MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY ILIGAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
The Causes and Effects of the Satsuma Rebellion In partial fulfillments of the requirements in HIST 125, Modern Japan
Submitted by: Ruhollah AL-Husseini J. Alonto
Submitted to: Prof. Jamelyn B. Palattao
August 2013 1
I. Introduction The Tokugawa era was characterized by the rigid policies of Ieyasus line to the strict adherence in preserving the culture and tradition of Japan. As such, during this time, Japan was closed from the rest of the world and as a result became backward in terms of the scientific advancements that were taking place in the west. For almost three centuries, Japan maintained its isolationist policy. However, this was soon ended when Commodore Perrys superior fire power forced Japan to submit to terms and open itself to trade with the west. With this, internal turmoil was at hand and the Tokugawa government began to crumble and lose its control over the Daimyos. At the outset of the decline of the Tokugawa regime, Japanese feudalism was also in its final moments and thus the beginning of a new era, the Meiji Restoration. During the Meiji Restoration, the government was forced to open itself to the West, thus, Japan entered into the period of modernization and industrialization. Western ideas were being imported to Japan and the new government tried its best to cope up with the rest of the world. In this regard, Japan was fast tracking its development in order to compete with the rest of the world. However, not all Japanese were subscribed to the idea of change. In fact, there were remnants of the old feudal order who opposed change. One of them was the Satsuma uprising in which the new Emperor was faced with a challenge from one of its closest allies, the Satsuma clan. As such, it is in these circumstances that I would argue that the changes brought about by the Meiji Restoration to the social structure of the old Japanese Society resulted to the uprising of the Satsuma clan led by Saigo Takamori. The Satsuma Rebellion can best be described as a clash between the remnants of the old feudal order and that of the new order, characterized by the looming influences of western ideas and technology. The Satsuma rebellion was thus one of the last futile efforts of traditional Japan against the advent of westernization. II. Theoretical Framework In studying the Satsuma insurrection, we must take into consideration that Japan at that time was in the transition from the old feudal order to a more industrial form of society. Thus, different social classes had emerged from this already rigidly stratified society. We are tempted as such to use Marxist models into our inquiry, however, it proves quite fallacious to use such concepts as Marxists social theories does not necessarily apply to Asian societies for it was 2
designed for the societies in the European continent. Marx (1848) points out that the modern bourgeois society has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of old ones. Drawing on the ideas of Hegel and the young Hegelian, Marx argued that that it was neither religion nor ignorance of the Mind, but the main current economic and material conditions that prevented human from achieving freedom (Warrington, 2008, p. 243). As such, to Marx, in achieving this, what is needed is a social revolution is needed led by a class supported by a large part of the society opposed to the prevailing system. In Japan however, the transition from feudalism to industrialization was augmented from a very much different circumstances. It is from this however, that we would like to capsulize it in a Marxist point of view. Accordingly, there are three preconditions for the development of industrial capitalism during the demise of feudalism. These are: there were large numbers of labourers who were free in the double sense that neither they [formed] part and parcel of the mean of production as in the case of the slaves, bondsmen, etc., nor [did] the means of production belong to them, as in the case of peasant proprietors Second, there was a considerable mass of merchant capital (private wealth) Third, urban craft outgrew the guild system. (Warrington, 2008, pp. 246-247). Where all these conditions present in Japan? As I pointed out before, Marxist theories do not necessarily apply here, but only a few of its elements may be observed. Thus, in this regard, at the outset of the decay of Japanese feudalism, initially, we saw the start of Japanese capitalism also. Old feudal lords began to transfer their powers into a more commercial basis especially when Japan at that time was on the outset opening its markets to the rest of the world. Thus, the revolution that took place in Japan did not necessarily come from the bourgeoisie. But it began with the feudal lords themselves, who in turn evolve into the Japanese bourgeoisie. Moreover, the Meiji Restoration also can see the flourishing of Zaibatsu or the business companies that flourished in Japan. At this juncture, we can observe the transitions in which Japan was at the point coping up with the rest of the world and began to industrialize. Going back to our point of interest, we would like to come up with a theoretical framework that will best suite our inquiry. In this regard, we would like to apply few of Marxist elements, namely its dialectical materialism in 3
addressing the issues observed in the Satsuma Rebellion. Hence, the Satsuma rebellion was one of the last futile attempts of the old feudal order against the growing popular notion of westernization masked in the name of industrialization and modernisation. Eventually, the old classes of the Samurais, would lose its appeal to the new order in Japan at the face of a more modern army with it more advance and powerful fire power. III. Satsuma Domain and its Role During the Restoration The Satsuma principality, located at the southern extremities of Kyushu consists of the provinces of Hizen, Chikuzen, Buzen, Chikugo , Higo, Bungo, Satsuma, Hiuga, and Osumi. The capital of the principality of Satsuma is Kagushima which is famous for its products like cotton, silk, pottery and glass. Also, it is quite popular with its tobacco and horses. The Satsuma provinces are famous for its production of rice, tea, camphor and cedar wood. The family that had ruled the Satsuma principality were the Shimazu. They are one of the richest and most influential families in Japan with assessed revenue of 770, 800 koku of rice (Mounsey, 1879, p. 15). During the Tokugawa era, they were defeated by the forces of Ieyasu, but in the end maintained autonomy over their domains. From then on, the Satsuma principality became one of the ardent opponents of the Tokugawa rule and their people were highly marvelled for their military prowess. Also, people from the Satsuma principality has this attitude of considering themselves as superior compared to those from the other provinces. With this, there is an old saying that each of its inhabitants considered himself a Satsuma man first then a Japanese (Mounsey, 1879, p. 17). By 1858, the present head of the Satsuma clan was Shimazu Saburo. Moreover, when westerners began to force Japan into accepting them, the Satsuma clan utilized that in weakening the Shoguns power. In fact, it was from the Satsuma that the idea of abolishing the Shogun came. What commenced afterwards was a civil war which need not be discussed lengthily in this paper. The Satsuma clan however, was ensured of prominent position in the government that will be established for they played actively in deposing the Shogun. Moreover, it is much more likely, that the some of the Satsuma might have thought of acquiring the power and influence amassed by the Shogun, although of course under the name of the Emperor. But as will be seen later, this proved quite the contrary. 4
IV. Implication of the Meiji Restoration One of the most significant changes brought about by the Restoration was the abolishment of the Bafuku or feudalism. It was a necessity in order to strengthen the central control of the emperor and so, this was supported by the four feudatories namely, the Choshu, Satsuma, Hizen and Tosa. However, ending a system which has already existed in the society for a few centuries proved to be quite troublesome to the new government. Moreover its planned compensation proved to be quite inept in solving issues. Thus more problems emerged and the will eventually become complicated. Basically, what took place during the Restoration was a remodelling of the existing social structures and institutions which had the characteristics of Western prototypes. The results were: the daimyo were appointed governors of their former estates and were assigned one-tenth of their former revenues, while the cost of local government formerly borne by them and the pensions of the samurai were to be paid out of taxes and were no longer to be met by feudal lords For a time pensions were given the ex-daimyo and ex-samurai. Since the cost proved a heavy burden on the national exchequer, in 1873 commutation of these was begun by payment of a lump sum. In 1876 commutation was made compulsory. (Latourette, 1965, p. 398) Another significant change would be the remodelling of the army. Indeed, the restoration ended the basic privilege that the samurais had enjoyed and so they needed to recruit more for their new army. Japan at that time began to modernize its army and thus the samurais were replaced by the standing armies. Indeed the end of feudalism meant the end of special military class of the samurais. By 1876, they were all required to lay aside their swords, the symbol of their social rank. Thus the distinction between the court nobility, or kuge and the military was cancelled and the two groups were merged into one nobility. The hereditary dishonour imposed upon the eta or hinin was abolished (Latourette, 1965, p. 400). Although respect and admiration for those who descendent from the long lines of samurais persisted after its abolishment; the Restoration nonetheless stripped them from the power that they once held.
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V. Outbreak of Hostilities The rate of which these changes were brought by the restoration antagonized many, especially the samurais whose privileges were stripped from them. Moreover, they were deprived of their swords, which symbolized the pride that they have inherited from their ancestors and were soon replaced by the regular army, an idea which at that time for most traditional and conservative persons was scandalous. Another significant matter which would fuel a conflict between the samurais and the new Meiji government would be the relaxed policy towards Korea. Japan pushed for a more friendly relationship with their Korean neighbours. Unfortunately, Korea did not reciprocate these advances. Missions were sent to open diplomatic relations but all were rebuffed by the Koreans. This inaugurated a strong war party which advocated for a more punitive action. However, moderate opinions prevailed and war with Korea was averted. Eventually all these grievances culminated in the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877. The leader of the rebellion was Saigo Takamori. According to Mounsey, Saigo was: Born at Kagoshima in 1826, to a simple Samurai parents, he was educated chiefly at Kioto [Kyoto], and as a young man appears to have been in constant communication with a school of politicians composed of men of different clans, which desired either the expulsion of foreigners, or if this were impossible, such a change in the constitution as would give the chief clans a voice in the nations relations with them and would, above all, relieve these clans from arbitrary subjection to a ruler who was not the sovereign of the country, but merely a subject of the Mikado [emperor]. (Mounsey, 1879) Thus, when Saigo returned home, he quickly rose to prominence gaining the trust of the Daimyo. He was convinced that it was only through force that the country could be changed with that the Daimyo agreed. Hence preparations were made in the development of the clans military spirit and as well as its organization. Eventually, Saigo got into trouble with the Shogun, especially after he harboured his friend Gassho after escaping prison. Fearing for the ire of the Shogun, Satsuma authorities banished Saigo to Oshima. By 1863, Saigo was recalled from banishment by Shimazu Saburo and placed him as the head of the administration of the principality. With this he began to be active in politics and his new position as chief councillor of the Satsuma chieftain gained him prominence among the 6
other clans. As a result, he successfully united all the feuding clans and placed them against the Tokugawa Shogunate. With the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the Restoration of the emperor, his role in the Japanese politics was ensured. Moreover, he would prove quite crucial to the establishment of a new government as his opinions were highly valued. For this he was to be rewarded by the Emperor: You have been the strongest upholder of my cause, and you have for years been zealously endeavouring to secure my restoration. By your skill as military commissioner in obtaining possession of Yedo Castle, in gaining the victories of Echigo, and by your diligence in all affairs connected with my service, you have gained for me the peace I enjoy to-day. I honour your actions, and as a reward therefore decree to you a pension of 2000 koku of rice. (Emperor Meiji as cited by Mounsey, 1879, p. 52) Eventually, many members of the Satsuma clan were appointed to important offices. In fact, Saigo himself was appointed to the ministry of war. Unfortunately, a rift between the emperor and the Satsuma clan would soon brew. After, the restoration, troops from the Satsuma clan remained in Tokyo (the new name of Edo) in order to serve as guard to the emperor. By November 1870, they petitioned the Emperor to be relieved from duty as they deem it necessary to return home since maintaining troops to be garrisoned proved to be quite expensive for the Satsuma clan. Moreover, the debt that they had incurred during their campaigns against the remnants of the old Tokugawa already surmounted to a huge sum. However, Mounsey (1879) argues that there is little doubt that the real grounds of the request which it contained were the discontent and disappointment of the two former statesman [Saigo and Shimazu] at finding that the part in the government of the country was allotted to them indefinitely less than what they had a right to expect. This was shared by most of the clans member and would become one of the reasons for the outbreak of hostilities. Virtually, the Satsuma clan was divided between those who support the emperor and those who support Saigo and Shimazu. Rebellion was brewing and this would be aggravated when the central government attempted to confiscate arms from the private samurai school established by Saigo. Moreover, the peaceful resolution of the conflict with Korea left Saigo very dissatisfied. By February, 1877, Saigo was on the march to the west coast of Kyushu on his way to Tokyo. 7
Along with him is a force of 14,000 men. It is estimated that around 30,000 would take part in expedition. The first encounter with the government troops would be that in the castle of Kumamoto. There General Tani along with 2,000 to 3,000 men was garrisoned. The castle held Saigo and his rebels for several weeks and this proved quite an advantage for the government troops. Prince Akihito was appointed as commander in chief and established his headquarters in Fuokoka (Murray, 1894, p. 390). Aside from that, General Saigo Tsugumichi, Saigo Takamoris brother was the one in charge with the equipment of the governments troops. When the rebel troops finally reduced the castle of Kumamoto, relief came and the government forces pushed the rebels back. The rebels in turn had no choice but to withdraw. VI. Defeat of the Satsuma Rebels After the withdrawal of the rebels from Kumamoto, they were forced to form a defensive position to the east coast with the objective reaching north through Hyuga or Bungo. The government troops followed them and in turn fighting continued. Accordingly, desperate battles were fought in this part of the campaign (Murray, 1894, p. 391). Although largely outnumbered, the rebels fought bravely. There last stand would be in Nobeoka, in the northeast corner of Hyuga. Seeing that all was lost for their cause, Saigo along with two hundred of his loyal soldiers fled to Kagoshima. Those who were left surrendered on August 19, 1877. Meanwhile, Saigo had entrenched himself on the summit of the hill of Shiroyama overlooking Kagoshima. Here he was surrounded by the government forces and was bombarded day and night. Eventually he was wounded and with that he had realized that it was futile to resist. Seeing that there was no way that he could fight, he requested one of his faithful lieutenants to honourably behead him. Thus by September, 24, 1877, the Satsuma Rebellion, the last and most serious attempt to the establishment of the Meiji government came to an end. VII. Aftermath It is hereby made known that on the 24 th inst. Akihito, Imperial Prince of the second rank (commonly called as Arisugawa-no-Miya), and commander-in-chief of the army of 8
chastisement, reported to his Imperial Majesty that the rebels of Kiushu have been reduced to quiet. (Prince Akihito as cited by Mounsey, 1879, p. 218) With those statements, there was a feeling of relief that engulfed Japan. It is said that there were no celebrations, no signs of triumphal rejoicing. Moreover, the general sentiment towards the band of warriors was that of admiration and regret. Clearly, the last traces of the feudal order of the Samurais diminished with the death of its last champion, Saigo. Once the government troops in Tokyo returned, there was no elaborate display of grand welcome. Only the officers were received with a brief ceremony and were awarded gallantly by the Emperor. Prince Akihito in turn was highly awarded by the emperor for his services during the war. On November 2, 1877, the Emperor conferred to the prince the following: I, who, by will of Heaven, am Emperor of Japan, descending in an unbroken line for 10,000 years, confer on you, Prince Arisugawa, a man of the highest merit, commander-in- chief of the army, president of the senate, this decoration of the highest class of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, and you are herewith invested with all dignities and privileges appertaining to the said Order. (Emperor Meiji as cited by Mounsey, 1879, p. 223) Indeed, the Emperor rewarded his men greatly. In fact those who were engaged in the battle against the rebels were conferred to the same Order. Moreover, they were rewarded with money. On the other hand, the rebels who were taken as prisoners were tried in a special court-martial by Prince Akihito in Nagasaki. These trials were held during the months of September and October. The number of persons accused before it, of complicity in the rebellion, was 42,740. Of these, 246 were declared innocent of the charges brought against them, and 39,632 were pardoned and discharged. Of the remainder, 2718 were sentenced to terms of imprisonment, with hard labour, varying from five years to thirty days or to deprivation of ranks and fines, and only 124 to imprisonment for periods of from five to ten years. Twenty persons were condemned to decapitation. (Mousney, 1879, pp. 226-227) For the cost of the war, we turn to the data provided by Mousney as his account was contemporary to the events that took place during the Satsuma Rebellion. Moreover, he was in Japan while the insurrection took place. According to him the total numbers of troops employed by the government to suppress the rebels are as follow: 9
Men Infantry, 58 battalion 56, 318 Engineer, 2 do. 1,512 Military train, do. 310 Police 7,000 Total 65,140 Artillery, 4 battalions, 48 guns. Table 1. Government troops used during the Satsuma rebellion. Mounsey, Augustus H., The Satsuma Rebellion: An Episode of Modern Japanese History, 1879, p. 231. The casualties for both sides on the other hand are presented in the following table: Imperial Army Killed Wounded Soldiers 6,220 10,000 Coolies 147 528 Missing 32 6,399 10,523 Satsuma Rebels 7,000 11,000 Table 2. Casualties for both sides. Moubsey, Augustus H., The Satsuma Rebellion: An Episode of Modern Japanese History, 1879, p. 233. The cost of the properties lost would somehow be impossible as the war rages on, numerous properties were destroyed. However, Mousney (1879) gives an estimate of 350,000. However, the destruction of life and livelihood was more than that. For the government side however, accounts from the war department state that 42,000,000 yen or 8,400,000 was spent during the whole campaign. The expenditure incurred during that time was quite crucial as Japan was still developing. Mousney provides more detail on the expenses incurred during the rebellion: Now, according to the minister of finances statement for the fiscal year, July 1, 1875 June 30, 1876, the public revenue and expenditure of Japan were, in round numbers, 13,700,000; whereas, in the statement of the year 1877-78, both are reduced to about 10
10,250,000. Thus in two years the revenue had fallen off to the extent of above three millions, and the expenditure had to be reduced by the same amount. There had been a change equally remarkable in the state of the national debt. (Mousney, 1879, pp. 237-238) When Japan opened up to the rest of the world, not only was it link to the global market, but also had to supress internal unrest. Thus, in its early stages, Japan faced many debts especially to the European countries. VIII. Conclusion At the outset of the Meiji Restoration, the opening of Japan to western commerce and influx of western ideas antagonized the more conservative and traditional factions of Japan. What transpired in the Satsuma Rebellion was merely the clash between the remnants of the old feudal order and that of the new modern society. The rebellion tested the government to the utmost, but while it lasted, political agitation ceased in the face of the danger which threatened both to overthrow the government and to restore some of the worst features of feudalism and of dual executive of the Shogunate (Longford, 1913, p. 58).
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Latourette, Kenneth S. (1965). A Short History of the Far East. New York: The MacMillan Company. Longford, Joseph H. (1913). The Evolution of New Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Marx, Karl. (1848). Manifesto of the Communist Party. Retrieved from http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.html. Mounsey, Augustus H. (1879). The Satsuma Rebellion: An Episode of Japanese History. London: John Murray. Warrington, Hughes Marnie. (2008) Fifty Key Thinkers on History, 2 nd ed. New York: Routledge.
Oliver P. Richmond, Sandra Pogodda, Jasmin Ramović (Eds.) - The Palgrave Handbook of Disciplinary and Regional Approaches To Peace-Palgrave Macmillan UK (2016)