Mobile Communication Brief

Basics of Wireless and Mobile
Communications
Wireless Transmission
Frequencies
Signals
Antenna
Signal propagation
Multiplexing
Modulation
Spread spectrum
Cellular systems
Media Access Schemes
Motivation
SDMA, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA
Comparison
Basic Functions in Mobile Systems
Location management
Handover
Roaming
UMTS Networks 2 Andreas Mitschele-Thiel, J ens Mckenheim October 2012
References
J ochen Schiller: Mobile Communications (German and English), 2nd edition, Addison-
Wesley, 2003 (most of the material covered in this chapter is based on the book)
Holma, Toskala: WCDMA for UMTS. 3rd edition, Wiley, 2004
Mobile Communication Systems the Issues:
What does it require?
Provide telecommunition services
voice (conversation, messaging)
data (fax, SMS/MMS, internet)
video (conversation, streaming, broadcast)
anywhere coverage
anytime ubiquitous connectivity, reachability
wireless without cord/wire
mobile in motion, on the move (terrestrial)
secure integrity, identity, privacy, authenticity,
non-repudiation (Unleugbarkeit)
reliable guaranteed quality of service
Frequencies for communication (spectrum)
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency
LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency
Frequency and wave length:
= c / f
wave length , speed of light c ~ 300 x 10
6
m/s, frequency f
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
100 m
3 MHz
1 m
300 MHz
10 mm
30 GHz
100 m
3 THz
1 m
300 THz
visible light VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared UV
optical transmission
coax cable twisted
pair
GSM, DECT,
UMTS, WLAN
Electromagnetic Spectrum
100 MHz: UKW Radio, VHF TV
400 MHz: UHF TV
450 MHz: C-Netz
900 MHz: GSM900
1800 MHz: GSM1800
1900 MHz: DECT
2000 MHz: UMTS (3G)
2400 MHz: WLAN, Bluetooth
2450 MHz: Mikrowellenherd
3500 MHz: WiMax
o
Frequencies for mobile communication
VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
simple, small antennas
good propagation characteristics (limited reflections, small path loss,
penetration of walls)
typically used for radio & TV (terrestrial+satellite) broadcast,
wireless telecommunication (cordless/mobile phone)
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
small antenna, strong focus
larger bandwidth available
no penetration of walls
Mobile systems and wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance
frequencies)
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.
Frequencies and regulations
ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands worldwide
(WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Examples of assigned frequency bands (in MHz):
Europe USA Japan
Cellular
Phones
(licensed)
GSM 450-457, 479-
486/460-467,489-496,
890-915/935-960,
1710-1785/1805-1880
UMTS (FDD) 1920-
1980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD) 1900-
1920, 2020-2025
AMPS, TDMA, CDMA
824-849,
869-894
TDMA, CDMA, GSM
1850-1910,
1930-1990
PDC
810-826,
940-956,
1429-1465,
1477-1513

Cordless
Phones
(un-
licensed)

CT1+ 885-887, 930-
932
CT2
864-868
DECT
1880-1900
PACS 1850-1910, 1930-
1990
PACS-UB 1910-1930
PHS
1895-1918
JCT
254-380
Wireless
LANs
(un-
licensed)
IEEE 802.11 b
2400-2483
802.11a/HIPERLAN 2
5150-5350, 5470-5725
902-928
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
5150-5350, 5725-5825
IEEE 802.11
2471-2497
5150-5250
Others RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433, 868
RF-Control
315, 915
RF-Control
426, 868
WiMax
(IEEE
802.16,
licensed)
2.3GHz, 2.5GHz and
3.5GHz
2.3GHz, 2.5GHz and
3.5GHz
2.3GHz, 2.5GHz
and 3.5GHz

Abbreviations:
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone
System
CDMA Code Division Multiple
Access
CT Cordless Telephone
DECT Digital Enhanced
Cordless
Telecommunications
GSM Global System for Mobile
Communications
HIPERLAN High-Performance
LAN
IEEE Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers
J CT J apanese Cordless
Telephone
NMT Nordic Mobile Telephone
PACS Personal Access
Communications System
PACS-UB PACS- Unlicensed
Band
PDC Pacific Digital Cellular
PHS Personal Handyphone
System
TDMA Time Division Multiple
Access
WiMAX Worldwide
Interoperability for
Microwave Access
o
UMTS Frequency Bands (FDD mode only)
Operating
Band
Frequency
Band
UL Frequencies
UE transmit
(MHz)
DL Frequencies
UE receive
(MHz)
Typically used in
region ...
I 2100 1920 - 1980 2110 - 2170 EU, Asia
II 1900 1850 - 1910 1930 - 1990 America
III 1800 1710 - 1785 1805 - 1880 EU (future use)
IV 1700 1710 - 1755 2110 - 2155 J apan
V 850 824 - 849 869 - 894 America, Australia,
Brazil
VI 800 830 - 840 875 - 885 J apan
VII 2600 2500 - 2570 2620 - 2690 Extension Band
VIII 900 880 - 915 925 - 960 EU (future use)
IX 1800 1749.9 - 1784.9 1844.9 - 1879.9 J apan
X 1700 1710 - 1770 2110 - 2170 America/US
o
UMTS Frequency Bands (FDD mode only), Germany
Operator Uplink (MHz) Downlink (MHz) Carriers Auction Price
Vodafone 1920,3 1930,2 2110,3 2120,2 2x10 MHz 16,47 Mrd. DM (8,42
Mrd. )
Currently
spare
1930,2 1940,1 2120,2 2130,1 2x10 MHz 16,45 Mrd. DM Group
3G
(Marke Quam)
E-Plus 1940,1 1950,0 2130,1 2140,0 2x10 MHz 16,42 Mrd. DM (8,39
Mrd. )
Currently
spare
1950,0 1959,9 2140,0 2149,9 2x10 MHz (16,37 Mrd. DM
Mobilcom; returned)
O2 1959,9 1969,8 2149,9 2159,8 2x10 MHz 16,52 Mrd. DM (8,45
Mrd. )
T-Mobile 1969,8 1979,7 2159,8 2169,7 2x10 MHz 16,58 Mrd. DM (8,48
Mrd. )
In 2000, the UMTS frequency bands were auctioned in Germany.
6 operators won 10 MHz each, for total 50 B
o
Basic Lower Layer Model for Wireless Transmission
Transmit direction Receive direction
Data link layer media access
fragmentation reassembly
frame error
protection frame error detection
multiplexing demultiplex
Physical layer encryption decryption
coding,
forward error
protection
Digital
Signal
Processing
decoding,
bit error correction
interleaving deinterleaving
modulation demodulation
D/A conversion,
signal generation
A/D conversion;
(signal equalization)
transmit receive
Wireless Channel
(path loss)
Intersymbol-
Interference (distortion
of own signal)
Intercell-Interference
(multiple users)
Intracell-Interference
(multiple users)
Thermal Noise
o
Signals in general
physical representation of data
function of time and location
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
classification
continuous time/discrete time
continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:
s(t) = A
t
sin(2 t f
t
t +
t
)
amplitude frequency
phase shift
Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier
transformation
Digital signals need
infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)
Signal representations
f [Hz]
A [V]
I=M cos
Q =M sin
A [V]
t[s]
amplitude
(time domain)
frequency spectrum
(frequency domain)
phase state diagram
(amplitude M and phase
in polar coordinates)
Fourier representation of periodic signals
) 2 cos( ) 2 sin(
2
1
) (
1 1
nft b nft a c t g
n
n
n
n
t t

=
=
+ + =
1
0
1
0
t t
ideal periodic signal
real composition
(based on harmonics)
Every periodic signal g(t) can be constructed by
Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line, line of sight)
Receiving power proportional to
1/d (ideal),
1/d
(=3...4 realistically)
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
reflection scattering diffraction shadowing
Radio Propagation: Received Power due to Pathloss
1m 10m
100m
Ideal line-of sight
(d
-2
): 1 1:100 1:10000
Realistic propagation 1 1:3000 to 1:10 Mio to
(d
-3.54
): 1:10000 1:100 Mio
35-40
dB
35-40
dB
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to reflection,
scattering, diffraction
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time
interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
Multipath propagation
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Delayed signal recd
via longer path
Signal received
by direct path
Effects of mobility Fading
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts (frequencies)
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received (short-term fading or fast fading)
Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away
slow changes in the average power
received (long-term fading or slow fading)
short-term fading
long-term
fading
t
power
Fast Fading
simulation showing time and frequency dependency of Rayleigh fading
V = 110km/h 900MHz
Signal propagation ranges
distance
sender
transmission
detection
interference
Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication
possible
Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal adds to the
background noise
Interference
Carrier to Interference Ratio (CIR, C/I)
(Uplink Situation)
Ratio of Carrier-to-Interference
power at the receiver
The minimum required CIR
depends on the system
and the signal processing potential
of the receiver technology
Typical in GSM:
C/I=15dB (Factor 32)
N I
C
CIR
j
+
=

Range limited systems (lack of coverage)
Mobile stations located far away from
BS (at cell border or even beyond the
coverage zone)
C at the receiver is too low, because
the path loss between sender and
receiver is too high
C/I is too low
No signal reception
possible
Interference limited systems (lack of capacity)
Mobile station is within coverage zone
C is sufficient, but too much
interference I at the receiver
C/I is too low
No more resources /
capacity left
Information Theory: Channel Capacity (1)
Bandwidth limited Additive White
Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel
Gaussian codebooks
Single transmit antenna
Single receive antenna (SISO)
Shannon (1950):
Channel Capacity <=
Maximum mutual information between
sink and source
Signal-to-noise ratio SNR
o
Information Theory: Channel Capacity (2)
For S/N >>1 (high signal-to-noise ratio), approximate
Observation: Bandwidth and S/N are reciproke to each other
This means:
With low bandwidth very high data rate is possible provided
S/N is high enough
Example: higher order modulation schemes
With high noise (low S/N) data communication is possible if
bandwidth is large
Example: spread spectrum
Shannon channel capacity has been seen as a unreachable
theoretical limit, for a long time. However:
Turbo coding (1993) pushs practical systems up to 0.5 dB to
Shannon channel bandwidth
o
Link Capacity for Various Rate-Controlled Technologies
The link capacity of current systems is quickly approaching the Shannon limit (within a factor of two).
Future improvements in spectral efficiency will focus on intelligent antenna techniques and/or coordination
between base stations.
Link Performance of OFDM & 3G Systems are Similar and
Approaching the (Physical) Shannon Bound
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
required SNR (dB)
a
c
h
i
e
v
a
b
l
e

r
a
t
e

(
b
p
s
/
H
z
)
Shannon bound
Shannon bound with 3dB margin
(3GPP2) EV-DO
(IEEE) 802.16
(3GPP) HSDPA
o
Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to
space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) -
only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
Antennas: isotropic radiator
z y
x
z
y x
ideal
isotropic
radiator
Antennas: simple dipoles
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g.
dipoles with lengths /4 on car roofs or
/2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole
Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the power
of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
side view (xy-plane)
x
y
side view (yz-plane)
z
y
top view (xz-plane)
x
z
simple
dipole
/4
/2
Antennas: directed and sectorized
side view (xy-plane)
x
y
side view (yz-plane)
z
y
top view (xz-plane)
x
z
top view, 3 sector
x
z
top view, 6 sector
x
z
Often used for microwave connections (narrow directed beam)
or base stations for cellular networks (sectorized cells)
directed
antenna
sectorized
antenna
Antenna
downtilt
3-sectorized
Real world propagation examples
Antennas: diversity
Grouping of 2 or more antennas
multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
+
/4 /2 /4
ground plane
/2
/2
+
/2
Goal: multiple use of a shared medium
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
space (s
i
)
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)
Multiple use is possible,
if resource (channel)
is different
in at least one dimension
Important: guard spaces needed!
s
2
s
3
s
1
Multiplexing
f
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1
f
t
c
f
t
c
channels k
i
Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination needed
applicable to analog signals
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard space
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1
f
t
c
f
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1
Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even
for many users
Disadvantages:
precise synchronization
needed
f
Time and frequency multiplex
Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM (frequency hopping)
Advantages:
some (weak) protection against
tapping
protection against frequency
selective interference
but: precise coordination required
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1
Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference and
tapping
Disadvantages:
complex receivers (signal regeneration)
Implemented using spread spectrum technology
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1
f
t
c
Cellular systems: Space Division Multiplex
Cell structure implements space division multiplex:
base station covers a certain transmission area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:
higher capacity, higher number of users
less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area, etc. locally
Disadvantages:
fixed network needed for the base stations
handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells
Cell sizes vary from10s of meters in urban areas to many km in rural areas (e.g.
maximum of 35 km radius in GSM)
Cellular systems: Frequency planning I
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations
Typical (hexagon) model:
reuse-3 cluster: reuse-7 cluster:
Other regular pattern: reuse-19
the frequency reuse pattern determines the experienced CIR
Fixed frequency assignment:
certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
problem: different traffic load in different cells
Dynamic frequency assignment:
base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already used in
neighbor cells
more capacity in cells with more traffic
assignment can also be based on interference measurements
f
4
f
5
f
1
f
3
f
2
f
6
f
7
f
4
f
5
f
1
f
3
f
2
f
6
f
7
f
4
f
5
f
1
f
3
f
2
f
6
f
7
f
2
f
1
f
3
f
2
f
1
f
3
f
2
f
1
f
3
Cellular systems: frequency planning II
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
2
f
1
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
2
f
3
f
1
f
2
f
1
f
3
f
3
f
3
f
3
f
3
f
4
f
5
f
1
f
3
f
2
f
6
f
7
f
3
f
2
f
4
f
5
f
1
f
3
f
5
f
6
f
7
f
2
f
2
f
1
f
1
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
2
f
3
f
2
f
3
h
1
h
2
h
3
g
1
g
2
g
3
h
1
h
2
h
3
g
1
g
2
g
3
g
1
g
2
g
3
3 cell cluster
7 cell cluster
3 cell cluster
with 3 sector antennas
Spread spectrum technology:
Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out narrow
band signals for duration of the interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a special
code
protection against narrow band interference
Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof
Alternatives:
Direct Sequence (UMTS)
Frequency Hopping (slow FH: GSM, fast FH: Bluetooth)
detection at
receiver
interference
spread
signal
signal (despreaded)
spread
interference
f f
power power
Effects of spreading and interference
dP/df
f
i) narrow band signal
dP/df
f
ii) spreaded signal (broadband signal)
sender
dP/df
f
iii) addition of
interference
dP/df
f
iv) despreaded
signal
receiver
f
v) application of
bandpass filter
user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference
dP/df
Spreading and frequency selective fading
frequency
channel
quality
1
2
3
4
5 6
narrow band
signal
guard space
2
2
2
2
2
frequency
channel
quality
1
spread
spectrum
without spread spectrum
spread spectrum to limit
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I
XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)
many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
Advantages
reduces frequency selective
fading
in cellular networks
base stations can use the
same frequency range
several base stations can
detect and recover the signal
soft handover
Disadvantages
precise power control needed
user data
chipping
sequence
resulting
signal
0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
XOR
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
=
t
b
t
c
t
b
: bit period
t
c
: chip period
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II
X
user data
chipping
sequence
modulator
radio
carrier
spread
spectrum
signal
transmit
signal
transmitter
demodulator
received
signal
radio
carrier
X
chipping
sequence
lowpass
filtered
signal
receiver
integrator
products
decision
data
sampled
sums
correlator
o
Modulation
The shaping of a (baseband) signal to convey information.
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Motivation for modulation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
medium characteristics
Frequency Division Multiplexing
spectrum availability
Modulation and demodulation
synchronization
decision
digital
data
analog
demodulation
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
101101001
radio receiver
digital
modulation
digital
data
analog
modulation
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
101101001
radio transmitter
o
Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
needs larger bandwidth
Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
more complex
robust against interference
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between the carrier
frequencies
Idea:
special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
MSK technique:
bit stream is separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is
doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency,
original or inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other, eliminating
abrupt phase changes
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter
GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used for GSMand DECT
Example of MSK
data
even bits
odd bits
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
t
low
frequency
high
frequency
MSK
signal
bit
even 0 1 0 1
odd 0 0 1 1
signal h l l h
value - - ++
h: high frequency
l: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
No phase shifts!
Transformation
scheme
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):
bit value 0: sine wave
bit value 1: inverted sine wave
very simple PSK
low spectral efficiency
robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):
2 bits coded as one symbol
symbol determines shift of sine wave
needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK
more complex
used in UMTS and EDGE (8-PSK)
often also transmission of relative, not absolute phase shift:
DQPSK - Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
Puls filtering of baseband to avoid sudden phase shifts
=> reduce bandwidth of modulated signal
Q
I
0 1
Q
I
11
01
10
00
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
combines amplitude and phase modulation
it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
2
n
discrete levels: e.g. 16-QAM, 64-QAM
n=2: 4-QAM identical to QPSK
bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable
PSK schemes
Example: 16-QAM (1 symbol = 16 levels = 4 bits)
Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase, but different amplitude
0000 and 1000 have different phase, but same amplitude
also: 64-QAM (1 symbol = 64 levels = 6 bits)
QAM is used in
UMTS HSDPA (16-QAM)
UMTS LTE (64-QAM)
standard 9600 bit/s modems
0000
0001
0011
1000
Q
I
0010
Media Access Schemes
Motivation
limits of CSMA/CD
hidden and exposed terminals
near-far problem
TDD vs. FDD
TDMA
Aloha, slotted Aloha
Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA)
CDMA theory and practice
Comparison
Media Access: Motivation
The problem: multiple users compete for a common, shared resource (medium)
Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?
Example CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (IEEE 802.3)
send as soon as the medium is free (carrier sensing CS)
listen to the medium, if a collision occurs stop transmission and jam
(collision detection CD)
Problems in wireless networks
signal strength decreases (at least) proportional to the square of the
distance
the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the
receiver
it might be the case that a sender cannot hear the collision, i.e., CD
does not work
furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is hidden
Hidden terminals
A sends to B, C cannot receive A
C wants to send to B, C senses a free medium -> CS fails
collision at B: A cannot detect the collision -> CD fails
A is hidden for C
Exposed terminals
B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not
necessary
C is exposed to B
Motivation - hidden and exposed terminals
B A C
B A C
Terminals A and B send, C receives
signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out As signal
C cannot receive A
Severe problem for CDMA-networks precise power control needed!
Motivation - near and far terminals
A B C
Access methods SDMA/FDMA/TDMA
SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
segment space into sectors, use directed antennas
cell structure
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender
and a receiver
permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g. GSM), fast
hopping (FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between a
sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time
The multiplexing schemes presented previously are now used to control
medium access!
Communication link types
Each terminal needs an uplink and a downlink
Types of communication links:
Simplex
unidirectional link transmission
Half Duplex
Bi-directional (but not simultaneous)
Duplex
simultaneous bi-directional link transmission, two types:
Frequency division duplexing (FDD)
Time division duplexing (TDD)
Duplex modes
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)
Separate frequency bands for up- and
downlink
+ separation of uplink and downlink
interference
- no support for asymmetric traffic
Examples: UMTS, GSM, IS-95, AMPS
F
d
F
u
T
d
T
u
T
d
T
u
Time Division Duplex (TDD)
Separation of up- and downlink
traffic on time axis
+ support for asymmetric traffic
- mix of uplink and downlink
interference on single band
Examples: DECT, UMTS (TDD)
FDD/FDMA - general scheme, example GSM
f
t
124
1
124
1
20
200 kHz
890.2
935.2
915
960
TDD/TDMA - general scheme, example DECT
1 2 3 11 12 1 2 3 11 12
t
downlink uplink
417 s
Mechanism
random, distributed (no central arbiter), time-multiplex
Slotted Aloha additionally uses time-slots, sending must always start at
slot boundaries
Aloha
Slotted Aloha
Aloha/slotted aloha
sender A
sender B
sender C
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
collision
t
t
DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple Access
Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha (assuming Poisson
distribution for packet arrival and packet length)
Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
a sender reserves a future time-slot
sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
reservation also causes higher delays
typical scheme for satellite links
application to packet data, e.g. in GPRS and UMTS
Examples for reservation algorithms:
Explicit Reservation (Reservation-ALOHA)
Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
Reservation-TDMA
Access method DAMA: Explicit Reservation
Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):
Two modes:
ALOHA mode for reservation:
competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
reserved mode for data transmission within successful reserved slots
(no collisions possible)
synchronisation: it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list
consistent at any point in time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize
from time to time
Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha
collision
t
Access method CDMA
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
all terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and
can use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel
each sender has a unique random number, the sender XORs the signal with
this random number
the receiver can tune into this signal if it knows the pseudo random
number, tuning is done via a correlation function
Advantages:
all terminals can use the same frequency, less planning needed
huge code space (e.g. 2
32
) compared to frequency space
interference (e.g. white noise) is not coded
forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
Disadvantages:
higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium
and start receiving if there is a signal)
all signals should have the same strength at a receiver (power control)
CDMA Principle
Code 0
Code 1
Code 2
E
data 0
data 1
data 2
Code 0
Code 1
Code 2
data 0
data 1
data 2
sender (base station) receiver (terminal)
Transmission via
air interface
CDMA by example
Source 2
Source 1
data streamA & B
Code 2
Code 1
spreading
Source 2 spread
Source 1 spread
spreaded signal
CDMA by example
Sum of Sources Spread
+
overlay of signals
Sum of Sources Spread + Noise
transmission and
distortion (noise
and interference)
Despread Source 2
Despread Source 1
decoding
and
despreading
CDMA in theory
Sender A
sends A
d
= 1, key A
k
= 010011 (assign: 0= -1, 1= +1)
sending signal A
s
= A
d
* A
k
= (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender B
sends B
d
= 0, key B
k
= 110101 (assign: 0= -1, 1= +1)
sending signal B
s
= B
d
* B
k
= (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Both signals superimpose in space
interference neglected (noise etc.)
A
s
+ B
s
= (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A
apply key A
k
bitwise (inner product)
A
e
= (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) - A
k
= 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6
result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was 1
receiving B
B
e
= (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) - B
k
= -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6, i.e. 0
CDMA on signal level I
data A
key A
signal A
data key
key
sequence A
Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance
between single code words in code space
1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
A
d
A
k
A
s
CDMA on signal level II
signal A
data B
key B
key
sequence B
signal B
A
s
+ B
s
data key
1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
B
d
B
k
B
s
A
s
1
0
-1
CDMA on signal level III
A
k
(A
s
+ B
s
)
* A
k
integrator
output
comparator
output
A
s
+ B
s
data A
1 0 1
1 0 1
A
d
1
0
-1
1
-1
1
0
-1
CDMA on signal level IV
integrator
output
comparator
output
B
k
(A
s
+ B
s
)
* B
k
A
s
+ B
s
data B
1 0 0
1 0 0
B
d
1
0
-1
1
-1
1
0
-1
comparator
output
CDMA on signal level V
wrong
key K
integrator
output
(A
s
+ B
s
)
* K
A
s
+ B
s
(0) (0) ?
Assumptions
orthogonality of keys
neglectance of noise
no differences in signal level => precise power control
1
0
-1
1
-1
1
0
-1
Comparison SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea
segment space into
cells/sectors
segment sending
time into disjoint
time-slots, demand
driven or fixed
patterns
segment the
frequency band into
disjoint sub-bands
spread the spectrum
using orthogonal codes
Terminals
only one terminal can
be active in one
cell/one sector
all terminals are
active for short
periods of time on
the same frequency
every terminal has its
own frequency,
uninterrupted
all terminals can be active
at the same place at the
same moment,
uninterrupted
Signal
separation
cell structure, directed
antennas
synchronization in
the time domain
filtering in the
frequency domain
code plus special
receivers
Advantages
very simple, increases
capacity per km
established, fully
digital, flexible
simple, established,
robust
flexible, less frequency
planning needed, soft
handover
Dis-
advantages
inflexible, antennas
typically fixed
guard space
needed (multipath
propagation),
synchronization
difficult
inflexible,
frequencies are a
scarce resource
complex receivers, needs
more complicated power
control for senders
Comment
only in combination
with TDMA, FDMA or
CDMA useful
standard in fixed
networks, together
with FDMA/SDMA
used in many
mobile networks
typically combined
with TDMA
(frequency hopping
patterns) and SDMA
(frequency reuse)
still faces some problems,
higher complexity,
lowered expectations; will
be integrated with
TDMA/FDMA

Basic Functions in Mobile Systems
Location management
Handover
Roaming
Authentication (see later)
Location Management
The problem:
locate a mobile user from the network side (mobile-terminated call)
Two extreme solutions:
Mobile registers with each visited cell
(e.g. direct call to the hotel room to reach a person)
signaling traffic to register mobile when cell is changed
network has to maintain location information about each mobile
+ low signaling load to page mobile (i.e. in one cell only)
Page mobile using a network- or worldwide broadcast message
(e.g. broadcast on TV or radio to contact a person)
heavy signaling load to page the mobile (i.e. in all cells)
+ no signaling traffic while mobile is idle
RA
RA
RA
RA
RA
RA RA
RA
RA
Location
Update
Location
Update
Location
Update
Location
Update
Location
Update
Location Management
The issue: Compromise between
minimizing the area where
to search for a mobile
minimizing the number of
location updates
Solution 1:
Large paging area
Solution 2:
Small paging area
Paging
Signalling Cost
Paging Area Update
Signalling Cost
TOTAL
Signalling Cost
+
=
Handover
The problem:
Change the cell while
communicating
Reasons for handover:
Quality of radio link
deteriorates
Communication in other cell
requires less radio resources
Supported radius is
exceeded (e.g. Timing
advance in GSM)
Overload in current cell
Maintenance
L
i
n
k

q
u
a
l
i
t
y
Link to cell 1 Link to cell 2
time
cell 1
cell 2
Handover margin
(avoid ping-pong
effect)
cell 1
cell 2
Roaming
The problem:
Use a network not subscribed to
Roaming agreement needed between network operators to exchange
information concerning:
Authentication
Authorisation
Accounting
Examples of roaming agreements:
Use networks abroad
Use of T-Mobile network by O
2
(E2) subscribers in area with no O
2
coverage

Mobile Communication Brief

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Basics of Wireless and Mobile

UMTS Networks 22 Andreas Mitschele-Thiel, J ens Mckenheim October 2012

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