when given substitute emotional care. This does not support Robertson & Robertsons findings as it
suggests that even with substitute emotional care, the ill effects of disruption of attachment cannot always
be avoided.

Also, there is evidence that disruption of attachment can act as a trigger for problems in the future even if
substitute emotional care is provided.
Bifulco et al studied 249 women who had lost their mothers either from divorce or death, and found that
they were more likely to suffer from depression or anxiety. This suggests that the ill effects of detachment
cannot always be totally eliminated with substitute emotional care.
Quinton et al supports Bifulcos conclusion as he found that mothers who went through privation werent
good at parenting (less sensitive and less supportive).

Privation/institutionalisation
Hodges and Tizard, naturalistic longitudinal study: 65 children in a care home assessed over a 16-year
period. Participants all aged 16 and had been in institutional care until four. During this time they had not
been able to form attachments because of the high turn over of staff.
At the age of four: 25 of the children were returned to their biological parents/ 33 were adopted/ 7
remained in the institution with occasional fostering
Findings:
At 16 the majority of the adoptive mothers (17/21) felt that their child was deeply attached to them,
whereas only half of the 25 restored children were described as deeply attached.
Adopted adolescents were also more often said by their mothers to be attached to their father than
the restored group.



However, ex-institutional children had poorer relationships with peers than a comparison group.
Teachers rated the ex-institutionalised group as more often quarrelsome, less often liked by other
children and as bullying other children more than the comparison group.
Conclusion: Hodges and Tizard believed that their findings demonstrate that children who are deprived of
close and lasting attachments to adults in their first years of life can make such attachments later, although
this does depend on the adults concerned and how much they nurture such attachments.
Hodges and Tizard offer an explanation for why the adopted children were more likely to overcome some
of the problems of early institutional upbringing better than the restored children.
The financial situation of the adoptive families was often better, they had on average fewer children to
provide for, and the adoptive parents were particularly highly motivated to have a child and to develop a
relationship with that child.
The biological parents in Hodges and Tizard's sample seemed to have been 'more hesitant about their child
living with them'.
Evaluating Privation/institutionalisation
Research by in Rutter et al 2007 found that the long term consequences of privation are less severe if
attachment can still be formed at an early stage. He studied 100 Romanian orphans in a longitudinal study
when they were 4, 6, and 11 years old. He found that those who were adopted before the age of 6 months
showed normal emotional development, but those who were adopted after the age of 6 months showed
disinhibited attachment (over-friendly and attention-seeking). This suggests that the negative effects of
privation can be less severe if children have the chance to form attachments in the sensitive period, as
suggested by Bowlby

However there are problems with the research conducted by Rutter in 2007. The children had their last
analysis at aged 11, so there is no evidence that these problems continue into adulthood. It may just be
that the children just need more time to adjust, and will then function normally at a later stage. This
suggests that the research by Rutter may not be valid, as the study did not last for a long enough time to
reach a conclusion.

Also, there are weaknesses in Hodges and Tizards study: researchers would have had little control over
confounding variables. For example in this study at the age of four the children were split with some
returning to parents and others being adopted whilst seven stayed mostly in care. It is unlikely that this
would have been a random process! It is most likely that the more personable children with the better
social skills would have been fostered. The ones with the most problems are likely to have remained in
care. As a result it is difficult to be certain that the resulting behaviours at the age of sixteen were down to
type of care. They could have been due to temperament of the child.
Also, there is case study evidence of people functioning normally even when they were not able to form
attachments at a young age. The Czech Koluchova twins were locked up and then found at the age of 7
without a primary attachment figure, but recovered to normal social development later in life. This does
not support Rutter as it suggests that others may recover outside this sensitive period.

Day care
Its temporary care, not by parents, away from the home.
Signs of high quality day care according to Campbell et al (2000):
Low child-to-staff ratio (ensures attention)


Smaller groups (easier as there are fewer strangers).
Clarke-Stewart et al suggested:
Mixed age group to improve social development (social learning through observation).
Well-trained staff and a low staff turnover (avoids insecurity, allows children to get to know staff).
A secure attachment (key worker system).
Structured day (activities have structure with free play time makes environment predictable and
helps child feel safe).

Effect day care has on aggression (red is negative, green is positive impact and purple is AO2)
Day-care may cause aggressive behaviour:
Baker et al (2005) analysed data of 33,000 children prior to introduction of day-care for all children
in Quebec, whereby the proportion of 0-4 year olds in day care rose by 14%.
Found that after day-care became available, aggression increased by 24% in Quebec amongst 2-4 year
olds compared to the rest of Canada.
The wellbeing of parents also declined as hostile parenting and dissatisfaction with spouses increased.
As the relation between parents and their attitudes change, its difficult to know whether day-care had
directly caused aggressiveness or if it was due to the change of behaviour of parents at home.

EPPE project (1991) studies 3000+ children in UK aged between 3-7.
Sammens et al (2003) analysed data and showed that risk of antisocial behaviour slightly increased if
20+ hours spent in nurseries but increased significantly if 40+ hours spent per week,
Melhuish (2007) noticed high aggression in children whose carers were constantly changing.
Supported by American NICHD study, which also found increase in aggressive behaviour in children
attending day-care.

Day-care doesnt cause aggressive behaviour:
Shea et al (1998) recorded a video of 3-4 year olds at playtime during their first 10 weeks at nursery
school.
Found that the longer they were in nursery, the more sociable they became amount of
aggressiveness towards each other decreased changes were greater for those attending 5 days a
week than those attending 2 days.
Aggressive behaviour decreased in those attending for 5 days than those for 2 days suggesting that
day-care caused this effect rather than maturity.

ALSPAC (1991-92) followed progress of 14,000 children born in UK between 1991-92.
Found no negative effects of day care no evidence of increased anti-social behaviour.
Its a larger-scale study so findings could be generalised with caution to other children (at least in UK.

Day-care harms peer relations:
DiLalla (1988) carried out correlational study into time spent in day-care and pro-social behaviour.
Found negative correlation between amount of time spent in day-care and pro-social behaviour;
children who spent more time were less cooperative and helpful in their dealings with other children.
We cannot assume than day care has a direct influences on peer relations. A correlation does not
necessarily mean there is causation only investigated two variables.

Day-care aids peer relations:
Andersson (1989 + 1992) studied the social and cognitive progress of Swedish children attending
day-care.
Found that they were able to get along with other children better more sociable and outgoing and
had better abilities to play with their peers than those who didnt attend day-care.


Despite Swedish day-care being of particularly good quality, Andersson is supported by other studies
such as Clarke-Stewart.

Clarke-Stewart (1994) studied 150 children (who had experienced different forms of day-care) who
attended school for the first time.
Found that children who had attended nurseries coped better in social situations and were able to
interact better with peers compared to children who had been looked after in a family setting.
A relatively small study with just 150 PPs we can generalise but with caution.

How research into attachment and day care has influenced child care practices.
Adoption
Studies: Hodges and Tizzard, Bowlby. Maternal deprivation, critical period, sensitive period,
disinhabition, internal working model. Government is looking to reduce the adoption process
because at the moment it takes around 3 years meaning a child has totally missed the critical
period therefore they won't have an internal working model so could cause disinhabition.

Fostering
Studies: James/Joyce Robertson

Hospitalisation
Studies: John in residential nursery, Bowlby. PDD model (protest, despair, detachment). Mum
stayed in hospital for ages when having a child and child would have to go to nursery, caused
big problems, no visitors allowed, medication was poorer so people in hospital
more. Nowadays visitors are allowed, medical care has improved and parents encouraged to
stay.
Institutional care
Studies: Rutter et al. Hodges and Tizzad. Used to be poorer institutions and carers told not to make
attachments with children however now carers are encouraged to form attachments which helps
children's internal working model and future behaviour etc.

MEMORY
Definition: the process by which we retain information about events that have happened in the past.
Multi-store model illustrates memory as a linear flow of information through an info-processing system
(proposed by Atkinson + Shiffrin, 1968):
Components consist of:
Sensory memory composed of several stores e.g. ears, fingers, nose etc. constantly receives
information but remains in sensory store for a brief time due to lack of attention given it if attention
is focused on one of the sensory stores, data is transferred to short-term memory the three
separate sensory stored hold different kinds of input; iconic (stored as images), echoic (stored as
sounds) and haptic (stored as feelings) has a duration of 0.5 seconds for visual items and 2 seconds
for heard items capacity is very limited.
Short-term memory info held here is in a fragile state; will decay quickly if it isnt rehearsed or if its
displaced.
A. Limited duration (how long memory lasts before its no longer available):


Peterson & Peterson study of STMs duration 24 students experimenter said consonant syllable (e.g. WRT with no
meaning) followed by 3-digit number (e.g. 203) PPs immediately had to count backwards from this number in threes
or fours until told to stop (to stop rehearsal) PPs asked to recall the nonsense syllable retention interval (time
spent counting backwards) was different: 3/6/9/12/15/18 seconds found that PPs remember 90% if retention
interval was 3sec + 2% if retention interval was 18sec = so STM lasts at about 20 seconds at most. Nairne found
items could be recalled after as long as 96 seconds if PPs asked to recall same items across trials/Marsh et al suggests






B. Capacity (how much can be held in memory) is less than 7 chunks

C. Encoding done echoically:







Long-term memory info moved from STM to LTM due to elaborative rehearsal memory for
events that have happened in past.
A. Duration (possibly unlimited):




B. Capacity is vast and no research done.

C. Encoding is semantic:
Jacobs study of STMs capacity PPs read lists of numbers they had to recall immediately after shown
length of these digitals gradually increases until PP could only accurately recall information in the correct order
(serial recall) found that PPs could only recall 7 numbers Miller supported this published his findings in
The Magic Number 7, +/- 2 Miller also discovered that chunking can increase capacity size of chunks
matters as researchers found PPs had shorter memory span for larger chunks individual differences i.e. digit
span increased with age/lacks ecology validity due to artificial stimuli/chunking affected by factors e.g.
tiredness/capacity may be limited to 4 chunks as suggested by Cowan + Vogel et al.
Conrads study of STMs encoding PPSs immediately shown random sequence of 6 consonants, one acoustically
similar (B, V, C etc.) and one acoustically dissimilar (V, X, N etc.) asked to write down consonants in correct order
found that PPs often recalled consonants incorrectly when acoustically similar; more difficult to recall acoustically similar
list concluded that b/c letters presented visually, PPs converted them to an acoustic code in STM (hence confusion)
supported by Baddeley who found similar effects when testing words that sounded similar/lacks ecological validity
because of artificial stimuli/sample size not representative and cannot be generalized.
Shephards study of LTMs duration PPs shown 612 memorable pictures, one at a time shown some of these pictures
+ others an hour later = perfect recognition 4 months later, PPs able to recognise 50% of pictures duration even
better as shown by Bahrick et al; asked PPs of various ages to put names to faces from their high school yearbook; 48 years
later and 70% were accurate/natural experiment so high ecological validity/difficult to control extraneous variables.
Baddeleys study of LTMs encoding PPs presented with sequence of 5 words for each of four categories (acoustically
dis/similar and semantically dis/similar) asked to recall in serial order immediately semantically similar words were
harder to recall than semantically dissimilar words. Frost showed that long-term recall was related to visual as well as
semantic categories/Nelson + Rothbart found evidence of acoustic encoding/lacks ecological validity because artificial
stimuli/overly simplified/reliable as results are reproducible.









EVIDENCE FOR THEIR SEPARATE EXISTENCE:



















Sensory store Sperlings study on its duration: showed PPs a grid of digits + letters for
50 miliseconds asked to either a) recall all 12 items or b) hear a tone after presentation
and would just recall that particular row found that recalling everything was harder
than just recalling one row.
Serial position effect Glazer and Cunitz gave
PPs list of 20 words shown one at a time, then
asked tor recall any words they could remember
found that PPs remembered words from start
(primacy effect b/c first words are rehearsed
and transferred to LTM) and end of list (recency
effect b/c words are in STM) but worse at
recalling words in middle.
Areas of brain associated with STM + LTM
prefrontal cortex is active when people work on
small tasks (Beardsley) whereas hippocampus is
active when LTM is engaged (Squire et al).
Case studies Scoville + Milner investigated HM
whose brain damage was due to operation in
removal of hippocampus from both sides of his brain
to reduce severe epilepsy HMs personality +
intellect remained same but couldnt form new LTM
suggests hippocampus acts as memory gateway
through which new memories must pass before
entering permanent storage in brain.







Evaluation of MSM:
Strengths:
Evidence of three storages.
Provides an account of memory in terms of both structure and process structures are three stores
and processes are attention and verbal rehearsal.
Has clear predictions about memory which means psychologists can conduct studies to test it; allows
psychologists to be pushed into conduction research to find out more about human behaviour as w/o
research we wouldnt change the way we think about causes of behaviour.

Weaknesses:
Supporting evidence of MSM lacks validity because:
1. Memory research often relates to semantic memory so its relevant to some everyday memory
activities e.g. remembering phone numbers but not all aspects of memory.
2. Studies have involved college students studying psychology likely that 18-21 year olds have different
memories from people of other ages and are also likely to be more intelligent students may also
know about what experiment is about which can affect behaviour and thus results (participant
reactivity e.g. demand characteristics).
3. Laboratory experiments good because extraneous variables are controlled but may suffer from
demand characteristics + experimenter bias.

Structures: LTM and STM arent unitary units:
a. KFs study by Shallice and Warrington KF suffered from brain damage, resulting in inability to deal
with verbal info in STM but normally able to process visual info (so STM isnt a single store).
b. Evidence from amnesia-sufferers indicated there are different sorts of LTM Schachter et al suggests
there may be 4: SEMANTIC MEMORY (memory for knowledge about world), EPISODIC MEMORY
(memory for what you did recently), PROCEDURAL MEMORY (memory for learning) and PERCEPTUAL-
REPRESENTATION SYSTEM MEMORY (related to perceptual priming i.e. enhances recognition of
specific stimuli e.g. LONDON and L__D_N).
c. Spiers et al studied memory of 147 amnesia patients procedural and PRS memory intact but
episodic and semantic not in tact = LTM not unitary.

Processes: rehearsal vs. processing:
i. Maintenance rehearsal isnt only way enduring LTM are created Craik + Lockhart proposed different
model to explain lasting memories suggested that enduring memories are made by processing what
you do; the deeper the processing, the more memorable.
ii. Craik + Tulving gave PPs a list of nouns and asked 3 questions on processing:
shallow/phonemic/semantic? Found that PPs remembered most words from semantic condition
and at least one word from shallow condition thus deeper processing = enhanced memory.

How separate are STM + LTM? (Logie):


1) MSM suggests STM is involved before LTM but Logie suggests that STM relies on LTM e.g.
AQABBCITV = must recall meaningful group (stored in LTM).
2) Ruchkin et al PPs asked to recall a normal set of words + pseudo words (onomatopoeia)
monitored brain activity found large differences; if words/pseudo words are only involved in STM,
brain activity the same but more activity when real words were processed.

Working-store model alternative to MSM STM is an amalgam of several temporary memory systems
working together:
Proposed by Baddeley and Hitch.
Consists of four components:
1) Central executive: key component function is to direct attention to particular tasks, allowing it to
determine at any time how resources (slave systems) are allocated to tasks data arrives from
senses/LTM has limited capacity EVIDENCE: Bungee et al used fMRI to see which brain parts were
most activated when PPs did two tasks simultaneously = same brain areas were active in single tasks
but more activation in dual-task condition.
2) Phonological loop: deals with auditory information preserves the order of information Baddeley
further subdivided it into phonological store (hold audible words like inner ear) and articulatory
process (used for seen/heard words which are silently looped like an inner voice which is a form of
maintenance rehearsal) EVIDENCE: phonological loop explains world-length effect (i.e. inability to
cope with long words in working memory) and articulatory process explains the fact that word-length
effect disappears if person given articulatory suppression task e.g. adding the before every word.
3) Visuo-spatial sketchpad: used when needing to plan spatial task e.g. getting from one room to
another) visual/spatial info is temporarily held in here Logie subdivided it into visual cache (inner
eye which stores spatial/visual info briefly and has a limited capacity) and inner scribe (acts as rehearsal
mechanism for visuo-spatial info) EVIDENCE: Smith and Jonides conducted a PET study which
showed differences in brain activation during different visual and spatial working memory tasks
4) Episodic buffer added in 2000 because model needed general store extra storage system that has
limited capacity integrates info from central executive/phonological loop/visuo-spatial sketch pad
and also from LTM EVIDENCE: when PPs asked to recall shown words immediately, Baddeley found
that recall was quicker for related than unrelated words, suggesting that theres an immediate memory
store that holds items which arent visual nor phonological and raw on LTM to link related words.
Evidence from brain-damaged patients:
Shallice and Warringtons KF showed that his brain damaged was restricted to phonological loop.
Trojano and Grossis SC unable to learn word-pair that were called out loud = suggests damage to
phonological loop
Farah et als LH performed better on spatial tasks than tasks involving visual imagery, suggesting
separate visual and spatial systems.











Evaluation of WSM:
Strengths:
Has explanatory power as it explains many psychological observations e.g. word-length effect and
partial STM difficulties experienced by KF and SC.
Supporting evidence.
WMM has continued refinement by identifying further component of memory (shifted our
understanding of memory).
Offers better account of brief memory store than STM in MSM; WSM describes immediate memory as
one with components e.g. verbal maintenance rehearsal is optional process rather than only process
and also emphasises process more than MSM, which emphasises structure.
Real-world application as used to help in diagnosis of mental illness e.g. Park et al found that WSM is
one means which schizophrenia can be diagnosed.
Weaknesses:
Central executive is too vain fails to explain anything and is probably more complex than currently
represented.
Problems with using evidence from brain-damaged patients include: cannot make before and after
comparison + process of brain damage is traumatic hence changed behaviour.

Eye Witness Testimony
Eyewitness memory goes through 3 stages
1. Witness encodes into LTM details of event and people involved (encoding may only be
partial + distorted as events happen quickly).
2. Witness retains info for a period of time (may be lost/modified during retention
forgetting happens within first few minutes) and activities between encoding and retrieval
may interfere with memory itself.
3. Witness retrieves memory from storage.



Misleading Information
Research by Loftus and Palmer in 1974 investigated the effects of misleading information on eye witness
testimony. 45 students were shown 7 traffic accident films and were then given a questionnaire about
what they had seen. One of the questions was "how fast were the cars going when they ____" The blank
was filed with different verbs including hit, smashed, collided, bumped and contacted. The mean speeds
were then recorded. Smashed gave a mean speed of 40.8mph and hit gave a mean speed of 31.8mph. This
suggests that misleading information can significantly reduce the accuracy of eye witness testimony.

In an extension to their investigation, 150 students were divided into 3 groups, one had been told the cars
smashed, one hit and the other hadn't been informed of any speed indication. I week later, each group was
asked "was there any broken glass at the scene?" 16 people from the smashed group said yes, 7 and 7
from the hit group said yes, in both cases this was more than the control group. This suggests that even
misleading post even info can affect witness recall.

Evaluation
Strengths:
Loftus conducted further research and found similar results. Participants were divided into 2 groups, one
group was shown a car accident with a car at a stop sign, and the other a yield sign. Half of each group
were then mislead and shown the opposite sign in a slide sequence. Out of those who had been mislead,
only 41% were able to correctly recall the original sign, but those who were not mislead recalled with 75%
accuracy. This suggests that misleading information affects the accuracy of recall, supporting the research
by Loftus and Palmer.

Weaknesses:
Because the research was done in a laboratory there is a chance that the participants may have realised
what the experiment was going to be about and so may have been subject to demand characteristics. This
may have also meant that the experiment lacked ecological validity as the participants may have reacted
differently in a real like situation.
Also, some studies have come to opposite conclusions. Yuille and Cutshall asked witnesses to recall details
of a shooting in Canada 15 months after the event. They found that even with misleading information all
responses were very accurate, suggesting that misleading information may not always affect recall.

Anxiety
Loftus investigated the effect of anxiety on eye witness testimony using the weapon focus effect.
Participants witnessed one of two situations. One was a heated hostile exchange between 2 men, where
one then emerged with a paper knife and blood on his hands, and the other was a low key discussion
between two men where one then emerged with grease on his hands and holding a pen.
All participants were then asked to identify the man from 50 photos. Those experiencing high anxiety
(heated hostile exchange) had a recall accuracy of 33% and those experiencing low anxiety (low key
discussion) had a recall accuracy of 49%, suggesting anxiety reduces the accuracy of eye witness testimony.

Evaluation
Weaknesses: There are ethical issues in terms of protection from harm with this experiment because some
participants may find the blood stained knife upsetting. Also, because the research was done in a
laboratory environment, the experiment is likely to lack ecological validity because the participants may
behave differently in a real life situation.
Some research into anxiety has also found opposite effects. Research by Christianson and Hubinette
involved 110 people witnessing 22 genuine back robberies, some were bystanders and some were directly
threatened. Those who were threatened experienced higher anxiety but were more accurate in their recall
even 15 months after the study than the bystanders.



Strengths: Research by Loftus and Burns found similar results. Participants were showed a violent and a
non violent crime, but those who saw the violent crime were generally less accurate than those who saw
the non violent crime, suggesting that anxiety reduces the accuracy of eye witness testimony. These
differences can also be explained by the Yerkes-Dodson law, where accuracy increases with anxiety to a
certain point, then decreases as anxiety becomes extreme. This supports Loftus's results as it suggests in
different experiments participants may have experienced different levels of anxiety, accounting for
different results.

Age
Research by Parker and Carranza studied the effects of age on the accuracy of eye witness testimony.
Primary school children and college aged students were shown a slide sequence of a mock crime, and then
asked to identify the man in the picture. They found that younger children had a higher rate of choosing
and were generally less accurate, suggesting that older you are the more accurate you are in eye witness
testimony





Weaknesses:
However there are some problems with the research by Parker and Carranza. Young children were used in
the experiment, which means they wouldn't have given informed consent, so may not be aware of their
right to withdraw. Also, other research suggests otherwise. Research by Gordon et al found that children
can be accurate witnesses, they are just more easily mislead with misleading information.

Strengths:
However there are other studies that support the idea that as you get older you become more accurate in
eye witness testimony. Yarmey in 1993 conducted an experiment where 651 adults in 3 age groups were
stopped in the street and asked to identify a person they had spoken to 2 minutes ago. He found that the
older adults took more time over their decision and so were slightly more accurate. This supports Parker
and Carranza's findings as it suggests that when you become older you become more accurate in eye
witness testimony.
Memon et al also found that the delay between observation and recall affects accuracy between people of
different ages. When there was a short delay (35 minutes) there was no difference in accuracy, but when
there was a long delay of 1 week older people were significantly less accurate

Cognitive Interview
There are 4 main stages in the cognitive interview, context reinstatement, recall everything, recall in
reverse order and recall from a changed perspective.
Context reinstatement involves the witness recalling information about their day, such as how they were
feeling and what the weather was doing. This then acts as a cue to help them remember and recall
important information.
Recall everything involved then describing everything from the start to the finish of the crime. This way
they recall information, which may not seem important to them but is important for reconstructing what
happened.
Recall in reverse order is recalling the event from the end to the start, this tried to eliminate schemas
which may have affected recalling in the correct order.
Recall from a changed perspective involves recalling the event as it would have been seen from someone
else's point of view.


This helps encourage retrieval pathways to improve accuracy. Then in 1987, Fisher et al said the cognitive
interview also needs to involve no distractions, no interruptions, active listening and open questions

Weaknesses
However there are some problems with using the cognitive interview. Not all police forces use the same
elements of the interview. For example, the Thames Valley Police do not use the recall from a changed
perspective component. Some other forces choose only to use recall everything and context
reinstatement. This suggests that some interviews may be more effective than others so that cognitive
interview isn't very reliable.

Also, the cognitive interview takes a long time to complete. Kebell and Wagstaff found that because of this,
a lot of police forces choose not to use the cognitive interview for less serious crimes because it takes too
long, instead they prefer to use quicker methods. This suggests that the cognitive interview may not be a
very practical way of interviewing witnesses.

Strengths
The cognitive interview could be an improvement on current interrogation and torture methods in Brazil.
Stein and Memon asked university cleaning staff to watch a film of an abduction. Half were interviewed
using the standard interview and the other half using the cognitive interview. Those who were interviewed
using the cognitive interview technique were significantly more accurate, suggesting that the cognitive
interview may be a good way of developing a new approach to interviewing witnesses in Brazil

Memory Improvement Techniques
One technique for improving memory is the use of verbal mnemonics such as acronyms. These are used by
remembering a sentence in order to remember the first letter of each word which can then be used to
remember other words. An example of this is remembering the order of planets using My Very Easy
Method Just Speeds Up Naming Planets.

Another technique is the loci method. This gives words meaning by associating them with a well known
place. For example your house. An example is if you need to remember your shopping list, picturing each
item in a different part of your house and then mentally repeating the tour of your house will help you
remember specific items.

Another method is the peg word method. This uses a set of peg words which are already stored in memory
to then associate with the new words so you can recall the new words when you think of the peg words.
For example, is one = bun, two = shoe, three = tree, and four = door, then each item on your shopping list
could be linked to a peg word. If ice cream was on your list, imagine an ice cream in a bun. Then by
recalling the peg words which rhyme with the numbers, you can recall your shopping list.

There is research to support the success of different memory improvement strategies. There is evidence of
verbal mnemonics being a successful way to remember strings of words. Gruneburg conducted a survey of
psychology students who were revising for their exams. He found that over 30% of these students used
acronyms successfully to revise. This supports the use of acronyms in remembering information.

This is supported by research by Glidden et al who found that acronyms were effective in teaching adults
with learning difficulties such as Down's Syndrome.

There is also evidence of the success of the loci method. O'Hara et al found that using the loci method
helps adults who suffer from memory problems because it is relating objects to places they know well.
Finally there is evidence of the success of narrative stories in terms of organising given lists of words.



Bower and Clark gave participants a list of 10 words. One group were taught the narrative story methods,
and one group were simply asked to remember the words. They found that the group who used the
narrative stories method recalled significantly more words than those who just remembered the words.
This supports the used of narrative stories in remembering words.









Research methods
ETHICAL ISSUES:

1. Informed consent how to deal with it: ask PPs to formally sign contract before experiment
stating whats going to happen in experiment and what there required to do.
LIMITATION: demand characteristics and participant effects may occur if theyre told whats going
to happen.

2. Deception how to deal with it: have a full debrief with PPs after telling them that theyve been
lied to for sake of experiment and ensure that experiment is allowed to take place based on ethical
guidelines to see if the need to do this experiment outweighs deception.
LIMITATION: PPs may still feel emotionally distressed for being lied to.

3. Psychological harm how to deal with it: avoid risks greater than real life.
LIMITATION: difficult for researcher to identify every possible risk associated with study.

4. Right to withdraw how to deal with it: inform PPs they can withdraw at any moment in
experiment.
LIMITATION: PPs may feel that they cant withdraw in case they ruin study.

5. Privacy how to deal with it: dont observe anyone without their informed consent unless in a
public place.
LIMITATION: no global agreement on what constitutes a public place.

6. Confidentiality how to deal with it: make all PPs names in results confidential by making them
anonymous and dont release any further information that makes them identifiable.

EXPERIMENTS:
Always an IV (what is being manipulated) and a DV (whats being measured) in experiment.
Hypothesis is a prediction about results of experiment:


1. Directional, one-tailed hyp: states what experimenter would expect to happen.
2. Non-directional, two-tailed hyp: states there will be a difference in results merely.
Pilot study is small-scale trial run to test whether experiment would work and if there could be any
improvements saves time and money.
Confederate is person assigned by experiment, whos not PP, to act in a certain way (may be used
as IV).

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS:
1. Independent groups design: two or more separate groups, each contain different individuals, where
each participant only takes part in each condition once.
Strengths: less demand characteristics + only requires one set of participants and one test for each
condition of the independent variable so saves time and is a lot quicker than using a repeated
measures design.
Weaknesses: needs twice as many PPS so costlier + PP variables arent controlled (PPs may be
completely different to other group in terms variables e.g. IQ)



2. Repeated measures: when PP takes part in all conditions.
Strengths: PP and situational variables are controlled and only need one set of PPs (cheaper).
Weaknesses: order, boredom and practice effects more likely + demands characteristics more likely
because PPS would know aim of experiment second time they do it.

3. Matches pairs design: PPs are matched in terms of PP variables and there are two sets of PPs with
similar PP variables.
Strengths: Order, boredom and practise effects and demand characteristics are less likely because each set
of participants are taking part in one condition only + participant variables are controlled because the
participants are matched in terms of participant variables.
Weaknesses: difficult and time-consuming to match PPs + may be other extraneous variables tha arent
controlled.

Single blind: when the experimenter knows the outcomes of this study and the participants dont.
Double blind: when the experimenter and the participants both do not know the outcome of the study
useful to prevent investigator effects.
Counterbalancing: used to overcome order effects. E.g. Split half method to reduce order effects.
Participant variables: variables unique to participants and change the way that they participate in an
experiment. Examples are intelligence (measure IQ), motivation, age, experience, gender.
Situational variables: variables that affect the outcome of the study that are based on the situation.
Examples are time of day, temperature, noise.
Investigator effects: any cues that the investigator gives to his participants to make them behave in a
certain way just like the investigator expects.
Social desirability bias: When participants answer or behave in a way that will make them look better
rather than telling them the truth.
Hawthorne effect: When participants change the way they behave when they are being observed.
Demand characteristics: when the participants were told the aims of the study or suspect them and
behave accordingly.
Quantitative data analysis: analysing data that is numerical.


Measures of central tendency:
Mean average, affected by extreme values.
Mode most common, not affected by extreme values.
Median the middle number, affected by extreme values.
Measures of dispersion:
Range: difference between highest and lowest value, affected by extreme values.
Standard deviation: not affected by extreme values, gives us a sense of how spaced out the data is.
Data can be represented by:
Line chart.
Scattergram.
Bar graph.
Table.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENT:
Laboratory experiment: carried out in an artificial and controlled environment.
Strengths: high internal validity (variables highly controlled)/high internal reliability (easily
replicated)
Weaknesses: low mundane realism because tasks given arent ones encountered in real life/low
ecological validity because difficult to generalise results if tasks given arent like in real
life/demand characteristics, investigator effects and ethical issues.

Field experiment: PPs unaware theyre being observed and IV is manipulated.
Strengths: no PP effects because PPs dont know theyre in experiment/high ecological validity
because setting is natural and so data can be generalised.
Weaknesses: low internal validity because variables are difficult to control so more extraneous
variables.

Natural experiment: experiment with naturally occurring IV.
Strengths: high ecological validity/allows research where IV cannot be manipulated.
Weaknesses: low internal validity because extraneous variables/cannot demonstrate casual
relationships because IV isnt manipulated.
OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES:
A naturalistic observation is one where no variables are controlled everything is just left as it is.
A controlled observation is one where variables are controlled when observing somebody.
Observational techniques:
Unstructured observation: observer notes everything that (s)he observes, there is no system of doing
so.
Structured observation: Behavioural categories: Break target behaviour into a subset of behaviours
Sampling procedures:
o Time sampling observer records all the behaviour in a given time frame
o Event sampling observer counts the number of times that a certain behaviour is carried out.

Covert observation participant does not know he is being observed.


Overt observation the participant knows he is being observed.
ECERS early child environment rating scale can rate the participants on something to make what we
are measuring measurable.
FACS facial action coding system converts target behaviour into lots of different facial behaviours.
Coding system the observer has to follow a coding system which every behaviour has its own code
and when that behaviour occurs the observer simply has to write that code which is quicker and is
less likely to miss events out more reliable.
Participant observer the observer joins the participant in the observation either overtly or covertly
Non-participant observer the observer does not join the participant in the observation.
Validity of Observational research:
Internal validity: depends on how well the observation is being recorded and how much observer bias
takes place.
External validity: depends on the sampling techniques used (volunteer sample/random
sample/opportunity sample)

Reliability of Observational research:
Internal reliability: Inter-observer reliability two observers should assess it using split-half method
and if there is 80% or more agreement, then it has inter-observer reliability.
External reliability: Two different observers do the same observation and if the findings are similar,
then it has high external reliability.
Advantages:
High ecological validity because there is spontaneous reaction by the participants.
What people say they do is often different from what they actually do.
Disadvantages:
Ethical issues such as invasion of privacy, informed consent.
Observer bias can take place (observers expectations may make him see something that did not
actually happen).
Hawthorne effect if the participants know that they are being watched, then they may behave
differently.
Some extraneous variables may occur causing the participant to behave in a certain manner.
Self-report
Split-half method is a method used to overcome order effects and to assess internal reliability. This is
when you get the participant to do half of the self-report and to do the other half and if the scores
were similar, then it is consistent within itself and therefore has high internal reliability.
Questionnaire
Writing good questions:
Make the questions clear easy for the participant to understand what is meant to happen.
Make the questions unbiased most common bias is social desirability bias.
Make the questions easy to analyse by using closed questions frequently e.g.


Writing good questionnaires:
Pilot study to test if the questionnaire would work on people and how it can be improved.
Sampling technique make sure that you use a sampling technique so we can generalise the results
from the questionnaire easily.
Sequence of questions order effects may take place so the sequence of questions is important and
can influence the participants answers. counterbalancing.
Filler questions to distract the participant to avoid demand characteristics.
Validity of self-report techniques:
Internal validity: Can assess internal validity using two methods:
Face validity: whether the self-report technique looks like it measures what it is intended to measure.
Concurrent validity: comparing the self-report with a previously established one to see if the IV really
affects the DV.
External validity: depends on the sampling technique used.

Reliability of self-report techniques:
Internal reliability: can assess this with the split-half method.
External reliability: can repeat the self-report with another investigator and if it produces similar
outcomes, then the results can be generalised and therefore has high external reliability.
Advantages:
Some people may feel more willing to reveal personal details about themselves.
We can collect a large amount of data about lots of participants at the same time.
Disadvantages:
Order and boredom effects, demand characteristics and social desirability bias participant effects
not give truthful answers.
The external reliability may be low because only certain types of people would be willing to fill out
questionnaires.
Structured interview
Advantages:
Requires less interviewing experience.
Can be easily replicated to test for external reliability.
Weaknesses:
Interviewer bias the interviewers expectations may influence how the interviewer heard the
participant say what he said, so the interview may assume that the participant said something he
didnt.
Inter-interviewer bias Some interviewers may interpret the participant saying one thing and another
interview may interpret it as something else. Assess using split-half method.


Unstructured interview
Advantages:
Can change questions based on answers given by the participants.
Can go into more depth about a certain topic than a structured interview because the interviewer can
ask the participant to expand on something.
Weaknesses:
Interviewer bias unstructured interviews are more affected by interviewer bias.
Inter-interviewer reliability unstructured interviews are more affected by inter-interviewer reliability.
Some interviewers may interpret the participant saying one thing and another interview may interpret
it as something else. Assess using split-half method.
Requires more interviewing experience.



Correlational analysis
A correlation is a relationship between two variables. A positive correlation is when the variables
increase with each other, a negative correlation is when one variable increases when another one
decreases.
A correlation could be illustrated by using a scattergram.
An intervening variable is one that causes two variables to have a relationship with each other.
A correlation coefficient is a number which tells us how strong or weak the correlation is.
Significance tells us whether the results are strong enough for us to accept.
A table of significance is a table which tells us how significant the results have to be for us to accept.
Advantages:
Allows research where it would be unpractical or unethical to carry out a study.
If the data is not significant enough causal relationships can be ruled out.
If the data is significant further research can be carried out.
The procedure can be easily repeated and tested.
Disadvantages:
Cannot infer causality only that there is a relationship
There may be intervening variables which correlational analysis cannot show.
Sampling techniques
Opportunity sampling the participants that are easiest to contact will be chosen as participants.
Advantages:
Easy to get hold of participants.
Disadvantages:


Inevitable biased because we are picking a small part of our target population.
Random sampling the participants are chosen at random.
Advantages:
It is unbiased because all the participants had an equal chance of being chosen.
Disadvantages:
The sample may still be unrepresentative of all the people even though they were chosen at random.
Volunteer sampling the participants would volunteer to be in the experiment.
Advantages:
Unbiased because the advertisement would allow many people to see it, so it would be representative.
Disadvantages:
Volunteer bias the participants that have volunteered would be more highly motivated to take part in
the study.
Systematic sampling when the participants are chosen systematically, e.g. every 4 participants.
Case studies
Advantages:
The cases are rare, so psychologists can find out things that they are likely to not have come across.
Lots of variables can be analysed in a case study and the effect of those variables rather than just
specific ones like in experiments.
Disadvantages:
Everybody is unique, therefore it may be difficult to generalise something if it has only happened to
one person.
Ethical issues such as confidentiality, psychological harm, privacy.
Content analysis
We observe people indirectly in content analysis, so we observe them through the artefacts that they
produce rather than them directly.
Content analysis can measure either quantitative data or qualitative data.
Content analysis is a technique for analysing qualitative data of various kinds. Data can be placed into
categories and counted (quantitative) or can be analysed in themes (qualitative)."
Quantitative data:
Advantages:
Easy to record because we know exactly what we are measuring and it is also easy to draw conclusions
from because the data is clear.
The data is mainly objective, therefore bias is less likely and other peoples opinions and perspectives
do not matter in content analysis.
Disadvantages:


Oversimplifies the reality may not capture the reality and the explanation as to why something is
happening such as thoughts and feelings.
Qualitative data:
Advantages:
Provides rich details about what happened and explanation is possible.
Gains access to thoughts and feelings.
Disadvantages:
Subjective data analysis the investigators perspective may distort the reality because it is based on
opinions.
More difficult to analyse the data and find patterns because more thought has to go into picking
themes.