0.

1 Spherical Coordinates
The purpose of spherical coordinates is to "describe" a 3dimensional space in terms of angles and the distance to
a "target", instead of rectangular (cartesian) coordinates.
Consider an orthogonal reference system Orj. or the "unit" vectors

i ,

, ,

/ and let r be the distance from

the "origin" (0, 0, 0) to a random point (r, j, .) that is the norm of the vector

(r, j, .) = r

i + j

, + .

/
r =
_
r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
=
_
_
_

(r, j, .)
_
_
_
Then project the point (r, j, .) onto the "horizontal" plane rOj and onto the O. axis.
r sin
z = r cos

(x,y,z)
(0,0,0)
x
y
z
r

Imagine the origin (0, 0, 0) is at the "center" of the Earth, the O. axis is the North - South pole axis, the
horizontal plane rOj be the "ecuatorial" plane.
Consider two angles,
"0" the angle between the vector

(r, j, .) and the vector

/ (or the O. axis), measured from the O. axis, and

"c" the angle in the plane rOj between the vector

i (or the Or axis) and the projection of the vector

(r, j, .)
onto the plane rOj.
It is easy enough to gure out that . = r cos 0 and the projection onto rOj is r sin0 .
Now we use polar coordinates in the rOj plane and we get r = r cos ,sin0 , j = r sin,sin0 .
1
y = r sin sin
x = r sin cos
r sin
(0,0,0)

x
y
The numbers (r, 0, ,) are called spherical coordinates. They are connected to cartesian coordinates by the
relations
r = r(r, 0, ,) = r cos ,sin0
j = j(r, 0, ,) = r sin,sin0
. = .(r, 0, ,) = r cos 0
To cover the 3-dimensional space we need
r (0, +) ,
0 (0, ] that is from the "North pole to the South pole"
, [0, 2) that is "all around the O. axis" ,

x
y
z
2
Therefore we get a function, a "one to one" correspondence between the 3-dimensional space R
3
and (0, +)
(0, ) [0, 2)
Not exactly the entire space.
We miss the origin (0, 0, 0) , for which r = 0 but there are no corresponding values for the angles , and 0
We also miss the O. axis, for which 0 = 0 (or ) but there is no corresponding value for the angle ,
However, when using spherical coordinates to compute triple integrals, missing just the O. axis is irrelevant.
The Jacobi matrix corresponding to spherical coordinates is
J =
_
_
_
@x
@r
@x
@
@x
@'
@y
@r
@y
@
@y
@'
@z
@r
@z
@
@z
@'
_
_
_ =
_
_
cos ,sin0 r cos ,cos 0 r sin,sin0
sin,sin0 r sin,cos 0 r cos ,sin0
cos 0 r sin0 0
_
_
and the corresponding jacobian is
det J =

cos ,sin0 r cos ,cos 0 r sin,sin0

sin,sin0 r sin,cos 0 r cos ,sin0
cos 0 r sin0 0

=
= cos 0

r cos ,cos 0 r sin,sin0

r sin,cos r cos ,sin0

+ (1)(r sin0)

cos ,sin0 r sin,sin0

sin,sin0 r cos ,sin0

=
= cos 0 r
2
[cos
2
, (1) sin
2
,
. .
1
] cos 0 sin0 + r sin0 r sin
2
0[cos
2
, (1) sin
2
,
. .
]
1
=
= r
2
sin0 (cos
2
0 + sin
2
0) = r
2
sin0
Examples.
To cover
1) a sphere centered at (0, 0, 0) with radius 1 we need r [0, 1] , 0 [0, ] , , [0, 2]
2) the upper hemisphere r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
_ 1
2
, . _ 0 we need r [0, 1] , 0 [0, ,2] , , [0, 2]
3) the lower hemisphere r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
_ 1
2
, . _ 0 we need r [0, 1] , 0 [,2, ] , , [0, 2]
Just as for polar coordinates, there is also an algebraic trick that leads to spherical coordinates.
0 _ r
2
= r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
= 1 =
_
r
r
_
2
+
_
j
r
_
2
. .
A
2
+
_
.
r
_
2
We may replace
2
,
_
z
r
_
2
by sin
2
, cos
2
. Choose
_
r
r
_
2
+
_
j
r
_
2
. .
A
2
= sin
2
0 and
_
.
r
_
2
= cos
2
0
next
_
r
r
_
2
+
_
j
r
_
2
= sin
2
0 =
_
r
r sin0
_
2
+
_
j
r sin0
_
2
= 1
and again replace
_
x
r sin
_
2
,
_
y
r sin
_
2
by sin
2
, cos
2
. Choose
r
r sin0
= cos c and
j
r sin0
= sinc
Which nally leads to the spherical coordinates
r = r cos ,sin0 , j = r sin,sin0 , . = r cos 0
4) Consider now an ellipsoid centered at the origin
(r, j, .) R
3
,
r
2
a
2
+
j
2
/
2
+
.
2
c
2
_ 1
3

x
y
z
a
c
b
We use the same algebraics trick as before.
r
2
=
r
2
a
2
+
j
2
/
2
+
.
2
c
2
_ 1 =
clearly r runs from 0 to 1 , r [0, 1]
= 1 =
r
2
r
2
a
2
+
j
2
r
2
/
2
+
.
2
r
2
c
2
_ 1 = 1 =
_
r
ar
_
2
+
_
j
/r
_
2
. .
A
2
+
_
.
cr
_
2
We may replace
2
,
_
z
rc
_
2
by sin
2
, cos
2
. Choose
_
r
ar
_
2
+
_
j
/r
_
2
. .
A
2
= sin
2
0 and
_
.
cr
_
2
= cos
2
0
next
_
r
ar
_
2
+
_
j
/r
_
2
= sin
2
0 =
_
r
ar sin0
_
2
+
_
j
/r sin0
_
2
= 1
and again replace
_
x
ar sin
_
2
,
_
y
br sin
_
2
by sin
2
, cos
2
. Choose
r
ar sin0
= cos c and
j
/r sin0
= sinc
Which nally leads to the "generalised" spherical coordinates (or "elliptical" coordinates)
r = r(r, 0, ,) = ar cos ,sin0
j = j(r, 0, ,) = /r sin,sin0
. = .(r, 0, ,) = cr cos 0
Remark. In this case "r" no longer represents the distance from (0, 0, 0) to (r, j, .) , "0" and "c" are no
longer the angles dening spherical coordinates. However, it is a convenient way to cover an ellipsoid, we need
r [0, 1] , 0 [0, ) , c [0, 2)
4
Just as for spherical coordinates, we "miss" the O. axis (which is irrelevant when computing triple integrals).
The Jacobi matrix corresponding to "elliptical" coordinates is
J =
_
_
_
@x
@r
@x
@
@x
@'
@y
@r
@y
@
@y
@'
@z
@r
@z
@
@z
@'
_
_
_ =
_
_
a cos ,sin0 ar cos ,cos 0 ar sin,sin0
/ sin,sin0 /r sin,cos 0 /r cos ,sin0
c cos 0 cr sin0 0
_
_
and the corresponding jacobian is
det J =

a cos ,sin0 ar cos ,cos 0 ar sin,sin0

/ sin,sin0 /r sin,cos 0 /r cos ,sin0
c cos 0 cr sin0 0

= a/c

cos ,sin0 r cos ,cos 0 r sin,sin0

sin,sin0 r sin,cos 0 r cos ,sin0
cos 0 r sin0 0

= a/cr
2
sin0
Example
Compute the volume of an ellipsoid
= (r, j, .) R
3
,
r
2
a
2
+
j
2
/
2
+
.
2
c
2
_ 1
o|() =
___

1drdjd. =
1
_
0
_
_

_
0
_
_
2
_
0
1 a/cr
2
sin0
. .
jdet Jj
dc
_
_
d0
_
_
dr =
=
1
_
0
_
_

_
0
2 a/cr
2
sin0
. .
jdet Jj
d0
_
_
dr = 2a/c
1
_
0
_
r
2
cos 0
_

0
[ dr = 2a/c
1
_
0
2r
2
dr = 4a/c
r
3
3

1
0
=
4a/c
3
For a = / = c = 1 we get a sphere, and the volume is
4R
3
3
.
6) Compute the volume of the domain
= (r, j, .) R
3
, r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
_ 9 , .
2
_ r
2
+ j
2
, . _ 0
Clearly r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
_ 9 describes the interior of a sphere centered at (0, 0, 0) with radius 3
The equation .
2
= r
2
+ j
2
represents a cone, since
for r = 0 we get .
2
= j
2
= . = j or . = j two straight lines in the jO. plane (this a vertical
"cut" )
for . =constant= ct we get r
2
+ j
2
= ct
2
and these are circles. (these are horizontal "cuts")
5
x
y
z
3
B A

y
z
z = y
z = -y
O
B
A
In the triangle O1 we have O = 3 , the angle ]O1 = ,4 .
Finally we use spherical coordinates to describe the domain
r [0, 3] , 0 [0, ,4] , c [0, 2]
Therefore the volume is
o|() =
___

1drdjd. =
3
_
0
_
_
_
=4
_
0
_
_
2
_
0
1 r
2
sin0dc
_
_
d0
_
_
_dr =
3
_
0
_
_
_
=4
_
0
2r
2
sin0d0
_
_
_dr =
6
= 2
3
_
0
_
_
_
=4
_
0
r
2
(cos 0)[
=4
0
d0
_
_
_dr = 2
3
_
0
r
2
(cos ,4 + cos 0)dr =
= 2(1
1
_
2
)
3
_
0
r
2
dr = 2(1
1
_
2
)
r
3
3

3
0
= 2
_
2 1
2

27
3
= 9(
_
2 1)
We may consider as well the domain
' = (r, j, .) R
3
, r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
_ 9 , .
2
_ r
2
+ j
2
, . _ 0
In this case the domain lays inside the sphere, but outside the cone, and we have
o|(') =
___

1drdjd. =
3
_
0
_
_
_
=2
_
=4
_
_
2
_
0
1 r
2
sin0dc
_
_
d0
_
_
_dr = ....
7) Consider the domain
= (r, j, .) R
3
, r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
_ 2 , . _ r
2
+ j
2
,
In this case the equation . = r
2
+ j
2
represents a (circular) paraboloid , since
for r = 0 we get . = j
2
which is clearly a parabola in the jO. plane (this a vertical "cut" )
for . =constant= ct we get r
2
+ j
2
= ct and these are circles. (these are horizontal "cuts")
y
z
x
C
A
B
Spherical coordinates are no longer useful in this case.
Clearly r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
_ 2 describes the interior of a sphere centered at (0, 0, 0) with radius
_
2
Next . _ r
2
+ j
2
describes the interior of the paraboloid.
Consequently this domain is projectable on the rOj plane, and the projection is a disk centered at (0, 0, 0) , let
1 be this disk.
The intersection of the sphere with the paraboloid is a circle centered at 1 with radius = 1
7
x
y
A
B
(0,0,0) C
To get the intersection proceed as follows
_
r
2
+ j
2
+ .
2
= 2
. = r
2
+ j
2
= . + .
2
= 2 = .
2
+ . 2 = 0 = .
1;2
=
1 3
2
Only . = 1 is acceptable since . _ 0 . So O =
_
2 , O1 = 1 = 1 =
_
2 1 = 1
The disk projection disk 1 is actually 1 = (r, j, 0) R
3
, r
2
+ j
2
_ 1
x
y
(0,0,0)
C
D
To compute the volume of the domain "." runs from the paraboloid (. = r
2
+ j
2
) to the sphere (. =
_
2 r
2
j
2
)
o|() =
___
N
1drdjd. =
__
D
_
_
_
_
z=
_
2x
2
y
2
_
z=x
2
+y
2
1d.
_
_
_
_
drdj =
__
D
_
_
2 r
2
j
2
(r
2
+ j
2
)
_
drdj =
8
next we need polar coordinates r = r cos t , j = r sint , to cover the disk 1 r [0, 1] , t [0, 2]
=
1
_
0
_
_
2
_
0
_
_
2 r
2
r
2
_
rdt
_
_
dr =
1
_
0
2
_
_
2 r
2
r
2
_
rdr =
= 2
1
_
0
_
_
2 r
2
r r
3
_
dr = 2
_
_
_
2 r
2
_
3
3
2

r
4
4
_

1
0
= 2
_
3
2

1
4
+
_
_
2
_
3
3
2
_
=
_
6
_
2
7
2
_
Remark.
Many text books call this "cylindrical" cordinates (r, t, .)
r = r(r, t) = r cos t
j = j(r, t) = r sint
. = .
It seems to be a "hystorical" denomination, no longer useful since practically we project the domain onto the
rOj plane and then we use polar coordinates in that plane.
9