GMAT 1

GMAT RC 117Passages
GMAT New 63Passages
Passage 1 (1/63)
(Ths passage was wrtten n 1978.)
Recent years have brought mnorty-owned busnesses n the Unted States
unprecedented opportuntes-as we as new and sgnfcant rsks. Cv rghts
actvsts have ong argued that one of the prncpa reasons why Backs, Hspancs,
and other mnorty groups have dffcuty estabshng themseves n busness s
that they ack access to the szabe orders and subcontracts that are generated by
arge companes. Now Congress, n apparent agreement, has requred by aw that
busnesses awarded federa contracts of more than $500,000 do ther best to fnd
mnorty subcontractors and record ther efforts to do so on forms fed wth the
government. Indeed, some federa and oca agences have gone so far as to set
specfc percentage goas for apportonng parts of pubc works contracts to
mnorty enterprses.
Corporate response appears to have been substanta. Accordng to fgures
coected n 1977, the tota of corporate contracts wth mnorty busnesses rose
from $77 mon n 1972 to $1.1 bon n 1977. The pro|ected tota of corporate
contracts wth mnorty busnesses for the eary 1980s s estmated to be over 53
bon per year wth no etup antcpated n the next decade. Promsng as t s for
mnorty busnesses, ths ncreased patronage poses dangers for them, too. Frst,
mnorty frms rsk expandng too fast and overextendng themseves fnancay,
snce most are sma concerns and, unke arge busnesses, they often need to
make substanta nvestments n new pants, staff, equpment, and the ke n
order to perform work subcontracted to them. If, thereafter, ther subcontracts are
for some reason reduced, such frms can face potentay crppng fxed expenses.
The word of corporate purchasng can be frustratng for sma entrepreneurs who
get requests for eaborate forma estmates and bds. Both consume vauabe tme
and resources, and a sma companys efforts must soon resut n orders, or both
the morae and the fnanca heath of the busness w suffer.
A second rsk s that Whte-owned companes may seek to cash n on the
ncreasng apportonments through formaton of |ont ventures wth mnorty-
owned concerns. Of course, n many nstances there are egtmate reasons for
|ont ventures; ceary, Whte and mnorty enterprses can team up to acqure
busness that nether coud acqure aone. But cv rghts groups and mnorty
busness owners have companed to Congress about mnortes beng set up as
"fronts" wth Whte backng, rather than beng accepted as fu partners n
egtmate |ont ventures.
Thrd, a mnorty enterprse that secures the busness of one arge corporate
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customer often runs the danger of becomng-and remanng-dependent. Even n
the best of crcumstances, ferce competton from arger, more estabshed
companes makes t dffcut for sma concerns to broaden ther customer bases:
when such frms have neary guaranteed orders from a snge corporate
benefactor, they may truy have to strugge aganst compacency arsng from
ther current success.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present a commonplace idea and its inaccuracies
(B) describe a situation and its potential drawbacks
(C) propose a temporary solution to a problem
() analy!e a fre"uent source of disagreement
(#) e$plore the implications of a finding
2. The passage supplies information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat federal agencies ha'e set percentage goals for the use of minority(
owned businesses in public works contracts%
(B) To which go'ernment agencies must businesses awarded federal contracts
report their efforts to find minority subcontractors%
(C) )ow widespread is the use of minority(owned concerns as *fronts+ by &hite
backers seeking to obtain subcontracts%
() )ow many more minority(owned businesses were there in 1,-- than in
1,-2%
(#) &hat is one set of conditions under which a small business might find itself
financially o'ere$tended%
.. According to the passage/ ci'il rights acti'ists maintain that one disad'antage
under which minority(owned businesses ha'e traditionally had to labor is that
they ha'e
(A) been especially 'ulnerable to go'ernmental mismanagement of the economy
(B) been denied bank loans at rates comparable to those afforded larger
competitors
(C) not had sufficient opportunity to secure business created by large corporations
() not been able to ad'ertise in those media that reach large numbers of potential
customers
(#) not had ade"uate representation in the centers of go'ernment power
0. The passage suggests that the failure of a large business to ha'e its bids for
subcontracts result "uickly in orders might cause it to
(A) e$perience frustration but not serious financial harm
(B) face potentially crippling fi$ed e$penses
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(C) ha'e to record its efforts on forms filed with the go'ernment
() increase its spending with minority subcontractors
(#) re'ise its procedure for making bids for federal contracts and subcontracts
1. The author implies that a minority(owned concern that does the greater part of its
business with one large corporate customer should
(A) a'oid competition with larger/ more established concerns by not e$panding
(B) concentrate on securing e'en more business from that corporation
(C) try to e$pand its customer base to a'oid becoming dependent on the
corporation
() pass on some of the work to be done for the corporation to other minority(
owned concerns
(#) use its influence with the corporation to promote subcontracting with other
minority concerns
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ compared with the re"uirements of law/
the percentage goals set by *some federal and local agencies+ (lines 10(11) are
(A) more popular with large corporations
(B) more specific
(C) less contro'ersial
() less e$pensi'e to enforce
(#) easier to comply with
-. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s assertion that/ in
the 1,-54s/ corporate response to federal re"uirements (lines 16(1,) was
substantial
(A) Corporate contracts with minority(owned businesses totaled 72 billion in
1,-,.
(B) Between 1,-5 and 1,-2/ corporate contracts with minority(owned businesses
declined by 21 percent.
(C) The figures collected in 1,-- underrepresented the e$tent of corporate
contracts with minority(owned businesses.
() The estimate of corporate spending with minority(owned businesses in 1,65
is appro$imately 715 million too high.
(#) The 71.1 billion represented the same percentage of total corporate spending
in 1,-- as did 7-- million in 1,-2.
6. The author would most likely agree with which of the following statements about
corporate response to working with minority subcontractors%
(A) Annoyed by the proliferation of *front+ organi!ations/ corporations are likely
to reduce their efforts to work with minority(owned subcontractors in the
near future.
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(B) Although corporations showed considerable interest in working with minority
businesses in the 1,-54s/ their a'ersion to go'ernment paperwork made them
reluctant to pursue many go'ernment contracts.
(C) The significant response of corporations in the 1,-54s is likely to be sustained
and concei'ably be increased throughout the 1,654s.
() Although corporations are eager to cooperate with minority(owned
businesses/ a shortage of capital in the 1,-54s made substantial response
impossible.
(#) The enormous corporate response has all but eliminated the dangers of o'er(
e$pansion that used to plague small minority(owned businesses.
Passage 2 (2/63)
Woodrow Wson was referrng to the bera dea of the economc market when
he sad that the free enterprse system s the most effcent economc system.
Maxmum freedom means maxmum productveness; our "openness" s to be the
measure of our stabty. Fascnaton wth ths dea has made Amercans defy the
"Od Word" categores of setted possessveness versus unsettng deprvaton,
the cupdty of retenton versus the cupdty of sezure, a "status quo" defended or
attacked. The Unted States, t was beeved, had no status quo ante. Our ony
"staton" was the turnng of a statonary whee, spnnng faster and faster. We dd
not base our system on property but opportunty-whch meant we based t not
on stabty but on mobty. The more thngs changed, that s, the more rapdy the
whee turned, the steader we woud be. The conventona pcture of cass potcs
s composed of the Haves, who want a stabty to keep what they have, and the
Have-Nots, who want a touch of nstabty and change n whch to scrambe for
the thngs they have not. But Amercans magned a condton n whch
specuators, sef-makers, runners are aways usng the new opportuntes gven by
our and. These economc eaders (front-runners) woud thus be many agents of
change. The nonstarters were consdered the ones who wanted stabty, a strong
referee to gve them some poston n the race, a reguatve hand to cam manc
specuaton; an authorty that can ca thngs to a hat, begn thngs agan from
compensatory staggered "startng nes."
"Reform" n Amerca has been stere because t can magne no change
except through the extenson of ths metaphor of a race, wder ncuson of
compettors, "a pece of the acton," as t were, for the dsenfranchsed. There s
no attempt to ca off the race. Snce our ony stabty s change, Amerca seems
not to honor the quet work that acheves soca nterdependence and stabty.
There s, n our egends, no herosm of the offce cerk, no stabe ndustra work
force of the peope who actuay make the system work. There s no prde n beng
an empoyee (Wson asked for a return to the tme when everyone was an
empoyer). There has been no boastng about our soca workers-they are merey
sgns of the systems faure, of opportunty dened or not taken, of thngs to be
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emnated. We have no prde n our growng nterdependence, n the fact that our
system can serve others, that we are abe to hep those n need; empty boasts
from the past make us ashamed of our present achevements, make us try to
forget or deny them, move away from them. There s no honor but n the
Wonderand race we must a run, a tryng to wn, none wnnng n the end (for
there s no end).
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) critici!e the infle$ibility of American economic mythology
(B) contrast *8ld &orld+ and *9ew &orld+ economic ideologies
(C) challenge the integrity of traditional political leaders
() champion those Americans whom the author deems to be neglected
(#) suggest a substitute for the traditional metaphor of a race
2. According to the passage/ *8ld &orld+ 'alues were based on
(A) ability
(B) property
(C) family connections
() guild hierarchies
(#) education
.. 3n the conte$t of the author4s discussion of regulating change/ which of the
following could be most probably regarded as a *strong referee+ (line .5) in the
:nited ;tates%
(A) A school principal
(B) A political theorist
(C) A federal court <udge
() A social worker
(#) A go'ernment inspector
0. The author sets off the word *=eform+ (line .1) with "uotation marks in order to
(A) emphasi!e its departure from the concept of settled possessi'eness
(B) show his support for a systematic program of change
(C) underscore the fle$ibility and e'en amorphousness of :nited ;tates society
() indicate that the term was one of &ilson4s fa'orites
(#) assert that reform in the :nited ;tates has not been fundamental
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably thinks that
gi'ing the disenfranchised *a piece of the action+ (line .6) is
(A) a compassionate/ if misdirected/ legislati'e measure
(B) an e$ample of Americans4 resistance to profound social change
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(C) an inno'ati'e program for genuine social reform
() a monument to the efforts of industrial reformers
(#) a surprisingly *8ld &orld+ remedy for social ills
2. &hich of the following metaphors could the author most appropriately use to
summari!e his own assessment of the American economic system (lines .1(25)%
(A) A windmill
(B) A waterfall
(C) A treadmill
() A gyroscope
(#) A bellows
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &oodrow &ilson4s ideas about the
economic market
(A) encouraged those who *make the system work+ (lines 01(02)
(B) perpetuated traditional legends about America
(C) re'ealed the pre<udices of a man born wealthy
() foreshadowed the stock market crash of 1,2,
(#) began a tradition of presidential proclamations on economics
6. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
3. &hat techni"ues ha'e industrialists used to manipulate a free market%
33. 3n what ways are *9ew &orld+ and *8ld &orld+ economic policies similar%
333. )as economic policy in the :nited ;tates tended to reward independent
action%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
,. &hich of the following best e$presses the author4s main point%
(A) Americans4 pride in their <obs continues to gi'e them stamina today.
(B) The absence of a status quo ante has undermined :nited ;tates economic
structure.
(C) The free enterprise system has been only a useless concept in the :nited
;tates.
() The myth of the American free enterprise system is seriously flawed.
(#) >ascination with the ideal of *openness+ has made Americans a progressi'e
people.
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Passage 3 (3/63)
No very satsfactory account of the mechansm that caused the formaton of
the ocean basns has yet been gven. The tradtona vew supposes that the upper
mante of the earth behaves as a qud when t s sub|ected to sma forces for
ong perods and that dfferences n temperature under oceans and contnents are
suffcent to produce convecton n the mante of the earth wth rsng convecton
currents under the md-ocean rdges and snkng currents under the contnents.
Theoretcay, ths convecton woud carry the contnenta pates aong as though
they were on a conveyor bet and woud provde the forces needed to produce the
spt that occurs aong the rdge. Ths vew may be correct: t has the advantage
that the currents are drven by temperature dfferences that themseves depend
on the poston of the contnents. Such a back-coupng, n whch the poston of
the movng pate has an mpact on the forces that move t, coud produce
compcated and varyng motons.
On the other hand, the theory s mpausbe because convecton does not
normay occur aong nes, and t certany does not occur aong nes broken by
frequent offsets or changes n drecton, as the rdge s. Aso t s dffcut to see
how the theory appes to the pate between the Md-Atantc Rdge and the rdge
n the Indan Ocean. Ths pate s growng on both sdes, and snce there s no
ntermedate trench, the two rdges must be movng apart. It woud be odd f the
rsng convecton currents kept exact pace wth them. An aternatve theory s that
the snkng part of the pate, whch s denser than the hotter surroundng mante,
pus the rest of the pate after t. Agan t s dffcut to see how ths appes to the
rdge n the South Atantc, where nether the Afrcan nor the Amercan pate has a
snkng part.
Another possbty s that the snkng pate coos the neghborng mante and
produces convecton currents that move the pates. Ths ast theory s attractve
because t gves some hope of expanng the encosed seas, such as the Sea of
|apan. These seas have a typca oceanc foor, except that the foor s overad by
severa kometers of sedment. Ther foors have probaby been snkng for ong
perods. It seems possbe that a snkng current of cooed mante matera on the
upper sde of the pate mght be the cause of such deep basns. The encosed seas
are an mportant feature of the earths surface, and serousy requre expanaton
because, n addton to the encosed seas that are deveopng at present behnd
sand arcs, there are a number of oder ones of possby smar orgn, such as the
Guf of Mexco, the Back Sea, and perhaps the North Sea.
1. According to the traditional 'iew of the origin of the ocean basins/ which of the
following is sufficient to mo'e the continental plates%
(A) 3ncreases in sedimentation on ocean floors
(B) ;preading of ocean trenches
(C) ?o'ement of mid(ocean ridges
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() ;inking of ocean basins
(#) ifferences in temperature under oceans and continents
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ of the following/ the deepest sediments
would be found in the
(A) 3ndian 8cean
(B) Black ;ea
(C) ?id(Atlantic
() ;outh Atlantic
(#) @acific
.. The author refers to a *con'eyor belt+ in line 1. in order to
(A) illustrate the effects of con'ection in the mantle
(B) show how temperature differences depend on the positions of the continents
(C) demonstrate the linear nature of the ?id(Atlantic =idge
() describe the complicated motions made possible by back(coupling
(#) account for the rising currents under certain mid(ocean ridges
.. The author regards the traditional 'iew of the origin of the oceans with
(A) slight apprehension
(B) absolute indifference
(C) indignant anger
() complete disbelief
(#) guarded skepticism
0. According to the passage/ which of the following are separated by a plate that is
growing on both sides%
(A) The @acific 8cean and the ;ea of Aapan
(B) The ;outh Atlantic =idge and the 9orth ;ea =idge
(C) The Bulf of ?e$ico and the ;outh Atlantic =idge
() The ?id(Atlantic =idge and the 3ndian 8cean =idge
(#) The Black ;ea and the ;ea of Aapan
1. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would most support the
traditional 'iew of ocean formation%
(A) Con'ection usually occurs along lines.
(B) The upper mantle beha'es as a dense solid.
(C) ;edimentation occurs at a constant rate.
() ;inking plates cool the mantle.
(#) 3sland arcs surround enclosed seas.
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2. According to the passage/ the floor of the Black ;ea can best be compared to a
(A) rapidly mo'ing con'eyor belt
(B) slowly settling foundation
(C) rapidly e$panding balloon
() 'iolently erupting 'olcano
(#) slowly eroding mountain
-. &hich of the following titles would best describe the content of the passage%
(A) A escription of the 8ceans of the &orld
(B) ;e'eral Theories of 8cean Basin >ormation
(C) The Traditional Ciew of the 8ceans
() Con'ection and 8cean Currents
(#) Temperature ifferences among the 8ceans of the &orld
Passage 4 (4/63)
The foss remans of the frst fyng vertebrates, the pterosaurs, have
ntrgued paeontoogsts for more than two centures. How such arge creatures,
whch weghed n some cases as much as a poted hang-gder and had
wngspans from 8 to 12 meters, soved the probems of powered fght, and
exacty what these creatures were-reptes or brds-are among the questons
scentsts have puzzed over.
Perhaps the east controversa asserton about the pterosaurs s that they
were reptes. Ther skus, pevses, and hnd feet are reptan. The anatomy of
ther wngs suggests that they dd not evove nto the cass of brds. In pterosaurs
a greaty eongated fourth fnger of each foremb supported a wng-ke
membrane. The other fngers were short and reptan, wth sharp caws. In brds
the second fnger s the prncpa strut of the wng, whch conssts prmary of
feathers. If the pterosaurs waked on a fours, the three short fngers may have
been empoyed for graspng. When a pterosaur waked or remaned statonary,
the fourth fnger, and wth t the wng, coud ony turn upward n an extended
nverted V-shape aong each sde of the anmas body.
The pterosaurs resembed both brds and bats n ther overa structure and
proportons. Ths s not surprsng because the desgn of any fyng vertebrate s
sub|ect to aerodynamc constrants. Both the pterosaurs and the brds have hoow
bones, a feature that represents a savngs n weght. In the brds, however, these
bones are renforced more massvey by nterna struts.
Athough scaes typcay cover reptes, the pterosaurs probaby had hary
coats. T. H. Huxey reasoned that fyng vertebrates must have been warm-
booded because fyng mpes a hgh rate of metabosm, whch n turn mpes a
hgh nterna temperature. Huxey specuated that a coat of har woud nsuate
aganst oss of body heat and mght streamne the body to reduce drag n fght.
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The recent dscovery of a pterosaur specmen covered n ong, dense, and
reatvey thck harke foss matera was the frst cear evdence that hs
reasonng was correct.
Efforts to expan how the pterosaurs became arborne have ed to
suggestons that they aunched themseves by |umpng from cffs, by droppng
from trees, or even by rsng nto ght wnds from the crests of waves. Each
hypothess has ts dffcutes. The frst wrongy assumes that the pterosaurs hnd
feet resembed a bats and coud serve as hooks by whch the anma coud hang
n preparaton for fght. The second hypothess seems unkey because arge
pterosaurs coud not have anded n trees wthout damagng ther wngs. The thrd
cas for hgh waves to channe updrafts. The wnd that made such waves
however, mght have been too strong for the pterosaurs to contro ther fght once
arborne.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists now generally agree that the
(A) enormous wingspan of the pterosaurs enabled them to fly great distances
(B) structure of the skeleton of the pterosaurs suggests a close e'olutionary
relationship to bats
(C) fossil remains of the pterosaurs re'eal how they sol'ed the problem of
powered flight
() pterosaurs were reptiles
(#) pterosaurs walked on all fours
2. The author 'iews the idea that the pterosaurs became airborne by rising into light
winds created by wa'es as
(A) re'olutionary
(B) unlikely
(C) unassailable
() probable
(#) outdated
.. According to the passage/ the skeleton of a pterosaur can be distinguished from
that of a bird by the
(A) si!e of its wingspan
(B) presence of hollow spaces in its bones
(C) anatomic origin of its wing strut
() presence of hooklike pro<ections on its hind feet
(#) location of the shoulder <oint <oining the wing to its body
0. The ideas attributed to T. ). )u$ley in the passage suggest that he would most
likely agree with which of the following statements%
(A) An animal4s brain si!e has little bearing on its ability to master comple$
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beha'iors.
(B) An animal4s appearance is often influenced by en'ironmental re"uirements
and physical capabilities.
(C) Animals within a gi'en family group are unlikely to change their appearance
dramatically o'er a period of time.
() The origin of flight in 'ertebrates was an accidental de'elopment rather than
the outcome of speciali!ation or adaptation.
(#) The pterosaurs should be classified as birds/ not reptiles.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is characteristic of
the pterosaurs%
(A) They were unable to fold their wings when not in use.
(B) They hung upside down from branches as bats do before flight.
(C) They flew in order to capture prey.
() They were an early stage in the e'olution of the birds.
(#) They li'ed primarily in a forest(like habitat.
2. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of
the passage%
(A) 9ew e'idence is introduced to support a traditional point of 'iew.
(B) Three e$planations for a phenomenon are presented/ and each is disputed by
means of specific information.
(C) Three hypotheses are outlined/ and e'idence supporting each is gi'en.
() =ecent disco'eries are described/ and their implications for future study are
pro<ected.
(#) A summary of the material in the preceding paragraphs is presented/ and
conclusions are drawn.
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some scientists belie'e that pterosaurs
(A) li'ed near large bodies of water
(B) had sharp teeth for tearing food
(C) were attacked and eaten by larger reptiles
() had longer tails than many birds
(#) consumed twice their weight daily to maintain their body temperature
Passage 5 (5/63)
How many reay suffer as a resut of abor market probems? Ths s one of the
most crtca yet contentous soca pocy questons. In many ways, our soca
statstcs exaggerate the degree of hardshp. Unempoyment does not have the
same dre consequences today as t dd n the 1930s when most of the
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unempoyed were prmary breadwnners, when ncome and earnngs were usuay
much coser to the margn of subsstence, and when there were no countervang
soca programs for those fang n the abor market. Increasng affuence, the rse
of fames wth more than one wage earner, the growng predomnance of
secondary earners among the unempoyed, and mproved soca wefare
protecton have unquestonaby mtgated the consequences of |obessness.
Earnngs and ncome data aso overstate the dmensons of hardshp. Among the
mons wth houry earnngs at or beow the mnmum wage eve, the
overwhemng ma|orty are from mutpe-earner, reatvey affuent fames. Most
of those counted by the poverty statstcs are edery or handcapped or have
famy responsbtes whch keep them out of the abor force, so the poverty
statstcs are by no means an accurate ndcator of abor market pathooges.
Yet there are aso many ways our soca statstcs underestmate the degree of
abor-market-reated hardshp. The unempoyment counts excude the mons of
fuy empoyed workers whose wages are so ow that ther fames reman n
poverty. Low wages and repeated or proonged unempoyment frequenty nteract
to undermne the capacty for sef-support. Snce the number experencng
|obessness at some tme durng the year s severa tmes the number
unempoyed n any month, those who suffer as a resut of forced deness can
equa or exceed average annua unempoyment, even though ony a mnorty of
the |obess n any month reay suffer. For every person counted n the monthy
unempoyment taes, there s another workng part-tme because of the nabty
to fnd fu-tme work, or ese outsde the abor force but wantng a |ob. Fnay,
ncome transfers n our country have aways focused on the edery, dsabed, and
dependent, negectng the needs of the workng poor, so that the dramatc
expanson of cash and n-knd transfers does not necessary mean that those
fang n the abor market are adequatey protected.
As a resut of such contradctory evdence, t s uncertan whether those
sufferng serousy as a resut of abor market probems number n the hundreds of
thousands or the tens of mons, and, hence, whether hgh eves of |obessness
can be toerated or must be countered by |ob creaton and economc stmuus.
There s ony one area of agreement n ths debate-that the exstng poverty,
empoyment, and earnngs statstcs are nadequate for one ther prmary
appcatons, measurng the consequences of abor market probems.
1. &hich of the following is the principal topic of the passage%
(A) &hat causes labor market pathologies that result in suffering
(B) &hy income measures are imprecise in measuring degrees of po'erty
(C) &hich of the currently used statistical procedures are the best for estimating
the incidence of hardship that is due to unemployment
() &here the areas of agreement are among po'erty/ employment/ and earnings
figures
(#) )ow social statistics gi'e an unclear picture of the degree of hardship caused
GMAT 1.
by low wages and insufficient employment opportunities
2. The author uses *labor market problems+ in lines 1(2 to refer to which of the
following%
(A) The o'erall causes of po'erty
(B) eficiencies in the training of the work force
(C) Trade relationships among producers of goods
() ;hortages of <obs pro'iding ade"uate income
(#) ;trikes and inade"uate supplies of labor
.. The author contrasts the 1,.54s with the present in order to show that
(A) more people were unemployed in the 1,.54s
(B) unemployment now has less se'ere effects
(C) social programs are more needed now
() there now is a greater proportion of elderly and handicapped people among
those in po'erty
(#) po'erty has increased since the 1,.54s
0. &hich of the following proposals best responds to the issues raised by the author%
(A) 3nno'ati'e programs using multiple approaches should be set up to reduce the
le'el of unemployment.
(B) A compromise should be found between the positions of those who 'iew
<oblessness as an e'il greater than economic control and those who hold the
opposite 'iew.
(C) 9ew statistical indices should be de'eloped to measure the degree to which
unemployment and inade"uately paid employment cause suffering.
() Consideration should be gi'en to the ways in which statistics can act as
partial causes of the phenomena that they purport to measure.
(#) The labor force should be restructured so that it corresponds to the range of
<ob 'acancies.
1. The author4s purpose in citing those who are repeatedly unemployed during a
twel'e(month period is most probably to show that
(A) there are se'eral factors that cause the payment of low wages to some
members of the labor force
(B) unemployment statistics can underestimate the hardship resulting from
<oblessness
(C) recurrent inade"uacies in the labor market can e$ist and can cause hardships
for indi'idual workers
() a ma<ority of those who are <obless at any one time to not suffer se'ere
hardship
(#) there are fewer indi'iduals who are without <obs at some time during a year
10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
than would be e$pected on the basis of monthly unemployment figures
2. The author states that the mitigating effect of social programs in'ol'ing income
transfers on the income le'el of low(income people is often not felt by
(A) the employed poor
(B) dependent children in single(earner families
(C) workers who become disabled
() retired workers
(#) full(time workers who become unemployed
-. According to the passage/ one factor that causes unemployment and earnings
figures to o'erpredict the amount of economic hardship is the
(A) recurrence of periods of unemployment for a group of low(wage workers
(B) possibility that earnings may be recei'ed from more than one <ob per worker
(C) fact that unemployment counts do not include those who work for low wages
and remain poor
() establishment of a system of record(keeping that makes it possible to compile
po'erty statistics
(#) pre'alence/ among low(wage workers and the unemployed/ of members of
families in which others are employed
6. The conclusion stated in lines ..(., about the number of people who suffer as a
result of forced idleness depends primarily on the point that
(A) in times of high unemployment/ there are some people who do not remain
unemployed for long
(B) the capacity for self(support depends on recei'ing moderate(to(high wages
(C) those in forced idleness include/ besides the unemployed/ both
underemployed part(time workers and those not acti'ely seeking work
() at different times during the year/ different people are unemployed
(#) many of those who are affected by unemployment are dependents of
unemployed workers
,. &hich of the following/ if true/ is the best criticism of the author4s argument
concerning why po'erty statistics cannot properly be used to show the effects of
problems in the labor market%
(A) A short(term increase in the number of those in po'erty can indicate a
shortage of <obs because the basic number of those unable to accept
employment remains appro$imately constant.
(B) >or those who are in po'erty as a result of <oblessness/ there are social
programs a'ailable that pro'ide a minimum standard of li'ing.
(C) @o'erty statistics do not consistently agree with earnings statistics/ when each
is taken as a measure of hardship resulting from unemployment.
GMAT 11
() The elderly and handicapped categories include many who pre'iously were
employed in the labor market.
(#) ;ince the labor market is global in nature/ poor workers in one country are
competing with poor workers in another with respect to the le'el of wages
and the e$istence of <obs.
Passage 6 (6/63)
In the eghteenth century, |apans feuda overords, from the shogun to the
humbest samura, found themseves under fnanca stress. In part, ths stress can
be attrbuted to the overords faure to ad|ust to a rapdy expandng economy,
but the stress was aso due to factors beyond the overords contro.
Concentraton of the samura n caste-towns had acted as a stmuus to trade.
Commerca effcency, n turn, had put temptatons n the way of buyers. Snce
most samura had been reduced to deness by years of peace, encouraged to
engage n schoarshp and marta exercses or to perform admnstratve tasks
that took tte tme, t s not surprsng that ther tastes and habts grew
expensve. Overords ncome, despte the ncrease n rce producton among ther
tenant farmers, faed to keep pace wth ther expenses. Athough shortfas n
overords ncome resuted amost as much from axty among ther tax coectors
(the neary nevtabe outcome of heredtary offce-hodng) as from ther hgher
standards of vng, a msfortune ke a fre or food, brngng an ncrease n
expenses or a drop n revenue, coud put a doman n debt to the cty rce-brokers
who handed ts fnances. Once n debt, nether the ndvdua samura nor the
shogun hmsef found t easy to recover.
It was dffcut for ndvdua samura overords to ncrease ther ncome
because the amount of rce that farmers coud be made to pay n taxes was not
unmted, and snce the ncome of |apans centra government conssted n part of
taxes coected by the shogun from hs huge doman, the government too was
constraned. Therefore, the Tokugawa shoguns began to ook to other sources for
revenue. Cash profts from government-owned mnes were aready on the decne
because the most easy worked deposts of sver and god had been exhausted,
athough debasement of the conage had compensated for the oss. Openng up
new farmand was a possbty, but most of what was sutabe had aready been
expoted and further recamaton was techncay unfeasbe. Drect taxaton of
the samura themseves woud be potcay dangerous. Ths eft the shoguns ony
commerce as a potenta source of government ncome.
Most of the countrys weath, or so t seemed, was fndng ts way nto the
hands of cty merchants. It appeared reasonabe that they shoud contrbute part
of that revenue to ease the shoguns burden of fnancng the state. A means of
obtanng such revenue was soon found by evyng forced oans, known as goyo-
kin; athough these were not taxes n the strct sense, snce they were rreguar n
tmng and arbtrary n amount, they were hgh n yed. Unfortunatey, they
12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
pushed up prces. Thus, regrettaby, the Tokugawa shoguns search for sovency
for the government made t ncreasngy dffcut for ndvdua |apanese who ved
on fxed stpends to make ends meet.
1. The passage is most probably an e$cerpt from
(A) an economic history of Aapan
(B) the memoirs of a samurai warrior
(C) a modern no'el about eighteenth(century Aapan
() an essay contrasting Aapanese feudalism with its &estern counterpart
(#) an introduction to a collection of Aapanese folktales
2. &hich of the following financial situations is most analogous to the financial
situation in which Aapan4s Tokugawa shoguns found themsel'es in the eighteenth
century%
(A) A small business borrows hea'ily to in'est in new e"uipment/ but is able to
pay off its debt early when it is awarded a lucrati'e go'ernment contract.
(B) >ire destroys a small business/ but insurance co'ers the cost of rebuilding.
(C) A small business is turned down for a loan at a local bank because the owners
ha'e no credit history.
() A small business has to struggle to meet operating e$penses when its profits
decrease.
(#) A small business is able to cut back sharply on spending through greater
commercial efficiency and thereby compensate for a loss of re'enue.
.. &hich of the following best describes the attitude of the author toward the
samurai discussed in lines 11(12%
(A) &armly appro'ing
(B) ?ildly sympathetic
(C) Bitterly disappointed
() )arshly disdainful
(#) @rofoundly shocked
0. According to the passage/ the ma<or reason for the financial problems
e$perienced by Aapan4s feudal o'erlords in the eighteenth century was that
(A) spending had outdistanced income
(B) trade had fallen off
(C) profits from mining had declined
() the coinage had been sharply debased
(#) the samurai had concentrated in castle(towns
1. The passage implies that indi'idual samurai did not find it easy to reco'er from
debt for which of the following reasons%
GMAT 1-
(A) Agricultural production had increased.
(B) Ta$es were irregular in timing and arbitrary in amount.
(C) The Aapanese go'ernment had failed to ad<ust to the needs of a changing
economy.
() The domains of samurai o'erlords were becoming smaller and poorer as
go'ernment re'enues increased.
(#) There was a limit to the amount in ta$es that farmers could be made to pay.
2. The passage suggests that/ in eighteenth(century Aapan/ the office of ta$ collector
(A) was a source of personal profit to the officeholder
(B) was regarded with derision by many Aapanese
(C) remained within families
() e$isted only in castle(towns
(#) took up most of the officeholder4s time
-. &hich of the following could best be substituted for the word *This+ in line 0-
without changing the meaning of the passage%
(A) The search of Aapan4s Tokugawa shoguns for sol'ency
(B) The importance of commerce in feudal Aapan
(C) The unfairness of the ta$ structure in eighteenth century Aapan
() The difficulty of increasing go'ernment income by other means
(#) The difficulty e$perienced by both indi'idual samurai and the shogun himself
in e$tricating themsel'es from debt
6. The passage implies that which of the following was the primary reason why the
Tokugawa shoguns turned to city merchants for help in financing the state%
(A) A series of costly wars had depleted the national treasury.
(B) ?ost of the country4s wealth appeared to be in city merchants4 hands.
(C) Aapan had suffered a series of economic re'ersals due to natural disasters such
as floods.
() The merchants were already hea'ily indebted to the shoguns.
(#) >urther reclamation of land would not ha'e been economically ad'antageous.
,. According to the passage/ the actions of the Tokugawa shoguns in their search for
sol'ency for the go'ernment were regrettable because those actions
(A) raised the cost of li'ing by pushing up prices
(B) resulted in the e$haustion of the most easily worked deposits of sil'er and
gold
(C) were far lower in yield than had originally been anticipated
() did not succeed in reducing go'ernment spending
(#) acted as a deterrent to trade
16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 7 (7/63)
Between the eghth and eeventh centures A. D., the Byzantne Empre staged
an amost unparaeed economc and cutura revva, a recovery that s a the
more strkng because t foowed a ong perod of severe nterna decne. By the
eary eghth century, the empre had ost roughy two-thrds of the terrtory t had
possessed n the year 600, and ts remanng area was beng raded by Arabs and
Bugarans, who at tmes threatened to take Constantnope and extngush the
empre atogether. The weath of the state and ts sub|ects was greaty
dmnshed, and artstc and terary producton had vrtuay ceased. By the eary
eeventh century, however, the empre had reganed amost haf of ts ost
possessons, ts new fronters were secure, and ts nfuence extended far beyond
ts borders. The economy had recovered, the treasury was fu, and art and
schoarshp had advanced.
To consder the Byzantne mtary, cutura, and economc advances as
dfferentated aspects of a snge phenomenon s reasonabe. After a, these three
forms of progress have gone together n a number of states and cvzatons.
Rome under Augustus and ffth-century Athens provde the most obvous
exampes n antquty. Moreover, an examnaton of the apparent sequenta
connectons among mtary, economc, and cutura forms of progress mght hep
expan the dynamcs of hstorca change.
The common expanaton of these apparent connectons n the case of
Byzantum woud run ke ths: when the empre had turned back enemy rads on
ts own terrtory and had begun to rad and conquer enemy terrtory, Byzantne
resources naturay expanded and more money became avaabe to patronze art
and terature. Therefore, Byzantne mtary achevements ed to economc
advances, whch n turn ed to cutura revva.
No doubt ths hypothetca pattern dd appy at tmes durng the course of the
recovery. Yet t s not cear that mtary advances nvaraby came frst, economc
advances second, and nteectua advances thrd. In the 860s the Byzantne
Empre began to recover from Arab ncursons so that by 872 the mtary baance
wth the Abbasd Caphate had been permanenty atered n the empres favor.
The begnnng of the empres economc revva, however, can be paced between
810 and 830. Fnay, the Byzantne revva of earnng appears to have begun
even earer. A number of notabe schoars and wrters appeared by 788 and, by
the ast decade of the eghth century, a cutura revva was n fu boom, a revva
that asted unt the fa of Constantnope n 1453. Thus the commony expected
order of mtary revva foowed by economc and then by cutura recovery was
reversed n Byzantum. In fact, the revva of Byzantne earnng may tsef have
nfuenced the subsequent economc and mtary expanson.
1. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The By!antine #mpire was a uni"ue case in which the usual order of military
GMAT 1,
and economic re'i'al preceding cultural re'i'al was re'ersed.
(B) The economic/ cultural/ and military re'i'al in the By!antine #mpire between
the eighth and ele'enth centuries was similar in its order to the se"uence of
re'i'als in Augustan =ome and fifth century Athens.
(C) After 615 By!antine economic reco'ery spurred a military and/ later/ cultural
e$pansion that lasted until 101..
() The eighth(century re'i'al of By!antine learning is an ine$plicable
phenomenon/ and its economic and military precursors ha'e yet to be
disco'ered.
(#) The re'i'al of the By!antine #mpire between the eighth and ele'enth
centuries shows cultural rebirth preceding economic and military re'i'al/ the
re'erse of the commonly accepted order of progress.
2. The primary purpose of the second paragraph is which of the following%
(A) To establish the uni"ueness of the By!antine re'i'al
(B) To show that Augustan =ome and fifth(century Athens are e$amples of
cultural/ economic/ and military e$pansion against which all subse"uent
cases must be measured
(C) To suggest that cultural/ economic/ and military ad'ances ha'e tended to be
closely interrelated in different societies
() To argue that/ while the re'i'als of Augustan =ome and fifth(century Athens
were similar/ they are unrelated to other historical e$amples
(#) To indicate that/ where'er possible/ historians should seek to make
comparisons with the earliest chronological e$amples of re'i'al
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that by the ele'enth century the By!antine
military forces
(A) had reached their peak and begun to decline
(B) had eliminated the Bulgarian army
(C) were comparable in si!e to the army of =ome under Augustus
() were strong enough to withstand the Abbasid Caliphate4s military forces
(#) had achie'ed control of By!antine go'ernmental structures
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the By!antine #mpire sustained
significant territorial losses
(A) in 255
(B) during the se'enth century
(C) a century after the cultural achie'ements of the By!antine #mpire had been
lost
() soon after the re'i'al of By!antine learning
(#) in the century after 6-.
25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1. 3n the third paragraph/ the author most probably pro'ides an e$planation of the
apparent connections among economic/ military/ and cultural de'elopment in
order to
(A) suggest that the process of re'i'al in By!antium accords with this model
(B) set up an order of e'ents that is then shown to be not generally applicable to
the case of By!antium
(C) cast aspersions on traditional historical scholarship about By!antium
() suggest that By!antium represents a case for which no historical precedent
e$ists
(#) argue that military con"uest is the paramount element in the growth of
empires
2. &hich of the following does the author mention as crucial e'idence concerning
the manner in which the By!antine re'i'al began%
(A) The By!antine military re'i'al of the 6254s led to economic and cultural
ad'ances.
(B) The By!antine cultural re'i'al lasted until 101..
(C) The By!antine economic reco'ery began in the ,554s.
() The re'i'al of By!antine learning began toward the end of the eighth century.
(#) By the early ele'enth century the By!antine #mpire had regained much of its
lost territory.
-. According to the author/ *The common e$planation+ (line 26) of connections
between economic/ military/ and cultural de'elopment is
(A) re'olutionary and too new to ha'e been applied to the history of the
By!antine #mpire
(B) reasonable/ but an anti"uated theory of the nature of progress
(C) not applicable to the By!antine re'i'al as a whole/ but does perhaps
accurately describe limited periods during the re'i'al
() e"ually applicable to the By!antine case as a whole and to the history of
military/ economic/ and cultural ad'ances in ancient Breece and =ome
(#) essentially not helpful/ because military/ economic/ and cultural ad'ances are
part of a single phenomenon
Passage 8 (8/63)
Vrtuay everythng astronomers known about ob|ects outsde the soar
system s based on the detecton of photons-quanta of eectromagnetc
radaton. Yet there s another form of radaton that permeates the unverse:
neutrnos. Wth (as ts name mpes) no eectrc charge, and neggbe mass, the
neutrno nteracts wth other partces so rarey that a neutrno can cross the
entre unverse, even traversng substanta aggregatons of matter, wthout beng
GMAT 21
absorbed or even defected. Neutrnos can thus escape from regons of space
where ght and other knds of eectromagnetc radaton are bocked by matter.
Furthermore, neutrnos carry wth them nformaton about the ste and
crcumstances of ther producton: therefore, the detecton of cosmc neutrnos
coud provde new nformaton about a wde varety of cosmc phenomena and
about the hstory of the unverse.
But how can scentsts detect a partce that nteracts so nfrequenty wth
other matter? Twenty-fve years passed between Paus hypothess that the
neutrno exsted and ts actua detecton: snce then vrtuay a research wth
neutrnos has been wth neutrnos created artfcay n arge partce acceerators
and studed under neutrno mcroscopes. But a neutrno teescope, capabe of
detectng cosmc neutrnos, s dffcut to construct. No apparatus can detect
neutrnos uness t s extremey massve, because great mass s synonymous wth
huge numbers of nuceons (neutrons and protons), and the more massve the
detector, the greater the probabty of one of ts nuceons reactng wth a
neutrno. In addton, the apparatus must be suffcenty sheded from the
nterferng effects of other partces.
Fortunatey, a group of astrophyscsts has proposed a means of detectng
cosmc neutrnos by harnessng the mass of the ocean. Named DUMAND, for Deep
Underwater Muon and Neutrno Detector, the pro|ect cas for pacng an array of
ght sensors at a depth of fve kometers under the ocean surface. The detectng
medum s the seawater tsef: when a neutrno nteracts wth a partce n an atom
of seawater, the resut s a cascade of eectrcay charged partces and a fash of
ght that can be detected by the sensors. The fve kometers of seawater above
the sensors w shed them from the nterferng effects of other hgh-energy
partces ranng down through the atmosphere.
The strongest motvaton for the DUMAND pro|ect s that t w expot an
mportant source of nformaton about the unverse. The extenson of astronomy
from vsbe ght to rado waves to x-rays and gamma rays never faed to ead to
the dscovery of unusua ob|ects such as rado gaaxes, quasars, and pusars.
Each of these dscoveres came as a surprse. Neutrno astronomy w doubtess
brng ts own share of surprses.
1. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the passage as a whole%
(A) At the Threshold of 9eutrino Astronomy
(B) 9eutrinos and the )istory of the :ni'erse
(C) The Creation and ;tudy of 9eutrinos
() The :?A9 ;ystem and )ow 3t &orks
(#) The @roperties of the 9eutrino
2. &ith which of the following statements regarding neutrino astronomy would the
author be most likely to agree%
(A) 9eutrino astronomy will supersede all present forms of astronomy.
22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) 9eutrino astronomy will be abandoned if the :?A9 pro<ect fails.
(C) 9eutrino astronomy can be e$pected to lead to ma<or breakthroughs in
astronomy.
() 9eutrino astronomy will disclose phenomena that will be more surprising
than past disco'eries.
(#) 9eutrino astronomy will always be characteri!ed by a large time lag between
hypothesis and e$perimental confirmation.
.. 3n the last paragraph/ the author describes the de'elopment of astronomy in order
to
(A) suggest that the potential findings of neutrino astronomy can be seen as part
of a series of astronomical successes
(B) illustrate the role of surprise in scientific disco'ery
(C) demonstrate the effecti'eness of the :?A9 apparatus in detecting
neutrinos
() name some cosmic phenomena that neutrino astronomy will illuminate
(#) contrast the moti'ation of earlier astronomers with that of the astrophysicists
working on the :?A9 pro<ect
0. According to the passage/ one ad'antage that neutrinos ha'e for studies in
astronomy is that they
(A) ha'e been detected for the last twenty(fi'e years
(B) possess a 'ariable electric charge
(C) are usually e$tremely massi'e
() carry information about their history with them
(#) are 'ery similar to other electromagnetic particles
1. According to the passage/ the primary use of the apparatus mentioned in lines 20(
.2 would be to
(A) increase the mass of a neutrino
(B) interpret the information neutrinos carry with them
(C) study the internal structure of a neutrino
() see neutrinos in distant regions of space
(#) detect the presence of cosmic neutrinos
2. The passage states that interactions between neutrinos and other matter are
(A) rare
(B) artificial
(C) undetectable
() unpredictable
(#) ha!ardous
GMAT 2.
-. The passage mentions which of the following as a reason that neutrinos are hard
to detect%
(A) Their per'asi'eness in the uni'erse
(B) Their ability to escape from different regions of space
(C) Their inability to penetrate dense matter
() The similarity of their structure to that of nucleons
(#) The infre"uency of their interaction with other matter
6. According to the passage/ the interaction of a neutrino with other matter can
produce
(A) particles that are neutral and massi'e
(B) a form of radiation that permeates the uni'erse
(C) inaccurate information about the site and circumstances of the neutrino4s
production
() charged particles and light
(#) a situation in which light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation are
blocked
,. According to the passage/ one of the methods used to establish the properties of
neutrinos was
(A) detection of photons
(B) obser'ation of the interaction of neutrinos with gamma rays
(C) obser'ation of neutrinos that were artificially created
() measurement of neutrinos that interacted with particles of seawater
(#) e$periments with electromagnetic radiation
Passage 9 (9/63)
Most economsts n the Unted States seem captvated by the spe of the free
market. Consequenty, nothng seems good or norma that does not accord wth
the requrements of the free market. A prce that s determned by the seer or,
for that matter, estabshed by anyone other than the aggregate of consumers
seems perncous. Accordngy, t requres a ma|or act of w to thnk of prce-fxng
(the determnaton of prces by the seer) as both "norma" and havng a vauabe
economc functon. In fact, prce-fxng s norma n a ndustrazed socetes
because the ndustra system tsef provdes, as an effortess consequence of ts
own deveopment, the prce-fxng that t requres. Modern ndustra pannng
requres and rewards great sze. Hence, a comparatvey sma number of arge
frms w be competng for the same group of consumers. That each arge frm w
act wth consderaton of ts own needs and thus avod seng ts products for
more than ts compettors charge s commony recognzed by advocates of free-
market economc theores. But each arge frm w aso act wth fu consderaton
20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
of the needs that t has n common wth the other arge frms competng for the
same customers. Each arge frm w thus avod sgnfcant prce-cuttng, because
prce-cuttng woud be pre|udca to the common nterest n a stabe demand for
products. Most economsts do not see prce-fxng when t occurs because they
expect t to be brought about by a number of expct agreements among arge
frms; t s not.
Moreover, those economsts who argue that aowng the free market to
operate wthout nterference s the most effcent method of estabshng prces
have not consdered the economes of non-socast countres other than the
Unted states. These economes empoy ntentona prce-fxng, usuay n an
overt fashon. Forma prce-fxng by carte and nforma prce-fxng by
agreements coverng the members of an ndustry are commonpace. Were there
somethng pecuary effcent about the free market and neffcent about prce-
fxng, the countres that have avoded the frst and used the second woud have
suffered drastcay n ther economc deveopment. There s no ndcaton that
they have.
Socast ndustry aso works wthn a framework of controed prces. In the
eary 1970s, the Sovet Unon began to gve frms and ndustres some of the
fexbty n ad|ustng prces that a more nforma evouton has accorded the
captast system. Economsts n the Unted States have haed the change as a
return to the free market. But Sovet frms are no more sub|ect to prces
estabshed by a free market over whch they exercse tte nfuence than are
captast frms; rather, Sovet frms have been gven the power to fx prces.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute the theory that the free market plays a useful role in the de'elopment of
industriali!ed societies
(B) suggest methods by which economists and members of the go'ernment of the
:nited ;tates can recogni!e and combat price(fi$ing by large firms
(C) show that in industriali!ed societies price(fi$ing and the operation of the free
market are not only compatible but also mutually beneficial
() e$plain the 'arious ways in which industriali!ed societies can fi$ prices in
order to stabili!e the free market
(#) argue that price(fi$ing/ in one form or another/ is an ine'itable part of and
benefit to the economy of any industriali!ed society
2. The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions about price(fi$ing%
3. &hat are some of the ways in which prices can be fi$ed%
33. >or what products is price(fi$ing likely to be more profitable that the
operation of the free market%
333. 3s price(fi$ing more common in socialist industriali!ed societies or in non(
GMAT 21
socialist industriali!ed societies%
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
.. The author4s attitude toward *?ost economists in the :nited ;tates+(line 1) can
best be described as
(A) spiteful and en'ious
(B) scornful and denunciatory
(C) critical and condescending
() ambi'alent but deferential
(#) uncertain but interested
0. 3t can be inferred from the author4s argument that a price fi$ed by the seller
*seems pernicious+ (line -) because
(A) people do not ha'e confidence in large firms
(B) people do not e$pect the go'ernment to regulate prices
(C) most economists belie'e that consumers as a group should determine prices
() most economists associate fi$ed prices with communist and socialist
economies
(#) most economists belie'e that no one group should determine prices
1. The suggestion in the passage that price(fi$ing in industriali!ed societies is
normal arises from the author4s statement that price(fi$ing is
(A) a profitable result of economic de'elopment
(B) an ine'itable result of the industrial system
(C) the result of a number of carefully organi!ed decisions
() a phenomenon common to industriali!ed and non(industriali!ed societies
(#) a phenomenon best achie'ed cooperati'ely by go'ernment and industry
2. According to the author/ price(fi$ing in non(socialist countries is often
(A) accidental but producti'e
(B) illegal but useful
(C) legal and inno'ati'e
() traditional and rigid
(#) intentional and widespread
-. According to the author/ what is the result of the ;o'iet :nion4s change in
economic policy in the 1,-54s%
22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) ;o'iet firms show greater profit.
(B) ;o'iet firms ha'e less control o'er the free market.
(C) ;o'iet firms are able to ad<ust to technological ad'ances.
() ;o'iet firms ha'e some authority to fi$ prices.
(#) ;o'iet firms are more responsi'e to the free market.
6. &ith which of the following statements regarding the beha'ior of large firms in
industriali!ed societies would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) The directors of large firms will continue to anticipate the demand for
products.
(B) The directors of large firms are less interested in achie'ing a predictable le'el
of profit than in achie'ing a large profit.
(C) The directors of large firms will stri'e to reduce the costs of their products.
() ?any directors of large firms belie'e that the go'ernment should establish
the prices that will be charged for products.
(#) ?any directors of large firms belie'e that the price charged for products is
likely to increase annually.
,. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) predicting the conse"uences of a practice
(B) critici!ing a point of 'iew
(C) calling attention to recent disco'eries
() proposing a topic for research
(#) summari!ing conflicting opinions
Passage 10 (10/63)
Caffene, the stmuant n coffee, has been caed "the most wdey used
psychoactve substance on Earth." Snyder, Day and Bruns have recenty
proposed that caffene affect behavor by counterng the actvty n the human
bran of a naturay occurrng chemca caed adenosne. Adenosne normay
depresses neuron frng n many areas of the bran. It apparenty does ths by
nhbtng the reease of neurotransmtters, chemcas that carry nerve mpuses
from one neuron to the next. Lke many other agents that affect neuron frng,
adenosne must frst bnd to specfc receptors on neurona membranes. There are
at east two casses of these receptors, whch have been desgnated A
1
and A
2
.
Snyder et a propose that caffene, whch s structuray smar to adenosne, s
abe to bnd to both types of receptors, whch prevents adenosne from attachng
there and aows the neurons to fre more ready than they otherwse woud.
For many years, caffenes effects have been attrbuted to ts nhbton of the
producton of phosphodesterase, an enzyme that breaks down the chemca
caed cycc AMP. A number of neurotransmtters exert ther effects by frst
GMAT 2-
ncreasng cycc AMP concentratons n target neurons. Therefore, proonged
perods at the eevated concentratons, as mght be brought about by a
phosphodesterase nhbtor, coud ead to a greater amount of neuron frng and,
consequenty, to behavora stmuaton. But Snyder et a pont out that the
caffene concentratons needed to nhbt the producton of phosphodesterase n
the bran are much hgher than those that produce stmuaton. Moreover, other
compounds that bock phosphodesterases actvty are not stmuants.
To buttress ther case that caffene acts nstead by preventng adenosne
bndng, Snyder et a compared the stmuatory effects of a seres of caffene
dervatves wth ther abty to dsodge adenosne from ts receptors n the brans
of mce. "In genera," they reported, "the abty of the compounds to compete at
the receptors correates wth ther abty to stmuate ocomoton n the mouse;
.e., the hgher ther capacty to bnd at the receptors, the hgher ther abty to
stmuate ocomoton." Theophyne, a cose structura reatve of caffene and the
ma|or stmuant n tea, was one of the most effectve compounds n both regards.
There were some apparent exceptons to the genera correaton observed
between adenosne-receptor bndng and stmuaton. One of these was a
compound caed 3-sobuty-1-methyxanthne (IBMX), whch bound very we but
actuay depressed mouse ocomoton. Snyder et a suggests that ths s not a
ma|or stumbng bock to ther hypothess. The probem s that the compound has
mxed effects n the bran, a not unusua occurrence wth psychoactve drugs.
Even caffene, whch s generay known ony for ts stmuatory effects, dspays
ths property, depressng mouse ocomoton at very ow concentratons and
stmuatng t at hgher ones.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss a plan for in'estigation of a phenomenon that is not yet fully
understood
(B) present two e$planations of a phenomenon and reconcile the differences
between them
(C) summari!e two theories and suggest a third theory that o'ercomes the
problems encountered in the first two
() describe an alternati'e hypothesis and pro'ide e'idence and arguments that
support it
(#) challenge the 'alidity of a theory by e$posing the inconsistencies and
contradictions in it
2. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the theory proposed by
;nyder et al%
(A) At 'ery low concentrations in the human brain/ both caffeine and
theophylline tend to ha'e depressi'e rather than stimulatory effects on
human beha'ior.
(B) The ability of caffeine deri'ati'es at 'ery low concentrations to dislodge
26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
adenosine from its receptors in mouse brains correlates well with their
ability to stimulate mouse locomotion at these low concentrations.
(C) The concentration of cyclic A?@ in target neurons in the human brain that
leads to increased neuron firing can be produced by se'eral different
phosphodiesterase inhibitors in addition to caffeine.
() The concentration of caffeine re"uired to dislodge adenosine from its
receptors in the human brain is much greater than the concentration that
produces beha'ioral stimulation in humans.
(#) The concentration of 3B?D re"uired to dislodge adenosine from its receptors
in mouse brains is much smaller than the concentration that stimulates
locomotion in the mouse.
.. According so ;nyder et al/ caffeine differs from adenosine in that caffeine
(A) stimulates beha'ior in the mouse and in humans/ whereas adenosine
stimulates beha'ior in humans only
(B) has mi$ed effects in the brain/ whereas adenosine has only a stimulatory
effect
(C) increases cyclic A?@ concentrations in target neurons/ whereas adenosine
decreases such concentrations
() permits release of neurotransmitters when it is bound to adenosine receptors/
whereas adenosine inhibits such release
(#) inhibits both neuron firing and the production of phosphodiesterase when
there is a sufficient concentration in the brain/ whereas adenosine inhibits
only neuron firing
0. 3n response to e$perimental results concerning 3B?D/ ;nyder et al contended
that it is not uncommon for psychoacti'e drugs to ha'e
(A) mi$ed effects in the brain
(B) inhibitory effects on en!ymes in the brain
(C) close structural relationships with caffeine
() depressi'e effects on mouse locomotion
(#) the ability to dislodge caffeine from receptors in the brain
1. The passage suggests that ;nyder et al belie'e that if the older theory concerning
caffeine4s effects were correct/ which of the following would ha'e to be the case%
3. All neurotransmitters would increase the short(term concentration of cyclic
A?@ in target neurons.
33. ;ubstances other than caffeine that inhibit the production of
phosphodiesterase would be stimulants.
333. All concentration le'els of caffeine that are high enough to produce
stimulation would also inhibit the production of phosphodiesterase.
(A) 3 only
GMAT 2,
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2. According to ;nyder et al/ all of the following compounds can bind to specific
receptors in the brain #DC#@T
(A) 3B?D
(B) caffeine
(C) adenosine
() theophylline
(#) phosphodiesterase
-. ;nyder et al suggest that caffeine4s ability to bind to A
1
and A
2
receptors can be at
least partially attributed to which of the following%
(A) The chemical relationship between caffeine and phosphodiesterase
(B) The structural relationship between caffeine and adenosine
(C) The structural similarity between caffeine and neurotransmitters
() The ability of caffeine to stimulate beha'ior
(#) The natural occurrence of caffeine and adenosine in the brain
6. The author "uotes ;nyder et al in lines .6(0. most probably in order to
(A) re'eal some of the assumptions underlying their theory
(B) summari!e a ma<or finding of their e$periments
(C) point out that their e$periments were limited to the mouse
() indicate that their e$periments resulted only in general correlations
(#) refute the ob<ections made by supporters of the older theory
,. The last paragraph of the passage performs which of the following functions%
(A) escribes a disconfirming e$perimental result and reports the e$planation
gi'en by ;nyder et al in an attempt to reconcile this result with their theory.
(B) ;pecifies the basis for the correlation obser'ed by ;nyder et al and presents
an e$planation in an attempt to make the correlation consistent with the
operation of psychoacti'e drugs other than caffeine.
(C) #laborates the description of the correlation obser'ed by ;nyder et al and
suggests an additional e$planation in an attempt to make the correlation
consistent with the older theory.
() =eports inconsistent e$perimental data and describes the method ;nyder et al
will use to reanaly!e this data.
(#) @ro'ides an e$ample of the hypothesis proposed by ;nyder et al and relates
this e$ample to caffeine4s properties.
.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 11 (11/63)
Archaeoogy as a professon faces two ma|or probems. Frst, t s the poorest
of the poor. Ony patry sums are avaabe for excavatng and even ess s
avaabe for pubshng the resuts and preservng the stes once excavated. Yet
archaeoogsts dea wth prceess ob|ects every day. Second, there s the probem
of ega excavaton, resutng n museum-quaty peces beng sod to the hghest
bdder.
I woud ke to make an outrageous suggeston that woud at one stroke
provde funds for archaeoogy and reduce the amount of ega dggng. I woud
propose that scentfc archeoogca expedtons and governmenta authortes se
excavated artfacts on the open market. Such saes woud provde substanta
funds for the excavaton and preservaton of archaeoogca stes and the
pubcaton of resuts. At the same tme, they woud break the ega excavators
grp on the market, thereby decreasng the nducement to engage n ega
actvtes.
You mght ob|ect that professonas excavate to acqure knowedge, not
money. Moreover, ancent artfacts are part of our goba cutura hertage, whch
shoud be avaabe for a to apprecate, not sod to the hghest bdder. I agree.
Se nothng that has unque artstc mert or scentfc vaue. But, you mght repy
everythng that comes out of the ground has scentfc vaue. Here we part
company. Theoretcay, you may be correct n camng that every artfact has
potenta scentfc vaue. Practcay, you are wrong.
I refer to the thousands of pottery vesses and ancent amps that are
essentay dupcates of one another. In one sma excavaton n Cyprus,
archaeoogsts recenty uncovered 2,000 vrtuay ndstngushabe sma |ugs n a
snge courtyard, Even precous roya sea mpressons known as lmelekh handes
have been found n abundance-more than 4,000 exampes so far.
The basements of museums are smpy not arge enough to store the artfacts
that are key to be dscovered n the future. There s not enough money even to
cataogue the fnds; as a resut, they cannot be found agan and become as
naccessbe as f they had never been dscovered. Indeed, wth the hep of a
computer, sod artfacts coud be more accessbe than are the peces stored n
bugng museum basements. Pror to sae, each coud be photographed and the
st of the purchasers coud be mantaned on the computer. A purchaser coud
even be requred to agree to return the pece f t shoud become needed for
scentfc purposes.
It woud be unreastc to suggest that ega dggng woud stop f artfacts
were sod on the open market. But the demand for the candestne product woud
be substantay reduced. Who woud want an unmarked pot when another was
avaabe whose provenance was known, and that was dated stratgraphcay by
the professona archaeoogst who excavated t?
GMAT .1
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to propose
(A) an alternati'e to museum display of artifacts
(B) a way to curb illegal digging while benefiting the archaeological profession
(C) a way to distinguish artifacts with scientific 'alue from those that ha'e no
such 'alue
() the go'ernmental regulation of archaeological sites
(#) a new system for cataloguing duplicate artifacts
2. The author implies that all of the following statements about duplicate artifacts
are true #DC#@TE
(A) A market for such artifacts already e$ists.
(B) ;uch artifacts seldom ha'e scientific 'alue.
(C) There is likely to be a continuing supply of such artifacts.
() ?useums are well supplied with e$amples of such artifacts.
(#) ;uch artifacts fre"uently e$ceed in "uality those already catalogued in
museum collections.
.. &hich of the following is mentioned in the passage as a disad'antage of storing
artifacts in museum basements%
(A) ?useum officials rarely allow scholars access to such artifacts.
(B) ;pace that could be better used for display is taken up for storage.
(C) Artifacts disco'ered in one e$ca'ation often become separated from each
other.
() ;uch artifacts are often damaged by 'ariations in temperature and humidity.
(#) ;uch artifacts4 often remain uncatalogued and thus cannot be located once
they are put in storage.
0. The author mentions the e$ca'ation in Cyprus (lines .1(.0) to emphasi!e which
of the following points%
(A) Ancient lamps and pottery 'essels are less 'aluable/ although more rare/ than
royal seal impressions.
(B) Artifacts that are 'ery similar to each other present cataloguing difficulties to
archaeologists.
(C) Artifacts that are not uni"uely 'aluable/ and therefore could be sold/ are
a'ailable in large "uantities.
() Cyprus is the most important location for unearthing large "uantities of
salable artifacts.
(#) 3llegal sales of duplicate artifacts are wide(spread/ particularly on the island
of Cyprus.
1. The author4s argument concerning the effect of the official sale of duplicate
artifacts on illegal e$ca'ation is based on which of the following assumptions%
.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) @rospecti'e purchasers would prefer to buy authenticated artifacts.
(B) The price of illegally e$ca'ated artifacts would rise.
(C) Computers could be used to trace sold artifacts.
() 3llegal e$ca'ators would be forced to sell only duplicate artifacts.
(#) ?oney gained from selling authenticated artifacts could be used to in'estigate
and prosecute illegal e$ca'ators.
2. The author anticipates which of the following initial ob<ections to the adoption of
his proposal%
(A) ?useum officials will become unwilling to store artifacts.
(B) An o'ersupply of salable artifacts will result and the demand for them will
fall.
(C) Artifacts that would ha'e been displayed in public places will be sold to
pri'ate collectors.
() 3llegal e$ca'ators will ha'e an e'en larger supply of artifacts for resale.
(#) Counterfeiting of artifacts will become more commonplace.
-. The author implies that which of the following would occur if duplicate artifacts
were sold on the open market%
3. 3llegal e$ca'ation would e'entually cease completely.
33. Cyprus would become the primary source of marketable duplicate artifacts.
333. Archaeologists would be able to publish the results of their e$ca'ations more
fre"uently than they currently do.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Passage 12 (12/63)
(Ths passage s excerpted from matera pubshed n 1980.)
Federa efforts to ad mnorty busnesses began n the 1960s when the Sma
Busness Admnstraton (SBA) began makng federay guaranteed oans and
government-sponsored management and technca assstance avaabe to
mnorty busness enterprses. Whe ths program enabed many mnorty
entrepreneurs to form new busnesses, the resuts were dsappontng, snce
managera nexperence, unfavorabe ocatons, and capta shortages ed to hgh
faure rates. Even years after the program was mpemented, mnorty busness
recepts were not qute two percent of the natona economys tota recepts.
Recenty federa pocymakers have adopted an approach ntended to
GMAT ..
acceerate deveopment of the mnorty busness sector by movng away from
drecty adng sma mnorty enterprses and toward supportng arger, growth-
orented mnorty frms through ntermedary companes. In ths approach, arge
corporatons partcpate n the deveopment of successfu and stabe mnorty
busnesses by makng use of government-sponsored venture capta. The capta s
used by a partcpatng company to estabsh a Mnorty Enterprse Sma Busness
Investment Company or MESBIC. The MESBIC then provdes capta and gudance
to mnorty busnesses that have potenta to become future suppers or
customers of the sponsorng company.
MESBICs are the resut of the beef that provdng estabshed frms wth
easer access to reevant management technques and more |ob-specfc
experence, as we as substanta amounts of capta, gves those frms a greater
opportunty to deveop sound busness foundatons than does smpy makng
genera management experence and sma amounts of capta avaabe. Further,
snce potenta markets for the mnorty busnesses aready exst through the
sponsorng companes, the mnorty busnesses face consderaby ess rsk n
terms of ocaton and market fuctuaton. Foowng eary fnanca and operatng
probems, sponsorng corporatons began to captaze MESBICs far above the
ega mnmum of $500,000 n order to generate suffcent ncome and to sustan
the quaty of management needed. MESBICs are now emergng as ncreasngy
mportant fnancng sources for mnorty enterprses.
Ironcay, MESBIC staffs, whch usuay consst of Hspanc and Back
professonas, tend to approach nvestments n mnorty frms more pragmatcay
than do many MESBIC drectors, who are usuay senor managers from sponsorng
corporatons. The atter often st thnk many n terms of the "soca
responsbty approach" and thus seem to prefer deas that are rsker and ess
attractve than norma nvestment crtera woud warrant. Such dfferences n
vewpont have produced uneasness among many mnorty staff members, who
fee that mnorty entrepreneurs and busnesses shoud be |udged by estabshed
busness consderatons. These staff members beeve ther pont of vew s coser
to the orgna phosophy of MESBICs and they are concerned that, uness a more
prudent course s foowed, MESBIC drectors may revert to poces key to re-
create the dsappontng resuts of the orgna SBA approach.
1. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The use of ?#;B3C4s for aiding minority entrepreneurs seems to ha'e
greater potential for success than does the original ;BA approach.
(B) There is a crucial difference in point of 'iew between the staff and directors
of some ?#;B3C4s.
(C) After initial problems with management and marketing/ minority businesses
ha'e begun to e$pand at a steady rate.
() ?inority entrepreneurs wishing to form new businesses now ha'e se'eral
e"ually successful federal programs on which to rely.
.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) >or the first time since 1,25/ large corporations are making significant
contributions to the de'elopment of minority businesses.
2. According to the passage/ the ?#;B3C approach differs from the ;BA approach
in that ?#;B3C4s
(A) seek federal contracts to pro'ide markets for minority businesses
(B) encourage minority businesses to pro'ide markets for other minority
businesses
(C) attempt to maintain a specified rate of growth in the minority business sector
() rely on the participation of large corporations to finance minority businesses
(#) select minority businesses on the basis of their location
.. &hich of the following does the author cite to support the conclusion that the
results of the ;BA program were disappointing%
(A) The small number of new minority enterprises formed as a result of the
program
(B) The small number of minority enterprises that took ad'antage of the
management and technical assistance offered under the program
(C) The small percentage of the nation4s business receipts earned by minority
enterprises following the programs/ implementation
() The small percentage of recipient minority enterprises that were able to repay
federally guaranteed loans made under the program
(#) The small number of minority enterprises that chose to participate in the
program
0. &hich of the following statements about the ;BA program can be inferred from
the passage%
(A) The ma$imum term for loans made to recipient businesses was 11 years.
(B) Business loans were considered to be more useful to recipient businesses than
was management and technical assistance.
(C) The anticipated failure rate for recipient businesses was significantly lower
than the rate that actually resulted.
() =ecipient businesses were encouraged to relocate to areas more fa'orable for
business de'elopment.
(#) The capitali!ation needs of recipient businesses were assessed and then
pro'ided for ade"uately.
1. Based on information in the passage/ which of the following would be indicati'e
of the pragmatism of ?#;B3C staff members%
3. A reluctance to in'est in minority businesses that show marginal
e$pectations of return on the in'estments
33. A desire to in'est in minority businesses that produce goods and ser'ices
GMAT .1
likely to be of use to the sponsoring company
333. A belief that the minority business sector is best ser'ed by in'esting
primarily in newly established businesses
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
2. The author refers to the *financial and operating problems+ (line .6) encountered
by ?#;B3C4s primarily in order to
(A) broaden the scope of the discussion to include the legal considerations of
funding ?#;B3C4; through sponsoring companies
(B) call attention to the fact that ?#;B3C4s must recei'e ade"uate funding in
order to function effecti'ely
(C) show that sponsoring companies were willing to in'est only 7155/555 of
go'ernment(sponsored 'enture capital in the original ?#;B3C4s
() compare ;BA and ?#;B3C limits on minimum funding
(#) refute suggestions that ?#;B3C4s ha'e been only marginally successful
-. The author4s primary ob<ecti'e in the passage is to
(A) dispro'e the 'iew that federal efforts to aid minority businesses ha'e been
ineffecti'e
(B) e$plain how federal efforts to aid minority businesses ha'e changed since the
1,254s
(C) establish a direct link between the federal efforts to aid minority businesses
made before the 1,254s and those made in the 1,654s
() analy!e the basis for the belief that <ob(specific e$perience is more useful to
minority businesses than is general management e$perience
(#) argue that the *social responsibility approach+ to aiding minority businesses
is superior to any other approach
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the attitude of some ?#;B3C staff
members toward the in'estments preferred by some ?#;B3C directors can best
be described as
(A) defensi'e
(B) resigned
(C) indifferent
() shocked
(#) disappro'ing
.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
,. The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat was the a'erage annual amount/ in dollars/ of minority business receipts
before the ;BA strategy was implemented%
(B) &hat locations are considered to be unfa'orable for minority businesses%
(C) &hat is the current success rate for minority businesses that are capitali!ed by
?#;B3C4s%
() )ow has the use of federal funding for minority businesses changed since the
1,254s%
(#) )ow do minority businesses apply to participate in a ?#;B3C program%
Passage 13 (13/63)
The ma|orty of successfu senor managers do not cosey foow the cassca
ratona mode of frst carfyng goas, assessng the probem, formuatng optons,
estmatng kehoods of success, makng a decson, and ony then takng acton
to mpement the decson. Rather, n ther day-by-day tactca maneuvers, these
senor executves rey on what s vaguey termed "ntuton" to manage a network
of nterreated probems that requre them to dea wth ambguty, nconsstency,
novety, and surprse; and to ntegrate acton nto the process of thnkng.
Generatons of wrters on management have recognzed that some practcng
managers rey heavy on ntuton. In genera, however, such wrters dspay a
poor grasp of what ntuton s. Some see t as the opposte of ratonaty; others
vew t as an excuse for caprcousness.
Isenbergs recent research on the cogntve processes of senor managers
reveas that managers ntuton s nether of these. Rather, senor managers use
ntuton n at east fve dstnct ways. Frst, they ntutvey sense when a probem
exsts. Second, managers rey on ntuton to perform we-earned behavor
patterns rapdy. Ths ntuton s not arbtrary or rratona, but s based on years of
panstakng practce and hands-on experence that bud sks. A thrd functon of
ntuton s to synthesze soated bts of data and practce nto an ntegrated
pcture, often n an "Aha!" experence. Fourth, some managers use ntuton as a
check on the resuts of more ratona anayss. Most senor executves are famar
wth the forma decson anayss modes and toos, and those who use such
systematc methods for reachng decsons are occasonay eery of soutons
suggested by these methods whch run counter to ther sense of the correct
course of acton. Fnay, managers can use ntuton to bypass n-depth anayss
and move rapdy to engender a pausbe souton. Used n ths way, ntuton s an
amost nstantaneous cogntve process n whch a manager recognzes famar
patterns. One of the mpcatons of the ntutve stye of executve management s
that "thnkng" s nseparabe from actng. Snce managers often "know" what s
rght before they can anayze and expan t, they frequenty act frst and expan
GMAT .-
ater. Anayss s nextrcaby ted to acton n thnkng/actng cyces, n whch
managers deveop thoughts about ther companes and organzatons not by
anayzng a probematc stuaton and then actng, but by actng and anayzng n
cose concert.
Gven the great uncertanty of many of the management ssues that they
face, senor managers often nstgate a course of acton smpy to earn more
about an ssue. They then use the resuts of the acton to deveop a more
compete understandng of the ssue. One mpcaton of thnkng/actng cyces s
that acton s often part of defnng the probem, not |ust of mpementng the
souton.
1. According to the passage/ senior managers use intuition in all of the following
ways #DC#@T to
(A) speed up of the creation of a solution to a problem
(B) identify a problem
(C) bring together disparate facts
() stipulate clear goals
(#) e'aluate possible solutions to a problem
2. The passage suggests which of the following about the *writers on management+
mentioned in line 12%
(A) They ha'e critici!ed managers for not following the classical rational model
of decision analysis.
(B) They ha'e not based their analyses on a sufficiently large sample of actual
managers.
(C) They ha'e relied in drawing their conclusions on what managers say rather
than on what managers do.
() They ha'e misunderstood how managers use intuition in making business
decisions.
(#) They ha'e not acknowledged the role of intuition in managerial practice.
.. &hich of the following best e$emplifies *an FAhaG4 e$perience+ (line 26) as it is
presented in the passage%
(A) A manager risks taking an action whose outcome is unpredictable to disco'er
whether the action changes the problem at hand.
(B) A manager performs well(learned and familiar beha'ior patterns in creati'e
and uncharacteristic ways to sol'e a problem.
(C) A manager suddenly connects seemingly unrelated facts and e$periences to
create a pattern rele'ant to the problem at hand.
() A manager rapidly identifies the methodology used to compile data yielded
by systematic analysis.
(#) A manager swiftly decides which of se'eral sets of tactics to implement in
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order to deal with the contingencies suggested by a problem.
0. According to the passage/ the classical model of decision analysis includes all of
the following #DC#@T
(A) e'aluation of a problem
(B) creation of possible solutions to a problem
(C) establishment of clear goals to be reached by the decision
() action undertaken in order to disco'er more information about a problem
(#) comparison of the probable effects of different solutions to a problem
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would most
probably be one ma<or difference in beha'ior between ?anager D/ who uses
intuition to reach decisions/ and ?anager H/ who uses only formal decision
analysis%
(A) ?anager D analy!es first and then actsI ?anager H does not.
(B) ?anager D checks possible solutions to a problem by systematic analysisI
?anager H does not.
(C) ?anager D takes action in order to arri'e at the solution to a problemI
?anager H does not.
() ?anager H draws on years of hands(on e$perience in creating a solution to a
problemI ?anager D does not.
(#) ?anger H depends on day(to(day tactical maneu'eringI manager D does not.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *thinkingJacting cycles+ (line 01) in
managerial practice would be likely to result in which of the following%
3. A manager analy!es a network of problems and then acts on the basis of that
analysis.
33. A manager gathers data by acting and obser'ing the effects of action.
333. A manager takes action without being able to articulate reasons for that
particular action.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. The passage pro'ides support for which of the following statements%
(A) ?anagers who rely on intuition are more successful than those who rely on
formal decision analysis.
(B) ?anagers cannot <ustify their intuiti'e decisions.
(C) ?anagers4 intuition works contrary to their rational and analytical skills.
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() Kogical analysis of a problem increases the number of possible solutions.
(#) 3ntuition enables managers to employ their practical e$perience more
efficiently.
6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph of
the passage%
(A) An assertion is made and a specific supporting e$ample is gi'en.
(B) A con'entional model is dismissed and an alternati'e introduced.
(C) The results of recent research are introduced and summari!ed.
() Two opposing points of 'iew are presented and e'aluated.
(#) A widely accepted definition is presented and "ualified.
Passage 14 (14/63)
Neary a century ago, boogsts found that f they separated an nvertebrate
anma embryo nto two parts at an eary stage of ts fe, t woud survve and
deveop as two norma embryos. Ths ed them to beeve that the ces n the
eary embryo are undetermned n the sense that each ce has the potenta to
deveop n a varety of dfferent ways. Later boogsts found that the stuaton was
not so smpe. It matters n whch pane the embryo s cut. If t s cut n a pane
dfferent from the one used by the eary nvestgators, t w not form two whoe
embryos.
A debate arose over what exacty was happenng. Whch embryo ces are
determned, |ust when do they become rreversby commtted to ther fates, and
what are the "morphogenetc determnants" that te a ce what to become? But
the debate coud not be resoved because no one was abe to ask the cruca
questons n a form n whch they coud be pursued productvey. Recent
dscoveres n moecuar boogy, however, have opened up prospects for a
resouton of the debate. Now nvestgators thnk they know at east some of the
moecues that act as morphogenetc determnants n eary deveopment. They
have been abe to show that, n a sense, ce determnaton begns even before an
egg s fertzed.
Studyng sea urchns, boogst Pau Gross found that an unfertzed egg
contans substances that functon as morphogenetc determnants. They are
ocated n the cytopasm of the egg ce; .e., n that part of the ces protopasm
that es outsde of the nuceus. In the unfertzed egg, the substances are
nactve and are not dstrbuted homogeneousy. When the egg s fertzed, the
substances become actve and, presumaby, govern the behavor of the genes
they nteract wth. Snce the substances are uneveny dstrbuted n the egg, when
the fertzed egg dvdes, the resutng ces are dfferent from the start and so can
be quatatvey dfferent n ther own gene actvty.
The substances that Gross studed are materna messenger RNAs-products
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of certan of the materna genes. He and other boogsts studyng a wde varety
of organsms have found that these partcuar RNAs drect, n arge part, the
synthess of hstones, a cass of protens that bnd to DNA. Once syntheszed, the
hstones move nto the ce nuceus, where secton of DNA wrap around them to
form a structure that resembes beads, or knots, on a strng. The beads are DNA
segments wrapped around the hstones; the strng s the ntervenng DNA. And t
s the structure of these beaded DNA strngs that gude the fate of the ces n
whch they are ocated.
1. The passage is most probably directed at which kind of audience%
(A) ;tate legislators deciding about funding le'els for a state(funded biological
laboratory
(B) ;cientists speciali!ing in molecular genetics
(C) =eaders of an alumni newsletter published by the college that @aul Bross
attended
() ?arine biologists studying the processes that gi'e rise to new species
(#) :ndergraduate biology ma<ors in a molecular biology course
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the morphogenetic determinants present
in the early embryo are
(A) located in the nucleus of the embryo cells
(B) e'enly distributed unless the embryo is not de'eloping normally
(C) inacti'e until the embryo cells become irre'ersibly committed to their final
function
() identical to those that were already present in the unfertili!ed egg
(#) present in larger "uantities than is necessary for the de'elopment of a single
indi'idual
.. The main topic of the passage is
(A) the early de'elopment of embryos of lower marine organisms
(B) the main contribution of modern embryology to molecular biology
(C) the role of molecular biology in dispro'ing older theories of embryonic
de'elopment
() cell determination as an issue in the study of embryonic de'elopment
(#) scientific dogma as a factor in the recent debate o'er the 'alue of molecular
biology
0. According to the passage/ when biologists belie'ed that the cells in the early
embryo were undetermined/ they made which of the following mistakes%
(A) They did not attempt to replicate the original e$periment of separating an
embryo into two parts.
(B) They did not reali!e that there was a connection between the issue of cell
GMAT 01
determination and the outcome of the separation e$periment.
(C) They assumed that the results of e$periments on embryos did not depend on
the particular animal species used for such e$periments.
() They assumed that it was crucial to perform the separation e$periment at an
early stage in the embryo4s life.
(#) They assumed that different ways of separating an embryo into two parts
would be e"ui'alent as far as the fate of the two parts was concerned.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the initial production of histones after an
egg is fertili!ed takes place
(A) in the cytoplasm
(B) in the maternal genes
(C) throughout the protoplasm
() in the beaded portions of the 9A strings
(#) in certain sections of the cell nucleus
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is dependent on
the fertili!ation of an egg%
(A) Copying of maternal genes to produce maternal messenger =9A4s
(B) ;ynthesis of proteins called histones
(C) i'ision of a cell into its nucleus and the cytoplasm
() etermination of the egg cell4s potential for di'ision
(#) Beneration of all of a cell4s morphogenetic determinants
-. According to the passage/ the morphogenetic determinants present in the
unfertili!ed egg cell are which of the following%
(A) @roteins bound to the nucleus
(B) )istones
(C) ?aternal messenger =9A4s
() Cytoplasm
(#) 9onbeaded inter'ening 9A
6. The passage suggests that which of the following plays a role in determining
whether an embryo separated into two parts will de'elop as two normal embryos%
3. The stage in the embryo4s life at which the separation occurs
33. The instrument with which the separations is accomplished
333. The plane in which the cut is made that separates the embryo
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
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(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
,. &hich of the following circumstances is most comparable to the impasse
biologists encountered in trying to resol'e the debate about cell determination
(lines 12(16)%
(A) The problems faced by a literary scholar who wishes to use original source
materials that are written in an unfamiliar foreign language
(B) The situation of a mathematician who in preparing a proof of a theorem for
publication detects a reasoning error in the proof
(C) The difficulties of a space engineer who has to design e"uipment to function
in an en'ironment in which it cannot first be tested
() The predicament of a linguist trying to de'elop a theory of language
ac"uisition when knowledge of the structure of language itself is
rudimentary at best
(#) The dilemma confronting a foundation when the funds a'ailable to it are
sufficient to support one of two e"ually deser'ing scientific pro<ects but not
both
Passage 15 (15/63)
In the two decades between 1910 and 1930, over ten percent of the Back
popuaton of the Unted States eft the South, where the preponderance of the
Back popuaton had been ocated, and mgrated to northern states, wth the
argest number movng, t s camed, between 1916 and 1918. It has been
frequenty assumed, but not proved, that the ma|orty of the mgrants n what has
come to be caed the Great Mgraton came from rura areas and were motvated
by two concurrent factors: the coapse of the cotton ndustry foowng the bo
weev nfestaton, whch began n 1898, and ncreased demand n the North for
abor foowng the cessaton of European mmgraton caused by the outbreak of
the Frst Word War n 1914. Ths assumpton has ed to the concuson that the
mgrants subsequent ack of economc mobty n the North s ted to rura
background, a background that mpes unfamarty wth urban vng and a ack
of ndustra sks.
But the queston of who actuay eft the South has never been rgorousy
nvestgated. Athough numerous nvestgatons document an exodus from rura
southern areas to southern ctes pror to the Great Mgraton, no one has
consdered whether the same mgrants then moved on to northern ctes. In 1910
over 600,000 Back workers, or ten percent of the Back work force, reported
themseves to be engaged n "manufacturng and mechanca pursuts," the
federa census category roughy encompassng the entre ndustra sector. The
Great Mgraton coud easy have been made up entrey of ths group and ther
fames. It s perhaps surprsng to argue that an empoyed popuaton coud be
entced to move, but an expanaton es n the abor condtons then prevaent n
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the South.
About thrty-fve percent of the urban Back popuaton n the South was
engaged n sked trades. Some were from the od artsan cass of savery-
backsmths, masons, carpenters-whch had had a monopoy of certan trades,
but they were graduay beng pushed out by competton, mechanzaton, and
obsoescence. The remanng sxty-fve percent, more recenty urbanzed, worked
n newy deveoped ndustres-tobacco, umber, coa and ron manufacture, and
raroads. Wages n the South, however, were ow, and Back workers were aware,
through abor recruters and the Back press, that they coud earn more even as
unsked workers n the North than they coud as artsans n the South. After the
bo weev nfestaton, urban Back workers faced competton from the contnung
nfux of both Back and Whte rura workers, who were drven to undercut the
wages formery pad for ndustra |obs. Thus, a move north woud be seen as
advantageous to a group that was aready urbanzed and steady empoyed, and
the easy concuson tyng ther subsequent economc probems n the North to
ther rura background comes nto queston.
1. The author indicates e$plicitly that which of the following records has been a
source of information in her in'estigation%
(A) :nited ;tates 3mmigration ;er'ice reports from 1,10 to 1,.5
(B) @ayrolls of southern manufacturing firms between 1,15 and 1,.5
(C) The 'olume of cotton e$ports between 16,6 and 1,15
() The federal census of 1,15
(#) Ad'ertisements of labor recruiters appearing in southern newspapers after
1,15
2. 3n the passage/ the author anticipates which of the following as a possible
ob<ection to her argument%
(A) 3t is uncertain how many people actually migrated during the Breat
?igration.
(B) The e'entual economic status of the Breat ?igration migrants has not been
ade"uately traced.
(C) 3t is not likely that people with steady <obs would ha'e reason to mo'e to
another area of the country.
() 3t is not true that the term *manufacturing and mechanical pursuits+ actually
encompasses the entire industrial sector.
(#) 8f the Black workers li'ing in southern cities/ only those in a small number
of trades were threatened by obsolescence.
.. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of wages in southern
cities in 1,15%
(A) They were being pushed lower as a result of increased competition.
00 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) They had begun t to rise so that southern industry could attract rural workers.
(C) They had increased for skilled workers but decreased for unskilled workers.
() They had increased in large southern cities but decreased in small southern
cities.
(#) They had increased in newly de'eloped industries but decreased in the older
trades.
0. The author cites each of the following as possible influences in a Black worker4s
decision to migrate north in the Breat ?igration #DC#@T
(A) wage le'els in northern cities
(B) labor recruiters
(C) competition from rural workers
() 'oting rights in northern states
(#) the Black press
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *easy conclusion+ mentioned in line
1. is based on which of the following assumptions%
(A) @eople who migrate from rural areas to large cities usually do so for
economic reasons.
(B) ?ost people who lea'e rural areas to take <obs in cities return to rural areas as
soon as it is financially possible for them to do so.
(C) @eople with rural backgrounds are less likely to succeed economically in
cities than are those with urban backgrounds.
() ?ost people who were once skilled workers are not willing to work as
unskilled workers.
(#) @eople who migrate from their birthplaces to other regions of country seldom
undertake a second migration.
2. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) support an alternati'e to an accepted methodology
(B) present e'idence that resol'es a contradiction
(C) introduce a recently disco'ered source of information
() challenge a widely accepted e$planation
(#) argue that a discarded theory deser'es new attention
-. According to information in the passage/ which of the following is a correct
se"uence of groups of workers/ from highest paid to lowest paid/ in the period
between 1,15 and 1,.5%
(A) Artisans in the 9orthI artisans in the ;outhI unskilled workers in the 9orthI
unskilled workers in the ;outh
(B) Artisans in the 9orth and ;outhI unskilled workers in the 9orthI unskilled
workers in the ;outh
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(C) Artisans in the 9orthI unskilled workers in the 9orthI artisans in the ;outh
() Artisans in the 9orth and ;outhI unskilled urban workers in the 9orthI
unskilled rural workers in the ;outh
(#) Artisans in the 9orth and ;outh/ unskilled rural workers in the 9orth and
;outhI unskilled urban workers in the 9orth and ;outh
6. The material in the passage would be most rele'ant to a long discussion of which
of the following topics%
(A) The reasons for the subse"uent economic difficulties of those who
participated in the Breat ?igration
(B) The effect of migration on the regional economies of the :nited ;tates
following the >irst &orld &ar
(C) The transition from a rural to an urban e$istence for those who migrated in
the Breat ?igration
() The transformation of the agricultural ;outh following the boll wee'il
infestation
(#) The disappearance of the artisan class in the :nited ;tates as a conse"uence
of mechani!ation in the early twentieth century
Passage 16 (16/63)
In 1896 a Georga coupe sung for damages n the accdenta death of ther
two year od was tod that snce the chd had made no rea economc contrbuton
to the famy, there was no abty for damages. In contrast, ess than a century
ater, n 1979, the parents of a three-year-od sued n New York for accdenta-
death damages and won an award of $750,000.
The transformaton n soca vaues mpct n |uxtaposng these two ncdents
s the sub|ect of Vvana Zezers exceent book, Pricing the Priceless Child.
Durng the nneteenth century, she argues, the concept of the "usefu" chd who
contrbuted to the famy economy gave way graduay to the present-day noton
of the "useess" chd who, though producng no ncome for, and ndeed extremey
costy to, ts parents, s yet consdered emotonay "prceess." We estabshed
among segments of the mdde and upper casses by the md-1800s, ths new
vew of chdhood spread throughout socety n the ate-nneteenth and eary-
twenteth centures as reformers ntroduced chd-abor reguatons and
compusory educaton aws predcated n part on the assumpton that a chds
emotona vaue made chd abor taboo.
For Zezer the orgns of ths transformaton were many and compex. The
gradua eroson of chdrens productve vaue n a maturng ndustra economy,
the decne n brth and death rates, especay n chd mortaty, and the
deveopment of the companonate famy (a famy n whch members were unted
by expct bonds of ove rather than duty) were a factors crtca n changng the
02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
assessment of chdrens worth. Yet "expuson of chdren from the cash nexus,
athough ceary shaped by profound changes n the economc, occupatona, and
famy structures," Zezer mantans, "was aso part of a cutura process of
sacrezaton of chdrens ves." Protectng chdren from the crass busness word
became enormousy mportant for ate-nneteenth-century mdde-cass
Amercans, she suggests; ths sacrazaton was a way of resstng what they
perceved as the reentess corrupton of human vaues by the marketpace.
In stressng the cutura determnants of a chds worth, Zezer takes ssue
wth practtoners of the new "socoogca economcs," who have anayzed such
tradtonay socoogca topcs as crme, marrage, educaton, and heath soey n
terms of ther economc determnants. Aowng ony a sma roe for cutura forces
n the form of ndvdua "preferences," these socoogsts tend to vew a human
behavors as drected prmary by the prncpe of maxmzng economc gan.
Zezer s hghy crtca of ths approach, and emphaszes nstead the opposte
phenomenon: the power of soca vaues to transform prce. As chdren became
more vauabe n emotona terms, she argues, ther "exchange" or "surrender"
vaue on the market, that s, the converson of ther ntangbe worth nto cash
terms, became much greater.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that accidental(death damage awards in
America during the nineteenth century tended to be based principally on the
(A) earnings of the person at time of death
(B) wealth of the party causing the death
(C) degree of culpability of the party causing the death
() amount of money that had been spent on the person killed
(#) amount of suffering endured by the family of the person killed
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in the early 16554s children were
generally regarded by their families as indi'iduals who
(A) needed enormous amounts of security and affection
(B) re"uired constant super'ision while working
(C) were important to the economic well(being of a family
() were unsuited to spending long hours in school
(#) were financial burdens assumed for the good of society
.. &hich of the following alternati'e e$planations of the change in the cash 'alue of
children would be most likely to be put forward by sociological economists as
they are described in the passage%
(A) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because parents
began to increase their emotional in'estment in the upbringing of their
children.
(B) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because their
GMAT 0-
e$pected earnings o'er the course of a lifetime increased greatly.
(C) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because the
spread of humanitarian ideals resulted in a wholesale reappraisal of the
worth of an indi'idual.
() The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because
compulsory education laws reduced the supply/ and thus raised the costs/ of
a'ailable child labor.
(#) The cash 'alue of children rose during the nineteenth century because of
changes in the way negligence law assessed damages in accidental death
cases.
0. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) re'iew the literature in a new academic sub(field
(B) present the central thesis of a recent book
(C) contrast two approaches to analy!ing historical change
() refute a traditional e$planation of a social phenomenon
(#) encourage further work on a neglected historical topic
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following statements was
true of American families o'er the course of the nineteenth century%
(A) The a'erage si!e of families grew considerably.
(B) The percentage of families in'ol'ed in industrial work declined dramatically.
(C) >amily members became more emotionally bonded to one another.
() >amily members spent an increasing amount of time working with each other.
(#) >amily members became more economically dependent on each other.
2. Leli!er refers to all of the following as important influences in changing the
assessment of children4s worth #DC#@T changes in
(A) the mortality rate
(B) the nature of industry
(C) the nature of the family
() attitudes toward reform mo'ements
(#) attitudes toward the marketplace
-. &hich of the following would be most consistent with the practices of
sociological economics as these practices are described in the passage%
(A) Arguing that most health(care professionals enter the field because they
belie'e it to be the most socially useful of any occupation
(B) Arguing that most college students choose ma<ors that they belie'e will lead
to the most highly paid <obs a'ailable to them
(C) Arguing that most decisions about marriage and di'orce are based on rational
06 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
assessments of the likelihood that each partner will remain committed to the
relationship
() Analy!ing changes in the number of people enrolled in colleges and
uni'ersities as a function of changes in the economic health of these
institutions
(#) Analy!ing changes in the ages at which people get married as a function of a
change in the a'erage number of years that young people ha'e li'ed away
from their parents
Passage 17 (17/63)
Pror to 1975, unon efforts to organze pubc-sector cerca workers, most of
whom are women, were somewhat mted. The factors favorng unonzaton
drves seem to have been ether the presence of arge numbers of workers, as n
New York Cty, to make t worth the effort, or the concentraton of sma numbers
n one or two ocatons, such as a hospta, to make t reatvey easy. Receptvty
to unonzaton on the workers part was aso a consderaton, but when there
were arge numbers nvoved or the cerca workers were the ony unorganzed
group n a |ursdcton, the mut-occupatona unons woud often try to organze
them regardess of the workers nta receptvty. The strategc reasonng was
based, frst, on the concern that potcans and admnstrators mght pay off
unonzed aganst non-unonzed workers, and, second, on the convcton that a
fuy unonzed pubc work force meant power, both at the barganng tabe and n
the egsature. In ocates where cerca workers were few n number, were
scattered n severa workpaces, and expressed no nterest n beng organzed,
unons more often than not gnored them n the pre-1975 perod.
But snce the md-1970s, a dfferent strategy has emerged. In 1977, 34
percent of government cerca workers were represented by a abor organzaton,
compared wth 46 percent of government professonas, 44 percent of government
bue-coar workers, and 41 percent of government servce workers. Snce then,
however, the bggest ncreases n pubc-sector unonzaton have been among
cerca workers. Between 1977 and 1980, the number of unonzed government
workers n bue-coar and servce occupatons ncreased ony about 1.5 percent,
whe n the whte-coar occupatons the ncrease was 20 percent and among
cerca workers n partcuar, the ncrease was 22 percent.
What accounts for ths upsurge n unonzaton among cerca workers? Frst,
more women have entered the work force n the past few years, and more of them
pan to reman workng unt retrement age. Consequenty, they are probaby
more concerned than ther predecessors were about |ob securty and economc
benefts. Aso, the womens movement has succeeded n egtmzng the
economc and potca actvsm of women on ther own behaf, thereby producng
a more postve atttude toward unons. The absence of any comparabe ncrease
n unonzaton among prvate-sector cerca workers, however, dentfes the
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prmary catayst-the structura change n the mut-occupatona pubc-sector
unons themseves. Over the past twenty years, the occupatona dstrbuton n
these unons has been steady shftng from predomnanty bue-coar to
predomnanty whte-coar. Because there are far more women n whte-coar
|obs, an ncrease n the proporton of femae members has accompaned the
occupatona shft and has atered unon pocy-makng n favor of organzng
women and addressng womens ssues.
1. According to the passage/ the public(sector workers who were most likely to
belong to unions in 1,-- were
(A) professionals
(B) managers
(C) clerical workers
() ser'ice workers
(#) blue(collar workers
2. The author cites union efforts to achie'e a fully unioni!ed work force (line 1.(1,)
in order to account for why
(A) politicians might try to oppose public(sector union organi!ing
(B) public(sector unions ha'e recently focused on organi!ing women
(C) early organi!ing efforts often focused on areas where there were large
numbers of workers
() union efforts with regard to public(sector clerical workers increased
dramatically after 1,-1
(#) unions sometimes tried to organi!e workers regardless of the workers4 initial
interest in unioni!ation
.. The author4s claim that/ since the mid(1,-54s/ a new strategy has emerged in the
unioni!ation of public(sector clerical workers (line 2.) would be strengthened if
the author
(A) described more fully the attitudes of clerical workers toward labor unions
(B) compared the organi!ing strategies employed by pri'ate(sector unions with
those of public(sector unions
(C) e$plained why politicians and administrators sometimes oppose unioni!ation
of clerical workers
() indicated that the number of unioni!ed public(sector clerical workers was
increasing e'en before the mid(1,-54s
(#) showed that the factors that fa'ored unioni!ation dri'es among these workers
prior to 1,-1 ha'e decreased in importance
0. According to the passage/ in the period prior to 1,-1/ each of the following
considerations helped determine whether a union would attempt to organi!e a
certain group of clerical workers #DC#@T
15 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) the number of clerical workers in that group
(B) the number of women among the clerical workers in that group
(C) whether the clerical workers in that area were concentrated in one workplace
or scattered o'er se'eral workplaces
() the degree to which the clerical workers in that group were interested in
unioni!ation
(#) whether all the other workers in the same <urisdiction as that group of clerical
workers were unioni!ed
1. The author states that which of the following is a conse"uence of the women4s
mo'ement of recent years%
(A) An increase in the number of women entering the work force
(B) A structural change in multi(occupational public(sector unions
(C) A more positi'e attitude on the part of women toward unions
() An increase in the proportion of clerical workers that are women
(#) An increase in the number of women in administrati'e positions
2. The main concern of the passage is to
(A) ad'ocate particular strategies for future efforts to organi!e certain workers
into labor unions
(B) e$plain differences in the unioni!ed proportions of 'arious groups of public(
sector workers
(C) e'aluate the effecti'eness of certain kinds of labor unions that represent
public(sector workers
() analy!ed and e$plain an increase in unioni!ation among a certain category of
workers
(#) describe and distinguish strategies appropriate to organi!ing different
categories of workers
-. The author implies that if the increase in the number of women in the work force
and the impact of the women4s mo'ement were the main causes of the rise in
unioni!ation of public(sector clerical workers/ then
(A) more women would hold administrati'e positions in unions
(B) more women who hold political offices would ha'e positi'e attitudes toward
labor unions
(C) there would be an e"ui'alent rise in unioni!ation of pri'ate(sector clerical
workers
() unions would ha'e shown more interest than they ha'e in organi!ing women
(#) the increase in the number of unioni!ed public(sector clerical workers would
ha'e been greater than it has been
6. The author suggests that it would be disad'antageous to a union if
GMAT 11
(A) many workers in the locality were not unioni!ed
(B) the union contributed to political campaigns
(C) the union included only public(sector workers
() the union included workers from se'eral <urisdictions
(#) the union included members from only a few occupations
,. The author implies that/ in comparison with working women today/ women
working in the years prior to the mid(1,-54s showed a greater tendency to
(A) prefer smaller workplaces
(B) e$press a positi'e attitude toward labor unions
(C) ma$imi!e <ob security and economic benefits
() side with administrators in labor disputes
(#) "uit working prior of retirement age
Passage 18 (18/63)
Mankovtch proposed n the eary twenteth century that the ce ages were
caused by varatons n the Earths orbt around the Sun. For sometme ths theory
was consdered untestabe, argey because there was no suffcenty precse
chronoogy of the ce ages wth whch the orbta varatons coud be matched.
To estabsh such a chronoogy t s necessary to determne the reatve
amounts of and ce that exsted at varous tmes n the Earths past. A recent
dscovery makes such a determnaton possbe: reatve and-ce voume for a
gven perod can be deduced from the rato of two oxygen sotopes, 16 and 18,
found n ocean sedments. Amost a the oxygen n water s oxygen 16, but a few
moecues out of every thousand ncorporate the heaver sotope 18. When an ce
age begns, the contnenta ce sheets grow, steady reducng the amount of
water evaporated from the ocean that w eventuay return to t. Because heaver
sotopes tend to be eft behnd when water evaporates from the ocean surfaces,
the remanng ocean water becomes progressvey enrched n oxygen 18. The
degree of enrchment can be determned by anayzng ocean sedments of the
perod, because these sedments are composed of cacum carbonate shes of
marne organsms, shes that were constructed wth oxygen atoms drawn from
the surroundng ocean. The hgher the rato of oxygen 18 to oxygen 16 n a
sedmentary specmen, the more and ce there was when the sedment was ad
down.
As an ndcator of shfts n the Earths cmate, the sotope record has two
advantages. Frst, t s a goba record: there s remarkaby tte varaton n
sotope ratos n sedmentary specmens taken from dfferent contnenta
ocatons. Second, t s a more contnuous record than that taken from rocks on
and. Because of these advantages, sedmentary evdence can be dated wth
suffcent accuracy by radometrc methods to estabsh a precse chronoogy of
12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the ce ages. The dated sotope record shows that the fuctuatons n goba ce
voume over the past severa hundred thousand years have a pattern: an ce age
occurs roughy once every 100,000 years. These data have estabshed a strong
connecton between varatons n the Earths orbt and the perodcty of the ce
ages.
However, t s mportant to note that other factors, such as vocanc
partcuates or varatons n the amount of sunght receved by the Earth, coud
potentay have affected the cmate. The advantage of the Mankovtch theory s
that t s testabe: changes n the Earths orbt can be cacuated and dated by
appyng Newtons aws of gravty to progressvey earer confguratons of the
bodes n the soar system. Yet the ack of nformaton about other possbe factors
affectng goba cmate does not make them unmportant.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily interested in
(A) suggesting an alternati'e to an outdated research method
(B) introducing a new research method that calls an accepted theory into "uestion
(C) emphasi!ing the instability of data gathered from the application of a new
scientific method
() presenting a theory and describing a new method to test that theory
(#) initiating a debate about a widely accepted theory
2. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following statements about the ?ilanko'itch theory%
(A) 3t is the only possible e$planation for the ice ages.
(B) 3t is too limited to pro'ide a plausible e$planation for the ice ages/ despite
recent research findings.
(C) 3t cannot be tested and confirmed until further research on 'olcanic acti'ity is
done.
() 3t is one plausible e$planation/ though not the only one/ for the ice ages.
(#) 3t is not a plausible e$planation for the ice ages/ although it has opened up
promising possibilities for future research.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the isotope record taken from ocean
sediments would be less useful to researchers if which of the following were true%
(A) 3t indicated that lighter isotopes of o$ygen predominated at certain times.
(B) 3t had far more gaps in its se"uence than the record taken from rocks on land.
(C) 3t indicated that climate shifts did not occur e'ery 155/555 years.
() 3t indicated that the ratios of o$ygen 12 and o$ygen 16 in ocean water were
not consistent with those found in fresh water.
(#) 3t stretched back for only a million years.
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the ratios of o$ygen
GMAT 1.
isotopes in ocean sediments%
(A) They indicate that sediments found during an ice age contain more calcium
carbonate than sediments formed at other times.
(B) They are less reliable than the e'idence from rocks on land in determining the
'olume of land ice.
(C) They can be used to deduce the relati'e 'olume of land ice that was present
when the sediment was laid down.
() They are more unpredictable during an ice age than in other climatic
conditions.
(#) They can be used to determine atmospheric conditions at 'arious times in the
past.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that precipitation formed from e'aporated
ocean water has
(A) the same isotopic ratio as ocean water
(B) less o$ygen 16 than does ocean water
(C) less o$ygen 16 than has the ice contained in continental ice sheets
() a different isotopic composition than has precipitation formed from water on
land
(#) more o$ygen 12 than has precipitation formed from fresh water
2. According to the passage/ which of the following is (are) true of the ice ages%
3. The last ice age occurred about 21/555 years ago.
33. 3ce ages ha'e lasted about 15/555 years for at least the last se'eral hundred
thousand years.
333. 3ce ages ha'e occurred about e'ery 155/555 years for at least the last se'eral
hundred thousand years.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that calcium carbonate shells
(A) are not as susceptible to deterioration as rocks
(B) are less common in sediments formed during an ice age
(C) are found only in areas that were once co'ered by land ice
() contain radioacti'e material that can be used to determine a sediment4s
isotopic composition
(#) reflect the isotopic composition of the water at the time the shells were
formed
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6. The purpose of the last paragraph of the passage is to
(A) offer a note of caution
(B) introduce new e'idence
(C) present two recent disco'eries
() summari!e material in the preceding paragraphs
(#) offer two e$planations for a phenomenon
,. According to the passage/ one ad'antage of studying the isotope record of ocean
sediments is that it
(A) corresponds with the record of ice 'olume taken from rocks on land
(B) shows little 'ariation in isotope ratios when samples are taken from different
continental locations
(C) corresponds with predictions already made by climatologists and e$perts in
other fields
() confirms the record of ice 'olume initially established by analy!ing 'ariations
in 'olcanic emissions
(#) pro'ides data that can be used to substantiate records concerning 'ariations in
the amount of sunlight recei'ed by the #arth
Passage 19 (19/63)
In contrast to tradtona anayses of mnorty busness, the socoogca
anayss contends that mnorty busness ownershp s a group-eve phenomenon,
n that t s argey dependent upon soca-group resources for ts deveopment.
Specfcay, ths anayss ndcates that support networks pay a crtca roe n
startng and mantanng mnorty busness enterprses by provdng owners wth a
range of assstance, from the nforma encouragement of famy members and
frends to dependabe sources of abor and centee from the owners ethnc
group. Such sef-hep networks, whch encourage and support ethnc mnorty
entrepreneurs, consst of "prmary" nsttutons, those cosest to the ndvdua n
shapng hs or her behavor and beefs. They are characterzed by the face-to-face
assocaton and cooperaton of persons unted by tes of mutua concern. They
form an ntermedate soca eve between the ndvdua and arger "secondary"
nsttutons based on mpersona reatonshps. Prmary nsttutons comprsng the
support network ncude knshp, peer, and neghborhood or communty
subgroups.
A ma|or functon of sef-hep networks s fnanca support. Most schoars agree
that mnorty busness owners have depended prmary on famy funds and
ethnc communty resources for nvestment capta. Persona savngs have been
accumuated, often through fruga vng habts that requre sacrfces by the
entre famy and are thus a product of ong-term famy fnanca behavor.
Addtona oans and gfts from reatves, forthcomng because of group obgaton
GMAT 11
rather than narrow nvestment cacuaton, have suppemented persona savngs.
Indvdua entrepreneurs do not necessary rey on ther kn because they cannot
obtan fnanca backng from commerca resources. They may actuay avod
banks because they assume that commerca nsttutons ether cannot
comprehend the speca needs of mnorty enterprse or charge unreasonaby hgh
nterest rates.
Wthn the arger ethnc communty, rotatng credt assocatons have been
used to rase capta. These assocatons are nforma cubs of frends and other
trusted members of the ethnc group who make reguar contrbutons to a fund
that s gven to each contrbutor n rotaton. One author estmates that 40 percent
of New York Chnatown frms estabshed durng 1900-1950 utzed such
assocatons as ther nta source of capta. However, recent mmgrants and
thrd or fourth generatons of oder groups now empoy rotatng credt assocatons
ony occasonay to rase nvestment funds. Some groups, ke Back Amercans,
found other means of fnanca support for ther entrepreneura efforts. The frst
Back-operated banks were created n the ate nneteenth century as depostores
for dues coected from fraterna or odge groups, whch themseves had sprung
from Back churches. Back banks made mted nvestments n other Back
enterprses. Irsh mmgrants n Amercan ctes organzed many budng and oan
assocatons to provde capta for home constructon and purchase. They, n turn,
provded work for many Irsh home-budng contractor frms. Other ethnc and
mnorty groups foowed smar practces n foundng ethnc-drected fnanca
nsttutons.
1. Based on the information in the passage/ it would be K#A;T likely for which of
the following persons to be part of a self(help network%
(A) The entrepreneur4s childhood friend
(B) The entrepreneur4s aunt
(C) The entrepreneur4s religious leader
() The entrepreneur4s neighbor
(#) The entrepreneur4s banker
2. &hich of the following illustrates the working of a self(help support network/ as
such networks are described in the passage%
(A) A public high school offers courses in book(keeping and accounting as part of
its open(enrollment adult education program.
(B) The local go'ernment in a small city sets up a program that helps teen(agers
find summer <obs.
(C) A ma<or commercial bank offers low(interest loans to e$perienced indi'iduals
who hope to establish their own businesses.
() A neighborhood(based fraternal organi!ation de'elops a program of on(the(
<ob training for its members and their friends.
12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) A community college offers country residents training programs that can lead
to certification in a 'ariety of technical trades.
.. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about rotating credit
associations%
(A) They were de'eloped e$clusi'ely by Chinese immigrants.
(B) They accounted for a significant portion of the in'estment capital used by
Chinese immigrants in 9ew Hork in the early twentieth century.
(C) Third(generation members of an immigrant group who started businesses in
the 1,254s would ha'e been unlikely to rely on them.
() They were fre"uently <oint endea'ors by members of two or three different
ethnic groups.
(#) =ecent immigrants still fre"uently turn to rotating credit associations instead
of banks for in'estment capital.
0. The passage best supports which of the following statements%
(A) A minority entrepreneur who had no assistance from family members would
not be able to start a business.
(B) ;elf(help networks ha'e been effecti'e in helping entrepreneurs primarily in
the last 15 years.
(C) ?inority groups ha'e de'eloped a range of alternati'es to standard financing
of business 'entures.
() The financial institutions founded by 'arious ethnic groups owe their success
to their uni"ue formal organi!ation.
(#) ;uccessful minority(owned businesses succeed primarily because of the
personal strengths of their founders.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph%
(A) An argument is delineated/ followed by a counter(argument.
(B) An assertion is made and se'eral e$amples are pro'ided to illustrate it.
(C) A situation is described and its historical background is then outlined.
() An e$ample of a phenomenon is gi'en and is then used as a basis for general
conclusions.
(#) A group of parallel incidents is described and the distinctions among the
incidents are then clarified.
2. According to the passage/ once a minority(owned business is established/ self(
help networks contribute which of the following to that business%
(A) 3nformation regarding possible e$pansion of the business into nearby
communities
(B) #ncouragement of a business climate that is nearly free of direct competition
(C) 8pportunities for the business owner to rein'est profits in other minority(
GMAT 1-
owned businesses
() Contact with people who are likely to be customers of the new business
(#) Contact with minority entrepreneurs who are members of other ethnic groups
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that traditional analyses of minority business
would be K#A;T likely to do which of the following%
(A) #$amine businesses primarily in their social conte$ts
(B) >ocus on current/ rather than historical/ e$amples of business enterprises
(C) ;tress common e$periences of indi'idual entrepreneurs in starting businesses
() >ocus on the maintenance of businesses/ rather than means of starting them
(#) >ocus on the role of indi'idual entrepreneurs in starting a business
6. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the 3rish building
and loan associations mentioned in the last paragraph%
(A) They were started by third( or fourth(generation immigrants.
(B) They originated as offshoots of church(related groups.
(C) They fre"uently helped 3rish entrepreneurs to finance business not connected
with construction.
() They contributed to the employment of many 3rish construction workers.
(#) They pro'ided assistance for construction businesses owned by members of
other ethnic groups.
Passage 20 (20/63)
Speces nterdependence n nature confers many benefts on the speces
nvoved, but t can aso become a pont of weakness when one speces nvoved
n the reatonshp s affected by a catastrophe. Thus, fowerng pant speces
dependent on nsect ponaton, as opposed to sef-ponaton or wnd ponaton,
coud be endangered when the popuaton of nsect-ponators s depeted by the
use of pestcdes.
In the forests of New Brunswck, for exampe, varous pestcdes have been
sprayed n the past 25 years n efforts to contro the spruce budworm, an
economcay sgnfcant pest. Scentsts have now nvestgated the effects of the
sprayng of Matac, one of the ant-budworm agents that s east toxc to nsect-
ponators. They studed Matacs effects on nsect mortaty n a wde varety of
wd nsect speces and on pant fecundty, expressed as the percentage of the
tota fowers on an ndvdua pant that actuay deveoped frut and bore seeds.
They found that the most pronounced mortaty after the sprayng of Matac
occurred among the smaer bees and one famy of fes, nsects that were a
mportant ponators of numerous speces of pants growng beneath the tree
canopy of forests. The fecundty of pants n one common ndgenous speces, the
red-oser dogwood, was sgnfcanty reduced n the sprayed areas as compared to
16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
that of pants n contro pots where Matac was not sprayed. Ths speces s hghy
dependent on the nsect-ponators most vunerabe to Matac. The creepng
dogwood, a speces smar to the red-oser dogwood, but whch s ponated by
arge bees, such as bumbebees, showed no sgnfcant decne n fecundty. Snce
arge bees are not affected by the sprayng of Matac, these resuts add weght to
the argument that sprayng where the ponators are senstve to the pestcde
used decreases pant fecundty.
The queston of whether the decrease n pant fecundty caused by the
sprayng of pestcdes actuay causes a decne n the overa popuaton of
fowerng pant speces st remans unanswered. Pant speces dependent soey
on seeds for survva or dspersa are obvousy more vunerabe to any decrease
n pant fecundty that occurs, whatever ts cause. If, on the other hand,
vegetatve growth and dspersa (by means of shoots or runners) are avaabe as
aternatve reproductve strateges for a speces, then decreases n pant fecundty
may be of tte consequence. The fecundty effects descrbed here are key to
have the most profound mpact on pant speces wth a four of the foowng
characterstcs: a short fe span, a narrow geographc range, an ncapacty for
vegetatve propagaton, and a dependence on a sma number of nsect-ponator
speces. Perhaps we shoud gve speca attenton to the conservaton of such
pant speces snce they ack key factors n ther defenses aganst the
envronmenta dsrupton caused by pestcde use.
1. &hich of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage%
(A) ;pecies interdependence is a point of weakness for some plants/ but is
generally beneficial to insects in'ol'ed in pollination.
(B) #fforts to control the spruce budworm ha'e had deleterious effects on the red(
osier dogwood.
(C) The used of pesticides may be endangering certain plant species dependent on
insects for pollination.
() The spraying of pesticides can reduce the fecundity of a plant species/ but
probably does not affect its o'erall population stability.
(#) @lant species lacking key factors in their defenses against human
en'ironmental disruption will probably become e$tinct.
2. According to the author/ a flowering plant species whose fecundity has declined
due to pesticide spraying may not e$perience an o'erall population decline if the
plant species can do which of the following%
(A) =eproduce itself by means of shoots and runners.
(B) ;ur'i'e to the end of the growing season.
(C) ;ur'i'e in harsh climates.
() =espond to the fecundity decline by producing more flowers.
(#) Attract large insects as pollinators.
GMAT 1,
.. The passage suggests that the lack of an obser'ed decline in the fecundity of the
creeping dogwood strengthens the researchers conclusions regarding pesticide
use because the
(A) creeping dogwood is a species that does not resemble other forest plants
(B) creeping dogwood is a species pollinated by a broader range of insect species
than are most dogwood species
(C) creeping dogwood grows primarily in regions that were not sprayed with
pesticide/ and so ser'ed as a control for the e$periment
() creeping dogwood is similar to the red(osier dogwood/ but its insect
pollinators are known to be insensiti'e to the pesticide used in the study
(#) geographical range of the creeping dogwood is similar to that of the red(osier
dogwood/ but the latter species relies less on seeds for reproduction
0. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of the forest regions in
9ew Brunswick sprayed with most anti(budworm pesticides other than ?atacil%
(A) The fecundity of some flowering plants in those regions may ha'e decreased
to an e'en greater degree than in the regions where ?atacil is used.
(B) 3nsect mortality in those regions occurs mostly among the larger species of
insects/ such as bumblebees.
(C) The number of seeds produced by common plant species in those regions is
probably comparable to the number produced where ?atacil is sprayed.
() ?any more plant species ha'e become e$tinct in those regions than in the
regions where ?atacil is used.
(#) The spruce budworm is under better control in those regions than in the
regions where ?atacil is sprayed.
1. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is true of plant fecundity as it is
defined in the passage%
(A) A plant4s fecundity decreases as the percentage of unpollinated flowers on the
plant increases.
(B) A plant4s fecundity decreases as the number of flowers produced by the plant
decreases.
(C) A plant4s fecundity increases as the number of flowers produced by the plant
increases.
() A plant4s fecundity is usually low if the plant relies on a small number of
insect species for pollination.
(#) A plant4s fecundity is high if the plant can reproduce "uickly by means of
'egetati'e growth as well as by the production of seeds.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following plant species
would be K#A;T likely to e$perience a decrease in fecundity as a result of the
spraying of a pesticide not directly to$ic to plants%
25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) A flowering tree pollinated by only a few insect species
(B) A kind of insect(pollinated 'ine producing few flowers
(C) A wind(pollinated flowering tree that is short(li'ed
() A flowering shrub pollinated by a large number of insect species
(#) A type of wildflower typically pollinated by larger insects
-. &hich of the following assumptions most probably underlies the author4s
tentati'e recommendation in lines 11(10%
(A) )uman acti'ities that result in en'ironmental disruption should be
abandoned.
(B) The use of pesticides is likely to continue into the future.
(C) 3t is economically beneficial to preser'e endangered plant species.
() @re'enting the endangerment of a species is less costly than trying to sa'e an
already endangered one.
(#) Conser'ation efforts aimed at preser'ing a few well(chosen species are more
cost(effecti'e than are broader(based efforts to impro'e the en'ironment.
Passage 21 (21/63)
Bernard Bayn has recenty renterpreted the eary hstory of the Unted
States by appyng new soca research fndngs on the experences of European
mgrants. In hs renterpretaton, mgraton becomes the organzng prncpe for
rewrtng the hstory of prendustra North Amerca. Hs approach rests on four
separate propostons.
The frst of these asserts that resdents of eary modern Engand moved
reguary about ther countrysde; mgratng to the New Word was smpy a
"natura spover." Athough at frst the coones hed tte postve attracton for
the Engsh-they woud rather have stayed home-by the eghteenth century
peope ncreasngy mgrated to Amerca because they regarded t as the and of
opportunty. Secondy, Bayn hods that, contrary to the noton that used to
foursh n Amerca hstory textbooks, there was never a typca New Word
communty. For exampe, the economc and demographc character of eary New
Engand towns vared consderaby.
Bayns thrd proposton suggests two genera patterns prevang among the
many thousands of mgrants: one group came as ndentured servants, another
came to acqure and. Surprsngy, Bayn suggests that those who recruted
ndentured servants were the drvng forces of transatantc mgraton. These
coona entrepreneurs heped determne the soca character of peope who came
to prendustra North Amerca. At frst, thousands of unsked aborers were
recruted; by the 1730s, however, Amercan empoyers demanded sked
artsans.
Fnay, Bayn argues that the coones were a haf-cvzed hnterand of the
GMAT 21
European cuture system. He s undoubtedy correct to nsst that the coones
were part of an Ango-Amercan empre. But to dvde the empre nto Engsh core
and coona perphery, as Bayn does, devaues the achevements of coona
cuture. It s true, as Bayn cams, that hgh cuture n the coones never matched
that n Engand. But what of seventeenth-century New Engand, where the setters
created effectve aws, but a dstngushed unversty, and pubshed books?
Bayn mght respond that New Engand was exceptona. However, the deas and
nsttutons deveoped by New Engand Purtans had powerfu effects on North
Amercan cuture.
Athough Bayn goes on to appy hs approach to some thousands of
ndentured servants who mgrated |ust pror to the revouton, he fas to nk ther
experence wth the potca deveopment of the Unted States. Evdence
presented n hs work suggests how we mght make such a connecton. These
ndentured servants were treated as saves for the perod durng whch they had
sod ther tme to Amercan empoyers. It s not surprsng that as soon as they
served ther tme they passed up good wages n the ctes and headed west to
ensure ther persona ndependence by acqurng and. Thus, t s n the west that
a pecuary Amercan potca cuture began, among coonsts who were
suspcous of authorty and ntensey ant-arstocratc.
1. &hich of the following statements about migrants to colonial 9orth America is
supported by information in the passage%
(A) A larger percentage of migrants to colonial 9orth America came as
indentured ser'ants than as free agents interested in ac"uiring land.
(B) ?igrants who came to the colonies as indentured ser'ants were more
successful at making a li'elihood than were farmers and artisans.
(C) ?igrants to colonial 9orth America were more successful at ac"uiring their
own land during the eighteenth century than during the se'en(tenth century.
() By the 1-.54s/ migrants already skilled in a trade were in more demand by
American employers than were unskilled laborers.
(#) A significant percentage of migrants who came to the colonies to ac"uire land
were forced to work as field hands for prosperous American farmers.
2. The author of the passage states that Bailyn failed to
(A) gi'e sufficient emphasis to the cultural and political interdependence of the
colonies and #ngland
(B) describe carefully how migrants of different ethnic backgrounds preser'ed
their culture in the united ;tates
(C) take ad'antage of social research on the e$periences of colonists who
migrated to colonial 9orth America specifically to ac"uire land
() relate the e$perience of the migrants to the political 'alues that e'entually
shaped the character of the :nited ;tates
22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) in'estigate the li'es of #uropeans before they came to colonial 9orth America
to determine more ade"uately their moti'ations for migrating
.. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s e'aluation of Bailyn4s
fourth proposition%
(A) 3t is totally implausible.
(B) 3t is partially correct.
(C) 3t is highly admirable.
() 3t is contro'ersial though persuasi'e.
(#) 3t is intriguing though unsubstantiated.
0. According to the passage/ Bailyn and the author agree on which of the following
statements about the culture of colonial 9ew #ngland%
(A) )igh culture in 9ew #ngland ne'er e"ualed the high culture of #ngland.
(B) The cultural achie'ements of colonial 9ew #ngland ha'e generally been
unrecogni!ed by historians.
(C) The colonists imitated the high culture of #ngland/ and did not de'elop a
culture that was uni"uely their own.
() The southern colonies were greatly influenced by the high culture of 9ew
#ngland.
(#) 9ew #ngland communities were able to create laws and build a uni'ersity/
but unable to create anything inno'ati'e in the arts.
1. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of #nglish migrants to
the colonies during the eighteenth century%
(A) ?ost of them were farmers rather than trades people or artisans.
(B) ?ost of them came because they were unable to find work in #ngland.
(C) They differed from other #nglish people in that they were willing to tra'el.
() They e$pected that the colonies would offer them increased opportunity.
(#) They were generally not as educated as the people who remained in #ngland.
2. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) comparing se'eral current interpretations of early American history
(B) suggesting that new social research on migration should lead to re'isions in
current interpretations of early American history
(C) pro'iding the theoretical framework that is used by most historians in
understanding early American history
() refuting an argument about early American history that has been proposed by
social historians
(#) discussing a reinterpretation of early American history that is based on new
social research on migration
GMAT 2.
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that American history te$tbooks used to assert
that
(A) many migrants to colonial 9orth America were not successful financially
(B) more migrants came to America out of religious or political con'iction that
came in the hope of ac"uiring land
(C) 9ew #ngland communities were much alike in terms of their economics and
demographics
() many migrants to colonial 9orth America failed to maintain ties with their
#uropean relations
(#) the le'el of literacy in 9ew #ngland communities was 'ery high
6. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following statements about Bailyn4s work%
(A) Bailyn underestimates the effects of @uritan thought on 9orth American
culture.
(B) Bailyn o'eremphasi!es the economic dependence of the colonies on Breat
Britain.
(C) Bailyn4s description of the colonies as part of an Anglo(American empire is
misleading and incorrect.
() Bailyn failed to test his propositions on a specific group of migrants to
colonial 9orth America.
(#) Bailyn o'eremphasi!es the e$periences of migrants to the 9ew #ngland
colonies/ and neglects the southern and the western parts of the 9ew &orld.
Passage 22 (22/63)
Many Unted States companes have, unfortunatey, made the search for ega
protecton from mport competton nto a ma|or ne of work. Snce 1980 the
Unted States Internatona Trade Commsson (ITC) has receved about 280
compants aegng damage from mports that beneft from subsdes by foregn
governments. Another 340 charge that foregn companes "dumped" ther
products n the Unted States at "ess than far vaue." Even when no unfar
practces are aeged, the smpe cam that an ndustry has been n|ured by
mports s suffcent grounds to seek reef.
Contrary to the genera mpresson, ths quest for mport reef has hurt more
companes than t has heped. As corporatons begn to functon gobay, they
deveop an ntrcate web of marketng, producton, and research reatonshps. The
compexty of these reatonshps makes t unkey that a system of mport reef
aws w meet the strategc needs of a the unts under the same parent
company.
Internatonazaton ncreases the danger that foregn companes w use
mport reef aws aganst the very companes the aws were desgned to protect.
20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Suppose a Unted States-owned company estabshes an overseas pant to
manufacture a product whe ts compettor makes the same product n the Unted
States. If the compettor can prove n|ury from the mports-and that the Unted
States company receved a subsdy from a foregn government to bud ts pant
abroad-the Unted States companys products w be uncompettve n the Unted
States, snce they woud be sub|ect to dutes.
Perhaps the most brazen case occurred when the ITC nvestgated aegatons
that Canadan companes were n|urng the Unted States sat ndustry by dumpng
rock sat, used to de-ce roads. The bzarre aspect of the compant was that a
foregn congomerate wth Unted States operatons was cryng for hep aganst a
Unted States company wth foregn operatons. The "Unted States" company
camng n|ury was a subsdary of a Dutch congomerate, whe the "Canadan"
companes ncuded a subsdary of a Chcago frm that was the second-argest
domestc producer of rock sat.
1. The passage is chiefly concerned with
(A) arguing against the increased internationali!ation of :nited ;tates
corporations
(B) warning that the application of laws affecting trade fre"uently has unintended
conse"uences
(C) demonstrating that foreign(based firms recei'e more subsidies from their
go'ernments than :nited ;tates firms recei'e from the :nited ;tates
go'ernment
() ad'ocating the use of trade restrictions for *dumped+ products but not for
other imports
(#) recommending a uniform method for handling claims of unfair trade practices
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the minimal basis for a complaint to the
3nternational Trade Commission is which of the following%
(A) A foreign competitor has recei'ed a subsidy from a foreign go'ernment.
(B) A foreign competitor has substantially increased the 'olume of products
shipped to the :nited ;tates.
(C) A foreign competitor is selling products in the :nited ;tates at less than fair
market 'alue.
() The company re"uesting import relief has been in<ured by the sale of imports
in the :nited ;tates.
(#) The company re"uesting import relief has been barred from e$porting
products to the country of its foreign competitor.
.. The last paragraph performs which of the following functions in the passage%
(A) 3t summari!es the discussion thus far and suggests additional areas of
research.
GMAT 21
(B) 3t presents a recommendation based on the e'idence presented earlier.
(C) 3t discusses an e$ceptional case in which the results e$pected by the author of
the passage were not obtained.
() 3t introduces an additional area of concern not mentioned earlier.
(#) 3t cites a specific case that illustrates a problem presented more generally in
the pre'ious paragraph.
0. The passage warns of which of the following dangers%
(A) Companies in the :nited ;tates may recei'e no protection from imports
unless they acti'ely seek protection from import competition.
(B) Companies that seek legal protection from import competition may incur
legal costs that far e$ceed any possible gain.
(C) Companies that are :nited ;tates(owned but operate internationally may not
be eligible for protection from import competition under the laws of the
countries in which their plants operate.
() Companies that are not :nited ;tates(owned may seek legal protection from
import competition under :nited ;tates import relief laws.
(#) Companies in the :nited ;tates that import raw materials may ha'e to pay
duties on those materials.
1. The passage suggests that which of the following is most likely to be true of
:nited ;tates trade laws%
(A) They will eliminate the practice of *dumping+ products in the :nited ;tates.
(B) They will enable manufacturers in the :nited ;tates to compete more
profitably outside the :nited ;tates.
(C) They will affect :nited ;tates trade with Canada more negati'ely than trade
with other nations.
() Those that help one unit within a parent company will not necessarily help
other units in the company.
(#) Those that are applied to international companies will accomplish their
intended result.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about the complaint mentioned in the last paragraph%
(A) The 3TC acted unfairly toward the complainant in its in'estigation.
(B) The complaint 'iolated the intent of import relief laws.
(C) The response of the 3TC to the complaint pro'ided suitable relief from unfair
trade practices to the complainant.
() The 3TC did not ha'e access to appropriate information concerning the case.
(#) #ach of the companies in'ol'ed in the complaint acted in its own best
interest.
22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
-. According to the passage/ companies ha'e the general impression that
3nternational Trade Commission import relief practices ha'e
(A) caused unpredictable fluctuations in 'olumes of imports and e$ports
(B) achie'ed their desired effect only under unusual circumstances
(C) actually helped companies that ha'e re"uested import relief
() been opposed by the business community
(#) had less impact on international companies than the business community
e$pected
6. According to the passage/ the 3nternational Trade Commission is in'ol'ed in
which of the following%
(A) 3n'estigating allegations of unfair import competition
(B) Branting subsidies to companies in the :nited ;tates that ha'e been in<ured
by import competition
(C) =ecommending legislation to ensure fair
() 3dentifying international corporations that wish to build plants in the :nited
;tates
(#) Assisting corporations in the :nited ;tates that wish to compete globally
Passage 23 (23/63)
At the end of the nneteenth century, a rsng nterest n Natve Amercan
customs and an ncreasng desre to understand Natve Amercan cuture
prompted ethnoogsts to begn recordng the fe stores of Natve Amercan.
Ethnoogsts had a dstnct reason for wantng to hear the stores: they were after
ngustc or anthropoogca data that woud suppement ther own fed
observatons, and they beeved that the persona stores, even of a snge
ndvdua, coud ncrease ther understandng of the cutures that they had been
observng from wthout. In addton many ethnoogsts at the turn of the century
beeved that Natve Amercan manners and customs were rapdy dsappearng,
and that t was mportant to preserve for posterty as much nformaton as coud
be adequatey recorded before the cutures dsappeared forever.
There were, however, arguments aganst ths method as a way of acqurng
accurate and compete nformaton. Franz Boas, for exampe, descrbed
autobographes as beng "of mted vaue, and usefu chefy for the study of the
perverson of truth by memory," whe Pau Radn contended that nvestgators
rarey spent enough tme wth the trbes they were observng, and nevtaby
derved resuts too tnged by the nvestgators own emotona tone to be reabe.
Even more mportanty, as these fe stores moved from the tradtona ora
mode to recorded wrtten form, much was nevtaby ost. Edtors often decded
what eements were sgnfcant to the fed research on a gven trbe. Natve
Amercans recognzed that the essence of ther ves coud not be communcated
GMAT 2-
n Engsh and that events that they thought sgnfcant were often deemed
unmportant by ther ntervewers. Indeed, the very act of teng ther stores
coud force Natve Amercan narrators to dstort ther cutures, as taboos had to be
broken to speak the names of dead reatves cruca to ther famy stores.
Despte a of ths, autobography remans a usefu too for ethnoogca
research: such persona remnscences and mpressons, ncompete as they may
be, are key to throw more ght on the workng of the mnd and emotons than
any amount of specuaton from an ethnoogst or ethnoogca theorst from
another cuture.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) The historical backgrounds of two currently used research methods are
chronicled.
(B) The 'alidity of the data collected by using two different research methods is
compared.
(C) The usefulness of a research method is "uestioned and then a new method is
proposed.
() The use of a research method is described and the limitations of the results
obtained are discussed.
(#) A research method is e'aluated and the changes necessary for its adaptation to
other sub<ect areas are discussed.
2. &hich of the following is most similar to the actions of nineteenth(century
ethnologists in their editing of the life stories of 9ati'e Americans%
(A) A witness in a <ury trial in'okes the >ifth Amendment in order to a'oid
relating personally incriminating e'idence.
(B) A stockbroker refuses to di'ulge the source of her information on the possible
future increase in a stock4s 'alue.
(C) A sports announcer describes the action in a team sport with which he is
unfamiliar.
() A chef purposely e$cludes the special ingredient from the recipe of his
pri!ewinning dessert.
(#) A politician fails to mention in a campaign speech the similarities in the
positions held by her opponent for political office and by herself.
.. According to the passage/ collecting life stories can be a useful methodology
because
(A) life stories pro'ide deeper insights into a culture than the hypothesi!ing of
academics who are not members of that culture
(B) life stories can be collected easily and they are not sub<ect to in'alid
interpretations
(C) ethnologists ha'e a limited number of research methods from which to choose
26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() life stories make it easy to distinguish between the important and unimportant
features of a culture
(#) the collection of life stories does not re"uire a culturally knowledgeable
in'estigator
0. 3nformation in the passage suggests that which of the following may be a possible
way to eliminate bias in the editing of life stories%
(A) Basing all inferences made about the culture on an ethnological theory
(B) #liminating all of the emotion(laden information reported by the informant
(C) Translating the informant4s words into the researcher4s language
() =educing the number of "uestions and carefully specifying the content of the
"uestions that the in'estigator can ask the informant
(#) =eporting all of the information that the informant pro'ides regardless of the
in'estigator4s personal opinion about its intrinsic 'alue
1. The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to
(A) "uestion an e$planation
(B) correct a misconception
(C) criti"ue a methodology
() discredit an idea
(#) clarify an ambiguity
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a characteristic of the ethnological
research on 9ati'e Americans conducted during the nineteenth century was the
use of which of the following%
(A) 3n'estigators familiar with the culture under study
(B) A language other than the informant4s for recording life stories
(C) Kife stories as the ethnologist4s primary source of information
() Complete transcriptions of informants4 descriptions of tribal beliefs
(#) ;tringent guidelines for the preser'ation of cultural data
-. The passage mentions which of the following as a factor that can affect the
accuracy of ethnologists4 transcriptions of life stories%
(A) The informants4 social standing within the culture
(B) The inclusi'eness of the theory that pro'ided the basis for the research
(C) The length of time the researchers spent in the culture under study
() The number of life stories collected by the researchers
(#) The 'erifiability of the information pro'ided by the research informants
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements about the usefulness of life stories as a
source of ethnographic information%
GMAT 2,
(A) They can be a source of information about how people in a culture 'iew the
world.
(B) They are most useful as a source of linguistic information.
(C) They re"uire editing and interpretation before they can be useful.
() They are most useful as a source of information about ancestry.
(#) They pro'ide incidental information rather than significant insights into a way
of life.
Passage 24 (24/63)
A of the ces n a partcuar pant start out wth the same compement of
genes. How then can these ces dfferentate and form structures as dfferent as
roots, stems, eaves, and fruts? The answer s that ony a sma subset of the
genes n a partcuar knd of ce are expressed, or turned on, at a gven tme. Ths
s accompshed by a compex system of chemca messengers that n pants
ncude hormones and other reguatory moecues. Fve ma|or hormones have
been dentfed: auxn, abscsc acd, cytoknn, ethyene, and gbberen. Studes
of pants have now dentfed a new cass of reguatory moecues caed
ogosaccharns.
Unke the ogosaccharns, the fve we-known pant hormones are peotropc
rather than specfc; that s, each has more than one effect on the growth and
deveopment of pants. The fve has so many smutaneous effects that they are
not very usefu n artfcay controng the growth of crops. Auxn, for nstance,
stmuates the rate of ce eongaton, causes shoots to grow up and roots to grow
down, and nhbts the growth of atera shoots. Auxn aso causes the pant to
deveop a vascuar system, to form atera roots, and to produce ethyene.
The peotropy of the fve we-studed pant hormones s somewhat anaogous
to that of certan hormones n anma. For exampe, hormones from the
hypothaamus n the bran stmuate the anteror obe of the ptutary gand to
synthesze and reease many dfferent hormones, one of whch stmuates the
reease of hormones from the adrena cortex. These hormones have specfc
effects on target organs a over the body. One hormone stmuates the thyrod
gand, for exampe, another the ovaran foce ces, and so forth. In other words,
there s a herarchy of hormones. Such a herarchy may aso exst n pants.
Ogosaccharns are fragments of the ce wa reeased by enzymes: dfferent
enzymes reease dfferent ogosaccharns. There are ndcatons that peotropc
pant hormones may actuay functon by actvatng the enzymes that reease
these other, more specfc chemca messengers from the ce wa.
1. According to the passage/ the fi'e well(known plant hormones are not useful in
controlling the growth of crops because
(A) it is not known e$actly what functions the hormones perform
(B) each hormone has 'arious effects on plants
-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) none of the hormones can function without the others
() each hormone has different effects on different kinds of plants
(#) each hormone works on only a small subset of a cell4s genes at any particular
time
2. The passage suggests that the place of hypothalamic hormones in the hormonal
hierarchies of animals is similar to the place of which of the following in plants%
(A) @lant cell walls
(B) The complement of genes in each plant cell
(C) A subset of a plant cell4s gene complement
() The fi'e ma<or hormones
(#) The oligosaccharins
.. The passage suggests that which of the following is a function likely to be
performed by an oligosaccharin%
(A) To stimulate a particular plant cell to become part of a plant4s root system
(B) To stimulate the walls of a particular cell to produce other oligosaccharins
(C) To acti'ate en!ymes that release specific chemical messengers from plant cell
walls
() To duplicate the gene complement in a particular plant cell
(#) To produce multiple effects on a particular subsystem of plant cells
0. The author mentions specific effects that au$in has on plant de'elopment in order
to illustrate the
(A) point that some of the effects of plant hormones can be harmful
(B) way in which hormones are produced by plants
(C) hierarchical nature of the functioning of plant hormones
() differences among the best(known plant hormones
(#) concept of pleiotropy as it is e$hibited by plant hormones
1. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes a function
performed by oligosaccharins%
(A) =egulating the daily functioning of a plant4s cells
(B) 3nteracting with one another to produce different chemicals
(C) =eleasing specific chemical messengers from a plant4s cell walls
() @roducing the hormones that cause plant cells to differentiate to perform
different functions
(#) 3nfluencing the de'elopment of a plant4s cells by controlling the e$pression of
the cells4 genes
2. The passage suggests that/ unlike the pleiotropic hormones/ oligosaccharins could
be used effecti'ely to
GMAT -1
(A) trace the passage of chemicals through the walls of cells
(B) pinpoint functions of other plant hormones
(C) artificially control specific aspects of the de'elopment of crops
() alter the complement of genes in the cells of plants
(#) alter the effects of the fi'e ma<or hormones on plant de'elopment
-. The author discusses animal hormones primarily in order to
(A) introduce the idea of a hierarchy of hormones
(B) e$plain the effects that au$in has on plant cells
(C) contrast the functioning of plant hormones and animals hormones
() illustrate the way in which particular hormones affect animals
(#) e$plain the distinction between hormones and regulatory molecules
Passage 25 (25/63)
In 1977 the prestgous Ewha Womens Unversty n Seou, Korea, announced
the openng of the frst womens studes program n Asa. Few academc programs
have ever receved such pubc attenton. In broadcast debates, crtcs dsmssed
the program as a betraya of natona dentty, an mtaton of Western deas, and
a dstracton from the rea task of natona unfcaton and economc deveopment.
Even supporters underestmated the program; they thought t woud be merey
another of the many Western deas that had aready proved usefu n Asan
cuture, akn to arnes, eectrcty, and the assemby ne. The founders of the
program, however, reazed that nether vew was correct. They had some
reservatons about the appcabty of Western femnst theores to the roe of
women n Asa and fet that such theores shoud be cosey examned. Ther
approach has thus far yeded mportant crtques of Western theory, nformed by
the speca experence of Asan women.
For nstance, ke the Western femnst crtque of the Freudan mode of the
human psyche, the Korean crtque fnds Freudan theory cuture-bound, but n
ways dfferent from those cted by Western theorsts. The Korean theorsts cam
that Freudan theory assumes the unversaty of the Western nucear, mae-
headed famy and focuses on the personaty formaton of the ndvdua,
ndependent of socety. An anayss based on such assumptons coud be vad for
a hghy compettve, ndvduastc socety. In the Freudan famy drama, famy
members are assumed to be engaged n a Darwnan strugge aganst each other
-father aganst son and sbng aganst sbng. Such a concept pro|ects the
compettve mode of Western socety onto human personates. But n the Asan
concept of personaty there s no dea attached to ndvduasm or to the
ndependent sef. The Western mode of personaty deveopment does not expan
ma|or characterstcs of the Korean personaty, whch s soca and group-
centered. The "sef" s a soca beng defned by and actng n a group, and the
-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
we-beng of both men and women s determned by the equbrum of the group,
not by ndvdua sef-asserton. The dea s one of nterdependency.
In such a context, what s recognzed as "dependency" n Western psychatrc
terms s not, n Korean terms, an admsson of weakness or faure. A ths bears
drecty on the Asan percepton of mens and womens psychoogy because men
are aso "dependent." In Korean cuture, men cry and otherwse easy show ther
emotons, somethng that mght be consdered a betraya of mascunty n
Western cuture. In the knshp-based socety of Korea, four generatons may ve
n the same house, whch means that peope can be sons and daughters a ther
ves, whereas n Western cuture, the roes of husband and son, wfe and
daughter, are often ncompatbe.
1. &hich of the following best summari!es the content of the passage%
(A) A criti"ue of a particular women4s studies program
(B) A report of work in social theory done by a particular women4s studies
program
(C) An assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of a particular women4s
studies program
() An analysis of the philosophy underlying women4s studies programs
(#) An abbre'iated history of Morean women4s studies programs
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Morean scholars in the field of women4s
studies undertook an analysis of >reudian theory as a response to which of the
following%
(A) Attacks by critics of the #wha women4s studies program
(B) The superficiality of earlier criti"ues of >reudian theory
(C) The popularity of >reud in Morean psychiatric circles
() Their desire to encourage Morean scholars to adopt the >reudian model
(#) Their assessment of the rele'ance and limitations of &estern feminist theory
with respect to Morean culture
.. &hich of the following conclusions about the introduction of &estern ideas to
Morean society can be supported by information contained in the passage%
(A) #$cept for technological inno'ations/ few &estern ideas ha'e been
successfully transplanted into Morean society.
(B) The introduction of &estern ideas to Morean society is 'iewed by some
Moreans as a challenge to Morean identity.
(C) The de'elopment of the Morean economy depends hea'ily on the
de'elopment of new academic programs modeled after &estern programs.
() The e$tent to which &estern ideas must be adapted for acceptance by Morean
society is minimal.
(#) The introduction of &estern ideas to Morean society accelerated after 1,--.
GMAT -.
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the broadcast media in Morea considered
the establishment of the #wha women4s studies program
(A) praiseworthy
(B) insignificant
(C) newsworthy
() imitati'e
(#) incomprehensible
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the position taken by some of the
supporters of the #wha women4s studies program was problematic to the founders
of the program because those supporters
(A) assumed that the program would be based on the uncritical adoption of
&estern theory
(B) failed to show concern for the issues of national unification and economic
de'elopment
(C) were unfamiliar with &estern feminist theory
() were not themsel'es scholars in the field of women4s studies
(#) accepted the uni'ersality of >reudian theory
2. &hich of the following statements is most consistent with the 'iew of personality
de'elopment held by the #wha women4s studies group%
(A) @ersonality de'elopment occurs in identifiable stages/ beginning with
dependency in childhood and ending with independence in adulthood.
(B) Any theory of personality de'elopment/ in order to be 'alid/ must be
uni'ersal.
(C) @ersonality de'elopment is influenced by the characteristics of the society in
which a person li'es.
() @ersonality de'elopment is hindered if a person is not permitted to be
independent.
(#) 9o theory of personality de'elopment can account for the differences
between Morean and &estern culture.
-. &hich of the following statements about the &estern feminist criti"ue of
>reudian theory can be supported by information contained in the passage%
(A) 3t recogni!es the influence of &estern culture on >reudian theory.
(B) 3t was written after 1,--.
(C) 3t acknowledges the uni'ersality of the nuclear/ male(headed family.
() 3t challenges >reud4s analysis of the role of daughters in &estern society.
(#) 3t fails to address the issue of competiti'eness in &estern society.
6. According to the passage/ critics of the #wha women4s studies program cited the
program as a threat to which of the following%
-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3. 9ational identity
33. 9ational unification
333. #conomic de'elopment
3C. >amily integrity
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3/ 33/ and 333 only
() 33/ 333/ and 3C only
(#) 3/ 33/ 333/ and 3C
Passage 26 (26/63)
In choosng a method for determnng cmatc condtons that exsted n the
past, paeocmatoogsts nvoke four prncpa crtera. Frst, the matera-rocks,
akes, vegetaton, etc.-on whch the method rees must be wdespread enough
to provde penty of nformaton, snce anayss of matera that s rarey
encountered w not permt correaton wth other regons or wth other perods of
geoogca hstory. Second, n the process of formaton, the matera must have
receved an envronmenta sgna that refects a change n cmate and that can be
decphered by modern physca or chemca means. Thrd, at east some of the
matera must have retaned the sgna unaffected by subsequent changes n the
envronment. Fourth, t must be possbe to determne the tme at whch the
nferred cmatc condtons hed. Ths ast crteron s more easy met n datng
marne sedments, because datng of ony a sma number of ayers n a marne
sequence aows the age of other ayers to be estmated fary reaby by
extrapoaton and nterpoaton. By contrast, because sedmentaton s much ess
contnuous n contnenta regons, estmatng the age of a contnenta bed from
the known ages of beds above and beow s more rsky.
One very od method used n the nvestgaton of past cmatc condtons
nvoves the measurement of water eves n ancent akes. In temperate regons,
there are enough akes for correatons between them to gve us a reabe pcture.
In ard and semard regons, on the other hand, the sma number of akes and the
great dstances between them reduce the possbtes for correaton. Moreover,
snce ake eves are controed by rates of evaporaton as we as by precptaton,
the nterpretaton of such eves s ambguous. For nstance, the fact that ake
eves n the semard southwestern Unted States appear to have been hgher
durng the ast ce age than they are now was at one tme attrbuted to ncreased
precptaton. On the bass of snow-ne eevatons, however, t has been
concuded that the cmate then was not necessary wetter than t s now, but
rather that both summers and wnters were cooer, resutng n reduced
evaporaton.
Another probematc method s to reconstruct former cmates on the bass of
GMAT -1
poen profes. The type of vegetaton n a specfc regon s determned by
dentfyng and countng the varous poen grans found there. Athough the
reatonshp between vegetaton and cmate s not as drect as the reatonshp
between cmate and ake eves, the method often works we n the temperate
zones. In ard and semard regons n whch there s not much vegetaton,
however, sma changes n one or a few pant types can change the pcture
dramatcay, makng accurate correatons between neghborng areas dffcut to
obtan.
1. &hich of the following statements about the difference between marine and
continental sedimentation is supported by information in the passage%
(A) ata pro'ided by dating marine sedimentation is more consistent with
researchers4 findings in other disciplines than is data pro'ided by dating
continental sedimentation.
(B) 3t is easier to estimate the age of a layer in a se"uence of continental
sedimentation than it is to estimate the age of a layer in a se"uence of marine
sedimentation.
(C) ?arine sedimentation is much less widespread than continental
sedimentation.
() =esearchers are more often forced to rely on e$trapolation when dating a
layer of marine sedimentation than when dating a layer of continental
sedimentation.
(#) ?arine sedimentation is much more continuous than is continental
sedimentation.
2. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of the passage
as a whole%
(A) The author describes a method for determining past climatic conditions and
then offers specific e$amples of situations in which it has been used.
(B) The author discusses the method of dating marine and continental se"uences
and then e$plains how dating is more difficult with lake le'els than with
pollen profiles.
(C) The author describes the common re"uirements of methods for determining
past climatic conditions and then discusses e$amples of such methods.
() The author describes 'arious ways of choosing a material for determining
past climatic conditions and then discusses how two such methods ha'e
yielded contradictory data.
(#) The author describes how methods for determining past climatic conditions
were first de'eloped and then describes two of the earliest known methods.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that paleoclimatologists ha'e concluded which
of the following on the basis of their study of snow(line ele'ations in the
southwestern :nited ;tates%
-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) There is usually more precipitation during an ice age because of increased
amounts of e'aporation.
(B) There was less precipitation during the last ice age than there is today.
(C) Kake le'els in the semiarid southwestern :nited ;tates were lower during the
last ice age than they are today.
() uring the last ice age/ cooler weather led to lower lake le'els than
paleoclimatologists had pre'iously assumed.
(#) The high lake le'els during the last ice age may ha'e been a result of less
e'aporation rather than more precipitation.
0. &hich of the following would be the most likely topic for a paragraph that
logically continues the passage%
(A) The kinds of plants normally found in arid regions
(B) The effect of 'ariation in lake le'els on pollen distribution
(C) The material best suited to preser'ing signals of climatic changes
() 8ther criteria in'oked by paleoclimatologists when choosing a method to
determine past climatic conditions
(#) A third method for in'estigating past climatic conditions
1. The author discusses lake le'els in the southwestern :nited ;tates in order to
(A) illustrate the mechanics of the relationship between lake le'el/ e'aporation/
and precipitation
(B) pro'ide an e$ample of the uncertainty in'ol'ed in interpreting lake le'els
(C) pro'e that there are not enough ancient lakes with which to make accurate
correlations
() e$plain the effects of increased rates of e'aporation on le'els of precipitation
(#) suggest that snow(line ele'ations are in'ariably more accurate than lake
le'els in determining rates of precipitation at 'arious points in the past
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an en'ironmental signal found in
geological material would not be useful to paleoclimatologists if it
(A) had to be interpreted by modern chemical means
(B) reflected a change in climate rather than a long(term climatic condition
(C) was incorporated into a material as the material was forming
() also reflected subse"uent en'ironmental changes
(#) was contained in a continental rather than a marine se"uence
-. According to the passage/ the material used to determine past climatic conditions
must be widespread for which of the following reasons%
3. @aleoclimatologists need to make comparisons between periods of
geological history.
GMAT --
33. @aleoclimatologists need to compare materials that ha'e supported a wide
'ariety of 'egetation.
333. @aleoclimatologists need to make comparisons with data collected in other
regions.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
6. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the study of past
climates in arid and semiarid regions%
(A) 3t is sometimes more difficult to determine past climatic conditions in arid
and semiarid regions than in temperate regions.
(B) Although in the past more research has been done on temperate regions/
paleoclimatologists ha'e recently turned their attention to arid and semiarid
regions.
(C) Although more information about past climates can be gathered in arid and
semiarid than in temperate regions/ dating this information is more difficult.
() 3t is difficult to study the climatic history of arid and semiarid regions
because their climates ha'e tended to 'ary more than those of temperate
regions.
(#) The study of past climates in arid and semiarid regions has been neglected
because temperate regions support a greater 'ariety of plant and animal life.
Passage 27 (27/63)
Snce the ate 1970s, n the face of a severe oss of market share n dozens of
ndustres, manufacturers n the Unted States have been tryng to mprove
productvty-and therefore enhance ther nternatona compettveness-through
cost-cuttng programs. (Cost-cuttng here s defned as rasng abor output whe
hodng the amount of abor constant.) However, from 1978 through 1982,
productvty-the vaue of goods manufactured dvded by the amount of abor
nput-dd not mprove; and whe the resuts were better n the busness upturn of
the three years foowng, they ran 25 percent ower than productvty
mprovements durng earer, post-1945 upturns. At the same tme, t became
cear that the harder manufactures worked to mpement cost-cuttng, the more
they ost ther compettve edge.
Wth ths paradox n mnd, I recenty vsted 25 companes; t became cear to
me that the cost-cuttng approach to ncreasng productvty s fundamentay
fawed. Manufacturng reguary observes a "40, 40, 20" rue. Roughy 40 percent
of any manufacturng-based compettve advantage derves from ong-term
-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
changes n manufacturng structure (decsons about the number, sze, ocaton,
and capacty of factes) and n approaches to materas. Another 40 percent
comes from ma|or changes n equpment and process technoogy. The fna 20
percent rests on mpementng conventona cost-cuttng. Ths rue does not mpy
that cost-cuttng shoud not be tred. The we-known toos of ths approach-
ncudng smpfyng |obs and retranng empoyees to work smarter, not harder-
do produce resuts. But the toos qucky reach the mts of what they can
contrbute.
Another probem s that the cost-cuttng approach hnders nnovaton and
dscourages creatve peope. As Abernathys study of automobe manufacturers
has shown, an ndustry can easy become prsoner of ts own nvestments n cost-
cuttng technques, reducng ts abty to deveop new products. And managers
under pressure to maxmze cost-cuttng w resst nnovaton because they know
that more fundamenta changes n processes or systems w wreak havoc wth the
resuts on whch they are measured. Producton managers have aways seen ther
|ob as one of mnmzng costs and maxmzng output. Ths dmenson of
performance has unt recenty suffced as a bass of evauaton, but t has created
a penny-pnchng, mechanstc cuture n most factores that has kept away
creatve managers.
Every company I know that has freed tsef from the paradox has done so, n
part, by deveopng and mpementng a manufacturng strategy. Such a strategy
focuses on the manufacturng structure and on equpment and process
technoogy. In one company a manufacturng strategy that aowed dfferent areas
of the factory to specaze n dfferent markets repaced the conventona cost-
cuttng approach; wthn three years the company reganed ts compettve
advantage. Together wth such strateges, successfu companes are aso
encouragng managers to focus on a wder set of ob|ectves besdes cuttng costs.
There s hope for manufacturng, but t ceary rests on a dfferent way of
managng.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) summari!ing a thesis
(B) recommending a different approach
(C) comparing points of 'iew
() making a series of predictions
(#) describing a number of parado$es
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the manufacturers mentioned in line 2
e$pected that the measures they implemented would
(A) encourage inno'ation
(B) keep labor output constant
(C) increase their competiti'e ad'antage
GMAT -,
() permit business upturns to be more easily predicted
(#) cause managers to focus on a wider set of ob<ecti'es
.. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to
(A) outline in brief the author4s argument
(B) anticipate challenges to the prescriptions that follow
(C) clarify some disputed definitions of economic terms
() summari!e a number of long(accepted e$planations
(#) present a historical conte$t for the author4s obser'ations
0. The author refers to Abernathy4s study (line .2) most probably in order to
(A) "ualify an obser'ation about one rule go'erning manufacturing
(B) address possible ob<ections to a recommendation about impro'ing
manufacturing competiti'eness
(C) support an earlier assertion about one method of increasing producti'ity
() suggest the centrality in the :nited ;tates economy of a particular
manufacturing industry
(#) gi'en an e$ample of research that has "uestioned the wisdom of re'ising a
manufacturing strategy
1. The author4s attitude toward the culture in most factories is best described as
(A) cautious
(B) critical
(C) disinterested
() respectful
(#) adulatory
2. 3n the passage/ the author includes all of the following #DC#@T
(A) personal obser'ation
(B) a business principle
(C) a definition of producti'ity
() an e$ample of a successful company
(#) an illustration of a process technology
-. The author suggests that implementing con'entional cost(cutting as a way of
increasing manufacturing competiti'eness is a strategy that is
(A) flawed and ruinous
(B) shortsighted and difficult to sustain
(C) popular and easily accomplished
() useful but inade"uate
(#) misunderstood but promising
65 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 28 (28/63)
The settement of the Unted States has occuped tradtona hstorans snce
1893 when Frederck |ackson Turner deveoped hs Frontier Thesis, a thess that
expaned Amercan deveopment n terms of westward expanson. From the
perspectve of womens hstory, Turners excusvey mascune assumptons
consttute a ma|or drawback: hs defenders and crtcs ake have reconstructed
mens, not womens, ves on the fronter. However, precsey because of ths
mascune orentaton, revsng the Frontier Thesis by focusng on womens
experence ntroduces new themes nto womens hstory-woman as awmaker
and entrepreneur-and, consequenty, new nterpretatons of womens
reatonshp to capta, abor, and statute.
Turner camed that the fronter produced the ndvduasm that s the
hamark of Amercan cuture, and that ths ndvduasm n turn promoted
democratc nsttutons and economc equaty. He argued for the fronter as an
agent of soca change. Most novests and hstorans wrtng n the eary to
mdtwenteth century who consdered women n the West, when they consdered
women at a, fe under Turners spe. In ther works these authors tended to
gorfy womens contrbutons to fronter fe. Western women, n Turneran
tradton, were a fercey ndependent, capabe, and durabe ot, free from the
constrants bndng ther eastern ssters. Ths nterpretaton mped that the West
provded a congena envronment where women coud aspre to ther own goas,
free from constrctve stereotypes and sexst atttudes. In Turneran termnoogy,
the fronter had furnshed "a gate of escape from the bondage of the past."
By the mdde of the twenteth century, the Frontier Thesis fe nto dsfavor
among hstorans. Later, Reactonst wrters took the vew that fronter women
were oney, dspaced persons n a hoste meu that ntensfed the worst
aspects of gender reatons. The renassance of the femnst movement durng the
1970s ed to the Stasst schoo, whch sdestepped the good bad dchotomy and
argued that fronter women ved ves smar to the ve of women n the East. In
one now-standard text, Faragher demonstrated the persstence of the "cut of true
womanhood" and the usonary quaty of change on the westward |ourney.
Recenty the Stasst poston has been revsed but not entrey dscounted by new
research.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) pro'ide a framework within which the history of women in nineteenth(
century America can be organi!ed
(B) discuss di'ergent interpretations of women4s e$perience on the western
frontier
(C) introduce a new hypothesis about women4s e$perience in nineteenth(century
America
GMAT 61
() ad'ocate an empirical approach to women4s e$perience on the western
frontier
(#) resol'e ambiguities in se'eral theories about women4s e$perience on the
western frontier
2. &hich of the following can be inferred about the no'elists and historians
mentioned in lines 1,(25%
(A) They misunderstood the powerful influence of constricti'e stereotypes on
women in the #ast.
(B) They assumed that the frontier had offered more opportunities to women than
had the #ast.
(C) They included accurate information about women4s e$periences on the
frontier.
() They underestimated the endurance and fortitude of frontier women.
(#) They agreed with some of Turner4s assumptions about frontier women/ but
disagreed with other assumptions that he made.
.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would pro'ide additional e'idence for the
;tasists4 argument as it is described in the passage%
(A) >rontier women relied on smaller support groups of relati'es and friends in
the &est than they had in the #ast.
(B) The urban frontier in the &est offered more occupational opportunity than the
agricultural frontier offered.
(C) &omen participated more fully in the economic decisions of the family group
in the &est than they had in the #ast.
() &estern women recei'ed financial compensation for labor that was
comparable to what women recei'ed in the #ast.
(#) &estern women did not ha'e an effect on di'orce laws/ but lawmakers in the
&est were more responsi'e to women4s concerns than lawmakers in the #ast
were.
0. According to the passage/ Turner makes which of the following connections in
his >rontier Thesis%
3. A connection between American indi'idualism and economic e"uality
33. A connection between geographical e$pansion and social change
333. A connection between social change and financial prosperity
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1. 3t can be inferred that which of the following statements is consistent with the
=eactionist position as it is described in the passage%
(A) Continuity/ not change/ marked women4s li'es as they mo'ed from #ast to
&est.
(B) &omen4s e$perience on the 9orth American frontier has not recei'ed enough
attention from modern historians.
(C) espite its rigors/ the frontier offered women opportunities that had not been
a'ailable in the #ast.
() Bender relations were more difficult for women in the &est than they were in
the #ast.
(#) &omen on the 9orth American frontier adopted new roles while at the same
time reaffirming traditional roles.
2. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A current interpretation of a phenomenon is described and then ways in which
it was de'eloped are discussed.
(B) Three theories are presented and then a new hypothesis that discounts those
theories is described.
(C) An important theory and its effects are discussed and then ways in which it
has been re'ised are described.
() A contro'ersial theory is discussed and then 'iewpoints both for and against it
are described.
(#) A phenomenon is described and then theories concerning its correctness are
discussed.
-. &hich of the following is true of the ;tasist ;chool as it is described in the
passage%
(A) 3t pro'ides new interpretations of women4s relationship to work and the law.
(B) 3t resol'es some of the ambiguities inherent in Turnerian and =eactionist
thought.
(C) 3t has recently been discounted by new research gathered on women4s
e$perience.
() 3t a'oids e$treme positions taken by other writers on women4s history.
(#) 3t was the first school of thought to suggest substantial re'isions to the
Frontier Thesis.
Passage 29 (29/63)
Studes of the Wedde sea n the aboratory have descrbed the physoogca
mechansms that aow the sea to cope wth the extreme oxygen deprvaton that
occurs durng ts ongest dves, whch can extend 500 meters beow the oceans
surface and ast for over 70 mnutes. Recent fed studes, however, suggest that
GMAT 6.
durng more typca dves n the wd, ths seas physoogca behavor s dfferent.
In the aboratory, when the sea dves beow the surface of the water and
stops breathng, ts heart beats more sowy, requrng ess oxygen, and ts
arteres become constrcted, ensurng that the seas bood remans concentrated
near those organs most cruca to ts abty to navgate underwater. The sea
essentay shuts off the fow of bood to other organs, whch ether stop
functonng unt the sea surfaces or swtch to an anaerobc (oxygen-ndependent)
metabosm. The atter resuts n the producton of arge amounts of actc acd
whch can adversey affect the pH of the seas bood, but snce the anaerobc
metabosm occurs ony n those tssues whch have been soated from the seas
bood suppy, the actc acd s reeased nto the seas bood ony after the sea
surfaces, when the ungs, ver, and other organs qucky cear the acd from the
seas boodstream.
Recent fed studes, however, revea that on dves n the wd, the sea usuay
heads drecty for ts prey and returns to the surface n ess than twenty mnutes.
The absence of hgh eves of actc acd n the seas bood after such dves
suggests that durng them, the seas organs do not resort to the anaerobc
metabosm observed n the aboratory, but are supped wth oxygen from the
bood. The seas onger excursons underwater, durng whch t appears to be
ether exporng dstant routes or evadng a predator, do evoke the dvng
response seen n the aboratory. But why do the seas aboratory dves aways
evoke ths response, regardess of ther ength or depth? Some boogsts
specuate that because n aboratory dves the sea s forcby submerged, t does
not know how ong t w reman underwater and so prepares for the worst.
1. The passage pro'ides information to support which of the following
generali!ations%
(A) 8bser'ations of animals4 physiological beha'ior in the wild are not reliable
unless 'erified by laboratory studies.
(B) 3t is generally less difficult to obser'e the physiological beha'ior of an animal
in the wild than in the laboratory.
(C) The le'el of lactic acid in an animal4s blood is likely to be higher when it is
searching for prey than when it is e'ading predators.
() The le'el of lactic acid in an animal4s blood is likely to be lowest during
those periods in which it e$periences o$ygen depri'ation.
(#) The physiological beha'ior of animals in a laboratory setting is not always
consistent with their physiological beha'ior in the wild.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that by describing the &eddell seal as
preparing *for the worst+ (line 01)/ biologists mean that it
(A) prepares to remain underwater for no longer than twenty minutes
(B) e$hibits physiological beha'ior similar to that which characteri!es di'es in
which it heads directly for its prey
60 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) e$hibits physiological beha'ior similar to that which characteri!es its longest
di'es in the wild
() begins to e$hibit predatory beha'ior
(#) clears the lactic acid from its blood before attempting to di'e
.. The passage suggests that during laboratory di'es/ the p) of the &eddell seal4s
blood is not ad'ersely affected by the production of lactic acid because
(A) only those organs that are essential to the seal4s ability to na'igate underwater
re'ert to an anaerobic mechanism
(B) the seal typically re'erts to an anaerobic metabolism only at the 'ery end of
the di'e
(C) organs that re'ert to an anaerobic metabolism are temporarily isolated from
the seal4s bloodstream
() o$ygen continues to be supplied to organs that clear lactic acid from the seal4s
bloodstream
(#) the seal remains submerged for only short periods of time
0. &hich of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage%
(A) =ecent field studies ha'e indicated that descriptions of the physiological
beha'ior of the &eddell seal during laboratory di'es are not applicable to its
most typical di'es in the wild.
(B) The &eddell seal has de'eloped a number of uni"ue mechanisms that enable
it to remain submerged at depths of up to 155 meters for up to -5 minutes.
(C) The results of recent field studies ha'e made it necessary for biologists to
re'ise pre'ious perceptions of how the &eddell seal beha'es physiologically
during its longest di'es in the wild.
() Biologists speculate that laboratory studies of the physiological beha'ior of
seals during di'es lasting more than twenty minutes would be more accurate
if the seals were not forcibly submerged.
(#) )ow the &eddell seal responds to o$ygen depri'ation during its longest di'es
appears to depend on whether the seal is searching for prey or a'oiding
predators during such di'es.
1. According to the author/ which of the following is true of the laboratory studies
mentioned in line 1%
(A) They fail to e$plain how the seal is able to tolerate the increased production
of lactic acid by organs that re'ert to an anaerobic metabolism during its
longest di'es in the wild.
(B) They present an o'ersimplified account of mechanisms that the &eddell seal
relies on during its longest di'es in the wild.
(C) They pro'ide e'idence that undermines the 'iew that the &eddell seal relies
on an anaerobic metabolism during its most typical di'es in the wild.
GMAT 61
() They are based on the assumption that &eddell seals rarely spend more than
twenty minutes underwater on a typical di'e in the wild.
(#) They pro'ide an accurate account of the physiological beha'ior of &eddell
seals during those di'es in the wild in which they are either e'ading
predators or e$ploring distant routes.
2. The author cites which of the following as characteristic of the &eddell seal4s
physiological beha'ior during di'es obser'ed in the laboratory%
3. A decrease in the rate at which the seal4s heart beats
33. A constriction of the seal4s arteries
333. A decrease in the le'els of lactic acid in the seal4s blood
3C. A temporary halt in the functioning of certain organs
(A) 3 and 333 only
(B) 33 and 3C only
(C) 33 and 333 only
() 3/ 33/ and 3C only
(#) 3/ 333/ and 3C only
-. The passage suggests that because &eddell seals are forcibly submerged during
laboratory di'es/ they do which of the following%
(A) #$hibit the physiological responses that are characteristic of di'es in the wild
that last less than twenty minutes.
(B) #$hibit the physiological responses that are characteristic of the longer di'es
they undertake in the wild.
(C) Cope with o$ygen depri'ation less effecti'ely than they do on typical di'es in
the wild.
() @roduce smaller amounts of lactic acid than they do on typical di'es in the
wild.
(#) 9a'igate less effecti'ely than they do on typical di'es in the wild.
Passage 30 (30/63)
Snce the eary 1970s, hstorans have begun to devote serous attenton to
the workng cass n the Unted States. Yet whe we now have studes of workng-
cass communtes and cuture, we know remarkaby tte of workessness. When
hstorans have pad any attenton at a to unempoyment, they have focused on
the Great Depresson of the 1930s. The narrowness of ths perspectve gnores
the pervasve recessons and |obessness of the prevous decades, as Aexander
Keyssar shows n hs recent book. Examnng the perod 1870-1920, Keyssar
concentrates on Massachusetts, where the hstorca materas are partcuary
rch, and the fndngs appcabe to other ndustra areas.
The unempoyment rates that Keyssar cacuates appear to be reatvey
62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
modest, at east by Great Depresson standards: durng the worst years, n the
1870s and 1890s, unempoyment was around 15 percent. Yet Keyssar rghty
understands that a better way to measure the mpact of unempoyment s to
cacuate unempoyment frequences-measurng the percentage of workers who
experence any unempoyment n the course of a year. Gven ths perspectve,
|obessness ooms much arger.
Keyssar aso scrutnzes unempoyment patterns accordng to sk eve,
ethncty, race, age, cass, and gender. He fnds that rates of |obessness dffered
prmary accordng to cass: those n mdde-cass and whte-coar occupatons
were far ess key to be unempoyed. Yet the mpact of unempoyment on a
specfc cass was not aways the same. Even when dependent on the same trade,
ad|onng communtes coud have dramatcay dfferent unempoyment rates.
Keyssar uses these dfferenta rates to hep expan a phenomenon that has
puzzed hstorans-the startngy hgh rate of geographca mobty n the
nneteenth-century Unted States. But mobty was not the domnant workng-
cass strategy for copng wth unempoyment, nor was assstance from prvate
chartes or state agences. Sef-hep and the hep of kn got most workers through
|obess spes.
Whe Keyssar mght have spent more tme deveopng the mpcatons of hs
fndngs on |obessness for contemporary pubc pocy, hs study, n ts thorough
research and creatve use of quanttatve and quatatve evdence, s a mode of
hstorca anayss.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) recommending a new course of in'estigation
(B) summari!ing and assessing a study
(C) making distinctions among categories
() critici!ing the current state of a field
(#) comparing and contrasting two methods for calculating data
2. The passage suggests that before the early 1,-54s/ which of the following was
true of the study by historians of the working class in the :nited ;tates%
(A) The study was infre"uent or superficial/ or both.
(B) The study was repeatedly critici!ed for its allegedly narrow focus.
(C) The study relied more on "ualitati'e than "uantitati'e e'idence.
() The study focused more on the working(class community than on working(
class culture.
(#) The study ignored working(class <oblessness during the Breat epression.
.. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of Meyssar4s findings
concerning unemployment in ?assachusetts%
(A) They tend to contradict earlier findings about such unemployment.
GMAT 6-
(B) They are possible because ?assachusetts has the most easily accessible
historical records.
(C) They are the first to mention the e$istence of high rates of geographical
mobility in the nineteenth century.
() They are rele'ant to a historical understanding of the nature of unemployment
in other states.
(#) They ha'e caused historians to reconsider the role of the working class during
the Breat epression.
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the unemployment
rates mentioned in line 11%
(A) They ho'ered/ on a'erage/ around 11 percent during the period 16-5(1,25.
(B) They gi'e less than a full sense of the impact of unemployment on working(
class people.
(C) They o'erestimate the importance of middle class and white(collar
unemployment.
() They ha'e been considered by many historians to underestimate the e$tent of
working(class unemployment.
(#) They are more open to "uestion when calculated for years other than those of
peak recession.
1. &hich of the following statements about the unemployment rate during the Breat
epression can be inferred from the passage%
(A) 3t was sometimes higher than 11 percent.
(B) 3t has been analy!ed seriously only since the early 1,-54s.
(C) 3t can be calculated more easily than can unemployment fre"uency.
() 3t was ne'er as high as the rate during the 16-54s.
(#) 3t has been shown by Meyssar to be lower than pre'iously thought.
2. According to the passage/ Meyssar considers which of the following to be among
the important predictors of the likelihood that a particular person would be
unemployed in late nineteenth(century ?assachusetts%
3. The person4s class
33. &here the person li'ed or worked
333. The person4s age
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
66 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
-. The author 'iews Meyssar4s study with
(A) impatient disappro'al
(B) wary concern
(C) polite skepticism
() scrupulous neutrality
(#) "ualified admiration
6. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strongly support Meyssar4s findings
as they are described by the author%
(A) Boston/ ?assachusetts/ and Nuincy/ ?assachusetts/ ad<oining communities/
had a higher rate of unemployment for working(class people in 16-5 than in
16,5.
(B) &hite(collar professionals such as attorneys had as much trouble as day
laborers in maintaining a steady le'el of employment throughout the period
16-5(1,25.
(C) &orking(class women li'ing in Cambridge/ ?assachusetts/ were more likely
than working(class men li'ing in Cambridge to be unemployed for some
period of time during the year 16-..
() 3n the 16,54s/ shoe(factory workers mo'ed away in large numbers from
Chelmsford/ ?assachusetts/ where shoe factories were being replaced by
other industries/ to ad<oining &est Chelmsford/ where the shoe industry
flourished.
(#) 3n the late nineteenth century/ workers of all classes in ?assachusetts were
more likely than workers of all classes in other states to mo'e their place of
residence from one location to another within the state.
Passage 31 (31/63)
The number of women drectors apponted to corporate boards n the Unted
States has ncreased dramatcay, but the rato of femae to mae drectors
remans ow. Athough pressure to recrut women drectors, unke that to empoy
women n the genera work force, does not derve from egsaton, t s
nevertheess rea.
Athough sma companes were the frst to have women drectors, arge
corporatons currenty have a hgher percentage of women on ther boards. When
the chars of these arge corporatons began recrutng women to serve on boards,
they ntay sought women who were chef executve offcers (CEOs) of arge
corporatons. However, such women CEOs are st rare. In addton, the dea of
sx CEOs (femae or mae) servng on the board of each of the argest
corporatons s reazabe ony f every CEO serves on sx boards. Ths rases the
specter of drector over-commtment and the resutant duton of contrbuton.
Consequenty, the chars next sought women n busness who had the equvaent
GMAT 6,
of CEO experence. However, snce t s ony recenty that arge numbers of
women have begun to rse n management, the chars began to recrut women of
hgh achevement outsde the busness word. Many such women are we known
for ther contrbutons n government, educaton, and the nonproft sector. The fact
that the women from these sectors who were apponted were often acquantances
of the boards chars seems qute reasonabe: chars have aways consdered t
mportant for drectors to nteract comfortaby n the boardroom.
Athough many successfu women from outsde the busness word are
unknown to corporate eaders, these women are partcuary quafed to serve on
boards because of the changng nature of corporatons. Today a companys abty
to be responsve to the concerns of the communty and the envronment can
nfuence that companys growth and survva. Women are unquey postoned to
be responsve to some of these concerns. Athough condtons have changed, t
shoud be remembered that most drectors of both sexes are over ffty years od.
Women of that generaton were often encouraged to drect ther attenton toward
efforts to mprove the communty. Ths fact s refected n the career deveopment
of most of the outstandngy successfu women of the generaton now n ther
fftes, who currenty serve on corporate boards: 25 percent are n educaton and
22 percent are n government, aw, and the nonproft sector.
One organzaton of women drectors s hepng busness become more
responsve to the changng needs of socety by rasng the eve of corporate
awareness about soca ssues, such as probems wth the economy, government
reguaton, the agng popuaton, and the envronment. Ths organzaton aso
serves as a resource center of nformaton on accompshed women who are
potenta canddates for corporate boards.
1. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following statements about achie'ement of the *ideal+ mentioned in line 10%
(A) 3t has only recently become a possibility.
(B) 3t would be easier to meet if more C#84s were women.
(C) 3t is 'ery close to being a reality for most corporate boards.
() 3t might affect the "uality of directors4 ser'ice to corporations.
(#) 3t would be more reali!able if C#84s had a more e$tensi'e range of business
e$perience.
2. According to the passage/ the pressure to appoint women to corporate boards
differs from the pressure to employ women in the work force in which of the
following ways%
(A) Corporate boards are under less pressure because they ha'e such a small
number of openings.
(B) Corporate boards ha'e recei'ed less pressure from stockholders/ consumers/
and workers within companies to include women on their boards.
,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) Corporate boards ha'e recei'ed less pressure from the media and the public
to include women on their boards.
() Corporations ha'e only recently been pressured to include women on their
boards.
(#) Corporations are not sub<ect to statutory penalty for failing to include women
on their boards.
.. All of the following are e$amples of issues that the organi!ation described in the
last paragraph would be likely to ad'ise corporations on #DC#@T
(A) long(term inflation
(B) health and safety regulations
(C) retirement and pension programs
() the energy shortage
(#) how to de'elop new markets
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when seeking to appoint new members to
a corporation4s board/ the chair traditionally looked for candidates who
(A) had legal and go'ernmental e$perience
(B) had e$perience dealing with community affairs
(C) could work easily with other members of the board
() were already in'ol'ed in establishing policy for that corporation
(#) had influential connections outside the business world
1. According to the passage/ which of the following is true about women outside the
business world who are currently ser'ing on corporate boards%
(A) ?ost do not ser'e on more than one board.
(B) A large percentage will e'entually work on the staff of corporations.
(C) ?ost were already known to the chairs of the board to which they were
appointed.
() A larger percentage are from go'ernment and law than are from the nonprofit
sector.
(#) ?ost are less than fifty years old.
2. The passage suggests that corporations of the past differ from modern
corporations in which of the following ways%
(A) Corporations had greater input on go'ernment policies affecting the business
community.
(B) Corporations were less responsi'e to the financial needs of their employees.
(C) The ability of a corporation to keep up with changing markets was not a
crucial factor in its success.
() A corporation4s effecti'eness in coping with community needs was less likely
GMAT ,1
to affect its growth and prosperity.
(#) Corporations were sub<ect to more stringent go'ernment regulations.
-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A problem is described/ and then reasons why 'arious proposed solutions
succeeded or failed are discussed.
(B) A problem is described/ and then an ad'antage of resol'ing it is offered.
(C) A problem is described/ and then reasons for its continuing e$istence are
summari!ed.
() The historical origins of a problem are described/ and then 'arious measures
that ha'e successfully resol'ed it are discussed.
(#) The causes of a problem are described/ and then its effects are discussed.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that factors making women uni"uely 'aluable
members of modern corporate boards would include which of the following%
3. The nature of modern corporations
33. The increased number of women C#84s
333. The careers pursued by women currently a'ailable to ser'e on corporate
boards
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Passage 32 (32/63)
Increasngy, hstorans are bamng dseases mported from the Od Word for
the staggerng dsparty between the ndgenous popuaton of Amerca n 1492-
new estmates of whch soar as hgh as 100 mon, or approxmatey one-sxth of
the human race at that tme-and the few mon fu-booded Natve Amercans
ave at the end of the nneteenth century. There s no doubt that chronc dsease
was an mportant factor n the precptous decne, and t s hghy probabe that
the greatest ker was epdemc dsease, especay as manfested n vrgn-so
epdemcs.
Vrgn-so epdemcs are those n whch the popuatons at rsk have had no
prevous contact wth the dseases that strke them and are therefore
mmunoogcay amost defenseess. That vrgn-so epdemcs were mportant n
Amercan hstory s strongy ndcated by evdence that a number of dangerous
maades-smapox, meases, maara, yeow fever, and undoubtedy severa
more-were unknown n the pre-Coumban New Word. The effects of ther
sudden ntroducton are demonstrated n the eary chronces of Amerca, whch
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contan reports of horrendous epdemcs and steep popuaton decnes, confrmed
n many cases by recent quanttatve anayses of Spansh trbute records and
other sources. The evdence provded by the documents of Brtsh and French
coones s not as defntve because the conquerors of those areas dd not
estabsh permanent settements and begn to keep contnuous records unt the
seventeenth century, by whch tme the worst epdemcs had probaby aready
taken pace. Furthermore, the Brtsh tended to drve the natve popuatons away,
rather than ensavng them as the Spanards dd, so that the epdemcs of Brtsh
Amerca occurred beyond the range of coonsts drect observaton.
Even so, the survvng records of North Amerca do contan references to
deady epdemcs among the ndgenous popuaton. In 1616-1619 an epdemc,
possby of bubonc or pneumonc pague, swept coasta New Engand, kng as
many as nne out of ten. Durng the 1630s smapox, the dsease most fata to the
Natve Amercan peope, emnated haf the popuaton of the Huron and Iroquos
confederatons. In the 1820s fever devastated the peope of the Coumba Rver
area, kng eght out of ten of them.
Unfortunatey, the documentaton of these and other epdemcs s sght and
frequenty unreabe, and t s necessary to suppement what tte we do know
wth evdence from recent epdemcs among Natve Amercans. For exampe, n
1952 an outbreak of meases among the Natve Amercan nhabtants of Ungava
Bay, Ouebec, affected 99 percent of the popuaton and ked 7 percent, even
though some had the beneft of modern medcne. Cases such as ths demonstrate
that even dseases that are not normay fata can have devastatng consequences
when they strke an mmunoogcay defenseess communty.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute a common misconception
(B) pro'ide support for a hypothesis
(C) analy!e an argument
() suggest a solution to a dilemma
(#) reconcile opposing 'iewpoints
2. According to the passage/ 'irgin(soil epidemics can be distinguished from other
catastrophic outbreaks of disease in that 'irgin(soil epidemics
(A) recur more fre"uently than other chronic diseases
(B) affect a minimum of one(half of a gi'en population
(C) in'ol'e populations with no prior e$posure to a disease
() usually in'ol'e a number of interacting diseases
(#) are less responsi'e to medical treatment than are other diseases
.. According to the passage/ the British colonists were unlike the ;panish colonists
in that the British colonists
GMAT ,.
(A) collected tribute from the nati'e population
(B) kept records from a 'ery early date
(C) dro'e 9ati'e Americans off the land
() were unable to pro'ide medical care against epidemic disease
(#) ensla'ed the nati'e populations in America
0. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning ;panish
tribute records%
(A) They mention only epidemics of smallpo$.
(B) They were instituted in 10,2.
(C) They were being kept prior to the se'enteenth century.
() They pro'ide "uantitati'e and "ualitati'e e'idence about 9ati'e American
populations.
(#) They pro'e that certain diseases were unknown in the pre(Columbian 9ew
&orld.
1. The author implies which of the following about measles%
(A) 3t is not usually a fatal disease.
(B) 3t ceased to be a problem by the se'enteenth century.
(C) 3t is the disease most commonly in'ol'ed in 'irgin(soil epidemics.
() 3t was not a significant problem in ;panish colonies.
(#) 3t affects only those who are immunologically defenseless against it.
2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the 9ati'e
American inhabitants of :nga'a Bay%
(A) They were almost all killed by the 1,12 epidemic.
(B) They were immunologically defenseless against measles.
(C) They were the last nati'e people to be struck by a 'irgin(soil epidemic.
() They did not come into fre"uent contact with white Americans until the
twentieth century.
(#) They had been inoculated against measles.
-. The author mentions the 1,12 measles outbreak most probably in order to
(A) demonstrate the impact of modern medicine on epidemic disease
(B) corroborate the documentary e'idence of epidemic disease in colonial
America
(C) refute allegations of unreliability made against the historical record of
colonial America
() ad'ocate new research into the continuing problem of epidemic disease
(#) challenge assumptions about how the statistical e'idence of epidemics should
be interpreted
,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
6. &hich of the following/ if newly disco'ered/ would most seriously weaken the
author4s argument concerning the importance of 'irgin(soil epidemics in the
depopulation of 9ati'e Americans%
(A) #'idence setting the pre(Columbian population of the 9ew &orld at only 65
million
(B) ;panish tribute records showing periodic population fluctuations
(C) ocuments detailing sophisticated 9ati'e American medical procedures
() >ossils indicating 9ati'e American contact with smallpo$ prior to 10,2
(#) =emains of >rench settlements dating back to the si$teenth century
Passage 33 (33/63)
Unt recenty most astronomers beeved that the space between the gaaxes
n our unverse was a near-perfect vacuum. Ths orthodox vew of the unverse s
now beng chaenged by astronomers who beeve that a heavy "ran" of gas s
fang nto many gaaxes from the supposedy empty space around them. The
gas apparenty condenses nto a coecton of sma stars, each a tte arger than
the panet |upter. These stars vasty outnumber the other stars n a gven gaaxy.
The amount of "ntergaactc ranfa" nto some of these gaaxes has been
enough to doube ther mass n the tme snce they formed. Scentsts have begun
to suspect that ths ntergaactc gas s probaby a mxture of gases eft over from
the "bg bang" when the gaaxes were formed and gas was forced out of gaaxes
by supernova exposons.
It s we known that when gas s cooed at a constant pressure ts voume
decreases. Thus, the physcst Faban reasoned that as ntergaactc gas coos, the
cooer gas shrnks nward toward the center of the gaaxy. Meanwhe ts pace s
taken by hotter ntergaactc gas from farther out on the edge of the gaaxy, whch
coos as t s compressed and fows nto the gaaxy. The net resut s a contnuous
fow of gas, startng as hot gases n ntergaactc space and endng as a drzze of
coo gas caed a "coong fow," fang nto the centra gaaxy.
A fary heretca dea n the 1970s, the coong-fow theory ganed support
when Faban observed a custer of gaaxes n the consteaton Perseus and found
the centra gaaxy, NGC 1275, to be a strange-ookng ob|ect wth rreguar, thn
strands of gas radatng from t. Accordng to prevous specuaton, these strands
were gases that had been bown out by an exposon n the gaaxy. Faban,
however, dsagreed. Because the strands of gas radatng from NGC 1275 are
vsbe n optca photographs, Faban suggested that such strands conssted not of
gas bown out of the gaaxy but of coong fows of gas streamng nward. He
noted that the waveengths of the radaton emtted by a gas woud changes as
the gas cooed, so that as the gas fowed nto the gaaxy and became cooer, t
woud emt not x-rays, but vsbe ght, ke that whch was captured n the
photographs. Fabans hypothess was supported by Canzares determnaton n
GMAT ,1
1982 that most of the gas n the Perseus custer was at a temperature of 80
mon degrees Kevn, whereas the gas mmedatey surroundng NGC 1275 (the
sub|ect of the photographs) was at one-tenth ths temperature.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) illustrate a hypothesis about the origin of gala$ies
(B) pro'ide e'idence to dispute an accepted theory about the e'olution of
gala$ies
(C) summari!e the state of and prospects for research in intergalactic astronomy
() report new data on the origins of intergalactic gas
(#) reconcile opposing 'iews on the formation of intergalactic gas
2. The author uses the phrase *orthodo$ 'iew of the uni'erse+ (line .) to refer to the
belief that
(A) the space between the gala$ies is de'oid of matter
(B) the space between gala$ies is occupied by stars that cannot be detected by
optical photographs
(C) gala$ies ha'e decreased in mass by half since their formation
() gala$ies contain stars/ each the si!e of Aupiter/ which form clusters
(#) gala$ies are being penetrated by gas forced out of other gala$ies by superno'a
e$plosions
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ if >abian is correct/ gas in the peripheral
regions of a gala$y cluster
(A) streams outward into intergalactic space
(B) is hotter than gas in the central regions of the gala$y
(C) is composed primarily of gas left o'er from the big bang
() results in the creation of unusually large stars
(#) e$pands to increase the si!e of the gala$y
0. The author of the passage probably mentions Cani!ares4 determination in order to
(A) clarify an ambiguity in >abian4s research findings
(B) illustrate a generali!ation about the temperature of gas in a gala$y cluster
(C) introduce a new argument in support of the orthodo$ 'iew of gala$ies
() pro'ide support for >abian4s assertions about the @erseus gala$ies
(#) pro'ide an alternate point of 'iew concerning the mo'ement of gas within a
gala$y cluster
1. According to the passage/ >abian belie'es that gas flowing into a central gala$y
has which of the following characteristics%
(A) 3t is one(tenth hotter than it was in the outer regions of the gala$y cluster.
(B) 3t emits radiation with wa'elengths that change as the gas mo'es toward the
,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
center of the gala$y.
(C) The total amount of radiation emitted diminishes as the gas cools.
() 3t loses ,5 percent of its energy as it mo'es to the center of the gala$y.
(#) 3t condenses at a rate much slower than the rate of decrease in temperature as
the gas flows inward.
2. According to the passage/ >abian4s theory makes use of which of the following
principles%
(A) Bas emanating from an e$plosion will be hotter the more distant it is from the
origin.
(B) The wa'elength of radiation emitted by a gas as it cools remains constant.
(C) 3f pressure remains constant/ the 'olume of a gas will decrease as it is cooled.
() The 'olume of a gas will increase as the pressure increases.
(#) As gas cools/ its density decreases.
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of >abian4s
theory%
(A) 3t did not recei'e appro'al until Cani!ares4 work was published.
(B) 3t was not widely accepted in the 1,-54s.
(C) 3t did not recei'e support initially because technology was not a'ailable to
confirm its tenets.
() 3t supports earlier speculation that intergalactic gas was largely the result of
e$plosions outside the gala$y.
(#) 3t was widely challenged until $(ray e'idence of gas temperatures in 9BC
12-1 had been presented.
Passage 34 (34/63)
Kazuko Nakanes hstory of the eary |apanese mmgrants to centra
Cafornas Pa|aro Vaey focuses on the deveopment of farmng communtes
there from 1890 to 1940. The Isse (frst-generaton mmgrants) were brought nto
the Pa|aro Vaey to rase sugar beets. Lke Isse aborers n Amercan ctes,
|apanese men n rura areas sought empoyment va the "boss" system. The
system comprsed three eements: mmgrant wage aborers; Isse boardnghouses
where aborers stayed; and abor contractors, who gathered workers for a
partcuar |ob and then negotated a contract between workers and empoyer. Ths
same system was orgnay utzed by the Chnese aborers who had preceded the
|apanese. A reated nsttuton was the "abor cub," whch provded |ob
nformaton and negotated empoyment contracts and other ega matters, such
as the renta of and, for Isse who chose to beong and pad an annua fee to the
cooperatve for membershp.
When the oca sugar beet ndustry coapsed n 1902, the Isse began to ease
GMAT ,-
and from the vaeys strawberry farmers. The |apanese provded the abor and
the crop was dvded between aborers and andowners. The Isse thus moved
qucky from wage-abor empoyment to sharecroppng agreements. A mted
amount of economc progress was made as some Isse were abe to rent or buy
farmand drecty, whe others |oned together to form farmng corporatons. As
the Isse began to operate farms, they began to marry and start fames, formng
an estabshed |apanese Amercan communty. Unfortunatey, the Isses efforts to
attan agrcutura ndependence were hampered by government restrctons, such
as the Aen Land Law of 1913. But mmgrants coud crcumvent such
excusonary aws by easng or purchasng and n ther Amercan-born chdrens
names.
Nakanes case study of one rura |apanese Amercan communty provdes
vauabe nformaton about the ves and experences of the Isse. It s, however,
too partcuarstc. Ths mtaton derves from Nakanes methodoogy-that of ora
hstory-whch cannot substtute for a broader theoretca or comparatve
perspectve. Future research mght we consder two ssues rased by her study:
were the Isse of the Pa|aro Vaey smar to or dfferent from Isse n urban
settngs, and what varatons exsted between rura |apanese Amercan
communtes?
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) defend a contro'ersial hypothesis presented in a history of early Aapanese
immigrants to California
(B) dismiss a history of an early Aapanese settlement in California as narrow and
ill constructed
(C) summari!e and criti"ue a history of an early Aapanese settlement in California
() compare a history of one Aapanese American community with studies of
Aapanese settlements throughout California
(#) e$amine the differences between Aapanese and Chinese immigrants to central
California in the 16,54s
2. &hich of the following best describes a *labor club/+ as defined in the passage%
(A) An organi!ation to which 3ssei were compelled to belong if they sought
employment in the @a<aro Calley
(B) An association whose members included labor contractors and landowning
*bosses+
(C) A type of farming corporation set up by 3ssei who had resided in the @a<aro
Calley for some time
() A cooperati'e association whose members were dues(paying Aapanese
laborers
(#) A social organi!ation to which Aapanese laborers and their families belonged
.. Based on information in the passage/ which of the following statements
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concerning the Alien Kand Kaw of 1,1. is most accurate%
(A) 3t e$cluded American(born citi!ens of Aapanese ancestry from landownership.
(B) 3t sought to restrict the number of foreign immigrants to California.
(C) 3t successfully pre'ented 3ssei from e'er purchasing farmland.
() 3t was applicable to first(generation immigrants but not to their American(
born children.
(#) 3t was passed under pressure from the @a<aro Calley4s strawberry farmers.
0. ;e'eral 3ssei families <oin together to purchase a strawberry field and the
necessary farming e"uipment. ;uch a situation best e$emplifies which of the
following/ as it is described in the passage%
(A) A typical sharecropping agreement
(B) A farming corporation
(C) A *labor club+
() The *boss+ system
(#) Circum'ention of the Alien Kand Kaw
1. The passage suggests that which of the following was an indirect conse"uence of
the collapse of the sugar beet industry in the @a<aro Calley%
(A) The 3ssei formed a permanent/ family(based community.
(B) Boardinghouses were built to accommodate the 3ssei.
(C) The 3ssei began to lease land in their children4s names.
() The 3ssei adopted a labor contract system similar to that used by Chinese
immigrants.
(#) The 3ssei suffered a massi'e dislocation caused by unemployment.
2. The author of the passage would most likely agree that which of the following/ if
it had been included in 9akane4s study/ would best remedy the particularistic
nature of that study%
(A) A statistical table comparing per capita income of 3ssei wage laborers and
sharecroppers in the @a<aro Calley
(B) A statistical table showing per capita income of 3ssei in the @a<aro Calley from
16,5 to 1,05
(C) A statistical table showing rates of farm ownership by Aapanese Americans in
four central California counties from 16,5 to 1,05
() A discussion of original company documents dealing with the @a<aro Calley
sugar beet industry at the turn of the century
(#) Transcripts of inter'iews conducted with members of the @a<aro Calley
Aapanese American community who were born in the 1,254s and 1,.54s
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when the 3ssei began to lease land from
the Calley4s strawberry farmers/ the 3ssei most probably did which of the
GMAT ,,
following%
(A) They used profits made from selling the strawberry crop to hire other 3ssei.
(B) They negotiated such agricultural contracts using the *boss+ system.
(C) They paid for the use of the land with a share of the strawberry crop.
() They earned higher wages than when they raised sugar beets.
(#) They 'iolated the Alien Kand Kaw.
Passage 35 (35/63)
It can be argued that much consumer dssatsfacton wth marketng
strateges arses from an nabty to am advertsng at ony the key buyers of a
gven product.
There are three groups of consumers who are affected by the marketng
process. Frst, there s the market segment-peope who need the commodty n
queston. Second, there s the program target-peope n the market segment wth
the "best ft" characterstcs for a specfc product. Lots of peope may need
trousers, but ony a few quafy as key buyers of very expensve desgner
trousers. Fnay, there s the program audence-a peope who are actuay
exposed to the marketng program wthout regard to whether they need or want
the product.
These three groups are rarey dentca. An excepton occurs occasonay n
cases where customers for a partcuar ndustra product may be few and easy
dentfabe. Such customers, a sharng a partcuar need, are key to form a
meanngfu target, for exampe, a companes wth a partcuar appcaton of the
product n queston, such as hgh-speed fers of bottes at breweres. In such
crcumstances, drect seng (marketng that reaches ony the program target) s
key to be economcay |ustfed, and hghy specazed trade meda exst to
expose members of the program target-and ony members of the program target
-to the marketng program.
Most consumer-goods markets are sgnfcanty dfferent. Typcay, there are
many rather than few potenta customers. Each represents a reatvey sma
percentage of potenta saes. Rarey do members of a partcuar market segment
group themseves neaty nto a meanngfu program target. There are substanta
dfferences among consumers wth smar demographc characterstcs. Even wth
a the past decades advances n nformaton technoogy, drect seng of
consumer goods s rare, and mass marketng-a marketng approach that ams at
a wde audence-remans the ony economcay feasbe mode. Unfortunatey,
there are few meda that aow the marketer to drect a marketng program
excusvey to the program target. Inevtaby, peope get exposed to a great dea
of marketng for products n whch they have no nterest and so they become
annoyed.
1. The passage suggests which of the following about highly speciali!ed trade
155 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
media%
(A) They should be used only when direct selling is not economically feasible.
(B) They can be used to e$clude from the program audience people who are not
part of the program target.
(C) They are used only for 'ery e$pensi'e products.
() They are rarely used in the implementation of marketing programs for
industrial products.
(#) They are used only when direct selling has not reached the appropriate market
segment.
2. According to the passage/ most consumer(goods markets share which of the
following characteristics%
3. Customers who differ significantly from each other
33. Karge numbers of potential customers
333. Customers who each represent a small percentage of potential sales
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
.. The passage suggests which of the following about direct selling%
(A) 3t is used in the marketing of most industrial products.
(B) 3t is often used in cases where there is a large program target.
(C) 3t is not economically feasible for most marketing programs.
() 3t is used only for products for which there are many potential customers.
(#) 3t is less successful at directing a marketing program to the target audience
than are other marketing approaches.
0. The author mentions *trousers+ (lines , and 11) most likely in order to
(A) make a comparison between the program target and the program audience
(B) emphasi!e the similarities between the market segment and the program
target
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of the way three groups of consumers are affected by a
marketing program
() clarify the distinction between the market segment and the program target
(#) introduce the concept of the program audience
1. &hich of the following best e$emplifies the situation described in the last two
sentences of the passage%
(A) A product suitable for women age 21(.5 is marketed at meetings attended
GMAT 151
only by potential customers.
(B) A company de'elops a new product and must de'elop an ad'ertising
campaign to create a market for it.
(C) An idea for a speciali!ed product remains une$plored because media
e$posure of the product to its few potential customers would be too
e$pensi'e.
() A new product is de'eloped and marketers collect demographic data on
potential consumers before de'eloping a specific ad'ertising campaign.
(#) A product suitable for men age 25 and o'er is ad'ertised in a maga!ine read
by adults of all ages.
2. The passage suggests that which of the following is true about the marketing of
industrial products like those discussed in the third paragraph%
(A) The market segment and program target are identical.
(B) ?ass marketing is the only feasible way of ad'ertising such products.
(C) The marketing program cannot be directed specifically to the program target.
() ?ore customers would be needed to <ustify the e$pense of direct selling.
(#) The program audience would necessarily be made up of potential customers/
regardless of the marketing approach that was used.
-. The passage supports which of the following statements about demographic
characteristics and marketing%
(A) emographic research is of no use in determining how successful a product
will be with a particular group of consumers.
(B) A program audience is usually composed of people with similar demographic
characteristics.
(C) @sychological factors are more important than demographic factors in
defining a market segments.
() Consumers with similar demographic characteristics do not necessarily form
a meaningful program target.
(#) Collecting demographic data is the first step that marketers take in designing
a marketing program.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true for most
consumer(goods markets%
(A) The program audience is smaller than the market segment.
(B) The program audience and the market segment are usually identical.
(C) The market segment and the program target are usually identical.
() The program target is larger than the market segment.
(#) The program target and the program audience are not usually identical.
152 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 36 (36/63)
Proten synthess begns when the gene encodng a proten s actvated. The
genes sequence of nuceotdes s transcrbed nto a moecue of messenger RNA
(mRNA), whch reproduces the nformaton contaned n that sequence.
Transported outsde the nuceus to the cytopasm, the mRNA s transated nto the
proten t encodes by an organee known as a rbosome, whch strngs together
amno acds n the order specfed by the sequence of eements n the mRNA
moecue. Snce the amount of mRNA n a ce determnes the amount of the
correspondng proten, factors affectng the abundance of mRNAs pay a ma|or
part n the norma functonng of a ce by appropratey reguatng proten
synthess. For exampe, an excess of certan protens can cause ces to proferate
abnormay and become cancerous; a ack of the proten nsun resuts n
dabetes.
Boogsts once assumed that the varabe rates at whch ces synthesze
dfferent mRNAs determne the quanttes of mRNAs and ther correspondng
protens n a ce. However, recent nvestgatons have shown that the
concentratons of most mRNAs correate best, not wth ther synthess rate, but
rather wth the equay varabe rates at whch ces degrade the dfferent mRNAs
n ther cytopasm. If a ce degrades both a rapdy and a sowy syntheszed
mRNA sowy, both mRNAs w accumuate to hgh eves.
An mportant exampe of ths phenomenon s the deveopment of red bood
ces from ther unspecazed parent ces n bone marrow. For red bood ces to
accumuate suffcent concentratons of hemogobn (whch transports oxygen) to
carry out ther man functon, the ces parent ces must smutaneousy produce
more of the consttuent protens of hemogobn and ess of most other protens. To
do ths, the parent ces hat synthess of non-hemogobn mRNAs n the nuceus
and rapdy degrade copes of the non-hemogobn mRNAs remanng n the
cytopasm. Hatng synthess of mRNA aone woud not affect the quanttes of
protens syntheszed by the mRNAs st exstng n the cytopasm. Boogsts now
beeve that most ces can reguate proten producton most effcenty by varyng
both mRNA synthess and degradaton, as deveopng red ces do, rather than by
|ust varyng one or the other.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing the
(A) influence of m=9A concentrations on the de'elopment of red blood cells
(B) role of the synthesis and degradation of m=9A in cell functioning
(C) mechanism by which genes are transcribed into m=9A
() differences in m=9A concentrations in cell nuclei and in the cytoplasm
(#) way in which m=9A synthesis contributes to the onset of diabetes
2. The passage suggests that a biologist who held the 'iew described in the first
sentence of the second paragraph would most probably also ha'e belie'ed which
GMAT 15.
of the following%
(A) The rate of degradation of specific m=9A4s has little effect on protein
concentrations.
(B) The rate of degradation of specific m=9A4s should be studied intensi'ely.
(C) The rates of synthesis and degradation for any gi'en m=9A are normally
e"ual.
() ifferent m=9A4s undergo degradation at widely 'arying rates.
(#) ?ost m=9A4s degrade 'ery rapidly.
.. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between the second and
third paragraphs of the passage%
(A) The second paragraph presents arguments in support of a new theory and the
third paragraph presents arguments against that same theory.
(B) The second paragraph describes a traditional 'iew and the third paragraph
describes the 'iew that has replaced it on the basis of recent in'estigations.
(C) The third paragraph describes a specific case of a phenomenon that is
described generally in the second paragraph.
() The third paragraph describes an in'estigation that was undertaken to resol'e
problems raised by phenomena described in the second paragraph.
(#) Both paragraphs describe in detail specific e$amples of the phenomenon that
is introduced in the first paragraph.
0. The accumulation of concentrations of hemoglobin in red blood cells is
mentioned in the passage as an e$ample of which of the following%
(A) The effecti'eness of simultaneous 'ariation of the rates of synthesis and
degradation of m=9A
(B) The role of the ribosome in enabling a parent cell to de'elop properly into a
more speciali!ed form
(C) The importance of acti'ating the genes for particular proteins at the correct
moment
() The abnormal proliferation of a protein that threatens to make the cell
cancerous
(#) The kind of e'idence that biologists relied on for support of a 'iew of m=9A
synthesis that is now considered obsolete
1. To begin to control a disease caused by a protein deficiency/ the passage suggests
that a promising e$perimental treatment would be to administer a drug that would
reduce
(A) only the degradation rate for the m=9A of the protein in'ol'ed
(B) only the synthesis rate for the m=9A of the protein in'ol'ed
(C) both the synthesis and degradation rates for the m=9A of the protein
150 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
in'ol'ed
() the incidence of errors in the transcription of m=9A4s from genetic
nucleotide se"uences
(#) the rate of acti'ity of ribosomes in the cytoplasm of most cells
2. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes the current 'iew
on the relationship between the synthesis and the degradation of m=9A in
regulating protein synthesis%
(A) Biologists ha'e recently become con'inced that the ribosome controls the
rates of synthesis and degradation of m=9A.
(B) There is no consensus among biologists as to the significance of m=9A
degradation in regulating protein synthesis.
(C) The concept of m=9A degradation is so new that most biologists still belie'e
that the 'ital role in protein regulation belongs to m=9A synthesis.
() egradation of m=9A is now considered to be the key process and m=9A
synthesis is no longer belie'ed to play a significant role.
(#) egradation of m=9A is now considered to be as important as m=9A
synthesis has been/ and still is/ belie'ed to be.
-. According to the passage/ which of the following can happen when protein
synthesis is not appropriately regulated%
(A) iabetes can result from errors that occur when the ribosomes translate
m=9A into protein.
(B) Cancer can result from an e$cess of certain proteins and diabetes can result
from an insulin deficiency.
(C) A deficiency of red blood cells can occur if bone marrow cells produce too
much hemoglobin.
() Cancer can be caused by e$cessi'ely rapid degradation of certain amino acids
in the cytoplasm of cells.
(#) #$cessi'e synthesis of one protein can trigger increased degradation of
m=9A4s for other proteins and create se'ere protein imbalances.
6. The passage suggests that a biologist who detected high le'els of two proteins in
a certain type of cell would be likely to consider which of the following as a
possible e$planation%
(A) The rate of m=9A degradation for one of the proteins increases as this type
of cell de'elops a more speciali!ed function.
(B) The two proteins are most likely constituents of a comple$ substance
supporting the cells4 speciali!ed function.
(C) The cells are likely to proliferate abnormally and possibly become cancerous
due to the le'els of these proteins.
() The m=9A4s for both proteins are being degraded at a low rate in that type of
GMAT 151
cell.
(#) The m=9A4s for the two proteins are being synthesi!ed at identical rates in
that type of cell.
Passage 37 (37/63)
(Ths passage was excerpted from matera wrtten n 1990.)
As the economc roe of mutnatona, goba corporatons expands, the
nternatona economc envronment w be shaped ncreasngy not by
governments or nternatona nsttutons, but by the nteracton between
governments and goba corporatons, especay n the Unted States, Europe, and
|apan. A sgnfcant factor n ths shftng word economy s the trend toward
regona tradng bocs of natons, whch has a potentay arge effect on the
evouton of the word tradng system. Two exampes of ths trend are the Unted
States-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and Europe 1992, the move by the
European Communty (EC) to dsmante mpedments to the free fow of goods,
servces, capta, and abor among member states by the end of 1992. However,
athough numerous potca and economc factors were operatve n aunchng the
move to ntegrate the ECs markets, concern about protectonsm wthn the EC
does not appear to have been a ma|or consderaton. Ths s n sharp contrast to
the FTA; the overwhemng reason for that batera ntatve was fear of
ncreasng Unted States protectonsm. Nonetheess, athough markedy dfferent
n orgn and nature, both regona deveopments are hghy sgnfcant n that they
w foster ntegraton n the two argest and rchest markets of the word, as we
as provoke questons about the future drecton of the word tradng system.
1. The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to
(A) describe an initiati'e and propose its continuance
(B) chronicle a de'elopment and illustrate its inconsistencies
(C) identify a trend and suggest its importance
() summari!e a process and "uestion its significance
(#) report a phenomenon and outline its probable future
2. According to the passage/ all of the following are elements of the shifting world
economy #DC#@T
(A) an alteration in the role played by go'ernments
(B) an increase in interaction between national go'ernments and international
regulatory institutions
(C) an increase in the formation of multinational trading alliances
() an increase in integration in the two richest markets of the world
(#) a fear of increasing :nited ;tates protectionism
.. The passage suggests which of the following about global corporations%
152 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) Their continued growth depends on the e$istence of a fully integrated
international market.
(B) Their potential effect on the world market is a matter of ongoing concern to
international institutions.
(C) They will ha'e to assume "uasi(go'ernmental functions if current economic
trends continue.
() They ha'e pro'ided a model of economic success for regional trading blocs.
(#) Their influence on world economics will continue to increase.
0. According to the passage/ one similarity between the >TA and #urope 1,,2 is
that they both
(A) o'ercame concerns about the role of politics in the shifting world economy
(B) originated out of concern o'er unfair trade practices by other nations
(C) e$emplify a trend toward regionali!ation of commercial markets
() place the economic needs of the trading bloc ahead of those of the member
nations
(#) help to ensure the continued economic 'iability of the world community
1. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the #uropean
Community prior to the adoption of the #urope 1,,2 program%
(A) There were restrictions on commerce between the member nations.
(B) The economic policies of the member nations focused on global trading
issues.
(C) There were few impediments to trade between the member nations and the
:nited ;tates.
() The flow of goods between the member nations and Canada was
insignificant.
(#) =elations between multinational corporations and the go'ernments of the
member nations were strained.
2. The author discusses the >TA and #urope 1,,2 most likely in order to
(A) point out the similarities between two seemingly disparate trading alliances
(B) illustrate how different economic moti'ations produce different types of
trading blocs
(C) pro'ide contrasting e$amples of a trend that is influencing the world economy
() identify the most important characteristics of successful economic integration
(#) trace the history of regional trading blocs
-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) An argument is put forth and e'idence for and against it gi'en.
(B) An assertion is made and opposing e'idence presented.
GMAT 15-
(C) Two hypotheses are described and shown to inconsistent with one another.
() A phenomenon is identified and illustrations of this phenomenon offered.
(#) A specific case of a phenomenon is discussed a generali!ation drawn.
Passage 38 (38/63)
In Forces of Production, Davd Nobe examnes the transformaton of the
machne-too ndustry as the ndustry moved from reance on sked artsans to
automaton. Nobe wrtes from a Marxst perspectve, and hs centra argument s
that management, n ts decsons to automate, conspred aganst abor: the
power that the sked machnsts weded n the ndustry was ntoerabe to
management. Nobe fas to substantate ths cam, athough hs argument s
mpressve when he appes the Marxst concept of "de-skng"-the use of
technoogy to repace sked abor-to the automaton of the machne-too
ndustry. In automatng, the ndustry moved to computer-based, dgtzed
"numerca-contro" (N/C) technoogy, rather than to artsan-generated "record-
payback" (R/P) technoogy.
Athough both systems reduced reance on sked abor, Nobe ceary prefers
R/P, wth ts nherent acknowedgment of workers sks: unke N/C, ts programs
were produced not by engneers at ther computers, but by sked machnsts,
who recorded ther own movements to "teach" machnes to dupcate those
movements. However, Nobes ony evdence of conspracy s that, athough the
two approaches were roughy equa n technca mert, management chose N/C.
From ths he concudes that automaton s undertaken not because effcency
demands t or scentfc advances aow t, but because t s a too n the ceaseess
war of captasts aganst abor.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) ree$amining a political position and defending its 'alidity
(B) e$amining a management decision and defending its necessity
(C) analy!ing a scholarly study and pointing out a central weakness
() e$plaining a trend in automation and warning about its dangers
(#) chronicling the history of an industry and critici!ing its de'elopment
2. According to information in the passage/ the term *de(skilling+ refers to the
(A) loss of skills to industry when skilled workers are replaced by unskilled
laborers
(B) substitution of mechani!ed processes for labor formerly performed by skilled
workers
(C) labor theory that automation is technologically comparable to skilled labor
() process by which skilled machinists *teach+ machines to perform certain
tasks
156 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) e$clusion of skilled workers from participation in the de'elopment of
automated technology
.. &hich of the following best characteri!es the function of the second paragraph of
the passage%
(A) 3t de'elops a topic introduced in the first paragraph.
(B) 3t pro'ides e'idence to refute a claim presented in the first paragraph.
(C) 3t gi'es e$amples of a phenomenon mentioned in the first paragraph.
() 3t presents a generali!ation about e$amples gi'en in the first paragraph.
(#) 3t suggests two possible solutions to a problem presented in the first
paragraph.
0. The passage suggests which of the following about 9JC automation in the
machine(tool industry%
(A) 3t displaced fewer skilled workers than =J@ automation did.
(B) 3t could ha'e been implemented either by e$perienced machinists or by
computer engineers.
(C) 3t was designed without the acti'e in'ol'ement skilled machinists.
() 3t was more difficult to design than =J@ automation was.
(#) 3t was technically superior to =J@ automation.
1. &hich of the following phrases most clearly re'eals the attitude of the author of
the passage toward 9oble4s central argument%
(A) *conspired against+ (line 2)
(B) *intolerable to management+ (line -)
(C) *impressi'e when he applies the ?ar$ist concept+ (line ,)
() *clearly prefers+ (line 12)
(#) *only e'idence of conspiracy+ (line 21)
2. The author of the passage commends 9oble4s book for which of the following%
(A) Concentrating on skilled as opposed to unskilled workers in its discussion of
the machine(tool industry
(B) 8ffering a generali!ation about the moti'es behind the machine(tool
industry4s decision to automate
(C) ?aking an essential distinction between two kinds of technology employed in
the machine(tool industry
() Calling into "uestion the notion that managers conspired against labor in the
automation of the machine(tool industry
(#) Applying the concept of de(skilling to the machine tool industry
-. &hich of the following best characteri!es >orces of @roduction as it is described
in the passage%
GMAT 15,
(A) A comparison of two interpretations of how a particular industry e'ol'ed
(B) An e$amination of the origin of a particular concept in industrial economics
(C) A study that points out the weakness of a particular interpretation of an
industrial phenomenon
() A history of a particular industry from an ideological point of 'iew
(#) An attempt to relate an industrial phenomenon in one industry to a similar
phenomenon in another industry
Passage 39 (39/63)
The sensaton of pan cannot accuratey be descrbed as "ocated" at the pont
of an n|ury, or, for that matter, n any one pace n the nerves or bran. Rather,
pan sgnas-and pan reef-are devered through a hghy compex nteractng
crcutry.
When a ce s n|ured, a rush of prostagandns senstzes nerve endngs at the
n|ury. Prostagandns are chemcas produced n and reeased from vrtuay a
mammaan ces when they are n|ured: these are the ony pan sgnas that do
not orgnate n the nervous system. Asprn and other smar drugs (such as
ndomethacn and buprofen) keep prostagandns from beng made by nterferng
wth an enzyme known as prostagandn synthetase, or cycooxygenase. The
drugs effectveness aganst pan s proportona to ther success n bockng ths
enzyme at the ste of n|ury.
From nerve endngs at the n|ury, pan sgnas move to nerves feedng nto the
spna cord. The ong, tubuar membranes of nerve ces carry eectrca mpuses.
When eectrca mpuses get to the spna cord, a pan-sgnang chemca known
as substance P s reeased there. Substance P then exctes nearby neurons to
send mpuses to the bran. Loca anesthetcs such as novocane and xyocane
work by bockng the eectrca transmsson aong nerves n a partcuar area.
They nhbt the fow of sodum ons through the membranes, makng the nerves
eectrcay quescent; thus no pan sgnas are sent to the spna cord or to the
bran.
Recent dscoveres n the study of pan have nvoved the bran tsef-the
supervsng organ that notces pan sgnas and that sends messages down to the
spna cord to reguate ncomng pan traffc. Endorphns-the brans own
morphne-are a cass of sma peptdes that hep to bock pan sgnas wthn the
bran tsef. The presence of endorphns may aso hep to expan dfferences n
response to pan sgnas, snce ndvduas seem to dffer n ther abty to produce
endorphns. It now appears that a number of technques for bockng chronc pan
-such as acupuncture and eectrca stmuaton of the centra bran stem-
nvove the reease of endorphns n the bran and spna cord.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing ways that en!ymes and other chemicals influence how the body
115 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
feels pain
(B) describing the presence of endorphins in the brain and discussing ways the
body blocks pain within the brain itself
(C) describing how pain signals are con'eyed in the body and discussing ways in
which the pain signals can be blocked
() demonstrating that pain can be influenced by acupuncture and electrical
stimulation of the central brain stem
(#) differentiating the kinds of pain that occur at different points in the body4s
ner'ous system
2. According to the passage/ which of the following is one of the first things to
occur when cells are in<ured%
(A) The flow of electrical impulses through ner'e cells at the site of the in<ury is
broken.
(B) The production of substance @ tra'eling through ner'e cells to the brain
increases.
(C) #ndorphins begin to speed up the response of ner'e cells at the site of the
in<ury.
() A flood of prostaglandins sensiti!es ner'e endings at the site of the in<ury.
(#) 9er'e cells connected to the spinal cord become electrically "uiescent.
.. 8f the following/ which is most likely attributable to the effect of endorphins as
described in the passage%
(A) After an in<ection of no'ocaine/ a patient has no feeling in the area where the
in<ection was gi'en.
(B) After taking ibuprofen/ a person with a headache gets "uick relief.
(C) After recei'ing a local anesthetic/ an in<ured person reports relief in the
anestheti!ed area.
() After being gi'en aspirin/ a child with a badly scraped elbow feels better.
(#) After acupuncture/ a patient with chronic back pain reports that the pain is
much less se'ere.
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the prostaglandin synthetase is only
partially blocked/ which of the following is likely to be true%
(A) ;ome endorphins will be produced/ and some pain signals will be intensified.
(B) ;ome substance @ is likely to be produced/ so some pain signals will reach the
brain.
(C) ;ome sodium ions will be blocked/ so some pain signals will not reach the
brain.
() ;ome prostaglandins will be produced/ but production of substance @ will be
pre'ented.
GMAT 111
(#) ;ome peptides in the brain will recei'e pain signals and begin to regulate
incoming pain traffic.
Passage 40 (40/63)
|apanese frms have acheved the hghest eves of manufacturng effcency n
the word automobe ndustry. Some observers of |apan have assumed that
|apanese frms use the same manufacturng equpment and technques as Unted
States frms but have benefted from the unque characterstcs of |apanese
empoyees and the |apanese cuture. However, f ths were true, then one woud
expect |apanese auto pants n the Unted States to perform no better than
factores run by Unted States companes. Ths s not the case; |apanese-run
automobe pants ocated n the Unted States and staffed by oca workers have
demonstrated hgher eves of productvty when compared wth factores owned
by Unted States companes.
Other observers nk hgh |apanese productvty to hgher eves of capta
nvestment per worker. But a hstorca perspectve eads to a dfferent concuson.
When the two top |apanese automobe makers matched and then doubed Unted
States productvty eves n the md-sxtes, capta nvestment per empoyee was
comparabe to that of Unted States frms. Furthermore, by the ate seventes, the
amount of fxed assets requred to produce one vehce was roughy equvaent n
|apan and n the Unted States.
Snce capta nvestment was not hgher n |apan, t had to be other factors
that ed to hgher productvty. A more frutfu expanaton may e wth |apanese
producton technques. |apanese automobe producers dd not smpy mpement
conventona processes more effectvey: they made crtca changes n Unted
States procedures. For nstance, the mass-producton phosophy of Unted States
automakers encouraged the producton of huge ots of cars n order to utze fuy
expensve, component-specfc equpment and to occupy fuy workers who have
been traned to execute one operaton effcenty. |apanese automakers chose to
make sma-ot producton feasbe by ntroducng severa departures from Unted
States practces, ncudng the use of fexbe equpment that coud be atered
easy to do severa dfferent producton tasks and the tranng of workers n
mutpe |obs. Automakers coud schedue the producton of dfferent components
or modes on snge machnes, thereby emnatng the need to store the buffer
stocks of extra components that resut when specazed equpment and workers
are kept constanty actve.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present the ma<or steps of a process
(B) clarify an ambiguity
(C) chronicle a dispute
() correct misconceptions
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(#) defend an accepted approach
2. The author suggests that if the obser'ers of Aapan mentioned in line . were
correct/ which of the following would be the case%
(A) The e"uipment used in Aapanese automobile plants would be different from
the e"uipment used in :nited ;tates plants.
(B) Aapanese workers would be trained to do se'eral different production <obs.
(C) Culture would not ha'e an influence on the producti'ity le'els of workers.
() The workers in Aapanese(run plants would ha'e higher producti'ity le'els
regardless of where they were located.
(#) The production le'els of Aapanese(run plants located in the :nited ;tates
would be e"ual to those of plants run by :nited ;tates companies.
.. &hich of the following statements concerning the producti'ity le'els of
automakers can be inferred from the passage%
(A) @rior to the 1,254s/ the producti'ity le'els of the top Aapanese automakers
were e$ceeded by those of :nited ;tates automakers.
(B) The culture of a country has a large effect on the producti'ity le'els of its
automakers.
(C) uring the late 1,-54s and early 1,654s/ producti'ity le'els were comparable
in Aapan and the :nited ;tates.
() The greater the number of cars that are produced in a single lot/ the higher a
plant4s producti'ity le'el.
(#) The amount of capital in'estment made by automobile manufacturers in their
factories determines the le'el of producti'ity.
0. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of Aapanese
automobile workers%
(A) Their producti'ity le'els did not e"ual those of :nited ;tates automobile
workers until the late se'enties.
(B) Their high efficiency le'els are a direct result of cultural influences.
(C) They operate component(specific machinery.
() They are trained to do more than one <ob.
(#) They produce larger lots of cars than do workers in :nited ;tates factories.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%
(A) A thesis is presented and supporting e$amples are pro'ided.
(B) 8pposing 'iews are presented/ classified/ and then reconciled.
(C) A fact is stated/ and an e$planation is ad'anced and then refuted.
() A theory is proposed/ considered/ and then amended.
(#) An opinion is presented/ "ualified/ and then reaffirmed.
GMAT 11.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one problem associated with the
production of huge lots of cars is which of the following%
(A) The need to manufacture fle$ible machinery and e"uipment
(B) The need to store e$tra components not re"uired for immediate use
(C) The need for e$pensi'e training programs for workers/ which emphasi!e the
de'elopment of facility in se'eral production <obs
() The need to alter con'entional mass(production processes
(#) The need to increase the in'estment per 'ehicle in order to achie'e high
producti'ity le'els
-. &hich of the following statements is supported by information stated in the
passage%
(A) Aapanese and :nited ;tates automakers differ in their approach to production
processes.
(B) Aapanese automakers ha'e perfected the use of single(function e"uipment.
(C) Aapanese automakers in'est more capital per employee than do :nited ;tates
automakers.
() :nited ;tates(owned factories abroad ha'e higher production le'els than do
Aapanese owned plants in the :nited ;tates.
(#) Aapanese automakers ha'e benefited from the cultural heritage of their
workers.
6. &ith which of the following predicti'e statement regarding Aapanese automakers
would the author most likely agree%
(A) The efficiency le'els of the Aapanese automakers will decline if they become
less fle$ible in their approach to production.
(B) Aapanese automakers producti'ity le'els double during the late 1,,54s.
(C) :nited ;tates automakers will originate new production processes before
Aapanese automakers do.
() Aapanese automakers will hire fewer workers than will :nited ;tates
automakers because each worker is re"uired to perform se'eral <obs.
(#) Aapanese automakers will spend less on e"uipment repairs than will :nited
;tates automakers because Aapanese e"uipment can be easily altered.
Passage 41 (41/63)
It was once beeved that the bran was ndependent of metaboc processes
occurrng esewhere n the body. In recent studes, however, we have dscovered
that the producton and reease n bran neurons of the neurotransmtter serotonn
(neurotransmtters are compounds that neurons use to transmt sgnas to other
ces) depend drecty on the food that the body processes.
Our frst studes sought to determne whether the ncrease n serotonn
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observed n rats gven a arge n|ecton of the amno acd tryptophan mght aso
occur after rats ate meas that change tryptophan eves n the bood. We found
that, mmedatey after the rats began to eat, parae eevatons occurred n bood
tryptophan, bran tryptophan, and bran serotonn eves. These fndngs
suggested that the producton and reease of serotonn n bran neurons were
normay couped wth bood-tryptophan ncreases. In ater studes we found that
n|ectng nsun nto a rats boodstream aso caused parae eevatons n bood
and bran tryptophan eves and n serotonn eves. We then decded to see
whether the secreton of the anmas own nsun smary affected serotonn
producton. We gave the rats a carbohydrate-contanng mea that we knew woud
ect nsun secreton. As we had hypotheszed, the bood tryptophan eve and
the concentratons of tryptophan serotonn n the bran ncreased after the mea.
Surprsngy, however, when we added a arge amount of proten to the mea,
bran tryptophan and serotonn eves fe. Snce proten contans tryptophan, why
shoud t depress bran tryptophan eves? The answer es n the mechansm that
provdes bood tryptophan to the bran ces. Ths same mechansm aso provdes
the bran ces wth other amno acds found n proten, such as tyrosne and
Leucne. The consumpton of proten ncreases bood concentraton of the other
amno acds much more, proportonatey, than t does that of tryptophan. The
more proten n the mea, the ower s the rato of the resutng bood-tryptophan
concentraton to the concentraton of competng amno acds, and the more sowy
s tryptophan provded to the bran. Thus the more proten n a mea, the ess
serotonn subsequenty produced and reeased.
1. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the contents of the passage%
(A) 9eurotransmittersE Their Crucial >unction in Cellular Communication
(B) iet and ;ur'i'alE An 8ld =elationship =ee$amined
(C) The Blood ;upply and the BrainE A =eciprocal ependence
() Amino Acids and 9eurotransmittersE The Connection Between ;erotonin
Ke'els and Tyrosine
(#) The #ffects of >ood 3ntake on the @roduction and =elease of ;erotoninE ;ome
=ecent >indings
2. According to the passage/ the speed with which tryptophan is pro'ided to the
brain cells of a rat 'aries with the
(A) amount of protein present in a meal
(B) concentration of serotonin in the brain before a meal
(C) concentration of leucine in the blood rather than on the concentration of
tyrosine in the blood after a meal
() concentration of tryptophan in the brain before a meal
(#) number of serotonin(containing neurons present in the brain before a meal
.. According to the passage/ when the authors began their first studies/ they were
GMAT 111
aware that
(A) they would e'entually need to design e$periments that in'ol'ed feeding rats
high concentrations of protein
(B) tryptophan le'els in the blood were difficult to monitor with accuracy
(C) serotonin le'els increased after rats were fed meals rich in tryptophan
() there were many neurotransmitters whose production was dependent on
metabolic processes elsewhere in the body
(#) serotonin le'els increased after rats were in<ected with a large amount of
tryptophan
0. According to the passage/ one reason that the authors ga'e rats carbohydrates was
to
(A) depress the rats4 tryptophan le'els
(B) pre'ent the rats from contracting diseases
(C) cause the rats to produce insulin
() demonstrate that insulin is the most important substance secreted by the body
(#) compare the effect of carbohydrates with the effect of proteins
1. According to the passage/ the more protein a rat consumes/ the lower will be the
(A) ratio of the rat4s blood(tryptophan concentration to the amount of serotonin
produced and released in the rat4s brain
(B) ratio of the rat4s blood(tryptophan concentration to the concentration in its
blood of the other amino acids contained in the protein
(C) ratio of the rat4s blood(tyrosine concentration to its blood(leucine
concentration
() number of neurotransmitters of any kind that the rat will produce and release
(#) number of amino acids the rat4s blood will contain
2. The authors4 discussion of the *mechanism that pro'ides blood tryptophan to the
brain cells+ (lines .1(.2) is meant to
(A) stimulate further research studies
(B) summari!e an area of scientific in'estigation
(C) help e$plain why a particular research finding was obtained
() pro'ide supporting e'idence for a contro'ersial scientific theory
(#) refute the conclusions of a pre'iously mentioned research study
-. According to the passage/ an in<ection of insulin was most similar in its effect on
rats to an in<ection of
(A) tyrosine
(B) leucine
(C) blood
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() tryptophan
(#) protein
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would be K#A;T
likely to be a potential source of aid to a patient who was not ade"uately
producing and releasing serotonin%
(A) ?eals consisting almost e$clusi'ely of protein
(B) ?eals consisting almost e$clusi'ely of carbohydrates
(C) ?eals that would elicit insulin secretion
() ?eals that had 'ery low concentrations of tyrosine
(#) ?eals that had 'ery low concentrations of leucine
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the authors initially held which of the
following hypotheses about what would happen when they fed large amounts of
protein to rats%
(A) The rats4 brain serotonin le'els would not decrease.
(B) The rats4 brain tryptophan le'els would decrease.
(C) The rats4 tyrosine le'els would increase less "uickly than would their leucine
le'els.
() The rats would produce more insulin.
(#) The rats would produce neurotransmitters other than serotonin.
Passage 42 (42/63)
Hstorans sometmes forget that hstory s contnuay beng made and
experenced before t s studed, nterpreted, and read. These atter actvtes have
ther own hstory, of course, whch may mpnge n unexpected ways on pubc
events. It s dffcut to predct when "new pasts" w overturn estabshed
hstorca nterpretatons and change the course of hstory.
In the fa of 1954, for exampe, C. Vann Woodward devered a ecture seres
at the Unversty of Vrgna whch chaenged the prevang dogma concernng the
hstory, contnuty, and unformty of raca segregaton n the South. He argued
that the |m Crow aws of the ate nneteenth and eary twenteth centures not
ony codfed tradtona practce but aso were a determned effort to erase the
consderabe progress made by Back peope durng and after Reconstructon n
the 1870s. Ths revsonst vew of |m Crow egsaton grew n part from the
research that Woodward had done for the NAACP ega campagn durng ts
preparaton for Brown v. Board of Education. The Supreme Court had ssued ts
rung n ths epocha desegregaton case a few months before Woodwards
ectures.
The ectures were soon pubshed as a book, The trange Career of !im Crow.
GMAT 11-
Ten years ater, n a preface to the second revsed edton, Woodward confessed
wth ronc modesty that the frst edton "had begun to suffer under some of the
handcaps that mght be expected n a hstory of the Amercan Revouton
pubshed n 1776." That was a bt ke hearng Thomas Pane apoogze for the
tmng of hs pamphet Common ense, whch had a comparabe mpact. Athough
Common ense aso had a mass readershp, Pane had ntended to reach and
nspre: he was not a hstoran, and thus not concerned wth accuracy or the
dangers of hstorca anachronsm. Yet, ke Pane, Woodward had an unerrng
sense of the revoutonary moment, and of how hstorca evdence coud
undermne the mythoogca tradton that was crushng the dreams of new soca
possbtes. Martn Luther Kng, |r., testfed to the profound effect of The trange
Career of !im Crow on the cv rghts movement by prasng the book and quotng
t frequenty.
1. The *new pasts+ mentioned in line 2 can best be described as the
(A) occurrence of e'ents e$tremely similar to past e'ents
(B) history of the acti'ities of studying/ interpreting/ and reading new historical
writing
(C) change in people4s understanding of the past due to more recent historical
writing
() o'erturning of established historical interpretations by politically moti'ated
politicians
(#) difficulty of predicting when a gi'en historical interpretation will be
o'erturned
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *pre'ailing dogma+ (line 15) held that
(A) Aim Crow laws were passed to gi'e legal status to well(established
discriminatory practices in the ;outh
(B) Aim Crow laws were passed to establish order and uniformity in the
discriminatory practices of different southern states
(C) Aim Crow laws were passed to erase the social gains that Black people had
achie'ed since =econstruction
() the continuity of racial segregation in the ;outh was disrupted by passage of
Aim Crow laws
(#) the Aim Crow laws of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were
passed to re'erse the effect of earlier Aim Crow laws
.. &hich of the following is the best e$ample of writing that is likely to be sub<ect
to the kinds of *handicaps+ referred to in line 2-%
(A) A history of an auto manufacturing plant written by an employee during an
auto(buying boom
(B) A criti"ue of a statewide school(desegregation plan written by an elementary
school teacher in that state
116 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) A newspaper article assessing the historical importance of a :nited ;tates
@resident written shortly after the @resident has taken office
() A scientific paper describing the benefits of a certain surgical techni"ue
written by the surgeon who de'eloped the techni"ue
(#) iary entries narrating the e'ents of a battle written by a soldier who
participated in the battle
0. The passage suggests that C. Cann &oodward and Thomas @aine were similar in
all of the following ways #DC#@TE
(A) Both had works published in the midst of important historical e'ents.
(B) Both wrote works that en<oyed widespread popularity.
(C) Both e$hibited an understanding of the rele'ance of historical e'idence to
contemporary issues.
() The works of both had a significant effect on e'ents following their
publication.
(#) Both were able to set aside worries about historical anachronism in order to
reach and inspire.
1. The attitude of the author of the passage toward the work of C. Cann &oodward
is best described as one of
(A) respectful regard
(B) "ualified approbation
(C) implied skepticism
() pointed criticism
(#) fer'ent ad'ocacy
2. &hich of the following best describes the new idea e$pressed by C. Cann
&oodward in his :ni'ersity of Cirginia lectures in 1,10%
(A) ;outhern racial segregation was continuous and uniform.
(B) Black people made considerable progress only after =econstruction.
(C) Aim Crow legislation was con'entional in nature.
() Aim Crow laws did not go as far in codifying traditional practice as they
might ha'e.
(#) Aim Crow laws did much more than merely reinforce a tradition of
segregation.
Passage 43 (43/63)
|oseph Gatthaars Forged in Battle s not the frst exceent study of Back
soders and ther Whte offcers n the Cv War, but t uses more soders etters
and dares-ncudng rare matera from Back soders-and concentrates more
ntensey on Back-Whte reatons n Back regments than do any of ts
GMAT 11,
predecessors. Gatthaars tte expresses hs thess: oyaty, frendshp, and
respect among Whte offcers and Back soders were fostered by the mutua
dangers they faced n combat.
Gatthaar accuratey descrbes the governments dscrmnatory treatment of
Back soders n pay, promoton, medca care, and |ob assgnments, appropratey
emphaszng the campagn by Back soders and ther offcers to get the
opportunty to fght. That chance remaned mted throughout the war by army
poces that kept most Back unts servng n rear-echeon assgnments and
workng n abor battaons. Thus, whe ther combat death rate was ony one-thrd
that of Whte unts, ther mortaty rate from dsease, a ma|or ker n hs war, was
twce as great. Despte these obstaces, the courage and effectveness of severa
Back unts n combat won ncreasng respect from ntay skeptca or hoste
Whte soders. As one Whte offcer put t, "they have fought ther way nto the
respect of a the army."
In tryng to demonstrate the magntude of ths atttudna change, however,
Gatthaar seems to exaggerate the prewar racsm of the Whte men who became
offcers n Back regments. "Pror to the war," he wrtes of these men, "vrtuay a
of them hed powerfu raca pre|udces." Whe perhaps true of those offcers who
|oned Back unts for promoton or other sef-servng motves, ths statement
msrepresents the atttudes of the many abotonsts who became offcers n Back
regments. Havng spent years fghtng aganst the race pre|udce endemc n
Amercan socety, they partcpated eagery n ths mtary experment, whch
they hoped woud hep Afrcan Amercans acheve freedom and postwar cv
equaty. By current standards of raca egataransm, these mens paternasm
toward Afrcan Amercans was racst. But to ca ther feengs "powerfu raca
pre|udces" s to nduge n generatona chauvnsm-to |udge past eras by
present standards.
1. The passage as a whole can best be characteri!ed as which of the following%
(A) An e'aluation of a scholarly study
(B) A description of an attitudinal change
(C) A discussion of an analytical defect
() An analysis of the causes of a phenomenon
(#) An argument in fa'or of re'ising a 'iew
2. According to the author/ which of the following is true of Blatthaar4s >orged in
Battle compared with pre'ious studies on the same topic%
(A) 3t is more reliable and presents a more complete picture of the historical
e'ents on which it concentrates than do pre'ious studies.
(B) 3t uses more of a particular kind of source material and focuses more closely
on a particular aspect of the topic than do pre'ious studies.
(C) 3t contains some unsupported generali!ations/ but it rightly emphasi!es a
125 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
theme ignored by most pre'ious studies.
() 3t surpasses pre'ious studies on the same topic in that it accurately describes
conditions often neglected by those studies.
(#) 3t makes skillful use of supporting e'idence to illustrate a subtle trend that
pre'ious studies ha'e failed to detect.
.. The author implies that the title of Blatthaar4s book refers specifically to which of
the following%
(A) The sense of pride and accomplishment that Black soldiers increasingly felt
as a result of their Ci'il &ar e$periences
(B) The ci'il e"uality that African Americans achie'ed after the Ci'il &ar/ partly
as a result of their use of organi!ational skills honed by combat
(C) The changes in discriminatory army policies that were made as a direct result
of the performance of Black combat units during the Ci'il &ar
() The impro'ed interracial relations that were formed by the races4 facing of
common dangers and their waging of a common fight during the Ci'il &ar
(#) The standards of racial egalitarianism that came to be adopted as a result of
&hite Ci'il &ar 'eterans4 repudiation of the pre'ious racism
0. The passage mentions which of the following as an important theme that recei'es
special emphasis in Blatthaar4s book%
(A) The attitudes of abolitionist officers in Black units
(B) The struggle of Black units to get combat assignments
(C) The conse"uences of the poor medical care recei'ed by Black soldiers
() The moti'es of officers ser'ing in Black units
(#) The discrimination that Black soldiers faced when trying for promotions
1. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of Black units4 disease
mortality rates in the Ci'il &ar%
(A) They were almost as high as the combat mortality rates of &hite units.
(B) They resulted in part from the relati'e ine$perience of these units when in
combat.
(C) They were especially high because of the nature of these units4 usual duty
assignments.
() They resulted in e$tremely high o'erall casualty rates in Black combat units.
(#) They e$acerbated the morale problems that were caused by the army4s
discriminatory policies.
2. The author of the passage "uotes the &hite officer in lines 2.(20 primarily in
order to pro'ide e'idence to support the contention that
(A) 'irtually all &hite officers initially had hostile attitudes toward Black soldiers
(B) Black soldiers were often forced to defend themsel'es from physical attacks
GMAT 121
initiated by soldiers from &hite units
(C) the combat performance of Black units changed the attitudes of &hite
soldiers toward Black soldiers
() &hite units paid especially careful attention to the performance of Black
units in battle
(#) respect in the army as a whole was accorded only to those units/ whether
Black or &hite/ that performed well in battle
-. &hich of the following best describes the kind of error attributed to Blatthaar in
lines 21(26%
(A) 3nsisting on an unwarranted distinction between two groups of indi'iduals in
order to render an argument concerning them internally consistent
(B) ;upporting an argument in fa'or of a gi'en interpretation of a situation with
e'idence that is not particularly rele'ant to the situation
(C) @resenting a distorted 'iew of the moti'es of certain indi'iduals in order to
pro'ide grounds for a negati'e e'aluation of their actions
() escribing the conditions pre'ailing before a gi'en e'ent in such a way that
the contrast with those pre'ailing after the e'ent appears more striking than
it actually is
(#) Asserting that a gi'en e'ent is caused by another e'ent merely because the
other e'ent occurred before the gi'en e'ent occurred
6. &hich of the following actions can best be described as indulging in
*generational chau'inism+ (lines 05(01) as that practice is defined in the passage%
(A) Condemning a present(day monarch merely because many monarchs ha'e
been tyrannical in the past.
(B) Clinging to the formal standards of politeness common in one4s youth to such
a degree that any rela$ation of those standards is intolerable.
(C) Nuestioning the accuracy of a report written by an employee merely because
of the employee4s gender.
() eriding the superstitions accepted as *science+ in past eras without
acknowledging the pre'alence of irrational beliefs today.
(#) Kabeling a nineteenth(century politician as *corrupt+ for engaging in once(
acceptable practices considered intolerable today.
Passage 44 (44/63)
It was once assumed that a vng thngs coud be dvded nto two
fundamenta and exhaustve categores. Mutceuar pants and anmas, as we
as many unceuar organsms, are eukaryotc-ther arge, compex ces have a
we-formed nuceus and many organees. On the other hand, the true bactera
are prokaryotc ce, whch are smpe and ack a nuceus. The dstncton between
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
eukaryotes and bactera, ntay defned n terms of subceuar structures vsbe
wth a mcroscope, was utmatey carred to the moecuar eve. Here prokaryotc
and eukaryotc ces have many features n common. For nstance, they transate
genetc nformaton nto protens accordng to the same type of genetc codng.
But even where the moecuar processes are the same, the detas n the two
forms are dfferent and characterstc of the respectve forms. For exampe, the
amno acd sequences of varous enzymes tend to be typcay prokaryotc or
eukaryotc. The dfferences between the groups and the smartes wthn each
group made t seem certan to most boogsts that the tree of fe had ony two
stems. Moreover, arguments pontng out the extent of both structura and
functona dfferences between eukaryotes and true bactera convnced many
boogsts that the precursors of the eukaryotes must have dverged from the
common ancestor before the bactera arose.
Athough much of ths pcture has been sustaned by more recent research, t
seems fundamentay wrong n one respect. Among the bactera, there are
organsms that are sgnfcanty dfferent both from the ces of eukaryotes and
from the true bactera, and t now appears that there are three stems n the tree
of fe. New technques for determnng the moecuar sequence of the RNA of
organsms have produced evoutonary nformaton about the degree to whch
organsms are reated, the tme snce they dverged from a common ancestor, and
the reconstructon of ancestra versons of genes. These technques have strongy
suggested that athough the true bactera ndeed form a arge coherent group,
certan other bactera, the archaebactera, whch are aso prokaryotes and whch
resembe true bactera, represent a dstnct evoutonary branch that far
antedates the common ancestor of a true bactera.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) detailing the e'idence that has led most biologists to replace the trichotomous
picture of li'ing organisms with a dichotomous one
(B) outlining the factors that ha'e contributed to the current hypothesis
concerning the number of basic categories of li'ing organisms
(C) e'aluating e$periments that ha'e resulted in proof that the prokaryotes are
more ancient than had been e$pected
() summari!ing the differences in structure and function found among true
bacteria/ archaebacteria/ and eukaryotes
(#) formulating a hypothesis about the mechanisms of e'olution that resulted in
the ancestors of the prokaryotes
2. According to the passage/ in'estigations of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells at the
molecular le'el supported the conclusion that
(A) most eukaryotic organisms are unicellular
(B) comple$ cells ha'e well(formed nuclei
(C) prokaryotes and eukaryotes form two fundamental categories
GMAT 12.
() subcellular structures are 'isible with a microscope
(#) prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells ha'e similar en!ymes
.. According to the passage/ which of the following statements about the two(
category hypothesis is likely to be true%
(A) 3t is promising because it e$plains the presence of true bacteria(like
organisms such as organelles in eukaryotic cells.
(B) 3t is promising because it e$plains why eukaryotic cells/ unlike prokaryotic
cells/ tend to form multicellular organisms.
(C) 3t is flawed because it fails to account for the great 'ariety among eukaryotic
organisms.
() 3t is flawed because it fails to account for the similarity between prokaryotes
and eukaryotes.
(#) 3t is flawed because it fails to recogni!e an important distinction among
prokaryotes.
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following ha'e recently been
compared in order to clarify the fundamental classifications of li'ing things%
(A) The genetic coding in true bacteria and that in other prokaryotes
(B) The organelle structures of archaebacteria/ true bacteria/ and eukaryotes
(C) The cellular structures of multicellular organisms and unicellular organisms
() The molecular se"uences in eukaryotic =9A/ true bacterial =9A/ and
archaebacterial =9A
(#) The amino acid se"uences in en!ymes of 'arious eukaryotic species and those
of en!ymes in archaebacterial species
1. 3f the *new techni"ues+ mentioned in line .1 were applied in studies of biological
classifications other than bacteria/ which of the following is most likely%
(A) ;ome of those classifications will ha'e to be ree'aluated.
(B) ?any species of bacteria will be reclassified.
(C) 3t will be determined that there are four main categories of li'ing things rather
than three.
() 3t will be found that true bacteria are much older than eukaryotes.
(#) 3t will be found that there is a common ancestor of the eukaryotes/
archaebacteria/ and true bacteria.
2. According to the passage/ researchers working under the two(category hypothesis
were correct in thinking that
(A) prokaryotes form a coherent group
(B) the common ancestor of all li'ing things had comple$ properties
(C) eukaryotes are fundamentally different from true bacteria
() true bacteria are <ust as comple$ as eukaryotes
120 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) ancestral 'ersions of eukaryotic genes functioned differently from their
modern counterparts
-. All of the following statements are supported by the passage #DC#@TE
(A) True bacteria form a distinct e'olutionary group.
(B) Archaebacteria are prokaryotes that resemble true bacteria.
(C) True bacteria and eukaryotes employ similar types of genetic coding.
() True bacteria and eukaryotes are distinguishable at the subcellular le'el.
(#) Amino acid se"uences of en!ymes are uniform for eukaryotic and prokaryotic
organisms.
6. The author4s attitude toward the 'iew that li'ing things are di'ided into three
categories is best described as one of
(A) tentati'e acceptance
(B) mild skepticism
(C) limited denial
() studious criticism
(#) whole hearted endorsement
Passage 45 (45/63)
Excess nventory, a massve probem for many busnesses, has severa
causes, some of whch are unavodabe. Overstocks may accumuate through
producton overruns or errors. Certan styes and coors prove unpopuar. Wth
some products-computers and software, toys, and books-ast years modes are
dffcut to move even at huge dscounts. Occasonay the competton ntroduces
a better product. But n many cases the pubcs buyng tastes smpy change,
eavng a manufacturer or dstrbutor wth thousands (or mons) of tems that the
fcke pubc no onger wants.
One common way to dspose of ths merchandse s to se t to a qudator,
who buys as cheapy as possbe and then reses the merchandse through
cataogs, dscount stores, and other outets. However, qudators may pay ess for
the merchandse than t cost to make t. Another way to dspose of excess
nventory s to dump t. The corporaton takes a straght cost wrte-off on ts taxes
and haus the merchandse to a andf. Athough t s hard to beeve, there s a
sort of convouted ogc to ths approach. It s perfecty ega, requres tte tme or
preparaton on the companys part, and soves the probem qucky. The drawback
s the remote possbty of gettng caught by the news meda. Dumpng perfecty
usefu products can turn nto a pubc reatons nghtmare. Chdren vng n
poverty are freezng and XYZ Company has |ust sent 500 new snowsuts to the
oca dump. Parents of young chdren are barey gettng by and ORS Company
dumps 1,000 cases of dsposabe dapers because they have sght mperfectons.
GMAT 121
The managers of these companes are not deberatey wastefu; they are
smpy unaware of a ther aternatves. In 1976 the Interna Revenue Servce
provded a tangbe ncentve for busnesses to contrbute ther products to charty.
The new tax aw aowed corporatons to deduct the cost of the product donated
pus haf the dfference between cost and far market seng prce, wth the
provso that deductons cannot exceed twce cost. Thus, the federa government
sanctons-ndeed, encourages-an above-cost federa tax deducton for
companes that donate nventory to charty.
1. The author mentions each of the following as a cause of e$cess in'entory
#DC#@T
(A) production of too much merchandise
(B) inaccurate forecasting of buyers4 preferences
(C) unrealistic pricing policies
() products4 rapid obsolescence
(#) a'ailability of a better product
2. The passage suggests that which of the following is a kind of product that a
li"uidator who sells to discount stores would be unlikely to wish to ac"uire%
(A) >urniture
(B) Computers
(C) Mitchen e"uipment
() Baby(care products
(#) Children4s clothing
.. The passage pro'ides information that supports which of the following
statements%
(A) #$cess in'entory results most often from insufficient market analysis by the
manufacturer.
(B) @roducts with slight manufacturing defects may contribute to e$cess
in'entory.
(C) >ew manufacturers ha'e taken ad'antage of the changes in the federal ta$
laws.
() ?anufacturers who dump their e$cess in'entory are often caught and
e$posed by the news media.
(#) ?ost products a'ailable in discount stores ha'e come from manufacturers4
e$cess(in'entory stock.
0. The author cites the e$amples in lines 21(2, most probably in order to illustrate
(A) the fiscal irresponsibility of dumping as a policy for dealing with e$cess
in'entory
(B) the waste(management problems that dumping new products creates
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) the ad'antages to the manufacturer of dumping as a policy
() alternati'es to dumping e$plored by different companies
(#) how the news media could portray dumping to the detriment of the
manufacturer4s reputation
1. By asserting that manufacturers *are simply unaware+ (line .1)/ the author
suggests which of the following%
(A) ?anufacturers might donate e$cess in'entory to charity rather than dump it if
they knew about the pro'ision in the federal ta$ code.
(B) The federal go'ernment has failed to pro'ide sufficient encouragement to
manufacturers to make use of ad'antageous ta$ policies.
(C) ?anufacturers who choose to dump e$cess in'entory are not aware of the
possible effects on their reputation of media co'erage of such dumping.
() The manufacturers of products disposed of by dumping are unaware of the
needs of those people who would find the products useful.
(#) The manufacturers who dump their e$cess in'entory are not familiar with the
employment of li"uidators to dispose of o'erstock.
2. The information in the passage suggests that which of the following/ if true/
would make donating e$cess in'entory to charity less attracti'e to manufacturers
than dumping%
(A) The costs of getting the in'entory to the charitable destination are greater
than the abo'e(cost ta$ deduction.
(B) The news media gi'e manufacturers4 charitable contributions the same
amount of co'erage that they gi'e dumping.
(C) 9o straight(cost ta$ benefit can be claimed for items that are dumped.
() The fair(market 'alue of an item in e$cess in'entory is 1 times its cost.
(#) 3tems end up as e$cess in'entory because of a change in the public4s
preferences.
-. 3nformation in the passage suggests that one reason manufacturers might take
ad'antage of the ta$ pro'ision mentioned in the last paragraph is that
(A) there are many kinds of products that cannot be legally dumped in a landfill
(B) li"uidators often refuse to handle products with slight imperfections
(C) the law allows a deduction in e$cess of the cost of manufacturing the product
() media co'erage of contributions of e$cess(in'entory products to charity is
widespread and fa'orable
(#) no ta$ deduction is a'ailable for products dumped or sold to a li"uidator
Passage 46 (46/63)
Tradtonay, the frst frm to commercaze a new technoogy has benefted
GMAT 12-
from the unque opportunty to shape product defntons, forcng foowers to
adapt to a standard or nvest n an unproven aternatve. Today, however, the
argest payoffs may go to companes that ead n deveopng ntegrated
approaches for successfu mass producton and dstrbuton.
Producers of the Beta format for vdeocassette recorders (VCRs), for exampe,
were frst to deveop the VCR commercay n 1975, but producers of the rva VHS
(Vdeo Home System) format proved to be more successfu at formng strategc
aances wth other producers and dstrbutors to manufacture and market ther
VCR format. Seekng to mantan excusve contro over VCR dstrbuton, Beta
producers were reuctant to form such aances and eventuay ost ground to VHS
n the competton for the goba VCR market.
Despte Betas substanta technoogca head start and the fact that VHS was
nether techncay better nor cheaper than Beta, deveopers of VHS qucky
turned a sght eary ead n saes nto a domnant poston. Strategc agnments
wth producers of prerecorded tapes renforced the VHS advantage. The
percepton among consumers that prerecorded tapes were more avaabe n VHS
format further expanded VHSs share of the market. By the end of the 1980s,
Beta was no onger n producton.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with which of the following%
(A) #'aluating two competing technologies
(B) Tracing the impact of a new technology by narrating a se"uence of e'ents
(C) =einterpreting an e'ent from contemporary business history
() 3llustrating a business strategy by means of a case history
(#) @roposing an inno'ati'e approach to business planning
2. According to the passage/ today4s successful firms/ unlike successful firms in the
past/ may earn the greatest profits by
(A) in'esting in research to produce cheaper 'ersions of e$isting technology
(B) being the first to market a competing technology
(C) adapting rapidly to a technological standard pre'iously set by a competing
firm
() establishing technological leadership in order to shape product definitions in
ad'ance of competing firms
(#) emphasi!ing the de'elopment of methods for the mass production and
distribution of a new technology
.. According to the passage/ consumers began to de'elop a preference for CC=4s in
the C); format because they belie'ed which of the following%
(A) CC=4s in the C); format were technically better than competing(format
CC=4s.
(B) CC=4s in the C); format were less e$pensi'e than competing(format CC=4s.
126 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) C); was the first standard format for CC=4s.
() C); prerecorded 'ideotapes were more a'ailable than Beta(format tapes.
(#) CC=4s in the Beta format would soon cease to be produced.
0. The author implies that one way that C); producers won control o'er the CC=
market was by
(A) carefully restricting access to CC= technology
(B) gi'ing up a slight early lead in CC= sales in order to impro'e long(term
prospects
(C) retaining a strict monopoly on the production of prerecorded 'ideotapes
() sharing control of the marketing of C);(format CC=4s
(#) sacrificing technological superiority o'er Beta(format CC=4s in order to
remain competiti'e in price
1. The alignment of producers of C);(format CC=4s with producers of prerecorded
'ideotapes is most similar to which of the following%
(A) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with another automobile
manufacturer to adopt a standard design for automobile engines.
(B) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with an automoti'e glass
company whereby the manufacturer agrees to purchase automobile
windshields only from that one glass company.
(C) The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with a petroleum company to
ensure the widespread a'ailability of the fuel re"uired by a new type of
engine de'eloped by the manufacturer.
() The alignment of an automobile manufacturer with its dealers to adopt a plan
to impro'e automobile design.
(#) The alignment of an automobile dealer with an automobile rental chain to
adopt a strategy for an ad'ertising campaign to promote a new type of
automobile.
2. &hich of the following best describes the relation of the first paragraph to the
passage as a whole%
(A) 3t makes a general obser'ation to be e$emplified.
(B) 3t outlines a process to be analy!ed.
(C) 3t poses a "uestion to be answered.
() 3t ad'ances an argument to be disputed.
(#) 3t introduces conflicting arguments to be reconciled.
Passage 47 (47/63)
Austraan researchers have dscovered eectroreceptors (sensory organs
desgned to respond to eectrca feds) custered at the tp of the spny anteaters
GMAT 12,
snout. The researchers made ths dscovery by exposng sma areas of the snout
to extremey weak eectrca feds and recordng the transmsson of resutng
nervous actvty to the bran. Whe t s true that tacte receptors, another knd of
sensory organ on the anteaters snout, can aso respond to eectrca stmu, such
receptors do so ony n response to eectrca fed strengths about 1,000 tmes
greater than those known to excte eectroreceptors.
Havng dscovered the eectroreceptors, researchers are now nvestgatng
how anteaters utze such a sophstcated sensory system. In one behavora
experment, researchers successfuy traned an anteater to dstngush between
two troughs of water, one wth a weak eectrca fed and the other wth none.
Such evdence s consstent wth researchers hypothess that anteaters use
eectroreceptors to detect eectrca sgnas gven off by prey; however,
researchers as yet have been unabe to detect eectrca sgnas emanatng from
termte mounds, where the favorte food of anteaters ve. St, researchers have
observed anteaters breakng nto a nest of ants at an obque ange and qucky
ocatng nestng chambers. Ths abty qucky to ocate unseen prey suggests,
accordng to the researchers, that the anteaters were usng ther eectroreceptors
to ocate the nestng chambers.
1. According to the passage/ which of the following is a characteristic that
distinguishes electroreceptors from tactile receptors%
(A) The manner in which electroreceptors respond to electrical stimuli
(B) The tendency of electroreceptors to be found in clusters
(C) The unusual locations in which electroreceptors are found in most species
() The amount of electrical stimulation re"uired to e$cite electroreceptors
(#) The amount of ner'ous acti'ity transmitted to the brain by electroreceptors
when they are e$cited
2. &hich of the following can be inferred about the e$periment described in the first
paragraph%
(A) =esearchers had difficulty 'erifying the e$istence of electroreceptors in the
anteater because electroreceptors respond to such a narrow range of
electrical field strengths.
(B) =esearchers found that the le'el of ner'ous acti'ity in the anteater4s brain
increased dramatically as the strength of the electrical stimulus was
increased.
(C) =esearchers found that some areas of the anteater4s snout were not sensiti'e
to a weak electrical stimulus.
() =esearchers found that the anteater4s tactile receptors were more easily
e$cited by a strong electrical stimulus than were the electroreceptors.
(#) =esearchers tested small areas of the anteater4s snout in order to ensure that
only electroreceptors were responding to the stimulus.
1.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
.. The author of the passage most probably discusses the function of tactile
receptors (lines -(11) in order to
(A) eliminate and alternati'e e$planation of anteaters4 response to electrical
stimuli
(B) highlight a type of sensory organ that has a function identical to that of
electroreceptors
(C) point out a serious complication in the research on electroreceptors in
anteaters
() suggest that tactile receptors assist electroreceptors in the detection of
electrical signals
(#) introduce a factor that was not addressed in the research on electroreceptors in
anteaters
0. &hich of the following can be inferred about anteaters from the beha'ioral
e$periment mentioned in the second paragraph%
(A) They are unable to distinguish between stimuli detected by their
electroreceptors and stimuli detected by their tactile receptors.
(B) They are unable to distinguish between the electrical signals emanating from
termite mounds and those emanating from ant nests.
(C) They can be trained to recogni!e consistently the presence of a particular
stimulus.
() They react more readily to strong than to weak stimuli.
(#) They are more efficient at detecting stimuli in a controlled en'ironment than
in a natural en'ironment.
1. The passage suggests that the researchers mentioned in the second paragraph who
obser'ed anteaters break into a nest of ants would most likely agree with which
of the following statements%
(A) The e'ent they obser'ed pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence that anteaters use their
electroreceptors to locate unseen prey.
(B) The e'ent they obser'ed was atypical and may not reflect the usual hunting
practices of anteaters.
(C) 3t is likely that the anteaters located the ants4 nesting chambers without the
assistance of electroreceptors.
() Anteaters possess a 'ery simple sensory system for use in locating prey.
(#) The speed with which the anteaters located their prey is greater than what
might be e$pected on the basis of chance alone.
2. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the hypothesis mentioned
in lines 1-(1,%
(A) =esearchers are able to train anteaters to break into an underground chamber
that is emitting a strong electrical signal.
GMAT 1.1
(B) =esearchers are able to detect a weak electrical signal emanating from the
nesting chamber of an ant colony.
(C) Anteaters are obser'ed taking increasingly longer amounts of time to locate
the nesting chambers of ants.
() Anteaters are obser'ed using 'arious angles to break into nests of ants.
(#) Anteaters are obser'ed using the same angle used with nests of ants to break
into the nests of other types of prey.
Passage 48 (48/63)
When A. Php Randoph assumed the eadershp of the Brotherhood of
Seepng Car Porters, he began a ten-year batte to wn recognton from the
Puman Company, the argest prvate empoyer of Back peope n the Unted
States and the company that controed the raroad ndustrys seepng car and
paror servce. In 1935 the Brotherhood became the frst Back unon recognzed
by a ma|or corporaton. Randophs efforts n the batte heped transform the
atttude of Back workers toward unons and toward themseves as an dentfabe
group; eventuay, Randoph heped to weaken organzed abors antagonsm
toward Back workers.
In the Puman contest Randoph faced formdabe obstaces. The frst was
Back workers understandabe skeptcsm toward unons, whch had hstorcay
barred Back workers from membershp. An addtona obstace was the unon that
Puman tsef had formed, whch weakened support among Back workers for an
ndependent entty.
The Brotherhood possessed a number of advantages, however, ncudng
Randophs own tactca abtes. In 1928 he took the bod step of threatenng a
strke aganst Puman. Such a threat, on a natona scae, under Back eadershp,
heped repace the stereotype of the Back worker as servant wth the mage of
the Back worker as wage earner. In addton, the porters very soaton aded the
Brotherhood. Porters were scattered throughout the country, seepng n
dormtores n Back communtes; ther segregated fe protected the unons
nterna communcatons from ntercepton. That the porters were a homogeneous
group workng for a snge empoyer wth snge abor pocy, thus sharng the
same grevances from cty to cty, aso strengthened the Brotherhood and
encouraged raca dentty and sodarty as we. But t was ony n the eary
1930s that federa egsaton prohbtng a company from mantanng ts own
unons wth company money eventuay aowed the Brotherhood to become
recognzed as the porters representatve.
Not content wth ths trumph, Randoph brought the Brotherhood nto the
Amercan Federaton of Labor, where t became the equa of the Federatons 105
other unons. He reasoned that as a member unon, the Brotherhood woud be n a
better poston to exert pressure on member unons that practced race
1.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
restrctons. Such restrctons were eventuay found unconsttutona n 1944.
1. According to the passage/ by 1,.1 the skepticism of Black workers toward
unions was
(A) unchanged e$cept among Black employees of railroad(related industries
(B) reinforced by the actions of the @ullman Company4s union
(C) mitigated by the efforts of =andolph
() weakened by the opening up of many unions to Black workers
(#) largely alle'iated because of the policies of the American >ederation of Kabor
2. 3n using the word *understandable+ (line 10)/ the author most clearly con'eys
(A) sympathy with attempts by the Brotherhood between 1,21 and 1,.1 to
establish an independent union
(B) concern that the obstacles faced by =andolph between 1,21 and 1,.1 were
indeed formidable
(C) ambi'alence about the significance of unions to most Black workers in the
1,254s
() appreciation of the attitude of many Black workers in the 1,254s toward
unions
(#) regret at the historical attitude of unions toward Black workers
.. The passage suggests which of the following about the response of porters to the
@ullman Company4s own union%
(A) >ew porters e'er <oined this union.
(B) ;ome porters supported this union before 1,.1.
(C) @orters/ more than other @ullman employees/ enthusiastically supported this
union.
() The porters4 response was most positi'e after 1,.1.
(#) The porters4 response was unaffected by the general skepticism of Black
workers concerning unions.
0. The passage suggests that if the grie'ances of porters in one part of the :nited
;tates had been different from those of porters in another part of the country/
which of the following would ha'e been the case%
(A) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the @ullman Company to ha'e had a
single labor policy.
(B) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the Brotherhood to control its channels
of communication.
(C) 3t would ha'e been more difficult for the Brotherhood to build its
membership.
() 3t would ha'e been easier for the @ullman Company4s union to attract
membership.
GMAT 1..
(#) 3t would ha'e been easier for the Brotherhood to threaten strikes.
1. The passage suggests that in the 1,254s a company in the :nited ;tates was able
to
(A) use its own funds to set up a union
(B) re"uire its employees to <oin the company4s own union
(C) de'elop a single labor policy for all its employees with little employee dissent
() pressure its employees to contribute money to maintain the company4s own
union
(#) use its resources to pre'ent the passage of federal legislation that would ha'e
facilitated the formation of independent unions
2. The passage supplies information concerning which of the following matters
related to =andolph%
(A) The steps he took to initiate the founding of the Brotherhood
(B) )is moti'ation for bringing the Brotherhood into the American >ederation of
Kabor
(C) The influence he had on the passage of legislation o'erturning race
restrictions in 1,00
() The influence he had on the passage of legislation to bar companies from
financing their own unions
(#) The success he and the Brotherhood had in influencing the policies of the
other unions in the American >ederation of Kabor
Passage 49 (49/63)
Hstorans of womens abor n the Unted States at frst argey dsregarded
the story of femae servce workers-women earnng wages n occupatons such
as saescerk, domestc servant, and offce secretary. These hstorans focused
nstead on factory work, prmary because t seemed so dfferent from tradtona,
unpad "womens work" n the home, and because the underyng economc forces
of ndustrasm were presumed to be gender-bnd and hence emancpatory n
effect. Unfortunatey, emancpaton has been ess profound than expected, for not
even ndustra wage abor has escaped contnued sex segregaton n the
workpace.
To expan ths unfnshed revouton n the status of women, hstorans have
recenty begun to emphasze the way a prevang defnton of femnnty often
determnes the knds of work aocated to women, even when such aocaton s
napproprate to new condtons. For nstance, eary texte-m entrepreneurs, n
|ustfyng womens empoyment n wage abor, made much of the assumpton that
women were by nature skfu at detaed tasks and patent n carryng out
repettve chores; the m owners thus mported nto the new ndustra order
hoary stereotypes assocated wth the homemakng actvtes they presumed to
1.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
have been the purvew of women. Because women accepted the more
unattractve new ndustra tasks more ready than dd men, such |obs came to be
regarded as femae |obs. And empoyers, who assumed that womens "rea"
aspratons were for marrage and famy fe, decned to pay women wages
commensurate wth those of men. Thus many ower-sked, ower-pad, ess
secure |obs came to be perceved as "femae."
More remarkabe than the orgn has been the persstence of such sex
segregaton n twenteth-century ndustry. Once an occupaton came to be
perceved as "femae." empoyers showed surprsngy tte nterest n changng
that percepton, even when hgher profts beckoned. And despte the urgent need
of the Unted States durng the Second Word War to mobze ts human resources
fuy, |ob segregaton by sex characterzed even the most mportant war
ndustres. Moreover, once the war ended, empoyers qucky returned to men
most of the "mae" |obs that women had been permtted to master.
1. According to the passage/ <ob segregation by se$ in the :nited ;tates was
(A) greatly diminished by labor mobili!ation during the ;econd &orld &ar
(B) perpetuated by those te$tile(mill owners who argued in fa'or of women4s
employment in wage labor
(C) one means by which women achie'ed greater <ob security
() reluctantly challenged by employers e$cept when the economic ad'antages
were ob'ious
(#) a constant source of labor unrest in the young te$tile industry
2. According to the passage/ historians of women4s labor focused on factory work as
a more promising area of research than ser'ice(sector work because factory work
(A) in'ol'ed the payment of higher wages
(B) re"uired skill in detailed tasks
(C) was assumed to be less characteri!ed by se$ segregation
() was more readily accepted by women than by men
(#) fitted the economic dynamic of industrialism better
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that early historians of women4s labor in the
:nited ;tates paid little attention to women4s employment in the ser'ice sector of
the economy because
(A) the e$treme 'ariety of these occupations made it 'ery difficult to assemble
meaningful statistics about them
(B) fewer women found employment in the ser'ice sector than in factory work
(C) the wages paid to workers in the ser'ice sector were much lower than those
paid in the industrial sector
() women4s employment in the ser'ice sector tended to be much more short(
term than in factory work
GMAT 1.1
(#) employment in the ser'ice sector seemed to ha'e much in common with the
unpaid work associated with homemaking
0. The passage supports which of the following statements about the early mill
owners mentioned in the second paragraph%
(A) They hoped that by creating relati'ely unattracti'e *female+ <obs they would
discourage women from losing interest in marriage and family life.
(B) They sought to increase the si!e of the a'ailable labor force as a means to
keep men4s wages low.
(C) They argued that women were inherently suited to do well in particular kinds
of factory work.
() They thought that factory work bettered the condition of women by
emancipating them from dependence on income earned by men.
(#) They felt guilty about disturbing the traditional di'ision of labor in family.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *unfinished re'olution+ the author
mentions in line 1. refers to the
(A) entry of women into the industrial labor market
(B) recognition that work done by women as homemakers should be compensated
at rates comparable to those pre'ailing in the ser'ice sector of the economy
(C) de'elopment of a new definition of femininity unrelated to the economic
forces of industrialism
() introduction of e"ual pay for e"ual work in all professions
(#) emancipation of women wage earners from gender(determined <ob allocation
2. The passage supports which of the following statements about hiring policies in
the :nited ;tates%
(A) After a crisis many formerly *male+ <obs are reclassified as *female+ <obs.
(B) 3ndustrial employers generally prefer to hire women with pre'ious e$perience
as homemakers.
(C) @ost(;econd &orld &ar hiring policies caused women to lose many of their
wartime gains in employment opportunity.
() #'en war industries during the ;econd &orld &ar were reluctant to hire
women for factory work.
(#) The ser'ice sector of the economy has pro'ed more nearly gender(blind in its
hiring policies than has the manufacturing sector.
-. &hich of the following words best e$presses the opinion of the author of the
passage concerning the notion that women are more skillful than men in carrying
out detailed tasks%
(A) *patient+ (line 21)
(B) *repetiti'e+ (line 21)
1.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) *hoary+ (line 22)
() *homemaking+ (line 2.)
(#) *pur'iew+ (line 20)
6. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the final paragraph to
the passage as a whole%
(A) The central idea is reinforced by the citation of e'idence drawn from
twentieth(century history.
(B) The central idea is restated in such a way as to form a transition to a new
topic for discussion.
(C) The central idea is restated and <u$taposed with e'idence that might appear to
contradict it.
() A partial e$ception to the generali!ations of the central idea is dismissed as
unimportant.
(#) =ecent history is cited to suggest that the central idea4s 'alidity is gradually
diminishing.
Passage 50 (50/63)
Accordng to a recent theory, Archean-age god-quartz ven systems were
formed over two bon years ago from magnetc fuds that orgnated from
moten grante-ke bodes deep beneath the surface of the Earth. Ths theory s
contrary to the wdey hed vew that the systems were deposted from
metamorphc fuds, that s, from fuds that formed durng the dehydraton of wet
sedmentary rocks.
The recenty deveoped theory has consderabe practca mportance. Most of
the god deposts dscovered durng the orgna god rushes were exposed at the
Earths surface and were found because they had shed tras of auva god that
were easy traced by smpe prospectng methods. Athough these same methods
st ead to an occasona dscovery, most deposts not yet dscovered have gone
undetected because they are bured and have no surface expresson.
The chaenge n exporaton s therefore to unrave the subsurface geoogy of
an area and pnpont the poston of bured mneras. Methods wdey used today
ncude anayss of aera mages that yed a broad geoogca overvew;
geophysca technques that provde data on the magnetc, eectrca, and
mneraogca propertes of the rocks beng nvestgated; and senstve chemca
tests that are abe to detect the subte chemca haos that often enveop
mnerazaton. However, none of these hgh-technoogy methods are of any vaue
f the stes to whch they are apped have never mnerazed, and to maxmze the
chances of dscovery the exporer must therefore pay partcuar attenton to
seectng the ground formatons most key to be mnerazed. Such ground
seecton rees to varyng degrees on conceptua modes, whch take nto account
GMAT 1.-
theoretca studes of reevant factors.
These modes are constructed prmary from emprca observatons of known
mnera deposts and from theores of ore-formng processes. The exporer uses
the modes to dentfy those geoogca features that are crtca to the formaton
of the mnerazaton beng modeed, and then tres to seect areas for exporaton
that exhbt as many of the crtca features as possbe.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ocating a return to an older methodology
(B) e$plaining the importance of a recent theory
(C) enumerating differences between two widely used methods
() describing e'ents leading to a disco'ery
(#) challenging the assumptions on which a theory is based
2. According to the passage/ the widely held 'iew of Archean(age gold("uart! 'ein
systems is that such systems
(A) were formed from metamorphic fluids
(B) originated in molten granite(like bodies
(C) were formed from allu'ial deposits
() generally ha'e surface e$pression
(#) are not disco'erable through chemical tests
.. The passage implies that which of the following steps would be the first
performed by e$plorers who wish to ma$imi!e their chances of disco'ering gold%
(A) ;ur'eying se'eral sites known to ha'e been formed more than two billion
years ago
(B) Kimiting e$ploration to sites known to ha'e been formed from metamorphic
fluid
(C) :sing an appropriate conceptual model to select a site for further e$ploration
() :sing geophysical methods to analy!e rocks o'er a broad area
(#) Kimiting e$ploration to sites where allu'ial gold has pre'iously been found
0. &hich of the following statements about disco'eries of gold deposits is supported
by information in the passage%
(A) The number of gold disco'eries made annually has increased between the
time of the original gold rushes and the present.
(B) 9ew disco'eries of gold deposits are likely to be the result of e$ploration
techni"ues designed to locate buried minerali!ation.
(C) 3t is unlikely that newly disco'ered gold deposits will e'er yield as much as
did those deposits disco'ered during the original gold rushes.
() ?odern e$plorers are di'ided on the "uestion of the utility of simple
1.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
prospecting methods as a source of new disco'eries of gold deposits.
(#) ?odels based on the theory that gold originated from magnetic fluids ha'e
already led to new disco'eries of gold deposits.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is easiest to
detect%
(A) A gold("uart! 'ein system originating in magnetic fluids
(B) A gold("uart! 'ein system originating in metamorphic fluids
(C) A gold deposit that is mi$ed with granite
() A gold deposit that has shed allu'ial gold
(#) A gold deposit that e$hibits chemical halos
2. The theory mentioned in line 1 relates to the conceptual models discussed in the
passage in which of the following ways%
(A) 3t may furnish a 'alid account of ore(forming processes/ and/ hence/ can
support conceptual models that ha'e great practical significance.
(B) 3t suggests that certain geological formations/ long belie'ed to be
minerali!ed/ are in fact minerali!ed/ thus confirming current conceptual
models.
(C) 3t suggests that there may not be enough similarity across Archean(age gold(
"uart! 'ein systems to warrant the formulation of conceptual models.
() 3t corrects e$isting theories about the chemical halos of gold deposits/ and
thus pro'ides a basis for correcting current conceptual models.
(#) 3t suggests that simple prospecting methods still ha'e a higher success rate in
the disco'ery of gold deposits than do more modern methods.
-. According to the passage/ methods of e$ploring for gold that are widely used
today are based on which of the following facts%
(A) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are still molten.
(B) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are e$posed at the surface.
(C) ?ost of the #arth4s remaining gold deposits are buried and ha'e no surface
e$pression.
() 8nly one type of gold deposit warrants e$ploration/ since the other types of
gold deposits are found in regions difficult to reach.
(#) 8nly one type of gold deposit warrants e$ploration/ since the other types of
gold deposits are unlikely to yield concentrated "uantities of gold.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the efficiency of model(based gold
e$ploration depends on which of the following%
3. The closeness of the match between the geological features identified by the
model as critical and the actual geological features of a gi'en area
33. The degree to which the model chosen relies on empirical obser'ation of
GMAT 1.,
known mineral deposits rather than on theories of ore(forming processes
333. The degree to which the model chosen is based on an accurate description of
the e'ents leading to minerali!ation
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
Passage 51 (51/63)
Whe there s no bueprnt for transformng a argey government-controed
economy nto a free one, the experence of the Unted Kngdom snce 1979 ceary
shows one approach that works: prvatzaton, n whch state-owned ndustres are
sod to prvate companes. By 1979, the tota borrowngs and osses of state-
owned ndustres were runnng at about 3 bon a year. By seng many of these
ndustres, the government has decreased these borrowngs and osses, ganed
over 34 bon from the saes, and now receves tax revenues from the newy
prvatzed companes. Aong wth a dramatcay mproved overa economy, the
government has been abe to repay 12.5 percent of the net natona debt over a
two-year perod.
In fact, prvatzaton has not ony rescued ndvdua ndustres and a whoe
economy headed for dsaster, but has aso rased the eve of performance n
every area. At Brtsh Arways and Brtsh Gas, for exampe, productvty per
empoyee has rsen by 20 percent. At Assocated Brtsh Ports, abor dsruptons
common n the 1970s and eary 1980s have now vrtuay dsappeared. At Brtsh
Teecom, there s no onger a watng st-as there aways was before prvatzaton
-to have a teephone nstaed.
Part of ths mproved productvty has come about because the empoyees of
prvatzed ndustres were gven the opportunty to buy shares n ther own
companes. They responded enthusastcay to the offer of shares; at Brtsh
Aerospace, 89 percent of the egbe work force bought shares; at Assocated
Brtsh Ports, 90 percent; and at Brtsh Teecom, 92 percent. When peope have a
persona stake n somethng, they thnk about t, care about t, work to make t
prosper. At the Natona Freght Consortum, the new empoyee-owners grew so
concerned about ther companys profts that durng wage negotatons they
actuay pressed ther unon to ower ts wage demands.
Some economsts have suggested that gvng away free shares woud provde
a needed acceeraton of the prvatzaton process. Yet they mss Thomas Panes
pont that "what we obtan too cheap we esteem too ghty." In order for the far-
rangng benefts of ndvdua ownershp to be acheved by owners, companes,
and countres, empoyees and other ndvduas must make ther own decsons to
105 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
buy, and they must commt some of ther own resources to the choce.
1. According to the passage/ all of the following were benefits of pri'ati!ing state(
owned industries in the :nited Mingdom #DC#@TE
(A) @ri'ati!ed industries paid ta$es to the go'ernment.
(B) The go'ernment gained re'enue from selling state(owned industries.
(C) The go'ernment repaid some of its national debt.
() @rofits from industries that were still state(owned increased.
(#) Total borrowings and losses of state(owned industries decreased.
2. According to the passage/ which of the following resulted in increased
producti'ity in companies that ha'e been pri'ati!ed%
(A) A large number of employees chose to purchase shares in their companies.
(B) >ree shares were widely distributed to indi'idual shareholders.
(C) The go'ernment ceased to regulate ma<or industries.
() :nions conducted wage negotiations for employees.
(#) #mployee(owners agreed to ha'e their wages lowered.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers labor disruptions to
be
(A) an ine'itable problem in a weak national economy
(B) a positi'e sign of employee concern about a company
(C) a predictor of employee reactions to a company4s offer to sell shares to them
() a phenomenon found more often in state(owned industries than in pri'ate
companies
(#) a deterrence to high performance le'els in an industry
0. The passage supports which of the following statements about employees buying
shares in their own companies%
(A) At three different companies/ appro$imately nine out of ten of the workers
were eligible to buy shares in their companies.
(B) Appro$imately ,5O of the eligible workers at three different companies
chose o buy shares in their companies.
(C) The opportunity to buy shares was discouraged by at least some labor unions.
() Companies that demonstrated the highest producti'ity were the first to allow
their employees the opportunity to buy shares.
(#) #ligibility to buy shares was contingent on employees4 agreeing to increased
work loads.
1. &hich of the following statements is most consistent with the principle described
in lines .5(.2%
(A) A democratic go'ernment that decides it is inappropriate to own a particular
GMAT 101
industry has in no way abdicated its responsibilities as guardian of the public
interest.
(B) The ideal way for a go'ernment to protect employee interests is to force
companies to maintain their share of a competiti'e market without
go'ernment subsidies.
(C) The failure to harness the power of self(interest is an important reason that
state(owned industries perform poorly.
() Bo'ernments that want to implement pri'ati!ation programs must try to
eliminate all resistance to the free(market system.
(#) The indi'idual shareholder will reap only a minute share of the gains from
whate'er sacrifices he or she makes to achie'e these gains.
2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the pri'ati!ation
process in the :nited Mingdom%
(A) 3t depends to a potentially dangerous degree on indi'idual ownership of
shares.
(B) 3t conforms in its most general outlines to Thomas @aine4s prescription for
business ownership.
(C) 3t was originally concei'ed to include some gi'ing away of free shares.
() 3t has been successful/ e'en though pri'ati!ation has failed in other countries.
(#) 3t is taking place more slowly than some economists suggest is necessary.
-. The "uotation in line ., is most probably used to
(A) counter a position that the author of the passage belie'es is incorrect
(B) state a solution to a problem described in the pre'ious sentence
(C) show how opponents of the 'iewpoint of the author of the passage ha'e
supported their arguments
() point out a parado$ contained in a contro'ersial 'iewpoint
(#) present a historical ma$im to challenge the principle introduced in the third
paragraph
Passage 52 (52/63)
Seekng a compettve advantage, some professona servce frms (for
exampe, frms provdng advertsng, accountng, or heath care servces) have
consdered offerng uncondtona guarantees of satsfacton. Such guarantees
specfy what cents can expect and what the frm w do f t fas to fuf these
expectatons. Partcuary wth frst-tme cents, an uncondtona guarantee can
be an effectve marketng too f the cent s very cautous, the frms fees are
hgh, the negatve consequences of bad servce are grave, or busness s dffcut
to obtan through referras and word-of-mouth.
However, an uncondtona guarantee can sometmes hnder marketng
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efforts. Wth ts mpcaton that faure s possbe, the guarantee may,
paradoxcay, cause cents to doubt the servce frms abty to dever the
promsed eve of servce. It may confct wth a frms desre to appear
sophstcated, or may even suggest that a frm s beggng for busness. In ega
and heath care servces, t may msead cents by suggestng that awsuts or
medca procedures w have guaranteed outcomes. Indeed, professona servce
frms wth outstandng reputatons and performance to match have tte to gan
from offerng uncondtona guarantees. And any frm that mpements an
uncondtona guarantee wthout undertakng a commensurate commtment to
quaty of servce s merey empoyng a potentay costy marketng gmmck.
1. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to
(A) account for the popularity of a practice
(B) e'aluate the utility of a practice
(C) demonstrate how to institute a practice
() weigh the ethics of using a strategy
(#) e$plain the reasons for pursuing a strategy
2. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as circumstances in which
professional ser'ice firms can benefit from offering an unconditional guarantee
#DC#@TE
(A) The firm is ha'ing difficulty retaining its clients of long standing.
(B) The firm is ha'ing difficulty getting business through client
recommendations.
(C) The firm charges substantial fees for its ser'ices.
() The ad'erse effects of poor performance by the firm are significant for the
client.
(#) The client is reluctant to incur risk.
.. &hich of the following is cited in the passage as a goal of some professional
ser'ice firms in offering unconditional guarantees of satisfaction%
(A) A limit on the firm4s liability
(B) ;uccessful competition against other firms
(C) Ability to <ustify fee increases
() Attainment of an outstanding reputation in a field
(#) 3mpro'ement in the "uality of the firm4s ser'ice
0. The passage4s description of the issue raised by unconditional guarantees for
health care or legal ser'ices most clearly implies that which of the following is
true%
(A) The legal and medical professions ha'e standards of practice that would be
'iolated by attempts to fulfill such unconditional guarantees.
GMAT 10.
(B) The result of a lawsuit of medical procedure cannot necessarily be determined
in ad'ance by the professionals handling a client4s case.
(C) The dignity of the legal and medical professions is undermined by any
attempts at marketing of professional ser'ices/ including unconditional
guarantees.
() Clients whose lawsuits or medical procedures ha'e unsatisfactory outcomes
cannot be ade"uately compensated by financial settlements alone.
(#) @redicting the monetary cost of legal or health care ser'ices is more difficult
than predicting the monetary cost of other types of professional ser'ices.
1. &hich of the following hypothetical situations best e$emplifies the potential
problem noted in the second sentence of the second paragraph (lines 10(1-)%
(A) A physician4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction encourages patients to
sue for malpractice if they are unhappy with the treatment they recei'e.
(B) A lawyer4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction makes clients suspect that
the lawyer needs to find new clients "uickly to increase the firm4s income.
(C) A business consultant4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction is undermined
when the consultant fails to pro'ide all of the ser'ices that are promised.
() An architect4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction makes clients wonder
how often the architect4s buildings fail to please clients.
(#) An accountant4s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction leads clients to
belie'e that ta$ returns prepared by the accountant are certain to be accurate.
2. The passage most clearly implies which of the following about the professional
ser'ice firms mentioned in line 22%
(A) They are unlikely to ha'e offered unconditional guarantees of satisfaction in
the past.
(B) They are usually profitable enough to be able to compensate clients according
to the terms of an unconditional guarantee.
(C) They usually practice in fields in which the outcomes are predictable.
() Their fees are usually more affordable than those charged by other
professional ser'ice firms.
(#) Their clients are usually already satisfied with the "uality of ser'ice that is
deli'ered.
Passage 53 (53/63)
Athough genetc mutatons n bactera and vruses can ead to epdemcs,
some epdemcs are caused by bactera and vruses that have undergone no
sgnfcant genetc change. In anayzng the atter, scentsts have dscovered the
mportance of soca and ecoogca factors to epdemcs. Poomyets, for
exampe, emerged as an epdemc n the Unted States n the twenteth century;
100 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
by then, modern santaton was abe to deay exposure to poo unt adoescence
or aduthood, at whch tme poo nfecton produced parayss. Prevousy,
nfecton had occurred durng nfancy, when t typcay provded feong mmunty
wthout parayss. Thus, the hygene that heped prevent typhod epdemcs
ndrecty fostered a paraytc poo epdemc. Another exampe s Lyme dsease,
whch s caused by bactera that are transmtted by deer tcks. It occurred ony
sporadcay durng the ate nneteenth century but has recenty become prevaent
n parts of the Unted States, argey due to an ncrease n the deer popuaton that
occurred smutaneousy wth the growth of the suburbs and ncreased outdoor
recreatona actvtes n the deers habtat. Smary, an outbreak of dengue
hemorrhagc fever became an epdemc n Asa n the 1950s because of
ecoogca changes that caused "edes aegy#ti, the mosquto that transmts the
dengue vrus, to proferate. The stage s now set n the Unted States for a
dengue epdemc because of the nadvertent ntroducton and wde dssemnaton
of another mosquto, "edes al$o#ictus.
1. The passage suggests that a lack of modern sanitation would make which of the
following most likely to occur%
(A) An outbreak of Kyme disease
(B) An outbreak of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er
(C) An epidemic of typhoid
() An epidemic of paralytic polio among infants
(#) An epidemic of paralytic polio among adolescents and adults
2. According to the passage/ the outbreak of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er in the 1,154s
occurred for which of the following reasons%
(A) The mos"uito Aedes aegypti was newly introduced into Asia.
(B) The mos"uito Aedes aegypti became more numerous.
(C) The mos"uito Aedes albopictus became infected with the dengue 'irus.
() 3ndi'iduals who would normally ac"uire immunity to the dengue 'irus as
infants were not infected until later in life.
(#) ?ore people began to 'isit and inhabit areas in which mos"uitoes li'e and
breed.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Kyme disease has become pre'alent in
parts of the :nited ;tates because of which of the following%
(A) The inad'ertent introduction of Kyme disease bacteria to the :nited ;tates
(B) The inability of modern sanitation methods to eradicate Kyme disease bacteria
(C) A genetic mutation in Kyme disease bacteria that makes them more 'irulent
() The spread of Kyme disease bacteria from infected humans to noninfected
humans
(#) An increase in the number of humans who encounter deer ticks
GMAT 101
0. &hich of the following can most reasonably be concluded about the mos"uito
Aedes albopictus on the basis of information gi'en in the passage%
(A) 3t is nati'e to the :nited ;tates.
(B) 3t can proliferate only in Asia.
(C) 3t transmits the dengue 'irus.
() 3t caused an epidemic of dengue hemorrhagic fe'er in the 1,154s.
(#) 3t replaced Aedes aegypti in Asia when ecological changes altered Aedes
aegyptis habitat.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A parado$ is stated/ discussed and left unresol'ed.
(B) Two opposing e$planations are presented/ argued/ and reconciled.
(C) A theory is proposed and is then followed by descriptions of three
e$periments that support the theory.
() A generali!ation is stated and is then followed by three instances that support
the generali!ation.
(#) An argument is described and is then followed by three countere$amples that
refute the argument.
2. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s assertion
about the cause of the Kyme disease outbreak in the :nited ;tates%
(A) The deer population was smaller in the late nineteenth century than in the
mid(twentieth century.
(B) 3nterest in outdoor recreation began to grow in the late nineteenth century.
(C) 3n recent years the suburbs ha'e stopped growing.
() 8utdoor recreation enthusiasts routinely take measures to protect themsel'es
against Kyme disease.
(#) ;cientists ha'e not yet de'eloped a 'accine that can pre'ent Kyme disease.
Passage 54 (54/63)
Two modes of argumentaton have been used on behaf of womens
emancpaton n Western socetes. Arguments n what coud be caed the
"reatona" femnst tradton mantan the doctrne of "equaty n dfference," or
equty as dstnct for equaty. They post that boogca dstnctons between the
sexes resut n a necessary sexua dvson of abor n the famy and throughout
socety and that womens procreatve abor s currenty undervaued by socety, to
the dsadvantage of women. By contrast, the ndvduast femnst tradton
emphaszes ndvdua human rghts and ceebrates womens quest for persona
autonomy, whe downpayng the mportance of gender roes and mnmzng
dscusson of chdbearng and ts attendant responsbtes.
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Before the ate nneteenth century, these vews coexsted wthn the femnst
movement, often wthn the wrtngs of the same ndvdua. Between 1890 and
1920, however, reatona femnsm, whch had been the domnant stran n
femnst thought, and whch st predomnates among European and non-Western
femnsts, ost ground n Engand and the Unted States. Because the concept of
ndvdua rghts was aready we estabshed n the Ango-Saxon ega and
potca tradton, ndvduast femnsm came to predomnate n Engsh-speakng
countres. At the same tme, the goas of the two approaches began to seem
ncreasngy rreconcabe. Indvduast femnsts began to advocate a totay
gender-bnd system wth equa rghts for a. Reatona femnsts, whe agreeng
that equa educatona and economc opportuntes outsde the home shoud be
avaabe for a women, contnued to emphasze womens speca contrbutons to
socety as homemakers and mothers; they demanded speca treatment ncudng
protectve egsaton for women workers, state-sponsored maternty benefts, and
pad compensaton for housework.
Reatona arguments have a ma|or ptfa: because they underne womens
physoogca and psychoogca dstnctveness, they are often approprated by
potca adversares and used to endorse mae prvege. But the ndvduast
approach, by attackng gender roes, denyng the sgnfcance of physoogca
dfference, and condemnng exstng fama nsttutons as hopeessy patrarcha,
has often smpy treated as rreevant the famy roes mportant to many women.
If the ndvduast framework, wth ts cam for womens autonomy, coud be
harmonzed wth the famy-orented concerns of reatona femnsts, a more
frutfu mode for contemporary femnst potcs coud emerge.
1. The author of the passage alludes to the well(established nature of the concept of
indi'idual rights in the Anglo(;a$on legal and political tradition in order to
(A) illustrate the influence of indi'idualist feminist thought on more general
intellectual trends in #nglish history
(B) argue that feminism was already a part of the larger Anglo(;a$on intellectual
tradition/ e'en though this has often gone unnoticed by critics of women4s
emancipation
(C) e$plain the decline in indi'idualist thinking among feminists in non(#nglish(
speaking countries
() help account for an increasing shift toward indi'idualist feminism among
feminists in #nglish(speaking countries
(#) account for the philosophical differences between indi'idualist and relational
feminists in #nglish(speaking countries
2. The passage suggests that the author of the passage belie'es which of the
following%
(A) The predominance of indi'idualist feminism in #nglish(speaking countries is
a historical phenomenon/ the causes of which ha'e not yet been in'estigated.
GMAT 10-
(B) The indi'idualist and relational feminist 'iews are irreconcilable/ gi'en their
theoretical differences concerning the foundations of society.
(C) A consensus concerning the direction of future feminist politics will probably
soon emerge/ gi'en the awareness among feminists of the need for
cooperation among women.
() @olitical ad'ersaries of feminism often misuse arguments predicated on
differences between the se$es to argue that the e$isting social system should
be maintained.
(#) =elational feminism pro'ides the best theoretical framework for
contemporary feminist politics/ but indi'idualist feminism could contribute
much toward refining and strengthening modern feminist thought.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the indi'idualist feminist tradition denies
the 'alidity of which of the following causal statements%
(A) A di'ision of labor in a social group can result in increased efficiency with
regard to the performance of group tasks.
(B) A di'ision of labor in a social group causes ine"uities in the distribution of
opportunities and benefits among group members.
(C) A di'ision of labor on the basis of gender in a social group is necessitated by
the e$istence of se$(linked biological differences between male and female
members of the group.
() Culturally determined distinctions based on gender in a social group foster
the e$istence of differing attitudes and opinions among group members.
(#) #ducational programs aimed at reducing ine"ualities based on gender among
members of a social group can result in a sense of greater well(being for all
members of the group.
0. According to the passage/ relational feminists and indi'idualist feminists agree
that
(A) indi'idual human rights take precedence o'er most other social claims
(B) the gender(based di'ision of labor in society should be eliminated
(C) laws guaranteeing e"ual treatment for all citi!ens regardless of gender should
be passed
() a greater degree of social awareness concerning the importance of
motherhood would be beneficial to society
(#) the same educational and economic opportunities should be a'ailable to both
se$es
1. According to the author/ which of the following was true of feminist thought in
&estern societies before 16,5%
(A) 3ndi'idualist feminist arguments were not found in the thought or writing of
non(#nglish(speaking feminists.
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(B) 3ndi'idualist feminism was a strain in feminist thought/ but another strain/
relational feminism/ predominated.
(C) =elational and indi'idualist approaches were e"ually pre'alent in feminist
thought and writing.
() The predominant 'iew among feminists held that the welfare of women was
ultimately less important than the welfare of children.
(#) The predominant 'iew among feminists held that the se$es should recei'e
e"ual treatment under the law.
2. The author implies that which of the following was true of most feminist thinkers
in #ngland and the :nited ;tates after 1,25%
(A) They were less concerned with politics than with intellectual issues.
(B) They began to reach a broader audience and their programs began to be
adopted by mainstream political parties.
(C) They called repeatedly for international cooperation among women4s groups
to achie'e their goals.
() They moderated their initial criticism of the economic systems that
characteri!ed their societies.
(#) They did not attempt to unite the two different feminist approaches in their
thought.
Passage 55 (55/63)
(Ths passage was adapted from an artce wrtten n 1992.)
Some observers have attrbuted the dramatc growth n temporary
empoyment that occurred n the Unted States durng the 1980s to ncreased
partcpaton n the workforce by certan groups, such as frst-tme or reenterng
workers, who supposedy prefer such arrangements. However, statstca anayses
revea that demographc changes n the workforce dd not correate wth
varatons n the tota number of temporary workers. Instead, these anayses
suggest that factors affectng empoyers account for the rse n temporary
empoyment. One factor s product demand: temporary empoyment s favored by
empoyers who are adaptng to fuctuatng demand for products whe at the same
tme seekng to reduce overa abor costs. Another factor s abors reduced
barganng strength, whch aows empoyers more contro over the terms of
empoyment. Gven the anayses, whch revea that growth n temporary
empoyment now far exceeds the eve expanabe by recent workforce entry
rates of groups sad to prefer temporary |obs, frms shoud be dscouraged from
creatng excessve numbers of temporary postons. Government pocymakers
shoud consder mandatng beneft coverage for temporary empoyees, promotng
pay equty between temporary and permanent workers, assstng abor unons n
organzng temporary workers, and encouragng frms to assgn temporary |obs
GMAT 10,
prmary to empoyees who expcty ndcate that preference.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present the results of statistical analyses and propose further studies.
(B) e$plain a recent de'elopment and predict its e'entual conse"uences.
(C) identify the reasons for a trend and recommend measures to address it.
() outline se'eral theories about a phenomenon and ad'ocate one of them.
(#) describe the potential conse"uences of implementing a new policy and argue
in fa'or of that policy.
2. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the *factors affecting
employers+ that are mentioned in lines ,(15%
(A) ?ost e$perts cite them as ha'ing initiated the growth in temporary
employment that occurred during the 1,654s.
(B) They may account for the increase in the total number of temporary workers
during the 1,654s.
(C) They were less important than demographic change in accounting for the
increase of temporary employment during the 1,654s.
() They included a sharp increase in the cost of labor during the 1,654s.
(#) They are more difficult to account for than at other factors in'ol'ed in the
growth of temporary employment during the 1,654s.
.. The passage suggests which of the following about the use of temporary
employment by firms during the 1,654s%
(A) 3t enabled firms to deal with fluctuating product demand far more efficiently
than they before the 1,654s.
(B) 3t increased as a result of increased participation in the workforce by certain
demography groups.
(C) 3t was discouraged by go'ernment(mandated policies.
() 3t was a response to preferences indicated by certain employees for more
fle$ible working arrangements.
(#) 3t increased partly as a result of workers4 reduced ability to control the terms
of their employment.
0. The passage suggests which of the following about the workers who took
temporary <obs during the 1,654s%
(A) Their <obs fre"uently led to permanent positions within firms.
(B) They constituted a less demographically di'erse group than has been
suggested.
(C) They were occasionally in'ol'ed in actions organi!ed by labor unions.
() Their pay declined during the decade in comparison with the pay of
permanent employees.
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(#) They did not necessarily prefer temporary employment to permanent
employment.
1. The first sentence in the passage suggests that the obser'ers mentioned in line 1
would be most likely to predict which of the following%
(A) That the number of new temporary positions would decline as fewer workers
who preferred temporary employment entered the workforce.
(B) That the total number of temporary positions would increase as fewer workers
were able to find permanent positions.
(C) That employers would ha'e less control o'er the terms of workers4
employment as workers increased their bargaining strength.
() That more workers would be hired for temporary positions as product
demand increased.
(#) That the number of workers taking temporary positions would increase as
more workers in any gi'en demographic group entered the workforce.
2. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ the word *e$cessi'e+ (line 21) most closely
corresponds to which of the following phrases%
(A) >ar more than can be <ustified by worker preferences.
(B) >ar more than can be e$plained by fluctuations in product demand.
(C) >ar more than can be beneficial to the success of the firms themsel'es.
() >ar more than can be accounted for by an e$panding national economy.
(#) >ar more than can be attributed to increases in the total number of people in
the workforce.
-. The passage mentions each of the following as an appropriate kind of
go'ernmental action #DC#@T
(A) getting firms to offer temporary employment primarily to a certain group of
people
(B) encouraging e"uitable pay for temporary and permanent employees
(C) facilitating the organi!ation of temporary workers by labor unions
() establishing guidelines on the proportion of temporary workers that firms
should employ
(#) ensuring that temporary workers obtain benefits from their employers
Passage 56 (56/63)
Athough numbers of anmas n a gven regon may fuctuate from year to
year, the fuctuatons are often temporary and, over ong perods, trva.
Scentsts have advanced three theores of popuaton contro to account for ths
reatve constancy.
The frst theory attrbutes a reatvey constant popuaton to perodc cmatc
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catastrophes that decmate popuatons wth such frequency as to prevent them
from exceedng some partcuar mt. In the case of sma organsms wth short fe
cyces, cmatc changes need not be catastrophc: norma seasona changes n
photoperod (day amount of sunght), for exampe, can govern popuaton
growth. Ths theory-the densty-ndependent vew-asserts that cmatc factors
exert the same reguatory effect on popuaton regardess of the number of
ndvduas n a regon.
A second theory argues that popuaton growth s prmary densty-dependent
-that s, the rate of growth of a popuaton n a regon decreases as the number
of anmas ncreases. The mechansms that manage reguaton may vary. For
exampe, as numbers ncrease, the food suppy woud probaby dmnsh, whch
woud ncrease mortaty. In addton, as Lotka and Voterra have shown, predators
can fnd prey more easy n hgh-densty popuatons. Other reguators ncude
physoogca contro mechansms: for exampe, Chrstan and Davs have
demonstrated how the crowdng that resuts from a rse n numbers may brng
about hormona changes n the ptutary and adrena gands that n turn may
reguate popuaton by owerng sexua actvty and nhbtng sexua maturaton.
There s evdence that these effects may persst for three generatons n the
absence of the orgna provocaton. One chaenge for densty-dependent
theorsts s to deveop modes that woud aow the precse predcton of the
effects of crowdng.
A thrd theory, proposed by Wynne-Edwards and termed "epdectc," argues
that organsms have evoved a "code" n the form of soca or epdectc behavor
dspays, such as wnter-roostng aggregatons or group vocazng; such codes
provde organsms wth nformaton on popuaton sze n a regon so that they
can, f necessary, exercse reproductve restrant. However, Wynne-Edwards
theory, nkng anma soca behavor and popuaton contro, has been
chaenged, wth some |ustfcaton, by severa studes.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) argue against those scientists who maintain that animal populations tend to
fluctuate
(B) compare and contrast the density(dependent and epideictic theories of
population control
(C) pro'ide e$ample of some of the ways in which animals e$ercise reproducti'e
restraint to control their own numbers
() suggests that theories of population control that concentrate on the social
beha'ior of animals are more open to debate than are theories that do not
(#) summari!e a number of scientific theories that attempt to e$plain why animal
populations do not e$ceed certain limits
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that proponents of the density(dependent
theory of population control ha'e not yet been able to
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(A) use their theory to e$plain the population growth of organisms with short life
cycles
(B) reproduce the results of the study of Christian and a'is
(C) e$plain ade"uately why the numbers of a population can increase as the
population4s rate of growth decreases
() make sufficiently accurate predictions about the effects of crowding
(#) demonstrate how predator populations are themsel'es regulated
.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would best support the density(dependent theory
of population control as it is described in the passage%
(A) As the number of fo$es in ?innesota decrease/ the growth rate of this
population of fo$es begins to increase.
(B) As the number of woodpeckers in Cermont decreases/ the growth rate of this
population of woodpeckers also begins to decrease.
(C) As the number of prairie dogs in 8klahoma increases/ the growth rate of this
population of prairie dogs also begins to increase.
() After the number of bea'ers in Tennessee decreases/ the number of predators
of these bea'ers begins to increase.
(#) After the number of eagles in ?ontana decreases/ the food supply of this
population of eagles also begins to decrease.
0. According to the &ynne(#dwards theory as it is described in the passage/
epideictic beha'ior displays ser'e the function of
(A) determining roosting aggregations
(B) locating food
(C) attracting predators
() regulating se$ual acti'ity
(#) triggering hormonal changes
1. The challenge posed to the &ynne(#dwards(theory by se'eral studies is regarded
by the author with
(A) complete indifference
(B) "ualified acceptance
(C) skeptical amusement
() perple$ed astonishment
(#) agitated dismay
2. &hich of the following statements would pro'ide the most of logical continuation
of the final paragraph of the passage%
(A) Thus &ynne(#dwards4 theory raises serious "uestions about the constancy of
animal population in a region.
GMAT 11.
(B) Because &ynne(#dwards4 theory is able to e$plain more kinds of animal
beha'ior than is the density(dependent theory/ epideictic e$planations of
population regulation are now widely accepted.
(C) The results of one study/ for instance/ ha'e suggested that group 'ocali!ing is
more often used to defend territory than to pro'ide information about
population density.
() ;ome of these studies ha'e/ in fact/ worked out a systematic and comple$
code of social beha'ior that can regulate population si!e.
(#) 8ne study/ for e$ample/ has demonstrated that birds are more likely to use
winter(roosting aggregations than group 'ocali!ing in order to pro'ide
information on population si!e.
Passage 57 (57/63)
In recent years, teachers of ntroductory courses n Asan Amercan studes
have been facng a demma nonexstent a few decades ago, when hardy any
texts n that fed were avaabe. Today, exceent anthooges and other
ntroductory texts exst, and books on ndvdua Asan Amercan natonaty
groups and on genera ssues mportant for Asan Amercans are pubshed amost
weeky. Even professors who are experts n the fed fnd t dffcut to decde whch
of these to assgn to students; nonexperts who teach n reated areas and are
ookng for wrtngs for and by Asan Amercan to ncude n survey courses are n
an even worse poston.
A compcatng factor has been the contnung ack of specazed one-voume
reference works on Asan Amercans, such as bographca dctonares or desktop
encycopedas. Such works woud enabe students takng Asan Amercan studes
courses (and professors n reated feds) to ook up basc nformaton on Asan
Amercan ndvduas, nsttutons, hstory, and cuture wthout havng to wade
through mountans of prmary source matera. In addton, gve such works, Asan
Amercan studes professors mght fee more free to ncude more chaengng
Asan Amercan matera n ther ntroductory readng sts, snce good reference
works aow students to acqure on ther own the background nformaton
necessary to nterpret dffcut or unfamar matera.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the
following%
(A) =ecommending a methodology
(B) escribing a course of study
(C) iscussing a problem
() #'aluating a past course of action
(#) =esponding to a criticism
2. The *dilemma+ mentioned in line 2 can best be characteri!ed as being caused by
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the necessity to make a choice when faced with a
(A) lack of acceptable alternati'es
(B) lack of strict standards for e'aluating alternati'es
(C) preponderance of bad alternati'es as compared to good
() multitude of different alternati'es
(#) large number of alternati'es that are nearly identical in content
.. The passage suggests that the factor mentioned in lines 10(1- complicates
professors4 attempts to construct introductory reading lists for courses in Asian
American studies in which of the following ways%
(A) By making it difficult for professors to identify primary source material and
to obtain standard information on Asian American history and culture
(B) By pre'enting professors from identifying e$cellent anthologies and
introductory te$ts in the field that are both recent and understandable to
students
(C) By pre'enting professors from ade"uately e'aluating the "uality of the
numerous te$ts currently being published in the field
() By making it more necessary for professors to select readings for their
courses that are not too challenging for students unfamiliar with Asian
American history and culture
(#) By making it more likely that the readings professors assign to students in
their courses will be drawn solely from primary sources
0. The passage implies that which of the following was true of introductory courses
in Asian American studies a few decades ago%
(A) The range of different te$tbooks that could be assigned for such courses was
e$tremely limited.
(B) The te$ts assigned as readings in such courses were often not 'ery
challenging for students.
(C) ;tudents often complained about the te$ts assigned to them in such courses.
() ;uch courses were offered only at schools whose libraries were rich in
primary sources.
(#) ;uch courses were the only means then a'ailable by which people in the
:nited ;tates could ac"uire knowledge of the field.
1. According to the passage/ the e$istence of good one('olume reference works
about Asian Americans could result in
(A) increased agreement among professors of Asian American studies regarding
the "uality of the sources a'ailable in their field
(B) an increase in the number of students signing up for introductory courses in
Asian American studies
GMAT 111
(C) increased accuracy in writings that concern Asian American history and
culture
() the use of introductory te$ts about Asian American history and culture in
courses outside the field of Asian American studies
(#) the inclusion of a wider range of Asian American material in introductory
reading lists in Asian American studies
Passage 58 (58/63)
In an attempt to mprove the overa performance of cerca workers, many
companes have ntroduced computerzed performance montorng and contro
systems (CPMCS) that record and report a workers computer-drven actvtes.
However, at east one study has shown that such montorng may not be havng
the desred effect. In the study, researchers asked montored cerca workers and
ther supervsors how assessments of productvty affected supervsors ratngs of
workers performance. In contrast to unmontored workers dong the same work,
who wthout excepton dentfed the most mportant eement n ther |obs as
customer servce, the montored workers and ther supervsors a responded that
productvty was the crtca factor n assgnng ratngs. Ths fndng suggested that
there shoud have been a strong correaton between a montored workers
productvty and the overa ratng the worker receved. However, measures of the
reatonshp between overa ratng and ndvdua eements of performance ceary
supported the concuson that supervsors gave consderabe weght to crtera
such as attendance, accuracy, and ndcatons of customer satsfacton.
It s possbe that productvty may be a "hygene factor," that s, f t s too
ow, t w hurt the overa ratng. But the evdence suggests that beyond the pont
at whch productvty becomes "good enough," hgher productvty per se s
unkey to mprove a ratng.
1. According to the passage/ before the final results of the study were known/ which
of the following seemed likely%
(A) That workers with the highest producti'ity would also be the most accurate
(B) That workers who initially achie'ed high producti'ity ratings would continue
to do so consistently
(C) That the highest performance ratings would be achie'ed by workers with the
highest producti'ity
() That the most producti'e workers would be those whose super'isors claimed
to 'alue producti'ity
(#) That super'isors who claimed to 'alue producti'ity would place e"ual 'alue
on customer satisfaction
2. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage discusses *unmonitored workers+
(line 15) primarily in order to
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(A) compare the ratings of these workers with the ratings of monitored workers
(B) pro'ide an e$ample of a case in which monitoring might be effecti'e
(C) pro'ide e'idence of an inappropriate use of C@?C;
() emphasi!e the effect that C@?C; may ha'e on workers4 perceptions of their
<obs
(#) illustrate the effect that C@?C; may ha'e on workers4 ratings
.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly ha'e supported the conclusion
referred to in lines 1,(21%
(A) =atings of producti'ity correlated highly with ratings of both accuracy and
attendance.
(B) #lectronic monitoring greatly increased producti'ity.
(C) ?ost super'isors based o'erall ratings of performance on measures of
producti'ity alone.
() 8'erall ratings of performance correlated more highly with measures of
producti'ity than the researchers e$pected.
(#) 8'erall ratings of performance correlated more highly with measures of
accuracy than with measures of producti'ity.
0. According to the passage/ a *hygiene factor+ (lines 222.) is an aspect of a
worker4s performance that
(A) has no effect on the rating of a worker4s performance
(B) is so basic to performance that it is assumed to be ade"uate for all workers
(C) is gi'en less importance than it deser'es in rating a worker4s performance
() is not likely to affect a worker4s rating unless it is <udged to be inade"uate
(#) is important primarily because of the effect it has on a worker4s rating
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain the need for the introduction of an inno'ati'e strategy
(B) discuss a study of the use of a particular method
(C) recommend a course of action
() resol'ed a difference of opinion
(#) suggest an alternati'e approach
Passage 59 (59/63)
Schoos expect textbooks to be a vauabe source of nformaton for students.
My research suggests, however, that textbooks that address the pace of Natve
Amercans wthn the hstory of the Unted States dstort hstory to sut a partcuar
cutura vaue system. In some textbooks, for exampe, setters are pctured as
more humane, compex, skfu, and wse than Natve Amercan. In essence,
GMAT 11-
textbooks stereotype and deprecate the numerous Natve Amercan cutures whe
renforcng the atttude that the European conquest of the New Word denotes the
superorty of European cutures. Athough textbooks evauate Natve Amercan
archtecture, potca systems, and homemakng, I contend that they do t from an
ethnocentrc, European perspectve wthout recognzng that other perspectves
are possbe.
One argument aganst my contenton asserts that, by nature, textbooks are
cuturay based and that I am smpy underestmatng chdrens abty to see
through these bases. Some researchers even cam that by the tme students are
n hgh schoo, they know they cannot take textbooks teray. Yet substanta
evdence exsts to the contrary. Two researchers, for exampe, have conducted
studes that suggest that chdrens atttudes about partcuar cuture are strongy
nfuenced by the textbooks used n schoos. Gven ths, an ongong, carefu
revew of how schoo textbooks depct Natve Amercan s certany warranted.
1. &hich of the following would most logically be the topic of the paragraph
immediately following the passage%
(A) ;pecific ways to e'aluate the biases of :nited ;tates history te$tbooks
(B) The centrality of the teacher4s role in :nited ;tates history courses
(C) 9ontraditional methods of teaching :nited ;tates history
() The contributions of #uropean immigrants to the de'elopment of the :nited
;tates
(#) &ays in which parents influence children4s political attitudes
2. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe in detail one research study regarding the impact of history
te$tbooks on children4s attitudes and beliefs about certain cultures
(B) describe re'isions that should be made to :nited ;tates history te$tbooks
(C) discuss the difficulty of presenting an accurate history of the :nited ;tates
() argue that te$tbooks used in schools stereotype 9ati'e Americans and
influence children4s attitudes
(#) summari!e ways in which some te$tbooks gi'e distorted pictures of the
political systems de'eloped by 'arious 9ati'e American groups
.. The author mentions two researchers4 studies (lines 22(21) most likely in order to
(A) suggest that children4s political attitudes are formed primarily through
te$tbooks
(B) counter the claim that children are able to see through stereotypes in
te$tbooks
(C) suggest that younger children tend to interpret the messages in te$tbooks
more literally than do older children
() demonstrate that te$tbooks carry political messages meant to influence their
116 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
readers
(#) pro'e that te$tbooks are not biased in terms of their political presentations
0. The author4s attitude toward the content of the history te$tbooks discussed in the
passage is best described as one of
(A) indifference
(B) hesitance
(C) neutrality
() amusement
(#) disappro'al
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the researchers mentioned in line 1,
would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements%
(A) ;tudents form attitudes about cultures other than their own primarily inside
the school en'ironment.
(B) >or the most part/ seniors in high school know that te$tbooks can be biased.
(C) Te$tbooks play a crucial role in shaping the attitudes and beliefs of students.
() #lementary school students are as likely to recogni!e biases in te$tbooks as
are high school students.
(#) ;tudents are less likely to gi'e credence to history te$tbooks than to
mathematics te$tbooks.
2. The author implies that which of the following will occur if te$tbooks are not
carefully re'iewed%
(A) Children will remain ignorant of the #uropean settlers4 con"uest of the 9ew
&orld.
(B) Children will lose their ability to recogni!e biases in te$tbooks.
(C) Children will form negati'e stereotypes of 9ati'e Americans.
() Children will de'elop an understanding of ethnocentrism.
(#) Children will stop taking te$tbooks seriously.
Passage 60 (60/63)
Unt recenty, scentsts dd not know of a cose vertebrate anaogue to the
extreme form of atrusm observed n eusoca nsects ke ants and bees, whereby
ndvduas cooperate, sometmes even sacrfcng ther own opportuntes to
survve and reproduce, for the good of others. However, such a vertebrate socety
may exst among underground coones of the hghy soca rodent %eteroce#halus
gla$er& the naked moe rat.
A naked moe rat coony, ke a beehve, wasps nest, or termte mound, s
rued by ts queen, or reproducng femae. Other adut femae moe rats nether
ovuate nor breed. The queen s the argest member of the coony, and she
GMAT 11,
mantans her breedng status through a mxture of behavora and, presumaby,
chemca contro. Oueens have been ong-ved n captvty, and when they de or
are removed from a coony one sees voent fghtng for breedng status among
the arger remanng femaes, eadng to a takeover by a new queen.
Eusoca nsect socetes have rgd caste systems, each nsects roe beng
defned by ts behavor, body shape, and physoogy. In naked moe rat socetes,
on the other hand, dfferences n behavor are reated prmary to reproductve
status (reproducton beng mted to the queen and a few maes), body sze, and
perhaps age. Smaer non-breedng members, both mae and femae, seem to
partcpate prmary n gatherng food, transportng nest matera, and tunneng.
Larger nonbreeders are actve n defendng the coony and perhaps n removng
drt from the tunnes. |arvs work has suggested that dfferences n growth rates
may nfuence the ength of tme that an ndvdua performs a task, regardess of
ts age.
Cooperatve breedng has evoved many tmes n vertebrates, but unke
naked moe rats, most cooperatvey breedng vertebrates (except the wd dog,
'ycaon #ictus) are domnated by a par of breeders rather than by a snge
breedng femae. The dvson of abor wthn soca groups s ess pronounced
among other vertebrates than among naked moe rats, coony sze s much
smaer, and matng by subordnate femaes may not be totay suppressed,
whereas n naked moe rat coones subordnate femaes are not sexuay actve,
and many never breed.
1. &hich of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%
(A) 9aked mole rat colonies are the only known e$amples of cooperati'ely
breeding 'ertebrate societies.
(B) 9aked mole rat colonies e$hibit social organi!ation based on a rigid caste
system.
(C) Beha'ior in naked mole rat colonies may well be a close 'ertebrate analogue
to beha'ior in eusocial insect societies.
() The mating habits of naked mole rats differ from those of any other 'ertebrate
species.
(#) The basis for the di'ision of labor among naked mole rats is the same as that
among eusocial insects.
2. The passage suggests that Aar'is4 work has called into "uestion which of the
following e$planatory 'ariables for naked mole rat beha'ior%
(A) ;i!e
(B) Age
(C) =eproducti'e status
() =ate of growth
(#) @re'iously e$hibited beha'ior
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.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the performance of tasks in naked mole
rat colonies differs from task performance in eusocial insect societies in which of
the following ways%
(A) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ all tasks ate performed cooperati'ely.
(B) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ the performance of tasks is less rigidly determined
by body shape.
(C) 3n naked mole rat colonies/ breeding is limited to the largest animals.
() 3n eusocial insect societies/ reproduction is limited to a single female.
(#) 3n eusocial insect societies/ the distribution of tasks is based on body si!e.
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is a supposition rather than a
fact concerning the "ueen in a naked mole rat colony%
(A) ;he is the largest member of the colony.
(B) ;he e$erts chemical control o'er the colony.
(C) ;he mates with more than one male.
() ;he attains her status through aggression.
(#) ;he is the only breeding female.
1. The passage supports which of the following inferences about breeding among
Kycaon pictus%
(A) The largest female in the social group does not maintain reproducti'e status
by means of beha'ioral control.
(B) An indi'idual4s ability to breed is related primarily to its rate of growth.
(C) Breeding is the only task performed by the breeding female.
() Breeding in the social group is not cooperati'e.
(#) Breeding is not dominated by a single pair of dogs.
2. According to the passage/ naked mole rat colonies may differ from all other
known 'ertebrate groups in which of the following ways%
(A) 9aked mole rats e$hibit an e$treme form of altruism.
(B) 9aked mole rats are cooperati'e breeders.
(C) Among naked mole rats/ many males are permitted to breed with a single
dominant female.
() Among naked mole rats/ different tasks are performed at different times in an
indi'idual4s life.
(#) Among naked mole rats/ fighting results in the selection of a breeding female.
-. 8ne function of the third paragraph of the passage is to
(A) state a conclusion about facts presented in an earlier paragraph
(B) introduce information that is contradicted by information in the fourth
paragraph
GMAT 121
(C) "ualify the e$tent to which two pre'iously mentioned groups might be similar
() show the chain of reasoning that led to the conclusions of a specific study
(#) demonstrate that of three e$planatory factors offered/ two may be of e"ual
significance
Passage 61 (61/63)
Cora reefs are one of the most frage, boogcay compex, and dverse
marne ecosystems on Earth. Ths ecosystem s one of the fascnatng paradoxes
of the bosphere: how do cear, and thus nutrent-poor, waters support such
profc and productve communtes? Part of the answer es wthn the tssues of
the coras themseves. Symbotc ces of agae known as zooxantheae carry out
photosynthess usng the metaboc wastes of the cora thereby producng food for
themseves, for ther coras, hosts, and even for other members of the reef
communty. Ths symbotc process aows organsms n the reef communty to use
sparse nutrent resources effcenty.
Unfortunatey for cora reefs, however, a varety of human actvtes are
causng wordwde degradaton of shaow marne habtats by addng nutrents to
the water. Agrcuture, sash-and-burn and cearng, sewage dsposa and
manufacturng that creates waste by-products a ncrease nutrent oads n these
waters. Typca symptoms of reef decne are destabzed herbvore popuatons
and an ncreasng abundance of agae and fter-feedng anmas. Decnes n reef
communtes are consstent wth observatons that nutrent nput s ncreasng n
drect proporton to growng human popuatons, thereby threatenng reef
communtes senstve to subte changes n nutrent nput to ther waters.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing the effects of human acti'ities on algae in coral reefs
(B) e$plaining how human acti'ities are posing a threat to coral reef communities
(C) discussing the process by which coral reefs deteriorate in nutrient(poor waters
() e$plaining how coral reefs produce food for themsel'es
(#) describing the abundance of algae and filter(feeding animals in coral reef
areas
2. The passage suggests which of the following about coral reef communities%
(A) Coral reef communities may actually be more likely to thri'e in waters that
are relati'ely low in nutrients.
(B) The nutrients on which coral reef communities thri'e are only found in
shallow waters.
(C) )uman population growth has led to changing ocean temperatures/ which
threatens coral reef communities.
() The growth of coral reef communities tends to destabili!e underwater
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
herbi'ore populations.
(#) Coral reef communities are more comple$ and di'erse than most ecosystems
located on dry land.
.. The author refers to *filter(feeding animals+ (line 25) in order to
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of a characteristic sign of reef deterioration
(B) e$plain how reef communities ac"uire sustenance for sur'i'al
(C) identify a factor that helps herbi'ore populations thri'e
() indicate a cause of decreasing nutrient input in waters that reefs inhabit
(#) identify members of coral reef communities that rely on coral reefs for
nutrients
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is a factor that is threatening the
sur'i'al of coral reef communities%
(A) The waters they inhabit contain few nutrient resources.
(B) A decline in nutrient input is disrupting their symbiotic relationship with
!oo$anthellae.
(C) The degraded waters of their marine habitats ha'e reduced their ability to
carry out photosynthesis.
() They are too biologically comple$ to sur'i'e in habitats with minimal
nutrient input.
(#) &aste by(products result in an increase in nutrient input to reef communities.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author describes coral reef
communities as parado$ical most likely for which of the following reasons%
(A) They are thri'ing e'en though human acti'ities ha'e depleted the nutrients in
their en'ironment.
(B) They are able to sur'i'e in spite of an o'erabundance of algae inhabiting their
waters.
(C) They are able to sur'i'e in an en'ironment with limited food resources.
() Their metabolic wastes contribute to the degradation of the waters that they
inhabit.
(#) They are declining e'en when the water surrounding them remains clear.
Passage 62 (62/63)
Two dvergent defntons have domnated socoogsts dscussons of the
nature of ethncty. The frst emphaszes the prmorda and unchangng character
of ethncty. In ths vew, peope have an essenta need for beongng that s
satsfed by membershp n groups based on shared ancestry and cuture. A
dfferent concepton of ethncty de-emphaszes the cutura component and
defnes ethnc groups as nterest groups. In ths vew, ethncty serves as a way of
GMAT 12.
mobzng a certan popuaton behnd ssues reatng to ts economc poston.
Whe both of these defntons are usefu, nether fuy captures the dynamc and
changng aspects of ethncty n the Unted States. Rather, ethncty s more
satsfactory conceved of as a process n whch preexstng communa bonds and
common cutura attrbutes are adapted for nstrumenta purposes accordng to
changng rea-fe stuatons.
One exampe of ths process s the rse of partcpaton by Natve Amercan
peope n the broader Unted States potca system snce the Cv Rghts
movement of the 1960s. Besdes eadng Natve Amercans to partcpate more
actvey n potcs (the number of Natve Amercan egsatve offcehoders more
than doubed), ths movement aso evoked ncreased nterest n trba hstory and
tradtona cuture. Cutura and nstrumenta components of ethncty are not
mutuay excusve, but rather renforce one another.
The Cv Rghts movement aso brought changes n the uses to whch
ethncty was put by Mexcan Amercan peope. In the 1960s, Mexcan Amercans
formed communty-based potca groups that emphaszed ancestra hertage as a
way of mobzng consttuents. Such emergng ssues as mmgraton and votng
rghts gave Mexcan Amercan advocacy groups the means by whch to promote
ethnc sodarty. Lke European ethnc groups n the nneteenth-century Unted
States, ate-twenteth-century Mexcan Amercan eaders combned ethnc wth
contemporary cvc symbos. In 1968 Henry Csneros, then mayor of San Antono,
Texas, cted Mexcan eader Bento |uarez as a mode for Mexcan Amercans n
ther fght for contemporary cv rghts. And every year, Mexcan Amercans
ceebrate Cinco de (ayo as ferventy as many Irsh Amercan peope embrace St.
Patrcks Day (both are ma|or hodays n the countres of orgn), wth both
hodays havng been renvented n the context of the Unted States and nked to
deas, symbos, and heroes of the Unted States.
1. &hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) 3n their definitions of the nature of ethnicity/ sociologists ha'e underestimated
the power of the primordial human need to belong.
(B) #thnicity is best defined as a dynamic process that combines cultural
components with shared political and economic interests.
(C) 3n the :nited ;tates in the twentieth century/ ethnic groups ha'e begun to
organi!e in order to further their political and economic interests.
() #thnicity in the :nited ;tates has been significantly changed by the Ci'il
=ights mo'ement.
(#) The two definitions of ethnicity that ha'e dominated sociologists discussions
are incompatible and should be replaced by an entirely new approach.
2. &hich of the following statements about the first two definitions of ethnicity
discussed in the first paragraph is supported by the passage%
(A) 8ne is supported primarily by sociologists/ and the other is fa'ored by
120 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
members of ethnic groups.
(B) 8ne emphasi!es the political aspects of ethnicity/ and the other focuses on the
economic aspects.
(C) 8ne is the result of analysis of :nited ;tates populations/ and the other is the
result of analysis of #uropean populations.
() 8ne focuses more on the ancestral components of ethnicity than does the
other.
(#) 8ne focuses more on immigrant groups than does the other.
.. The author of the passage refers to 9ati'e American people in the second
paragraph in order to pro'ide an e$ample of
(A) the ability of membership in groups based on shared ancestry and culture to
satisfy an essential human need
(B) how ethnic feelings ha'e both moti'ated and been strengthened by political
acti'ity
(C) how the Ci'il =ights mo'ement can help promote solidarity among :nited
;tates ethnic groups
() how participation in the political system has helped to impro'e a group4s
economic situation
(#) the benefits gained from renewed study of ethnic history and culture
0. The passage supports which of the following statements about the ?e$ican
American community%
(A) 3n the 1,254s the ?e$ican American community began to incorporate the
customs of another ethnic group in the :nited ;tates into the obser'ation of
its own ethnic holidays.
(B) 3n the 1,254s ?e$ican American community groups promoted ethnic
solidarity primarily in order to effect economic change.
(C) 3n the 1,254s leader of the ?e$ican American community concentrated their
efforts on promoting a renaissance of ethnic history and culture.
() 3n the 1,254s members of the ?e$ican American community were becoming
increasingly concerned about the issue of 'oting rights.
(#) 3n the 1,254s the ?e$ican American community had greater success in
mobili!ing constituents than did other ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates.
1. &hich of the following types of ethnic cultural e$pression is discussed in the
passage%
(A) The retelling of traditional narrati'es
(B) The wearing of traditional clothing
(C) The playing of traditional music
() The celebration of traditional holidays
GMAT 121
(#) The preparation of traditional cuisine
2. 3nformation in the passage supports which of the following statements about
many #uropean ethnic groups in the nineteenth(century :nited ;tates%
(A) They emphasi!ed economic interests as a way of mobili!ing constituents
behind certain issues.
(B) They concei'ed of their own ethnicity as being primordial in nature.
(C) They created cultural traditions that fused :nited ;tates symbols with those
of their countries of origin.
() They de(emphasi!ed the cultural components of their communities in fa'or of
political interests.
(#) They organi!ed formal community groups designed to promote a renaissance
of ethnic history and culture.
-. The passage suggests that in 1,26 )enry Cisneros most likely belie'ed that
(A) many ?e$ican American would respond positi'ely to the e$ample of Benito
Auare!
(B) many ?e$ican American were insufficiently educated in ?e$ican history
(C) the fight for ci'il fights in the :nited ;tates had many strong parallels in both
?e$ican and 3rish history
() the "uickest way of organi!ing community(based groups was to emulate the
tactics of Benito Auare!
(#) ?e$ican Americans should emulate the strategies of 9ati'e American
political leaders
Passage 63 (63/63)
The fact that superor servce can generate a compettve advantage for a
company does not mean that every attempt at mprovng servce w create such
an advantage. Investments n servce, ke those n producton and dstrbuton,
must be baanced aganst other types of nvestments on the bass of drect,
tangbe benefts such as cost reducton and ncreased revenues. If a company s
aready effectvey on a par wth ts compettors because t provdes servce that
avods a damagng reputaton and keeps customers from eavng at an
unacceptabe rate, then nvestment n hgher servce eves may be wasted, snce
servce s a decdng factor for customers ony n extreme stuatons.
Ths truth was not apparent to managers of one regona bank, whch faed to
mprove ts compettve poston despte ts nvestment n reducng the tme a
customer had to wat for a teer. The bank managers dd not recognze the eve
of customer nerta n the consumer bankng ndustry that arses from the
nconvenence of swtchng banks. Nor dd they anayze ther servce mprovement
to determne whether t woud attract new customers by producng a new
standard of servce that woud excte customers or by provng dffcut for
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
compettors to copy. The ony mert of the mprovement was that t coud easy be
descrbed to customers.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) contrast possible outcomes of a type of business in'estment
(B) suggest more careful e'aluation of a type of business in'estment
(C) illustrate 'arious ways in which a type of business in'estment could fail to
enhance re'enues
() trace the general problems of a company to a certain type of business
in'estment
(#) critici!e the way in which managers tend to analy!e the costs and benefits of
business in'estments
2. According to the passage/ in'estments in ser'ice are comparable to in'estments
in production and distribution in terms of the
(A) tangibility of the benefits that they tend to confer
(B) increased re'enues that they ultimately produce
(C) basis on which they need to be weighed
() insufficient analysis that managers de'ote to them
(#) degree of competiti'e ad'antage that they are likely to pro'ide
.. The passage suggests which of the following about ser'ice pro'ided by the
regional bank prior to its in'estment in enhancing that ser'ice%
(A) 3t enabled the bank to retain customers at an acceptable rate.
(B) 3t threatened to weaken the bank4s competiti'e position with respect to other
regional banks.
(C) 3t had already been impro'ed after ha'ing caused damage to the bank4s
reputation in the past.
() 3t was slightly superior to that of the bank4s regional competitors.
(#) 3t needed to be impro'ed to attain parity with the ser'ice pro'ided by
competing banks.
0. The passage suggests that bank managers failed to consider whether or not the
ser'ice impro'ement mentioned in line 1,
(A) was too complicated to be easily described to prospecti'e customers
(B) made a measurable change in the e$periences of customers in the bank4s
offices
(C) could be sustained if the number of customers increased significantly
() was an inno'ation that competing banks could ha'e imitated
(#) was ade"uate to bring the bank4s general le'el of ser'ice to a le'el that was
comparable with that of its competitors
GMAT 12-
1. The discussion of the regional bank (line 1.(20) ser'es which of the following
functions within the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t describes an e$ceptional case in which in'estment in ser'ice actually failed
to produce a competiti'e ad'antage.
(B) 3t illustrates the pitfalls of choosing to in'est in ser'ice at a time when
in'estment is needed more urgently in another area.
(C) 3t demonstrates the kind of analysis that managers apply when they choose
one kind of ser'ice in'estment o'er another.
() 3t supports the argument that in'estments in certain aspects of ser'ice are
more ad'antageous than in'estments in other aspects of ser'ice.
(#) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of the point about in'estment in ser'ice made in the
first paragraph.
2. The author uses the word *only+ in line 2. most likely in order to
(A) highlight the oddity of the ser'ice impro'ement
(B) emphasi!e the relati'ely low 'alue of the in'estment in ser'ice impro'ement
(C) distinguish the primary attribute of the ser'ice impro'ement from secondary
attributes
() single out a certain merit of the ser'ice impro'ement from other merits
(#) point out the limited duration of the actual ser'ice impro'ement
GMAT 22Passages
Passage 64 (1/22)
The antgen-antbody mmunoogca reacton used to be regarded as typca
of mmunoogca responses. Antbodes are protens syntheszed by specazed
ces caed pasma ces, whch are formed by ymphocytes (ces from the ymph
system) when an antgen, a substance foregn to the organsms body, comes n
contact wth ymphocytes. Two mportant manfestatons of antgen-antbody
mmunty are yss, the rapd physca rupture of antgenc ces and the beraton
of ther contents nto the surroundng medum, and phagocytoss, a process n
whch antgenc partces are engufed by and very often dgested by
macrophages and poymorphs. The process of yss s executed by a compex and
unstabe bood consttuent known as compement, whch w not work uness t s
actvated by a specfc antbody; the process of phagocytoss s greaty factated
when the partces to be engufed are coated by a specfc antbody drected
aganst them.
The reuctance to-abandon ths hypothess, however we t expans specfc
processes, mpeded new research, and for many years antgens and antbodes
domnated the thoughts of mmunoogsts so competey that those mmunoogsts
overooked certan dffcutes. Perhaps the prmary dffcuty wth the antgen-
126 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
antbody expanaton s the nformatona probem of how an antgen s recognzed
and how a structure exacty compementary to t s then syntheszed. When
moecuar boogsts dscovered, moreover, that such nformaton cannot fow from
proten to proten, but ony from nucec acd to proten, the theory that an antgen
tsef provded the mod that drected the synthess of an antbody had to be
serousy quafed. The attempts at quafcaton and the nformaton provded by
research n moecuar boogy ed scentsts to reaze that a second mmunoogca
reacton s medated through the ymphocytes that are hoste to and brng about
the destructon of the antgen. Ths type of mmunoogca response s caed ce-
medated mmunty.
Recent research n ce-medated mmunty has been concerned not ony wth
the deveopment of new and better vaccnes, but aso wth the probem of
transpantng tssues and organs from one organsm to another, for athough
crcuatng antbodes pay a part n the re|ecton of transpanted tssues, the
prmary roe s payed by ce-medated reactons. Durng ce-medated responses,
receptor stes on specfc ymphocytes and surface antgens on the foregn tssue
ces form a compex that bnds the ymphocytes to the tssue. Such ymphocytes
do not gve rse to antbody-producng pasma ces but themseves brng about
the death of the foregn-tssue ces, probaby by secretng a varety of
substances, some of whch are toxc to the tssue ces and some of whch
stmuate ncreased phagocytc actvty by whte bood ces of the macrophage
type. Ce-medated mmunty aso accounts for the destructon of ntraceuar
parastes.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) pro'ing that immunological reactions do not in'ol'e antibodies
(B) establishing that most immunological reactions in'ol'e antigens
(C) critici!ing scientists who will not change their theories regarding immunology
() analy!ing the importance of cells in fighting disease
(#) e$plaining two different kinds of immunological reactions
2. The author argues that the antigen(antibody e$planation of immunity *had to
seriously "ualified+ (line .-) because
(A) antibodies were found to acti'ate unstable components in the blood
(B) antigens are not e$actly complementary to antibodies
(C) lymphocytes ha'e the ability to bind to the surface of antigens
() antibodies are synthesi!ed from protein whereas antigens are made from
nucleic acid
(#) antigens ha'e no apparent mechanism to direct the formation of an antibody
.. The author most probably belie'es that the antigen(antibody theory of
immunological reaction.
(A) is wrong
GMAT 12,
(B) was accepted without e'idence
(C) is un'erifiable
() is a partial e$planation
(#) has been a di'isi'e issue among scientists
0. The author mentions all of the following as being in'ol'ed in antigen(antibody
immunological reactions #DC#@T the
(A) synthesis of a protein
(B) acti'ation of complement in the bloodstream
(C) destruction of antibodies
() entrapment of antigens by macrophages
(#) formation of a substance with a structure complementary to that of an antigen
1. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions about cell(mediated immunological reactions%
3. o lymphocytes form antibodies during cell(mediated immunological
reactions%
33. &hy are lymphocytes more hostile to antigens during cell(mediated
immunological reactions than are other cell groups%
333. Are cell(mediated reactions more pronounced after transplants than they are
after parasites ha'e in'aded the organism%
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2. The passage suggests that scientists might not ha'e de'eloped the theory of cell(
mediated immunological reactions if
(A) proteins e$isted in specific group types
(B) proteins could ha'e been shown to direct the synthesis of other proteins
(C) antigens were always destroyed by proteins
() antibodies were composed only of protein
(#) antibodies were the body4s primary means of resisting disease
-. According to the passage/ antibody(antigen and cell(mediated immunological
reactions both in'ol'e which of the following processes%
3. The destruction of antigens
33. The creation of antibodies
333. The destruction of intracellular parasites
(A) 3 only
1-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
6. The author supports the theory of cell(mediated reactions primarily by
(A) pointing out a contradiction in the assumption leading to the antigen(antibody
theory
(B) e$plaining how cell mediation accounts for phenomena that the antigen(
antibody theory cannot account for
(C) re'ealing new data that scientists arguing for the antigen(antibody theory
ha'e continued to ignore
() showing that the antigen(antibody theory fails to account for the breakup of
antigens
(#) demonstrating that cell mediation e$plains lysis and phagocytosis more fully
than the antigen(antibody theory does
Passage 65 (2/22)
The founders of the Repubc vewed ther revouton prmary n potca
rather than economc or soca terms. And they taked about educaton as
essenta to the pubc good-a goa that took precedence over knowedge as
occupatona tranng or as a means to sef-fufment or sef-mprovement. Over
and over agan the Revoutonary generaton, both bera and conservatve n
outook, asserted ts convcton that the wefare of the Repubc rested upon an
educated ctzenry and that schoos, especay free pubc schoos, woud be the
best means of educatng the ctzenry n cvc vaues and the obgatons requred
of everyone n a democratc repubcan socety. A agreed that the prncpa
ngredents of a cvc educaton were teracy and the ncucaton of patrotc and
mora vrtues, some others addng the study of hstory and the study of prncpes
of the repubcan government tsef.
The founders, as was the case of amost a ther successors, were ong on
exhortaton and rhetorc regardng the vaue of cvc educaton, but they eft t to
the textbook wrters to dst the essence of those vaues for schoo chdren. Texts
n Amercan hstory and government appeared as eary as the 1790s. The
textbook wrters turned out to be very argey of conservatve persuason, more
key Federast n outook than |effersonan, and amost unversay agreed that
potca vrtue must rest upon mora and regous precepts. Snce most textbook
wrters were New Engander, ths meant that the texts were nfused wth
Protestant and, above a, Purtan outooks.
In the frst haf of the Repubc, cvc educaton n the schoos emphaszed the
ncucaton of cvc vaues and made tte attempt to deveop partcpatory
GMAT 1-1
potca sks. That was a task eft to ncpent potca partes, town meetngs,
churches and the coffee or ae houses where men gathered for conversaton.
Addtonay as a readng of certan Federast papers of the perod woud
demonstrate, the press probaby dd more to dssemnate reastc as we as
partsan knowedge of government than the schoos. The goa of educaton,
however, was to acheve a hgher form of unum for the new Repubc. In the
mdde haf of the nneteenth century, the potca vaues taught n the pubc and
prvate schoos dd not change substantay from those ceebrated n the frst ffty
years of the Repubc. In the textbooks of the day ther rosy hues f anythng
became goden. To the respendent vaues of berty, equaty, and a benevoent
Chrstan moraty were now added the mdde-cass vrtues-especay of New
Engand-of hard work, honesty and ntegrty, the rewards of ndvdua effort, and
obedence to parents and egtmate authorty. But of a the potca vaues taught
n schoo, patrotsm was preemnent; and whenever teachers expaned to schoo
chdren why they shoud ove ther country above a ese, the dea of berty
assumed prde of pace.
1. The passage deals primarily with the
(A) content of early te$tbooks on American history and go'ernment
(B) role of education in late eighteenth(and early to mid(nineteenth(century
America
(C) influence of 9ew #ngland @uritanism on early American 'alues
() origin and de'elopment of the @rotestant work ethic in modern America
(#) establishment of uni'ersal free public education in America
2. According to the passage/ the founders of the =epublic regarded education
primarily as
(A) a religious obligation
(B) a pri'ate matter
(C) an unnecessary lu$ury
() a matter of indi'idual choice
(#) a political necessity
.. The author states that te$tbooks written in the middle part of the nineteenth
century
(A) departed radically in tone and style from earlier te$tbooks
(B) mentioned for the first time the 'alue of liberty
(C) treated traditional ci'ic 'irtues with e'en greater re'erence
() were commissioned by go'ernment agencies
(#) contained no reference to conser'ati'e ideas
0. &hich of the following would K#A;T likely ha'e been the sub<ect of an early
American te$tbook%
1-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) basic rules of #nglish grammar
(B) the American =e'olution
(C) patriotism and other ci'ic 'irtues
() 'ocational education
(#) principles of American go'ernment
1. The author4s attitude toward the educational system she discusses can best be
described as
(A) cynical and unpatriotic
(B) realistic and analytical
(C) pragmatic and frustrated
() disenchanted and bitter
(#) idealistic and nai'e
2. The passage pro'ides information that would be helpful in answering which of
the following "uestions%
(A) &hy were a disproportionate share of early American te$tbooks written by
9ew #ngland authors%
(B) &as the >ederalist party primarily a liberal or conser'ati'e force in early
American politics%
(C) )ow many years of education did the founders belie'e were sufficient to
instruct young citi!ens in ci'ic 'irtue%
() &hat were that names of some of the @uritan authors who wrote early
American te$tbooks%
(#) id most citi!ens of the early =epublic agree with the founders that public
education was essential to the welfare of the =epublic%
-. The author implies that an early American @uritan would likely insist that
(A) moral and religious 'alues are the foundation of ci'ic 'irtue
(B) te$tbooks should instruct students in political issues of 'ital concern to the
community
(C) te$tbooks should gi'e greater emphasis to the 'alue of indi'idual liberty than
to the duties of patriotism
() pri'ate schools with a particular religious focus are preferable to public
schools with no religious instruction
(#) go'ernment and religion are separate institutions and the church should not
interfere in political affairs
6. According to the passage citi!ens of the early =epublic learned about practical
political matters in all of the following ways #DC#@T
(A) reading newspapers
GMAT 1-.
(B) attending town meetings
(C) con'ersing about political matters
() reading te$tbooks
(#) attending church
Passage 66 (3/22)
The heath-care economy s repete wth unusua and even unque economc
reatonshps. One of the east understood nvoves the pecuar roes of producer
or "provder" and purchaser or "consumer" n the typca doctor-patent
reatonshp. In most sectors of the economy, t s the seer who attempts to
attract a potenta buyer wth varous nducements of prce, quaty, and utty,
and t s the buyer who makes the decson. Where crcumstances permt the
buyer no choce because there s effectvey ony one seer and the product s
reatvey essenta, government usuay asserts monopoy and paces the ndustry
under prce and other reguatons. Nether of these condtons prevas n most of
the heath-care ndustry.
In the heath-care ndustry, the doctor-patent reatonshp s the mrror mage
of the ordnary reatonshp between producer and consumer. Once an ndvdua
has chosen to see a physcan-and even then there may be no rea choce-t s
the physcan who usuay makes a sgnfcant purchasng decsons: whether the
patent shoud return "next Wednesday," whether X-rays are needed, whether
drugs shoud be prescrbed, etc. It s a rare and sophstcated patent who w
chaenge such professona decsons or rase n advance questons about prce,
especay when the ament s regarded as serous.
Ths s partcuary sgnfcant n reaton to hospta care. The physcan must
certfy the need for hosptazaton, determne what procedures w be performed,
and announce when the patent may be dscharged. The patent may be consuted
about some of these decsons, but n the man t s the doctors |udgments that
are fna. Ltte wonder then that n the eyes of the hospta t s the physcan who
s the rea "consumer." As a consequence, the medca staff represents the "power
center" n hospta pocy and decson-makng, not the admnstraton.
Athough usuay there are n ths stuaton four dentfabe partcpants-the
physcan, the hospta, the patent, and the payer (generay an nsurance carrer
or government)-the physcan makes the essenta decsons for a of them. The
hospta becomes an extenson of the physcan; the payer generay meets most
of the bona fde bs generated by the physcan/hospta; and for the most part
the patent pays a passve roe. In routne or mnor nesses, or |ust pan worres,
the patents optons are, of course, much greater wth respect to use and prce. In
nesses that are of some sgnfcance, however, such choces tend to evaporate,
and t s for these nesses that the buk of the heath-care doar s spent. We
estmate that about 75-80 percent of heath-care expendtures are determned by
1-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
physcans, not patents. For ths reason, economy measures drected at patents
or the genera pubc are reatvey neffectve.
1. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) speculate about the relationship between a patient4s ability to pay and the
treatment recei'ed
(B) critici!e doctors for e$ercising too much control o'er patients
(C) analy!e some important economic factors in health care
() urge hospitals to reclaim their decision(making authority
(#) inform potential patients of their health(care rights
2. 3t can be inferred that doctors are able to determine hospital policies because
(A) it is doctors who generate income for the hospital
(B) most of a patient4s bills are paid by his health insurance
(C) hospital administrators lack the e$pertise to "uestion medical decisions
() a doctor is ultimately responsible for a patient4s health
(#) some patients might refuse to accept their physician4s ad'ice
.. According to the author/ when a doctor tells a patient to *return ne$t &ednesday/+
the doctor is in effect
(A) taking ad'antage of the patient4s concern for his health
(B) instructing the patient to buy more medical ser'ices
(C) warning the patient that a hospital stay might be necessary
() ad'ising the patient to seek a second opinion
(#) admitting that the initial 'isit was ineffecti'e
0. The author is most probably leading up to
(A) a proposal to control medical costs
(B) a discussion of a new medical treatment
(C) an analysis of the causes of inflation in the :nited ;tates
() a study of lawsuits against doctors for malpractice
(#) a comparison of hospitals and factories
1. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) whimsical
(B) cautious
(C) analytical
() in"uisiti'e
(#) defiant
2. &ith which of the following statements would the author be likely to agree%
GMAT 1-1
3. ?ost patients are reluctant to ob<ect to the course of treatment prescribed by
a doctor or to "uestion the cost of the ser'ices.
33. The more serious the illness of a patient/ the less likely it is that the patient
will ob<ect to the course of treatment prescribed or to "uestion the cost of
ser'ices.
333. The payer/ whether insurance carrier or the go'ernment/ is less likely to
ac"uiesce to demands for payment when the illness of the patient is regarded
as serious.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. The author4s primary concern is to
(A) define a term
(B) clarify a misunderstanding
(C) refute a theory
() discuss a problem
(#) announce a new disco'ery
6. The most important feature of a *consumer+ as that term is used in line .. of the
passage is that the *consumer+ is the party that
(A) pays for goods or ser'ices
(B) deli'ers goods or ser'ices
(C) orders goods or ser'ices
() reimburses a third party for goods or ser'ices
(#) supplies goods and ser'ices to a third party
Passage 67 (4/22)
About twce every century, one of the massve stars n our gaaxy bows tsef
apart n a supernova exposon that sends massve quanttes of radaton and
matter nto space and generates shock waves that sweep through the arms of the
gaaxy. The shock waves heat the nterstear gas, evaporate sma couds, and
compress arger ones to the pont at whch they coapse under ther own gravty
to form new stars. The genera pcture that has been deveoped for the supernova
exposon and ts aftermath goes somethng ke ths. Throughout ts evouton, a
star s much ke a eaky baoon. It keeps ts equbrum fgure through a baance
of nterna pressure aganst the tendency to coapse under ts own weght. The
pressure s generated by nucear reactons n the core of the star whch must
1-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
contnuay suppy energy to baance the energy that eaks out n the form of
radaton. Eventuay the nucear fue s exhausted, and the pressure drops n the
core. Wth nothng to hod t up, the matter n the center of the star coapses
nward, creatng hgher and hgher denstes and temperatures, unt the nuce
and eectrons are fused nto a super-dense ump of matter known as a neutron
star.
As the overyng ayers ran down on the surface of the neutron star, the
temperature rses, unt wth a bndng fash of radaton, the coapse s reversed.
A thermonucear shock wave runs through the now expandng stear enveope,
fusng ghter eements nto heaver ones and producng a brant vsua outburst
that can be as ntense as the ght of 10 bon suns. The she of matter thrown off
by the exposon pows through the surroundng gas, producng an expandng
bubbe of hot gas, wth gas temperatures n the mons of degrees. Ths gas w
emt most of ts energy at X-ray waveengths, so t s not surprsng that X-ray
observatores have provded some of the most usefu nsghts nto the nature of
the supernova phenomenon. More than twenty supernova remnants have now
been detected n X-ray studes.
Recent dscoveres of meteortes wth anomaous concentratons of certan
sotopes ndcate that a supernova mght have precptated the brth of our soar
system more than four and a haf bon years ago. Athough the coud that
coapsed to form the Sun and the panets was composed prmary of hydrogen
and heum, t aso contaned carbon, ntrogen, and oxygen, eements essenta for
fe as we know t. Eements heaver than heum are manufactured deep n the
nteror of stars and woud, for the most part, reman there f t were not for the
catacysmc supernova exposons that bow gant stars apart. Addtonay,
supernovas produce couds of hgh-energy partces caed cosmc rays. These
hgh-energy partces contnuay bombard the Earth and are responsbe for many
of the genetc mutatons that are the drvng force of the evouton of speces.
1. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage%
(A) The 8rigins and #ffects of ;uperno'as
(B) The Kife and eath of ;tars
(C) The 8rigins and #'olution of Kife on #arth
() The Aftermath of a ;uperno'a
(#) Ciolent Change in the :ni'erse
2. According to the passage/ we can e$pect a superno'a to occur in our gala$y
(A) about twice each year
(B) hundreds of times each century
(C) about once e'ery fifty years
() about once e'ery other century
(#) about once e'ery four to fi'e billion years
GMAT 1--
.. According to the passage all of the following are true of superno'as #DC#@T
that they
(A) are e$tremely bright
(B) are an e$plosion of some sort
(C) emit large "uantities of D(rays
() result in the destruction of a neutron star
(#) are caused by the collision of large gala$ies
0. The author employs which of the following to de'elop the first paragraph%
(A) Analogy
(B) eduction
(C) Benerali!ation
() #$ample
(#) =efutation
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the meteorites mentioned by the author at
line .,
(A) contain dangerous concentrations of radioacti'e materials
(B) gi'e off large "uantities of D(rays
(C) include material not created in the normal de'elopment of our solar system
() are larger than the meteors normally found in a solar system like ours
(#) contain pieces of a superno'a that occurred se'eral billion years ago
2. The author implies that
(A) it is sometimes easier to detect superno'as by obser'ation of the D(ray
spectrum than by obser'ation of 'isible wa'elengths of light
(B) life on #arth is endangered by its constant e$posure to radiation forces that
are released by a superno'a
(C) recently disco'ered meteorites indicate that the #arth and other planets of our
solar system sur'i'ed the e$plosion of a superno'a se'eral billion years ago
() lighter elements are formed from hea'ier elements during a superno'a as the
hea'ier elements are torn apart
(#) the core of a neutron star is composed largely of hea'ier elements such as
carbon/ nitrogen/ and o$ygen
-. According to the passage what is the first e'ent in the se"uence that leads to the
occurrence of a superno'a%
(A) An ordinary star begins to emit tremendous "uantities of D(rays.
(B) A neutron star is en'eloped by a superheated cloud of gas.
(C) An imbalance between light and hea'y elements causes an ordinary star to
collapse.
1-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() A cloud of interstellar gas rich in carbon/ nitrogen/ and o$ygen/ collapses to
form a neutron star.
(#) An ordinary star e$hausts its supply of nuclear fuel and begins to collapse.
6. According to the passage a neutron star is
(A) a gaseous cloud containing hea'y elements
(B) an intermediate stage between an ordinary star and a superno'a
(C) the residue that is left by a superno'a
() the core of an ordinary star that houses the thermonuclear reactions
(#) one of billions of meteors that are scattered across the gala$y by a superno'a
,. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) speculating about the origins of our solar system
(B) presenting e'idence pro'ing the e$istence of superno'as
(C) discussing the nuclear reaction that occurs in the core of a star
() describing the se"uence of scientific e'ents
(#) dispro'ing a theory about the causes of superno'as
Passage 68 (5/22)
The unqueness of the |apanese character s the resut of two seemngy
contradctory forces: the strength of tradtons and seectve receptvty to foregn
achevements and nventons. As eary as the 1860s, there were counter
movements to the tradtona orentaton. Yukch Fukuzawa, the most eoquent
spokesman of |apans "Enghtenment," camed: "The Confucan cvzaton of the
East seems to me to ack two thngs possessed by Western cvzaton: scence n
the matera sphere and a sense of ndependence n the sprtua sphere."
Fukuzawas great nfuence s found n the free and ndvduastc phosophy of
the Education Code of 1872, but he was not abe to prevent the government from
turnng back to the canons of Confucan thought n the )m#erial *escri#t of 1890.
Another nterude of reatve berasm foowed Word War I, when the democratc
deasm of Presdent Woodrow Wson had an mportant mpact on |apanese
nteectuas and, especay students: but more mportant was the Lennst
deoogy of the 1917 Boshevk Revouton. Agan n the eary 1930s, natonasm
and mtarsm became domnant, argey as a resut of fang economc
condtons.
Foowng the end of Word War II, substanta changes were undertaken n
|apan to berate the ndvdua from authortaran restrants. The new democratc
vaue system was accepted by many teachers, students, nteectuas, and od
beras, but t was not mmedatey embraced by the socety as a whoe. |apanese
tradtons were domnated by group vaues, and notons of persona freedom and
ndvdua rghts were unfamar.
GMAT 1-,
Today, democratc processes are ceary evdent n the wdespread
partcpaton of the |apanese peope n soca and potca fe: yet, there s no
unversay accepted and stabe vaue system. Vaues are constanty modfed by
strong nfusons of Western deas, both democratc and Marxst. Schoo textbooks
expound democratc prncpes, emphaszng equaty over herarchy and
ratonasm over tradton; but n practce these vaues are often msnterpreted
and dstorted, partcuary by the youth who transate the ndvduastc and
humanstc goas of democracy nto egostc and materastc ones.
Most |apanese peope have conscousy re|ected Confucansm, but vestges of
the od order reman. An mportant feature of reatonshps n many nsttutons
such as potca partes, arge corporatons, and unversty facutes s the oya$un-
ko$un or parent-chd reaton. A party eader, supervsor, or professor, n return
for oyaty, protects those subordnate to hm and takes genera responsbty for
ther nterests throughout ther entre ves, an obgaton that sometmes even
extends to arrangng marrages. The correspondng oyaty of the ndvdua to hs
patron renforces hs aegance to the group to whch they both beong. A
wngness to cooperate wth other members of the group and to support wthout
quafcaton the nterests of the group n a ts externa reatons s st a wdey
respected vrtue. The oya$un-ko$un creates adders of mobty whch an
ndvdua can ascend, rsng as far as abtes permt, so ong as he mantans
successfu persona tes wth a superor n the vertca channe, the atter
requrement usuay takng precedence over a need for exceptona competence.
As a consequence, there s tte horzonta reatonshp between peope even
wthn the same professon.
1. The author is mainly concerned with
(A) e$plaining the influence of Confucianism on modern Aapan
(B) analy!ing the reasons for Aapan4s postwar economic success
(C) discussing some important determinants of Aapanese 'alues
() describing managerial practices in Aapanese industry
(#) contrasting modern with prewar Aapanese society
2. &hich of the following is most like the relationship of the oyabun-kobun
described in the passage%
(A) A political candidate and the 'oting public
(B) A gifted scientist and his protPgP
(C) Two brothers who are partners in a business
() A <udge presiding at the trial of a criminal defendant
(#) A leader of a musical ensemble who is also a musician in the group
.. According to the passage/ Aapanese attitudes are influenced by which of the
following%
3. emocratic ideals
165 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
33. #lements of modern &estern culture
333. =emnants of an earlier social structure
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. The author implies that
(A) decisions about promotions are often based on personal feelings
(B) students and intellectuals do not understand the basic tenets of &estern
democracy
(C) &estern 'alues ha'e completely o'erwhelmed traditional Aapanese attitudes
() respect for authority was introduced into Aapan following &orld &ar 33
(#) most Aapanese workers are members of a single political party
1. 3n de'eloping the passage/ the author does which of the following%
(A) 3ntroduce an analogy
(B) efine a term
(C) @resent statistics
() Cite an authority
(#) 3ssue a challenge
2. 3t can be inferred that the 3mperial =escript of 16,5
(A) was a protest by liberals against the lack of indi'idual liberty in Aapan
(B) marked a return in go'ernment policies to conser'ati'e 'alues
(C) implemented the ideals set forth in the Education Code of 16-2
() was influenced by the Keninist ideology of the Bolshe'ik =e'olution
(#) prohibited the teaching of &estern ideas in Aapanese schools
-. &hich of the following is the most accurate description of the organi!ation of the
passage%
(A) A se"uence of inferences in which the conclusion of each successi'e step
becomes a premise in the ne$t argument
(B) A list of generali!ations/ most of which are supported by only a single
e$ample
(C) A chronological analysis of historical e'ents leading up to a description of the
current situation
() A statement of a commonly accepted theory that is then sub<ected to a critical
analysis
GMAT 161
(#) An introduction of a key term that is then defined by gi'ing e$amples
6. &hich of the following best states the central thesis of the passage%
(A) The 'alue system of Aapan is based upon traditional and conser'ati'e 'alues
that ha'e/ in modern times/ been modified by &estern and other liberal
'alues.
(B) ;tudents and radicals in Aapan ha'e Keninist ideology to distort the meaning
of democratic/ &estern 'alues.
(C) The notions of personal freedom and indi'idual liberty did not find immediate
acceptance in Aapan because of the predominance of traditional group
'alues.
() ?odern Aapanese society is characteri!ed by hierarchical relationships in
which a personal tie to a superior is often more important than merit.
(#) The influence on Aapanese 'alues of the American ideals of personal freedom
and indi'idual rights is less important than the influence of Keninist
ideology.
,. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) neutral and ob<ecti'e
(B) disparaging and flippant
(C) critical and demanding
() enthusiastic and supporti'e
(#) skeptical and "uestioning
Passage 69 (6/22)
Pubc genera hosptas orgnated n the amshouse nfrmares estabshed as
eary as coona tmes by oca governments to care for the poor. Later, n the ate
eghteenth and eary nneteenth centures, the nfrmary separated from the
amshouse and became an ndependent nsttuton supported by oca tax money.
At the same tme, prvate charty hosptas began to deveop. Both prvate and
pubc hosptas provded many food and sheter for the mpovershed sck, snce
there was tte that medcne coud actuay do to cure ness, and the mdde
cass was treated at home by prvate physcans.
Late n the nneteenth century, the prvate charty hospta began tryng to
attract mdde-cass patents. Athough the depresson of 1890 stmuated the
growth of chartabe nsttutons and an expandng urban popuaton became
dependent on assstance, there was a decne n prvate contrbutons to these
organzatons whch forced them to ook to oca government for fnanca support.
Snce prvate nsttutons had aso ost benefactors; they began to charge patents.
In order to attract mdde-cass patents, prvate nsttutons provded servces and
amentes that dstngushed between payng and non-payng patents and made
the hospta a desrabe pace for prvate physcans to treat ther own patents. As
162 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
payng patents became more necessary to the survva of the prvate hospta,
the pubc hosptas sowy became the ony pace for the poor to get treatment.
By the end of the nneteenth century, ctes were rembursng prvate hosptas for
ther care of ndgent patents and the pubc hosptas remaned dependent on the
tax doars.
The advent of prvate hospta heath nsurance, whch provded mdde-cass
patents wth the purchasng power to pay for prvate hospta servces,
guaranteed the prvate hospta a reguar source of ncome. Prvate hosptas
restrcted themseves to revenue-generatng patents, eavng the pubc hosptas
to care for the poor. Athough pubc hosptas contnued to provde servces for
patents wth communcabe dseases and outpatent and emergency servces, the
Bue Cross pans deveoped around the needs of the prvate hosptas and the
npatents they served. Thus, rembursement for ambuatory care has been
mnma under most Bue Cross pans, and provson of outpatent care has not
been a ma|or functon of the prvate hospta, n part because prvate patents can
afford to pay for the servces of prvate physcans. Addtonay, snce Word War
II, there has been a tremendous nfux of federa money nto prvate medca
schoos and the hosptas assocated wth them. Further, arge prvate medca
centers wth expensve research equpment and programs have attracted the best
admnstrators, physcans, and researchers. As a resut of the greater resources
avaabe to the prvate medca centers, pubc hosptas have ncreasng
probems attractng hghy quafed research and medca personne. Wth the
manstream of heath care frmy estabshed n the prvate medca sector, the
pubc hospta has become a "dumpng ground."
1. According to the passage/ the 'ery first pri'ate hospitals
(A) de'eloped from almshouse infirmaries
(B) pro'ided better care than public infirmaries
(C) were established mainly to ser'ice the poor
() were supported by go'ernment re'enues
(#) catered primarily to the middle(class patients
2. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the differences that currently e$ist
between public and pri'ate hospitals are primarily the result of
(A) political considerations
(B) economic factors
(C) ethical concerns
() legislati'e re"uirements
(#) technological de'elopments
.. 3t can be inferred that the growth of pri'ate health insurance
(A) relie'ed local go'ernments of the need to fund public hospitals
GMAT 16.
(B) guaranteed that the poor would ha'e access to medical care
(C) forced middle(class patients to use public hospitals
() prompted the closing of many charitable institutions
(#) reinforced the distinction between public and pri'ate hospitals
0. &hich of the following would be the most logical topic for the author to
introduce in the ne$t paragraph%
(A) A plan to impro'e the "uality of public hospitals
(B) An analysis of the profit structure of health insurance companies
(C) A proposal to raise ta$es on the middle class
() A discussion of recent de'elopments in medical technology
(#) A list of the sub<ects studied by students in medical school
1. The author4s primary concern is to
(A) describe the financial structure of the healthcare industry
(B) demonstrate the importance of go'ernment support for health(care institutions
(C) critici!e wealthy institutions for refusing to pro'ide ser'ices to the poor
() identify the historical causes of the di'ision between pri'ate and public
hospitals
(#) praise public hospitals for their willingness to pro'ide health care for the poor
2. The author cites all of the following as factors contributing to the decline of
public hospitals #DC#@T.
(A) Bo'ernment money was used to subsidi!e pri'ate medical schools and
hospitals to the detriment of public hospitals.
(B) @ublic hospitals are not able to compete with pri'ate institutions for top flight
managers and doctors.
(C) Karge pri'ate medical centers ha'e better research facilities and more
e$tensi'e research programs than public hospitals.
() @ublic hospitals accepted the responsibility for treating patients with certain
diseases.
(#) Blue Cross insurance co'erage does not reimburse subscribers for medical
e$penses incurred in a public hospital.
-. The author4s attitude toward public hospitals can best be described as
(A) contemptuous and pre<udiced
(B) apprehensi'e and distrustful
(C) concerned and understanding
() enthusiastic and supporti'e
(#) unsympathetic and annoyed
160 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
6. The author implies that any outpatient care pro'ided by a hospital is
(A) paid for by pri'ate insurance
(B) pro'ided in lieu of treatment by a pri'ate physician
(C) supplied primarily by pri'ate hospitals
() a source of re'enue for public hospitals
(#) no longer pro'ided by hospitals/ public or pri'ate
,. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage%
(A) @ublic 'ersus @ri'ate )ospitalsE A Competiti'e ?ismatch
(B) )istorical and #conomic >actors in the ecline of the @ublic )ospital
(C) A Comparison of the Nuality of Care @ro'ided in @ublic and @ri'ate )ospitals
() A @roposal for =e'amping the )ealth eli'ery ;er'ices ;ector of the
#conomy
(#) #conomic >actors That Contribute to the 3nability of the @oor to Bet
Ade"uate Care
Passage 70 (7/22)
The +ational ecurity "ct of 1947 created a natona mtary estabshment
headed by a snge Secretary of Defense. The egsaton had been a year-and-a-
haf n the makng-begnnng when Presdent Truman frst recommended that the
armed servces be reorganzed nto a snge department. Durng that perod the
Presdents concept of a unfed armed servce was torn apart and put back
together severa tmes, the fna measure to emerge from Congress beng a
compromse. Most of the opposton to the b came from the Navy and ts
numerous cvan spokesmen, ncudng Secretary of the Navy |ames Forresta. In
support of unfcaton (and a separate ar force that was part of the unfcaton
package) were the Army ar forces, the Army, and, most mportanty, the Presdent
of the Unted States.
Passage of the b dd not brng an end to the btter nterservce dsputes.
Rather than unfy, the act served ony to federate the mtary servces. It nether
hated the rapd demobzaton of the armed forces that foowed Word War II nor
brought to the new natona mtary estabshment the oyates of offcers
steeped n the tradtons of the separate servces. At a tme when the baance of
power n Europe and Asa was rapdy shftng, the servces acked any precse
statement of Unted States foregn pocy from the Natona Securty Counc on
whch to base future programs. The servces bckered unceasngy over ther
respectve roes and mssons, aready compcated by the Sovet nucear
capabty that for the frst tme made the Unted States sub|ect to devastatng
attack. Not even the appontment of Forresta as Frst Secretary of Defense
aayed the suspcons of nava offcers and ther supporters that the roe of the
U.S. Navy was threatened wth permanent ecpse. Before the war of words ded
GMAT 161
down, Forresta hmsef was drven to resgnaton and then sucde.
By 1948, the Unted States mtary estabshment was forced to make do wth
a budget approxmatey 10 percent of what t had been at ts wartme peak.
Meanwhe, the cost of weapons procurement was rsng geometrcay as the
naton came to put more and more reance on the atomc bomb and ts devery
systems. These two factors nevtaby made adversares of the Navy and the Ar
Force as the batte between advocates of the B-36 and the supercarrer so ampy
demonstrates. Gven severe fsca restrants on the one hand, and on the other
the natons ncreasng reance on strategc nucear deterrence, the confct
between these two servces over roes and mssons was essentay a contest over
sces of an ever-dmnshng pe.
Yet f n the end nether servce was the obvous vctor, the prncpe of cvan
domnance over the mtary ceary was. If there had ever been any danger that
the Unted States mtary estabshment mght expot, to the detrment of cvan
contro, the goodw t en|oyed as a resut of ts vctores n Word War II, that
danger dsappeared n the nterservce anmostes engendered by the batte over
unfcaton.
1. The author makes all of the following points about the 9ational ;ecurity Act of
1,0- #DC#@T
(A) 3t pro'ided for a single ;ecretary of efense.
(B) The legislation that came out of Congress was a compromise measure.
(C) The legislation was initially proposed by @resident Truman.
() The 9a'y opposed the bill that e'entually became law.
(#) The bill was passed to help the nation4s demobili!ation effort.
2. &hich of the following best describes the tone of the selection%
(A) Analytical and confident
(B) =esentful and defensi'e
(C) 8b<ecti'e and speculati'e
() Tentati'e and skeptical
(#) @ersuasi'e and cynical
.. According to the passage/ the interser'ice strife that followed unification
occurred primarily between the
(A) Army and Army air forces
(B) Army and 9a'y
(C) Army air forces and 9a'y
() 9a'y and Army
(#) Air >orce and 9a'y
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that >orrestal4s appointment as ;ecretary of
162 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
efense was e$pected to
(A) placate members of the 9a'y
(B) result in decreased le'els of defense spending
(C) outrage ad'ocates of the Army air forces
() win Congressional appro'al of the unification plan
(#) make >orrestal a @residential candidate against Truman
1. According to the passage/ @resident Truman supported which of the following%%
3. #limination of the 9a'y
33. A unified military ser'ice
333. #stablishment of a separate air force
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2. &ith which of the following statements about defense unification would the
author most likely agree%
(A) :nification ultimately undermined :nited ;tates military capability by
inciting interser'ice ri'alry.
(B) The unification legislation was necessitated by the drastic decline in
appropriations for the military ser'ices.
(C) Although the unification was not entirely successful/ it had the une$pected
result of ensuring ci'ilian control of the military.
() 3n spite of the attempted unification/ each ser'ice was still able to pursue its
own ob<ecti'es without interference from the other branches.
(#) :nification was in the first place unwarranted and in the second place
ineffecti'e.
-. According to the selection/ the political situation following the passage of the
9ational ;ecurity Act of 1,0- was characteri!ed by all of the following #DC#@T
(A) a shifting balance of power in #urope and in Asia
(B) fierce interser'ice ri'alries
(C) lack of strong leadership by the 9ational ;ecurity Council
() shrinking postwar military budgets
(#) a lame(duck @resident who was unable to unify the legislature
6. The author cites the resignation and suicide of >orrestal in order to
(A) underscore the bitterness of the interser'ice ri'alry surrounding the passage
of the National Security Act of 1,0-
GMAT 16-
(B) demonstrate that the 9a'y e'entually emerged as the dominant branch of
ser'ice after the passage of the National Security Act of 1,0-
(C) suggest that the nation would be better ser'ed by a unified armed ser'ice
under a single command
() pro'ide an e$ample of a military leader who preferred to ser'e his country in
war rather than in peace
(#) persuade the reader that >orrestal was a 'ictim of political opportunists and an
unscrupulous press
,. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) discussing the influence of personalities on political e'ents
(B) describing the administration of a powerful leader
(C) critici!ing a piece of legislation
() analy!ing a political de'elopment
(#) suggesting methods for controlling the military
Passage 71 (8/22)
Behavor s one of two genera responses avaabe to endothermc (warm-
booded) speces for the reguaton of body temperature, the other beng nnate
(refexve) mechansms of heat producton and heat oss. Human bengs rey
prmary on the frst to provde a hosptabe therma mcrocmate for themseves,
n whch the transfer of heat between the body and the envronment s
accompshed wth mnma nvovement of nnate mechansms of heat producton
and oss. Thermoreguatory behavor antcpates hypertherma, and the organsm
ad|usts ts behavor to avod becomng hyperthermc: t removes ayers of
cothng, t goes for a coo swm, etc. The organsm can aso respond to changes n
the temperature of the body core, as s the case durng exercse; but such
responses resut from the drect stmuaton of thermoreceptors dstrbuted wdey
wthn the centra nervous system, and the abty of these mechansms to hep
the organsm ad|ust to gross changes n ts envronment s mted.
Unt recenty t was assumed that organsms respond to mcrowave radaton
n the same way that they respond to temperature changes caused by other forms
of radaton. After a, the argument runs, mcrowaves are radaton and heat body
tssues. Ths theory gnores the fact that the stmuus to a behavora response s
normay a temperature change that occurs at the surface of the organsm. The
thermoreceptors that prompt behavora changes are ocated wthn the frst
mmeter of the skns surface, but the energy of a mcrowave fed may be
seectvey deposted n deep tssues, effectvey bypassng these
thermoreceptors, partcuary f the fed s at near-resonant frequences. The
resutng temperature profe may we be a knd of reverse therma gradent n
whch the deep tssues are warmed more than those of the surface. Snce the heat
166 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
s not conducted outward to the surface to stmuate the approprate receptors,
the organsm does not "apprecate" ths stmuaton n the same way that t
"apprecates" heatng and coong of the skn. In theory, the nterna organs of a
human beng or an anma coud be qute teray cooked we-done before the
anma even reazes that the baance of ts thermomcrocmate has been
dsturbed.
Unt a few years ago, mcrowave rradatons at equvaent pane-wave power
denstes of about 100 mW/cm
2
were consdered unequvocay to produce
"therma" effects; rradatons wthn the range of 10 to 100 mW/cm
2
mght or
mght not produce "therma" effects; whe effects observed at power denstes
beow 10 mW/cm
2
were assumed to be "nontherma" n nature. Experments have
shown ths to be an oversmpfcaton, and a recent report suggests that feds as
weak as 1 mW/cm
2
can be thermogenc. When the heat generated n the tssues
by an mposed rado frequency (pus the heat generated by metabosm) exceeds
the heat-oss capabtes of the organsm, the thermoreguatory system has been
compromsed. Yet surprsngy, not ong ago, an ncrease n the nterna body
temperature was regarded merey as "evdence" of a therma effect.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) showing that beha'ior is a more effecti'e way of controlling bodily
temperature than innate mechanisms
(B) critici!ing researchers who will not discard their theories about the effects of
microwa'e radiation on organisms
(C) demonstrating that effects of microwa'e radiation are different from those of
other forms of radiation
() analy!ing the mechanism by which an organism maintains its bodily
temperature in a changing thermal en'ironment
(#) discussing the importance of thermoreceptors in the control of the internal
temperature of an organism
2. The author makes which of the following points about innate mechanisms for
heat production%
3. They are go'erned by thermoreceptors inside the body of the organism
rather than at the surface.
33. They are a less effecti'e means of compensating for gross changes in
temperature than beha'ioral strategies.
333. They are not affected by microwa'e radiation.
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
GMAT 16,
.. &hich of the following would be the most logical topic for the author to take up
in the paragraph following the final paragraph of the selection%
(A) A suggestion for new research to be done on the effects of microwa'es on
animals and human beings
(B) An analysis of the differences between microwa'e radiation
(C) A proposal that the use of microwa'e radiation be prohibited because it is
dangerous
() A sur'ey of the literature on the effects of microwa'e radiation on human
beings
(#) A discussion of the strategies used by 'arious species to control hyperthermia
0. The author4s strategy in lines .,(02 is to
(A) introduce a hypothetical e$ample to dramati!e a point
(B) propose an e$periment to test a scientific hypothesis
(C) cite a case study to illustrate a general contention
() produce a countere$ample to dispro'e an opponent4s theory
(#) speculate about the probable conse"uences of a scientific phenomenon
1. The author implies that the proponents of the theory that microwa'e radiation
acts on organisms in the same way as other forms of radiation based their
conclusions primarily on
(A) laboratory research
(B) unfounded assumption
(C) control group sur'eys
() deducti'e reasoning
(#) causal in'estigation
2. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) genial and con'ersational
(B) alarmed and disparaging
(C) facetious and cynical
() scholarly and noncommittal
(#) scholarly and concerned
-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) pointing out weaknesses in a popular scientific theory
(B) de'eloping a hypothesis to e$plain a scientific phenomenon
(C) reporting on new research on the effects of microwa'e radiation
() critici!ing the research methods of earlier in'estigators
(#) clarifying ambiguities in the terminology used to describe a phenomenon
1,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 72 (9/22)
Snce Woud War II consderabe advances have been made n the area of
heath-care servces. These ncude better access to heath care (partcuary for
the poor and mnortes), mprovements n physca pants, and ncreased numbers
of physcans and other heath personne. A have payed a part n the recent
mprovement n fe expectancy. But there s mountng crtcsm of the arge
remanng gaps n access, unbrded cost nfaton, the further fragmentaton of
servce, excessve ndugence n wastefu hgh-technoogy "gadgeteerng," and a
breakdown n doctor-patent reatonshps. In recent years proposed panaceas and
new programs, sma and arge, have proferated at a feversh pace and
dsappontments mutpy at amost the same rate. Ths has ed to an ncreased
pessmsm-"everythng has been tred and nothng works"-whch sometmes
borders on cyncsm or even nhsm.
It s true that the automatc "pass through" of rapdy sprang costs to
government and nsurance carrers, whch was set n a pubczed envronment of
"the rchest naton n the word," produced for a tme a sense of unmted
resources and aowed to deveop a mood whereby every practtoner and
nsttuton coud "do hs own thng" wthout undue concern for the "Medca
Commons." The practce of fu-cost rembursement encouraged capta
nvestment and now the ndustry s overcaptazed. Many ctes have hundreds of
excess hospta beds; hosptas have proferated a superabundance of hgh-
technoogy equpment; and structura ostentaton and uxury were the order of
the day. In any gven day, one-fourth of a communty beds are vacant; expensve
equpment s underused or, worse, used unnecessary. Capta nvestment brngs
rapdy rsng operatng costs.
Yet, n part, ths pessmsm derves from expectng too much of heath care. It
must be reazed that care s, for most peope, a panfu experence, often
accompaned by fear and unwecome resuts. Athough there s vast room for
mprovement, heath care w aways retan some unpeasantness and frustraton.
Moreover, the capactes of medca scence are mted. Humpty Dumpty cannot
aways be put back together agan. Too many physcans are reuctant to admt
ther mtatons to patents; too many patents and fames are unwng to accept
such reates. Nor s t true that everythng has been tred and nothng works, as
shown by the prepad group practce pans of the Kaser Foundaton and at Puget
Sound. In the man, however, such undertakngs have been drowned by a
vertabe food of pubc and prvate moneys whch have supported and
encouraged the contnuaton of conventona practces and subsdzed ther
shortcomngs on a massve, amost unrestrcted scae. Except for the most
deastc and dedcated, there were no ncentves to seek change or to practce
sef-restrant or frugaty. In ths atmosphere, t s not far to condemn as faures
a attempted experments; t may be more accurate to say many never had a far
tra.
GMAT 1,1
1. The author implies that the Maiser >oundation and @uget ;ound plans (lines 0-(
06) differed from other plans by
(A) encouraging capital in'estment
(B) re"uiring physicians to treat the poor
(C) pro'iding incenti'es for cost control
() employing only dedicated and idealistic doctors
(#) relying primarily on public funding
2. The author mentions all of the following as conse"uences of full(cost
reimbursement #DC#@T
(A) rising operating costs
(B) underused hospital facilities
(C) o'ercapitali!ation
() o'erreliance on e$pensi'e e"uipment
(#) lack of ser'ices for minorities
.. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) light(hearted and amused
(B) ob<ecti'e but concerned
(C) detached and unconcerned
() cautious but sincere
(#) enthusiastic and enlightened
0. According to the author/ the *pessimism+ mentioned at line .1 is partly
attributable to the fact that
(A) there has been little real impro'ement in health(care ser'ices
(B) e$pectations about health(care ser'ices are sometimes unrealistic
(C) large segments of the population find it impossible to get access to health(
care ser'ices
() ad'ances in technology ha'e made health care ser'ice unaffordable
(#) doctors are now less concerned with patient care
1. The author cites the prepaid plans in lines 02(06 as
(A) countere$amples to the claim that nothing has worked
(B) e$amples of health(care plans that were o'er(funded
(C) e'idence that health(care ser'ices are fragmented
() proof of the theory that no plan has been successful
(#) e$periments that yielded disappointing results
2. 3t can be inferred that the sentence *)umpty umpty cannot always be put back
together again+ means that
1,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) the cost of health(care ser'ices will not decline
(B) some people should not become doctors
(C) medical care is not really essential to good health
() illness is often unpleasant and e'en painful
(#) medical science cannot cure e'ery ill
-. &ith which of the following descriptions of the system for the deli'ery of health(
care ser'ices would the author most likely agree%
(A) 3t is biased in fa'or of doctors and against patients.
(B) 3t is highly fragmented and completely ineffecti'e
(C) 3t has not embraced new technology rapidly enough
() 3t is generally effecti'e but can be impro'ed
(#) 3t discourages people from seeking medical care
6. &hich of the following best describes the logical structure of the selection%
(A) The third paragraph is intended as a refutation of the first and second
paragraphs.
(B) The second and third paragraphs e$plain and put into perspecti'e the points
made in the first paragraph.
(C) The second and third paragraphs e$plain and put into perspecti'e the points
made in the first paragraph.
() The first paragraph describes a problem/ and the second and third paragraphs
present two horns of a dilemma.
(#) The first paragraph describes a problem/ the second its causes/ and the third a
possible solution.
,. The author4s primary concern is to
(A) critici!e physicians and health(care administrators for in'esting in techno(
logically ad'anced e"uipment
(B) e$amine some problems affecting deli'ery of health(care ser'ices and assess
their se'erity
(C) defend the medical community from charges that health(care has not
impro'ed since &orld &ar 33
() analy!e the reasons for the health(care industry4s inability to pro'ide "uality
care to all segments of the population
(#) describe the peculiar economic features of the health(care industry that are the
causes of spiraling medical costs
Passage 73 (10/22)
Durng the Vctoran perod, women wrters were measured aganst a soca
GMAT 1,.
rather than a terary dea. Hence, t was wdey thought that noves by women
shoud be modest, regous, senstve, gueess, and chaste, ke ther authors.
Many Vctoran women wrters took excepton to ths beef, however, resstng the
mposton of nonterary restrctons on ther work. Pubshers soon dscovered
that the gentest and most ddyke femae novests were tough-mnded and
reentess when ther professona ntegrty was at stake. Keeny aware of ther
artstc responsbtes, these women wrters woud not make concessons to
secure commerca success.
The Brontes, George Eot, Ezabeth Barrett Brownng, and ther esser-known
contemporares repudated, n ther professona ves, the courtesy that Vctoran
ades mght exact from Vctoran gentemen. Desrng rgorous and mparta
crtcsm, most women wrters dd not wsh revewers to be knd to them f
kndness meant overookng ther terary weaknesses or fatterng them on ther
accompshments smpy because of ther sex. They had expected dersve
revews; nstead, they found themseves confronted wth generous crtcsm, whch
they consdered condescendng. Ezabeth Barrett Brownng abeed t "the
comparatve respect whch means... absoute scorn."
For ther part, Vctoran crtcs were vrtuay obsessed wth fndng the pace of
the woman wrter so as to |udge her appropratey. Many bunty admtted that
they thought !ane Eyre a masterpece f wrtten by a man, shockng or dsgustng
f wrtten by a woman. Moreover, reactonary revewers were quck to assocate an
ndependent herone wth carefuy conceaed revoutonary doctrne; severa
consdered !ane Eyre a radca femnst document, as ndeed t was. To Charotte
Bronte, who had demanded dgnty and ndependence wthout any revoutonary
ntent and who consdered hersef potcay conservatve, ther crtcsm was an
affront. Such crtcsm bunched a women wrters together rather than treatng
them as ndvdua artsts.
Charotte Brontes experence served as a warnng to other women wrters
about the pre|udces that mmedatey assocated them wth femnsts and others
thought to be potca radcas. Irrtated, and anxous to detach themseves from a
group stereotype, many expressed reatvey conservatve vews on the
emancpaton of women (except on the sub|ect of womens educaton) and
stressed ther own domestc accompshments. However, n dentfyng themseves
wth women who had chosen the tradtona career path of marrage and
motherhood, these wrters encountered st another threat to ther creatvty.
Vctoran prudery rendered vrtuay a experence that was unquey femnne
unprntabe. No nneteenth-century woman dared to descrbe chdbrth, much ess
her sexua passon. Men coud not wrte about ther sexua experences ether, but
they coud wrte about sport, busness, crme, and war-a actvtes from whch
women were barred. Sma wonder no woman produced a nove ke ,ar and
Peace. What s amazng s the sheer voume of frst-rate prose and poetry that
Vctoran women dd wrte.
1,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute the contention that no Cictorian woman writer produced a no'el like
War and Peace
(B) trace the historical relationship between radical feminist politics and the
Cictorian no'els written by women
(C) show how three Cictorian women writers responded to criticism of their
no'els
() resol'e the apparent contradiction between Cictorian women writers4 literary
inno'ati'eness and their rather conser'ati'e social 'iews
(#) describe the discrepancy between Cictorian society4s e$pectations of women
writers and the e$pectations of the women writers themsel'es
2. According to the passage/ Cictorian women writers *would not make
concessions+ (line 1.) to publishers primarily because they felt that such
concessions would
(A) re"uire them to limit descriptions of uni"uely feminine e$periences
(B) compromise their artistic integrity
(C) make them 'ulnerable to stereotyping by critics
() pro'ide no guarantee that their works would en<oy commercial success
(#) go against the traditions of #nglish letters
.. The passage suggests that Cictorian criticism of works by women writers was
(A) indulgent
(B) perfunctory
(C) resourceful
() timely
(#) apolitical
0. The author of the passage "uotes #li!abeth Barrett Browning (lines 26(2,) in
order to demonstrate that Cictorian women writers
(A) possessed both talent and literary creati'ity
(B) felt that their works were misunderstood
(C) refused to make artistic concessions
() feared derisi'e criticism
(#) resented condescending criticism
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Charlotte Bronte considered the criticisms
le'eled at Aane #yre by reactionary re'iewers *an affront+ (line 0.) primarily
because such criticism
(A) e$posed her carefully concealed re'olutionary doctrine to public scrutiny
(B) assessed the literary merit of the no'el on the basis of its author4s se$
GMAT 1,1
(C) assumed that her portrayal of an independent woman represented
re'olutionary ideas
() labeled the no'el shocking and disgusting without <ust cause
(#) denied that the no'el was a literary masterpiece
2. &hich of the following statements best describes the *threat+ mentioned in line
1- of the passage%
(A) Critics demanded to know the se$ of the author before passing <udgment on
the literary "uality of a no'el.
(B) &omen writers were pre'ented from describing in print e$periences about
which they had special knowledge.
(C) The reading public tended to prefer historical no'els to no'els describing
contemporary Kondon society.
() @ublishers were urging Cictorian women writers to publish under their own
names rather than under pseudonyms.
(#) &omen writers4 domestic responsibilities tended to take time away from their
writing.
-. The passage suggests that the attitude of Cictorian women writers toward being
grouped together by critics was most probably one of
(A) relief
(B) indifference
(C) amusement
() annoyance
(#) ambi'alence
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a Cictorian woman writer who did not
consider herself a feminist would most probably ha'e appro'ed of women4s
(A) entering the noncombat military
(B) entering the publishing business
(C) entering a uni'ersity
() <oining the stock e$change
(#) <oining a tennis club
,. The passage suggests that the literary creati'ity of Cictorian women writers could
ha'e been enhanced if
(A) women had been allowed to write about a broader range of sub<ects
(B) no'els of the period had been characteri!ed by greater stylistic and structural
ingenuity
(C) a reser'ed and decorous style had been a more highly 'alued literary ideal
() publishers had sponsored more new women no'elists
1,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) critics had been kinder in re'iewing the works of women no'elists
Passage 74 (11/22)
Agrcutura progress provded the stmuus necessary to set off economc
expanson n medeva France. As ong as those who worked the and were barey
abe to ensure ther own subsstence and that of ther andords, a other actvtes
had to be mnma, but when food surpuses ncreased, t became possbe to
reease more peope for governmenta, commerca, regous and cutura
pursuts.
However, not a the funds from the agrcutura surpus were actuay
avaabe for commerca nvestment. Much of the surpus, n the form of food
ncreases, probaby went to rase the subsstence eve; an addtona amount, n
the form of currency ganed from the sae of food, went nto the roya treasury to
be used n wagng war. Athough Lous VII of France eved a ess crushng tax
burden on hs sub|ects than dd Engands Henry II, Lous VII dd spend great sums
on an unsuccessfu crusade, and hs vassas-both ay and eccesastc-took over
spendng where ther soveregn stopped. Surpus funds were camed both by the
Church and by feuda andhoders, whereupon cathedras and castes
mushroomed throughout France.
The smutaneous progress of cathedra budng and, for nstance, vneyard
expanson n Bordeaux ustrates the very rea competton for avaabe capta
between the Church and commerca nterests; the former produced nestmabe
mora and artstc rches, but the atter had a stronger mmedate mpact upon
gross natona product. Moreover, though a wars by defnton are defensve, the
frequent crossngs of armes that ved off the and and mpartay burned a the
huts and barns on ther path consumed consderabe resources.
Snce demands on the agrcutura surpus woud have vared from year to
year, we cannot precsey cacuate ther mpact on the commerca growth of
medeva France. But we must bear that mpact n mnd when estmatng the
assets that were key to have been avaabe for nvestment. No doubt caste and
cathedra budng was not totay barren of proft (for the buders, that s), and t
produced ntangbe dvdends of matera and mora satsfacton for the
communty. Even wars handed back a fragment of what they took, at east to a
few. St, we cannot pace on the same pane a prmary destructve actvty and a
constructve one, nor expect the same resuts from a new be tower as from a
new water m. Above a, medeva France had tte room for nvestment over and
above the preservaton of fe. Granted that war cost much ess than t does today,
that the Church rendered a sorts of educatona and recreatona servces that
were unobtanabe esewhere, and that government was far ess demandng than
s the modern state-nevertheess, for medeva men and women, supportng
commerca deveopment requred consderabe economc sacrfce.
1. According to the passage/ agricultural re'enues in e$cess of the amount needed
GMAT 1,-
for subsistence were used by medie'al kings to
(A) patroni!e the arts
(B) sponsor public recreation
(C) wage war
() build cathedrals
(#) fund public education
2. According to the passage/ which of the following was an important source of
re'enue in medie'al >rance%
(A) Cheese
(B) &ine
(C) &ool
() 8li'e oil
(#) Ceal
.. The passage suggests that which of the following would ha'e reduced the assets
immediately a'ailable for commercial in'estment in medie'al >rance%
3. =eno'ation of a large cathedral
33. A sharp increase in the birth rate
333. An in'asion of >rance by )enry 33
(A) 333 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that more people could enter go'ernment and
the Church in medie'al >rance because
(A) the number of indi'idual landholdings in hea'ily agricultural areas was
beginning to increase
(B) an increase in the 'olume of international trade had brought an increase in the
population of cities
(C) a decrease in warfare had allowed the king to decrease the si!e of the army
() food producers could grow more food than they and their families needed to
sur'i'e
(#) landlords were prospering and thus were demanding a smaller percentage of
tenants4 annual yields
1. The author implies that the reason we cannot e$pect the same results from a new
bell tower as from a new water mill is that
(A) bell towers yield an intangible di'idend
1,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) bell towers pro'ide material satisfaction
(C) water mills cost more to build than bell towers
() water mills di'ert funds from commerce
(#) water mills might well be destroyed by war
2. The author of the passage most probably bases his central argument on which of
the following theoretical assumptions often made by economists%
(A) ifferent people should be ta$ed in proportion to the benefit they can e$pect
to recei'e from public acti'ity.
(B) @erfect competition e$ists only in the case where no farmer/ merchant/ or
laborer controls a large enough share of the total market to influence market
price.
(C) A population wealthy enough to cut back its rate of consumption can funnel
the resulting sa'ings into the creation of capital.
() A full(employment economy must always/ to produce one good/ gi'e up
producing another good.
(#) There is a uni'ersal tendency for population/ unless checked by food supply/
to increase in a geometric progression.
-. The author suggests that commercial e$pansion in medie'al >rance *re"uired
considerable economic sacrifice+ (lines 1,(25) primarily for which of the
following reasons%
(A) Cathedrals cost more to build and rebuild than did castles.
(B) The numerous wars fought during the period left the royal treasury bankrupt.
(C) Kouis C33 le'ied a more crushing ta$ burden on his sub<ects than did )enry
33.
() Although much of the a'ailable surplus had been di'erted into 'ineyard
e$pansion/ the 'ineyards had not yet begun to produce.
(#) Although more food was being produced/ the subsistence le'el was not 'ery
far abo'e the minimum re"uired to sustain life.
6. The passage implies that which of the following yielded the lowest di'idend to
medie'al men and women relati'e to its cost%
(A) &arfare
(B) Cineyard e$pansion
(C) &ater mill construction
() Castle building
(#) Cathedral building
,. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the central idea of the passage%
(A) Commercial growth in medie'al >rance may be accurately computed by
calculating the number of castles and cathedrals built during the period.
GMAT 1,,
(B) Competition between the Church and the feudal aristocracy for funds created
by agricultural surplus demonstrably slowed the economic growth of
medie'al >rance.
(C) espite such burdens as war and capital e$pansion by landholders/ commerce
in medie'al >rance e$panded steadily as the agricultural surplus increased.
() >unds actually a'ailable for commerce in medie'al >rance 'aried with the
demands placed on the agricultural surplus.
(#) The simultaneous progress of 'ineyard e$pansion and building in medie'al
>rance gi'es e'idence of a rapidly e$panding economy.
Passage 75 (12/22)
For years schoars have contrasted savery n the Unted States and n Braz,
stmuated by the fact that raca patterns assumed such dfferent aspects n the
two countres after emancpaton. Braz never deveoped a system of rgd
segregaton of the sort that repaced savery n the Unted States, and ts raca
system was fud because ts defnton of race was based as much on
characterstcs such as economc status as on skn coor. Unt recenty, the most
persuasve expanaton for these dfferences was that Portuguese nsttutons
especay the Roman Cathoc church and Roman cv aw, promoted recognton
of the saves humanty. The Engsh coonsts, on the other hand, constructed
ther system of savery out of whoe coth. There were smpy no precedents n
Engsh common aw, and separaton of church and state barred Protestant cergy
from the roe that prests assumed n Braz.
But the assumpton that nsttutons aone coud so powerfuy affect the
hstory of two raw and maeabe fronter countres seems, on reexamnaton,
untenabe. Recent studes focus nstead on a partcuar set of contrastng
economc crcumstances and demographc profes at sgnfcant perods n the
hstores of the two countres. Persons of mxed race qucky appeared n both
countres. In the Unted States they were consdered to be Back, a soca
defnton that was feasbe because they were n the mnorty. In Braz, t was not
feasbe. Though ntermarrage was ega n both countres, the aws were
unenforceabe n Braz snce Whtes formed a sma mnorty n an overwhemngy
Back popuaton. Manumsson for persons of mxed race was aso easer n Braz,
partcuary n the nneteenth century when n the Unted States t was hedged
about wth dffcutes. Furthermore, a shortage of sked workers n Braz
provded persons of mxed race wth the opportunty to earn crafts and trades,
even before genera emancpaton, whereas n the Unted States entry nto these
occupatons was bocked by Whtes suffcenty numerous to f the posts. The
consequence was the deveopment n Braz of a arge cass of persons of mxed
race, profcent n sked trades and crafts, who stood watng as a communty for
freed saves to |on.
There shoud be no uson that Brazan socety after emancpaton was coor-
255 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
bnd. Rather, the arge popuaton of persons of mxed race produced a raca
system that ncuded a thrd status, a brdge between the Back caste and the
Whte, whch coud be traversed by means of economc or nteectua
achevement, marrage, or raca hertage. The strct and sharp ne between the
races so characterstc of the Unted States n the years mmedatey after
emancpaton was smpy absent. Wth the possbe excepton of New Oreans, no
speca "pace" deveoped n the Unted States for persons of mxed race. Sad to
say, every pressure of socety worked to prevent ther attanng anythng
approxmatng the economc and soca poston avaabe to ther counterparts n
Braz.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) contrasting the systems of sla'ery that were established in Bra!il and in the
:nited ;tates
(B) critici!ing the arguments of those scholars who considered religion and law to
be the determinants of the systems of sla'ery in Bra!il and in the :nited
;tates
(C) describing the factors currently thought to be responsible for the differences
in the racial patterns that e'ol'ed in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates
() ad'ocating further study of the differences between the racial systems that
de'eloped in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates
(#) pointing out the factors that made the status of Blacks in the :nited ;tates
lower than that of Blacks in Bra!il
2. According to the passage/ early scholars e$plained the differences between the
racial systems that de'eloped in the :nited ;tates and in Bra!il as the result of
which of the following factors%
(A) 3nstitutional
(B) emographic
(C) #conomic
() Beographical
(#) )istorical
.. 3n the conte$t in which it is found/ the phrase *constructed their system of sla'ery
out of whole cloth+ (lines 11(12) implies that the system of sla'ery established by
the #nglish settlers was
(A) based on fabrications and lies
(B) tailored to the settlers4 particular circumstances
(C) intended to ser'e the needs of a frontier economy
() de'eloped without direct influence from the settlers4 religion or legal system
(#) e'ol'ed without gi'ing recognition to the sla'e4s humanity
0. The author implies that the e$planation proposed by early scholars for the
GMAT 251
differences between the systems of sla'ery in the :nited ;tates and in Bra!il is
(A) stimulating to historians and legal scholars
(B) more powerful than more recent e$planations
(C) persuasi'e in spite of minor deficiencies
() e$cessi'ely legalistic in its approach
(#) "uestionable in light of current scholarly work
1. The author mentions intermarriage/ manumission/ and the shortage of skilled
workers in Bra!il primarily in order to establish which of the following%
(A) The en'ironment in which Bra!il4s racial system de'eloped
(B) The influence of different legal and economic conditions in Bra!il and the
:nited ;tates on the life(style of persons of mi$ed race
(C) The origins of Bra!il4s large class of free skilled persons of mi$ed race
() The differences between treatment of sla'es in Bra!il and in the :nited ;tates
(#) The difficulties faced by persons of mi$ed race in the :nited ;tates/ as
compared to those in Bra!il
2. According to the passage/ Bra!ilian laws prohibiting intermarriage were
ineffecti'e because Bra!il had a
(A) @ortuguese Catholic heritage
(B) ;mall minority of whites
(C) Kiberal set of laws concerning manumission
() Karge number of freed sla'es
(#) ;hortage of people in the skilled crafts and trades
-. The use of "uotation marks around the word *place+ (line 1,) suggests that the
author intended to con'ey which of the following%
(A) An ambi'alent attitude toward the city of 9ew 8rleans
(B) A negati'e attitude toward the role of race in determining status in the :nited
;tates
(C) A critical comment about the maltreatment of persons of mi$ed race in the
:nited ;tates
() A double meaning/ indicating both a social status and a physical location
(#) An ambiguity/ referring to either the role persons of mi$ed race actually
played/ or the role they were assigned by the society
6. &ith which of the following statements regarding human beha'ior would the
author of the passage be most likely to agree%
(A) 8nly a fool or a political candidate would sing 'ery loudly the glories of the
institutions of &estern culture.
(B) Contact sportsQdisplacements of our abiding impulses to killQspeak of
252 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
essential human beha'ior more truthfully than all the theories of
psychologists and historians.
(C) >amily/ church/ political partyE these are the strong foundations of history and
human beha'ior.
() ?oney and its pursuitE an e$ploration of that theme will chart accurately the
de'elopment of ci'ili!ations and the determinants of human beha'ior.
(#) The circumstances in which humans find themsel'esQmore than treasured
beliefs or legal prescriptionsQmold human beha'ior.
Passage 76 (13/22)
Desertfcaton, the creaton of desert-ke condtons where none had exsted
before, s the resut of the vagares of weather and cmate or the
msmanagement of the and or, n most cases, some combnaton of both. Such
ecoogca deteroraton n the Sahe has been nked n severa ways to the
ncreased sze of vestock herds. Durng the ffteen years precedng 1968, a
perod of extremey favorabe ranfa, the pastorasts moved nto the margna
regons n the north wth reatvey arge herds. However, wth the onset of a
seres of dry years begnnng at the end of the rany season n 1967, the pastora
popuatons found themseves overtaxng very margna rangeands, wth the
resut that the nomads vewed themseves as vctms of a natura dsaster. The
mstaken dea that drought s an unexpected event has often been used to excuse
the fact that ong-range pannng has faed to take ranfa varabty nto account.
Peope bame the cmate for agrcutura faures n semard regons and make t a
scapegoat for fauty popuaton and agrcutura poces.
Deteroraton and utmatey desertfcaton n the Sahe and n other
ecosystems can be combated ony f an ecoogcay reastc carryng capacty for
the rangeands s determned. Athough there appears to be wdespread
agreement that such a determnaton woud be sgnfcant, there has been tte
agreement on how to make operatona the concept of carryng capacty, defned
as the amount of grazng stock that the pasture can support wthout deteroraton
of ether the pasture or the stock. Shoud the carryng capacty be geared to the
best, the average, or the poorest years? Whch combnaton of statstca
measures woud be most meanngfu for the pannng of ong-term deveopment of
rangeands? On whch varabes shoud such an assessment be based, vegetaton,
ranfa, so, ground and surface water, or managera capabtes? Such
nconcusveness wthn the scentfc communty, whe understandabe, creates
confuson for the and managers, who often decde to take no acton or who
decde that a scentfc suggestons are of equa weght and, therefore,
ndscrmnatey choose any one of those suggested. Gven the downward spra of
and deteroraton, t becomes essenta that an ecoogcay acceptabe carryng
capacty be estabshed and enforced.
It w aso be cruca that and managers know what statstca and quas-
GMAT 25.
statstca measures actuay mean: no snge number can adequatey descrbe the
cmate regme of an ard or semard regon. Land managers must suppement
such terms as the "mean" wth more nformatve statstca measures to
characterze adequatey the varabty of the cmate. The understandng of ths
hgh degree of varabty w serve to remove one of the ma|or obstaces to
resovng the perenna probems of the Sahe and of other ard or semard
regons.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) critici!ing a social attitude
(B) suggesting an approach to sol'ing a problem
(C) e$plaining the mechanics of a process
() defending the theories of ecological scientists
(#) establishing criteria for an e$periment
2. According to the passage/ which of the following contributed to the
desertification of the ;ahel%
3. The si!e of the li'estock herds gra!ing on the land
33. The "uality of the land in the ;ahel
333. The amount of rainfall after 1,2-
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the nomadic tribes who mo'ed into the
marginal regions of the ;ahel did 98T
(A) enlarge the si!e of their li'estock herds
(B) conser'e water after the drought began
(C) li'e in the ;ahel after 1,26
() e$pect a drastic change in weather conditions
(#) seek go'ernmental aid in o'ercoming drought conditions
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the concept of the carrying capacity of
land is
(A) still hypothetical rather than practical
(B) basically political rather than ecological
(C) independent of climatic conditions
() relati'ely unknown among ecologists
(#) generally misrepresented by ecologists
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1. &hich of the following best states the author4s 'iew concerning the relationship
between the ecological scientist and the land manager%
(A) The scientist has not pro'ided the manager with clear guidelines that can be
used in regulating the producti'ity of land.
(B) The scientist has pro'ided theories that are too detailed for the manager to use
successfully.
(C) The scientist and the manager/ in attempting to regulate the use of semiarid
land/ ha'e ignored the traditional beha'ior patterns of pastoral communities.
() The manager has misunderstood and hence misapplied the suggestions of the
scientist.
(#) The manager has chosen from among the scientist4s suggestions those that are
economically rather than ecologically safe.
2. &ith which of the following statements concerning desertification would the
author be most likely to agree%
(A) 3t is the result of factors beyond the control of science.
(B) 3t is a problem largely affecting arid regions.
(C) 3t could be pre'ented if land managers understood statistics.
() 3t is not always the result of drastic climate changes alone.
(#) 3t is not attributable to faulty agricultural policies.
-. According to the passage/ a statistical description of the climate regime of an arid
or semiarid region would probably be
(A) misleading
(B) impossible
(C) comple$
() meaningless
(#) abstract
6. The tone of the passage can best be described as
(A) flippant
(B) ob<ecti'e
(C) aggressi'e
() apologetic
(#) unconcerned
Passage 77 (14/22)
The promse of fndng ong-term technoogca soutons to the probem of
word food shortages seems dffcut to fuf. Many nnovatons that were once
heavy supported and pubczed, such as fsh-proten concentrate and proten
GMAT 251
from agae grown on petroeum substrates, have snce faen by the waysde. The
proposas themseves were techncay feasbe, but they proved to be
economcay unvabe and to yed food products cuturay unacceptabe to ther
consumers. Recent nnovatons such as opaque-2 maze, Antarctc kr, and the
wheat-rye hybrd trtcae seem more promsng, but t s too eary to predct ther
utmate fate.
One characterstc common to unsuccessfu food nnovatons has been that,
even wth extensve government support, they often have not been
technoogcay adapted or cuturay acceptabe to the peope for whom they had
been deveoped. A successfu new technoogy, therefore, must ft the entre
sococutura system n whch t s to fnd a pace. Securty of crop yed,
practcaty of storage, paatabty, and costs are much more sgnfcant than had
prevousy been reazed by the advocates of new technooges. For exampe, the
better proten quaty n tortas made from opaque-2 maze w be of ony mted
beneft to a famy on the margn of subsstence f the new maze s not cuturay
acceptabe or s more vunerabe to nsects.
The adopton of new food technooges depends on more than these technca
and cutura consderatons; economc factors and governmenta poces aso
strongy nfuence the utmate success of any nnovaton. Economsts n the
Ango-Amercan tradton have taken the ead n nvestgatng the economcs of
technoogca nnovaton. Athough they exaggerate n camng that proftabty s
the key factor gudng technca change-they competey dsregard the
substanta effects of cuture-they are correct n stressng the mportance of
profts. Most technoogca nnovatons n agrcuture can be fuy used ony by
arge andowners and are ony adopted f these proft-orented busness peope
beeve that the nnovaton w ncrease ther ncomes. Thus, nnovatons that
carry hgh rewards for bg agrbusness groups w be adopted even f they harm
segments of the popuaton and reduce the avaabty of food n a country.
Further, shoud a new technoogy promse to ater substantay the profts and
osses assocated wth any producton system, those wth economc power w
strve to mantan and mprove ther own postons. Snce arge segments of the
popuatons of many deveopng countres are cose to the subsstence margn and
essentay poweress, they tend to be the osers n ths system uness they are
aded by a government pocy that takes nto account the needs of a sectors of
the economy. Therefore, athough technca advances n food producton and
processng w perhaps be needed to ensure food avaabty, meetng food needs
w depend much more on equazng economc power among the varous
segments of the popuatons wthn the deveopng countres themseves.
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%
(A) A suggestion is made and arguments in its fa'or are pro'ided.
(B) A criticism is le'ied and an alternati'e proposal is suggested.
(C) A generali!ation is ad'anced and supporting e'idence is pro'ided.
252 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() An e$ample is analy!ed and general conclusions are deri'ed from it.
(#) A position is stated and e'idence "ualifying it is pro'ided.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author was unable to assess the truth
of which of the following statements about opa"ue(2 mai!e%
(A) 3t is a more recent inno'ation than the use of fish(protein concentrate.
(B) 3t can be stored as easily as other 'arieties of mai!e.
(C) 3t is more popular than the wheat(rye hybrid triticale.
() 3t produces tortillas of greater protein content than do other 'arieties of
mai!e.
(#) 3t is more susceptible to insects than are other 'arieties of mai!e.
.. The passage mentions all of the following as factors important to the success of a
new food crop #DC#@T the
(A) practicality of storage of the crop
(B) security of the crop yield
(C) "uality of the crop4s protein
() cultural acceptability of the crop
(#) costs of production of the crop
0. According to the passage/ the use of Antarctic krill as a food is an inno'ation
whose future is
(A) basically gloomy but still uncertain
(B) somewhat promising but 'ery tentati'e
(C) generally bright and 'irtually assured
() tied to the success of opa"ue(2 mai!e
(#) endangered by certain technical problems
1. The author suggests that/ in most de'eloping countries/ e$tensi'e go'ernment
inter'ention accompanying the introduction of a food inno'ation will
(A) usually be sufficient to guarantee the financial success of the inno'ation
(B) be necessary to ensure that the benefits of the inno'ation will be spread
throughout the society
(C) pro'ide the incenti'e necessary to con'ince landowners to try the inno'ation
() generally cost the country more than will be earned by the inno'ation
(#) normally occur only when the inno'ation fa'ors large landowners
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements concerning the solution to food shortages
in de'eloping countries%
(A) The introduction of technological inno'ations to reap profits might alle'iate
food shortages to some degree/ but any permanent solution can come only
GMAT 25-
from effecti'e go'ernmental inter'ention in the socioeconomic system.
(B) 3nno'ations in agricultural technology will be of little help/ and perhaps e'en
harmful/ in combating food shortages/ no matter how well designed they are
to suit local circumstances.
(C) Kong(lasting solutions will not be found until large landowners adopt
impro'ements that will make production more efficient and thus more
profitable.
() 3n order to achie'e a meaningful solution to the problem of food shortages/
the tastes of the general population must be educated to accept the new food
products of modern agricultural technology.
(#) Although a short(term solution to food shortages can be achie'ed by
importing food from other countries/ a long(term solution re"uires a
restructuring of the countries4 socioeconomic system.
-. The first paragraph of the passage best supports which of the following
statements%
(A) Too much publicity can harm the chances for the success of a new food
inno'ation.
(B) 3nno'ations that produce culturally acceptable crops will generally be
successful.
(C) A food(product inno'ation can be technically feasible and still not be
economically 'iable.
() 3t is difficult to decide whether a food(product inno'ation has actually been a
success.
(#) Triticale will not be a success as a food source for most de'eloping countries.
6. The author pro'ides a sustained argument to support which of the following
assertions%
(A) @rofitability is neither necessary nor sufficient for a new technology to be
adopted.
(B) @rofitability is the key factor guiding technological change.
(C) #conomic factors and go'ernmental policies strongly influence the ultimate
success of any inno'ation.
() 8pa"ue(2 mai!e is of limited benefit to poor families in de'eloping countries.
(#) 3nno'ations carrying high rewards for big agribusiness groups harm the poor.
,. The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss the
(A) means of assessing the e$tent of the world food shortage
(B) difficulties of applying technological solutions to the problem of food
shortages
(C) costs of introducing a new food technology into a de'eloping country
256 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() Anglo(American bias of those trying to alle'iate world food problems
(#) nature of the new technological inno'ations in the area of food production
Passage 78 (15/22)
In Roman tmes, defeated enemes were generay put to death as crmnas
for havng offended the emperor of Rome. In the Mdde Ages, however, the
practce of ransomng, or returnng prsoners n exchange for money, became
common. Though some saw ths custom as a step towards a more humane
socety, the prmary reasons behnd t were economc rather than humantaran.
In those tmes, ruers had ony a mted abty to rase taxes. They coud
nether force ther sub|ects to fght nor pay them to do so. The promse of matera
compensaton n the form of goods and ransom was therefore the ony way of
nducng combatants to partcpate n a war. In the Mdde Ages, the predomnant
ncentve for the ndvdua soder to partcpate n a war was the expectaton of
spos. Athough coectng ransom ceary brought fnanca gan, keepng a
prsoner and arrangng for hs exchange had ts costs. Consequenty, severa
procedures were devsed to reduce transacton costs.
One such devce was a rue assertng that the prsoner had to assess hs own
vaue. Ths compeed the prsoner to estabsh a vaue wthout much dstorton;
ndcatng too ow a vaue woud ncrease the captves chances of beng ked,
whe ndcatng too hgh a vaue woud ether run hm fnancay or create a
prohbtvey expensve ransom that woud aso resut n death.
A second means of reducng costs was the practce of reeasng a prsoner on
hs word of honor. Ths procedure was advantageous to both partes snce the
captor was reeved of the expense of keepng the prsoner whe the captve had
freedom of movement. The captor aso benefted fnancay by havng hs captve
rase the ransom hmsef. Ths "paroe" was a vabe practce snce the reeased
prsoner rsked recapture or retaaton aganst hs famy. Moreover, n medeva
socety, breakng ones word had serous consequences. When, for exampe, Kng
Francos I broke hs word to the Emperor Chares V n 1525, hs reputaton suffered
mmensey.
A thrd method of reducng costs was the use of specazed nsttutons to
estabsh contact between the two partes. Two types of nsttutons emerged:
professona deaers who acted as brokers, and members of regous orders who
acted as neutra ntermedares. Deaers advanced money for the ransom and
charged nterest on the oan. Two of the regous orders that became
ntermedares were the Mercedarans and the Trntarans, who between them
arranged the ransom of neary one mon prsoners.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the economic basis of the medie'al practice of e$changing prisoners
for ransom
GMAT 25,
(B) e$amine the history of the treatment of prisoners of war
(C) emphasi!e the importance of a warrior4s *word of honor+ during the ?iddle
Ages
() e$plore three ways of reducing the costs of ransom
(#) demonstrate why warriors of the ?iddle Ages looked forward to battles
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a medie'al soldier
(A) was less likely to kill captured members of opposing armies than was a
soldier of the =oman #mpire
(B) was similar to a 25th(century terrorist in that he operated on a basically
independent le'el and was moti'ated solely by economic incenti'es
(C) had few economic options and chose to fight because it was the only way to
earn an ade"uate li'ing
() was moti'ated to spare prisoners4 li'es by humanitarian rather than economic
ideals
(#) had no respect for his captured enemies since capti'es were typically regarded
as weak
.. &hich of the following best describes the change in policy from e$ecuting
prisoners in =oman times to ransoming prisoners in the ?iddle Ages%
(A) The emperors of =ome demanded more respect than did medie'al rulers and
thus =oman sub<ects went to greater lengths to defend their nation.
(B) 3t was a reflection of the lesser degree of direct control medie'al rulers had
o'er their sub<ects.
(C) 3t became a show of strength and honor for warriors of the ?iddle Ages to be
able to capture and return their enemies.
() ?edie'al soldiers were not as humanitarian as their ransoming practices
might ha'e indicated.
(#) ?edie'al soldiers demonstrated more concern about economic policy than did
their =oman counterparts.
0. The author uses the phrase *without much distortion+ (line 22) in order
(A) to indicate that prisoners would fairly assess their worth
(B) to emphasi!e the important role medie'al prisoners played in determining
whether they should be ransomed
(C) to e$plain how prisoners often paid more than an appropriate ransom in order
to increase their chances for sur'i'al
() suggest that captors and capti'es often had understanding relationships
(#) to show that when in prison a soldier4s 'iew could become distorted
1. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as actions that were taken to
ensure that ransoming prisoners was a profitable operation #DC#@T
215 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) each prisoner was made to designate the amount of ransom to be paid for his
return
(B) prisoners were released on the condition that they guaranteed that their
ransoms would be paid
(C) professional intermediaries were employed to facilitate the smooth e$change
of prisoner and ransom at a price to the prisoner
() religious orders acted as impartial mediators by arranging the trade(off of
ransom and prisoner
(#) medie'al rulers promised to aid soldiers in their efforts to collect ransom
2. 3n the author4s opinion/ a soldier4s decision to spare an ad'ersary4s life be linked
historically to
(A) the economic relationship of the warring states
(B) the case with which a soldier could capture and subse"uently imprison his
enemy
(C) the economic gain from taking an enemy prisoner rather than killing him in
combat
() technological ad'ances in weaponry
(#) the desire for soldiers to uphold their word of honor
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the process of arranging ransoms during
medie'al times was
(A) more lucrati'e for medie'al soldiers and kings than the winning of spoils
(B) a procedure so costly that it was not economically worthwhile for the captors
(C) futile for the capti'e since he risked recapture e'en after his ransom was paid
() a potential source of income for others aside from the captors of the prisoners
(#) handled only through ?ercedarian or Trinitarian intermediaries
6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) An assertion is made/ briefly e$plained/ and then se'eral e$amples that refute
the assertion are gi'en.
(B) A hypothesis is offered/ carefully "ualified/ and then supporting data is
analy!ed.
(C) A generally accepted historical 'iewpoint is presented in order to introduce
discussion of its strengths and limitations.
() A historical analysis is made of a phenomenon and supporting details are
offered.
(#) A historical dispute is introduced/ and the case for one side is e$amined in
detail.
Passage 79 (16/22)
GMAT 211
In most earthquakes the Earths crust cracks ke porcean. Stress buds up
unt a fracture forms at a depth of a few kometers and the crust sps to reeve
the stress. Some earthquakes, however, take pace hundreds of kometers down
n the Earths mante, where hgh pressure makes rock so ducte that t fows
nstead of crackng, even under stress severe enough to deform t ke putty. How
can there be earthquakes at such depths?
That such deep events do occur has been accepted ony snce 1927, when the
sesmoogst Kyoo Wadat convncngy demonstrated ther exstence. Instead of
comparng the arrva tmes of sesmc waves at dfferent ocatons, as earer
researchers had done. Wadat reed on a tme dfference between the arrva of
prmary (P) waves and the sower secondary (S) waves. Because P and S waves
trave at dfferent but fary constant speeds, the nterva between ther arrvas
ncreases n proporton to the dstance from the earthquake focus, or rupture
pont.
For most earthquakes, Wadat dscovered, the nterva was qute short near
the epcenter, the pont on the surface where shakng s strongest. For a few
events, however, the deay was ong even at the epcenter. Wadat saw a smar
pattern when he anayzed data on the ntensty of shakng. Most earthquakes had
a sma area of ntense shakng, whch weakened rapdy wth ncreasng dstance
from the epcenter, but others were characterzed by a ower peak ntensty, fet
over a broader area. Both the P-S ntervas and the ntensty patterns suggested
two knds of earthquakes: the more common shaow events, n whch the focus
ay |ust under the epcenter, and deep events, wth a focus severa hundred
kometers down.
The queston remaned: how can such quakes occur, gven that mante rock at
a depth of more than 50 kometers s too ducte to store enough stress to
fracture? Wadats work suggested that deep events occur n areas (now caed
Wadat-Benoff zones) where one crusta pate s forced under another and
descends nto the mante. The descendng rock s substantay cooer than the
surroundng mante and hence s ess ducte and much more abe to fracture.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) demonstrating why the methods of early seismologists were flawed
(B) arguing that deep e'ents are poorly understood and deser'e further study
(C) defending a re'olutionary theory about the causes of earth"uakes and
methods of predicting them
() discussing e'idence for the e$istence of deep e'ents and the conditions that
allow them to occur
(#) comparing the effects of shallow e'ents with those of deep e'ents
2. The author uses the comparisons to porcelain and putty (lines 2 and 6) in order to
(A) e$plain why the #arth4s mantle is under great pressure
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) distinguish the earth"uake4s epicenter from its focus
(C) demonstrate the conditions under which a &adati(Benioff !one forms
() e$plain why ; wa'es are slower than @ wa'es
(#) illustrate why the crust will fracture but the mantle will not
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the ; wa'es from an earth"uake arri'e
at a gi'en location long after the @ wa'es/ which of the following must be true%
(A) The earth"uake was a deep e'ent.
(B) The earth"uake was a shallow e'ent.
(C) The earth"uake focus was distant.
() The earth"uake focus was nearby.
(#) The earth"uake had a low peak intensity.
0. The method used by &adati to determine the depths of earth"uakes is most like
which of the following%
(A) etermining the depth of a well by dropping stones into the well and timing
how long they take to reach the bottom
(B) etermining the height of a mountain by measuring the shadow it casts at
different times of the day
(C) etermining the distance from a thunderstorm by timing the inter'al between
the flash of a lightning bolt and the thunder it produces
() etermining the distance between two points by counting the number of
paces it takes to co'er the distance and measuring a single pace
(#) etermining the speed at which a car is tra'eling by timing how long it takes
to tra'el a known distance
1. The passage supports which of the following statements about the relationship
between the epicenter and the focus of an earth"uake%
(A) @ wa'es originate at the focus and ; wa'es originate at the epicenter.
(B) 3n deep e'ents the epicenter and the focus are re'ersed.
(C) 3n shallow e'ents the epicenter and the focus coincide.
() 3n both deep and shallow e'ents the focus lies beneath the epicenter.
(#) The epicenter is in the crust/ whereas the focus is in the mantle.
2. The passage suggests that which of the following must take place in order for any
earth"uake to occur%
3. ;tress must build up.
33. Cool rock must descend into the mantle.
333. A fracture must occur.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
GMAT 21.
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. 3nformation presented in the passage suggests that/ compared with seismic
acti'ity at the epicenter of a shallow e'ent/ seismic acti'ity at the epicenter of a
deep e'ent is characteri!ed by
(A) shorter @(; inter'als and higher peak intensity
(B) shorter @(; inter'als and lower peak intensity
(C) longer @(; inter'als and similar peak intensity
() longer @(; inter'als and higher peak intensity
(#) longer @(; inter'als and lower peak intensity
6. The passage suggests which of the following about the 'iews held by researchers
before 1,2-%
(A) ;ome researchers did not belie'e that deep e'ents could actually occur.
(B) ?any researchers re<ected the use of @(; inter'als for determining the depths
of earth"uakes.
(C) ;ome researchers doubted that the mantle was too ductile to store the stress
needed for an earth"uake.
() ?ost researchers e$pected @ wa'es to be slower than ; wa'es.
(#) >ew researchers accepted the current model of how shallow e'ents occur.
,. The author4s e$planation of how deep e'ents occur would be most weakened if
which of the following were disco'ered to be true%
(A) eep e'ents are far less common than shallow e'ents.
(B) eep e'ents occur in places other than where crustal plates meet.
(C) ?antle rock is more ductile at a depth of se'eral hundred kilometers than it is
at 15 kilometers.
() The speeds of both @ and ; wa'es are slightly greater than pre'iously
thought.
(#) Below 215 kilometers earth"uakes cease to occur.
Passage 80 (17/22)
Most arge corporatons n the Unted States were once run by ndvdua
captasts who owned enough stock to domnate the board of drectors and
dctate company pocy. Because puttng such arge amounts of stock on the
market woud ony depress ts vaue, they coud not se out for a quck proft and
nstead had to concentrate on mprovng the ong-term productvty of ther
companes. Today, wth few exceptons, the stock of arge Unted States
corporatons s hed by arge nsttutons-penson funds, for exampe-and
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because these nsttutons are prohbted by anttrust aws from ownng a ma|orty
of a companys stock and from actvey nfuencng a companys decson-makng,
they can enhance ther weath ony by buyng and seng stock n antcpaton of
fuctuatons n ts vaue. A mnorty sharehoder s necessary a short term trader.
As a resut, Unted States productvty s unkey to mprove uness sharehoders
and the managers of the companes n whch they nvest are encouraged to
enhance ong-term productvty (and hence ong-term proftabty), rather than
smpy to maxmze short-term profts.
Snce the return of the od-stye captast s unkey, todays short-term
traders must be remade nto tomorrows ong-term captastc nvestors. The ega
mts that now prevent fnanca nsttutons from acqurng a domnant
sharehodng poston n a corporaton shoud be removed, and such nsttutons
encouraged to take a more actve roe n the operatons of the companes n whch
they nvest. In addton, any nsttuton that hods twenty percent or more of a
companys stock shoud be forced to gve the pubc one days notce of the ntent
to se those shares. Uness the announced sae coud be expaned to the pubc
on grounds other than antcpated future osses, the vaue of the stock woud
pummet and, ke the od-tme captasts, ma|or nvestors coud cut ther osses
ony by hepng to restore ther companes productvty. Such measures woud
force fnanca nsttutons to become captasts whose success depends not on
tradng shares at the proptous moment, but on ncreasng the productvty of the
companes n whch they nvest.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which of the
following%
(A) Comparing two different approaches to a problem
(B) escribing a problem and proposing a solution
(C) efending an established method
() @resenting data and drawing conclusions from the data
(#) Comparing two different analyses of a current situation
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of ma<ority
shareholders in a corporation%
(A) They make the corporation4s operational management decisions.
(B) They are not allowed to own more than fifty percent of the corporation4s
stock.
(C) They cannot make "uick profits by selling their stock in the corporation.
() They are more interested in profits than in producti'ity.
(#) They cannot sell any of their stock in the corporation without gi'ing the
public ad'ance notice.
.. According to the passage/ the purpose of the re"uirement suggested in lines .5(..
would be which of the following%
GMAT 211
(A) To encourage institutional stockholders to sell stock that they belie'e will
decrease in 'alue
(B) To discourage institutional stockholders from inter'ening in the operation of a
company whose stock they own
(C) To discourage short(term profit(taking by institutional stockholders
() To encourage a company4s employees to take an acti'e role in the ownership
of stock in the company
(#) To encourage in'estors to di'ersify their stock holdings
0. &hich of the following best e$plains the author4s statement that *A minority
shareholder is necessarily a short(term trader+ (lines 11(12)%
(A) The only way a minority shareholder can make money from stocks is to buy
and sell stocks as prices fluctuate o'er short periods of time.
(B) 8nly a shareholder who owns a ma<ority of a company4s stock can influence
the trading price of the stock o'er a long period of time.
(C) A minority shareholder is prohibited by law from buying stock and holding it
for long(term profits.
() Karge institutions like pension funds cannot legally own a ma<ority of any
corporation4s stock.
(#) A minority shareholder rarely takes an interest in the decisions of a
corporation4s board of directors.
1. The author suggests that which of the following is a true statement about people
who typify the *old style capitalist+ referred to in line 2.%
(A) They now rely on outdated management techni"ues.
(B) They seldom engaged in short(term trading of the stock they owned.
(C) They did not influence the in'estment policies of the corporations in which
they in'ested.
() They now play a much smaller role in the stock market as a result of antitrust
legislation.
(#) They were primarily concerned with ma$imi!ing the short(term profitability
of the corporations in which they owned stock.
Passage 81 (18/22)
For over 300 years, one of the most endurng beefs among hstorans of
Engand has been that the character of Engsh socety has been shaped by the
unque openness of ts rung ete to entry by sef-made entrepreneurs (especay
newy weathy merchants) abe to buy ther way nto the ranks of ete socety.
Ths upward mobty, hstorans have argued, aowed Engand to escape the cash
between those wth soca/potca power and those wth economc power, a
confct that beset the rest of Europe durng the eghteenth and nneteenth
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centures. Upward mobty was aso used to expan Engands exceptona
stabty snce the ate seventeenth century (no revoutons, for exampe), as we
as such ma|or events as the deveopment of the most effcent agrcutura system
n Europe, the makng of the frst ndustra revouton, and the onset of severe
economc decne.
But s the thess true? Recent work on the supposed consequences of an open
ete has aready produced some doubts. Ltte credence, for exampe, s now
accorded the dea that Engands ate nneteenth-century economc decne
resuted from absentee busness owners too dstracted by the demands of ete
fe to manage ther frms propery. But, athough the mportance of an open ete
to other ma|or events has been severey questoned, t s ony wth a new work by
Lawrence and |eanne Stone that the openness tsef has been confronted.
Eschewng the tack of tracng the careers of successfu entrepreneurs to gauge
the openness of the ete, the Stones chose the aternatve approach of anayzng
the ete tsef, and proceeded va the ngenous route of nvestgatng country-
house ownershp.
Argung that ownershp of a country house was seen as essenta for
membershp n the rung ete, the Stones anayze the nature of country-house
ownershp n three countes for the perod 1540-1880. Ther crtca fndngs are
provocatve: there was strkngy tte change n the ownershp of such houses
throughout the perod. Instead, even n the face of a demographc crss (fewer
marrages, decnng fertty, rsng nfant mortaty), the od ete was abe to
mantan tsef, and ts estates, ntact for centures through recourse to varous
marrage and nhertance strateges. The popuar pcture of venerabe ete
fames overcome by debt and seng out to merchants s smpy not borne out by
the Stones fndngs. Rather, the opportuntes for entrepreneurs to buy ther way
nto the ete, the Stones show, were extremey mted. If further studes of
country-house ownershp attest to the representatveness and accuracy of ther
data, then the Stones concuson that the open ete thess cannot be mantaned
may, ndeed, prove true.
1. According to the passage/ one of the traditional e$planations of #ngland4s late
nineteenth(century economic decline has been that it resulted from the
(A) tendency of the ruling elite to pursue conser'ati'e rather than inno'ati'e
economic policies
(B) failure of business entrepreneurs to reduce the power of the ruling elite in
#nglish society
(C) in'estment of large amounts of capital in the purchase and maintenance of
country houses
() tendency of business owners to attempt to retain control of their firms within
their families
(#) failure of leading business entrepreneurs to pay close attention to their firms
GMAT 21-
2. The author suggests that which of the following was true of most #uropean elites
during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries%
(A) The ranks of these elites were generally closed to most business
entrepreneurs.
(B) The elites generally dominated industrial de'elopment.
(C) ;tatus within these elites was generally determined by the amount of land
owned.
() These elites generally were able to maintain their power unchallenged.
(#) The power of these elites generally forestalled the de'elopment of a large
class of self(made entrepreneurs.
.. Traditional historians of #ngland/ as they are described in the passage/ would be
most likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding open
elites%
(A) They de'elop more easily in agricultural rather than industrial societies.
(B) They de'elop in response to particular sets of economic conditions.
(C) They tend to unite some of the powerful groups in a society.
() They tend to reduce class distinctions based on income in a society.
(#) They tend to insure ade"uate distribution of material goods in a society.
0. The tone of the passage suggests that the author regards the ;tones4
methodological approach as
(A) problematic
(B) difficult
(C) contro'ersial
() rigorous
(#) cle'er
1. &hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) Assumptions about the nature of #ngland4s ruling elite can no longer be used
with certitude to e$plain many ma<or economic de'elopments.
(B) The concept of the open elite is of paramount importance in e$plaining ma<or
#nglish political/ social/ and economic e'ents.
(C) The long(standing belief that #ngland possessed a remarkably open ruling
elite has recently been sub<ected to important and potentially lethal criticism.
() Although many possibilities are a'ailable/ the most reliable means of testing
the truth of the Fopen elite4 hypothesis is to analy!e changes in the
composition of the elite.
(#) An analysis of #nglish country(house ownership in #ngland indicates that
there were few opportunities for merchants to buy the estates of old
members of the landed elite.
216 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2. &hich of the following can be inferred from the ;tones4 findings about #nglish
country(house ownership in the three counties during the period 1105(1665%
(A) Kittle change in the number or si!e of #nglish country houses occurred during
this period.
(B) &ealthy business owners constituted a growing percentage of #nglish
country(house owners during this period.
(C) ?ost of the families that owned country houses at the beginning of this period
continued to own them at the end.
() The most significant changes in #nglish country(house ownership occurred
during the second half of this period.
(#) ;elf(made entrepreneurs were able to enter the ranks of the #nglish country(
house owners during this period only through marriage.
-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) resol'e a debate between two schools of thought.
(B) @resent research that "uestions an established 'iew.
(C) escribe and critici!e a new approach.
() efend a traditional interpretation against recent criticisms.
(#) Analy!e possible approaches to resol'ing a long(standing contro'ersy.
6. The ;tones suggest that ma<or problems facing the #nglish elite during the period
1105(1665 included which of the following%
3. A reduction in the number of their offspring
33. An increase in the amount of their indebtedness
333. A decline in their political and social power
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
,. The author suggests that the ;tones4 conclusions about the openness of the
#nglish elite would be strengthened by future studies that
(A) pay more attention to other recent historical works
(B) include more data on factors other than country(house ownership
(C) concentrate more on the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
() e$pand the area of research to include more counties
(#) focus more on successful business entrepreneurs
Passage 82 (19/22)
GMAT 21,
Comparabe worth s a concept that re|ects the premse of a separate and
ower wage herarchy for |obs that are done prmary by women, argung nstead
that earnngs shoud refect ony the worth of the work performed. Ths worth
shoud be determned by an evauaton system that rates |obs accordng to ther
soca mportance and sk requrements. Because comparabe worth does not
attack a forms of nequaty, t can have ony a modest drect effect on the
overa degree of nequaty n socety, but n attackng gender nequaty n the |ob
cassfcaton system t attacks a ma|or component of gender nequaty n the
Unted States. The kehood that other forms of nequaty w become more
manfest wth the essenng of gender nequaty s not a vad argument aganst
comparabe worth. Indeed, strugges for comparabe worth may hep aunch
campagns aganst smar forms of nequty. St, whe conservatves have batted
hard aganst comparabe worth, radcas have been reuctant to fght for t
because they see the narrow presentatons n comparabe worth tgaton as the
mts of the concept. But n addton to hepng redress partcuar nequtes,
comparabe worth coud open a dscusson of the entre wage system. Its
theoretca and potca mpact w reach far beyond the framework n whch t
was conceved and force a rethnkng of assumptons underyng current
empoyment practces and the market tsef.
How comparabe worth w affect the herarchy of wages s more dffcut to
foresee. It does not drecty chaenge the concept of a herarchy; n fact, ts
nsstence that |obs must be evauated mpes a herarchy. However, ts re|ecton
of the market as an adequate bass for determnng wages ntates a dscusson of
how vaue shoud be assgned to |obs. Advocates of comparabe worth have
chaenged prevang standards of evauaton, whch them from forma |ob
ovaons frst deveoped n ndustra settngs. These evauatons, based on ponts
awarded for dfferent |ob tasks, gave consderabe emphass to such actvtes as
strenuous ftng and the operaton of expensve equpment. Consequenty, the
sks and knowedge more typca of work done by women are ess heavy
emphaszed. The `Dctonary of Occupatona Ttes reveas numerous current
nstances of such mbaance n |ob ratngs.
Whe comparabe-worth advocates accept the prncpe of a herarchy of
wages, argung ony that they seek more ob|ectve measures of |ob worth, the
ssues they rase provoke a broader debate. Ths debate does not, as the
opponents have camed, concern the feasbty of settng up and appyng
evauatve standards. Empoyers have done that for centures. Rather, the debate
s about the soca vaues and prortes underyng the wage herarchy and,
utmatey, the market where age-od conventons and potca, as opposed to
purey economc, forces enter the process of settng wages.
1. &hich of the following summari!es a main point of the passage%
(A) The history of comparable worth closely parallels the history of changes in
the structure of the economic system.
225 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) The ultimate success of comparable worth depends on a public discussion of
the historical conditions that led to its formulation.
(C) Comparable worth has social implications that e$tend beyond specific
ad<ustments to the wage hierarchies for men and women.
() Comparable worth is gaining adherents e'en though it has traditionally met
with organi!ed opposition.
(#) Comparable worth has been instrumental in affording women access to <obs
that had been held largely by men.
2. 3t can be inferred that the phrase a separate and lower wage hierarchy for <obs that
are done primarily by women/ as used in lines 2(. of the passage/ most nearly
means which of the following%
(A) That there is a greater range of salaries for men than for women
(B) That women typically recei'e less money than men do for doing <obs of
appro$imately the same 'alue
(C) That there are fewer wage(earning women than men in the work force
() That men ha'e traditionally been more likely than women to recei'e
ad'ancement on the basis of seniority
(#) That men and women typically do not compete for the same <obs
.. 3n the first paragraph of the passage/ the author describes the potential role and
function of comparable worth in language that most often suggests
(A) artistic endea'ors
(B) business transactions
(C) criminal in'estigations
() military operations
(#) scientific e$periments
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ad'ocates of comparable worth belie'e
which of the following%
(A) A gi'en kind of work has a particular inherent 'alue to the employer or to
society.
(B) The market is more influenced by political and social forces now than it was
in the past.
(C) Bender ine"uality in the :nited ;tates is primarily a product of the current
economic system.
() Conser'ati'es and radicals ha'e the same reasons for not supporting
comparable worth.
(#) Those who de'ised <ob(e'aluation standards were more interested in
economic than political issues.
1. As used by the author in line 2 of the last paragraph/ *more ob<ecti'e+ most
GMAT 221
nearly means
(A) more "uantifiable
(B) more seminal
(C) less categorical
() less <ob(specific
(#) less se$(biased
2. &hich of the following best represents the sort of "uestion at issue in the
*broader debate+ referred to in line 06 abo'e%
(A) &hat political factors ha'e affected the relationship between wages and <ob(
e'aluation ratings%
(B) &hat gains ha'e been achie'ed in the struggle for comparable(worth
legislation%
(C) &ill a new standard for <ob e'aluation be any more workable than the current
one%
() )ow will the balance of supply and demand be affected by comparable
worth%
(#) )ow soon is it reasonable to e$pect the passage of stronger comparable(worth
legislation%
-. According to the passage/ which of the following is the most likely application of
the notion of comparable worth%
(A) The detailed e$planation of the 'arious forces that guide the market
(B) The formulation of attitudes about the role of supply and demand in setting
wages
(C) The establishment of a political coalition in the struggle against ine"uity
() The integration of the industrial work force into the <ob market for a ser'ice
and technology economy
(#) The reassessment of <ob characteristics as a means for determining <ust
compensation
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that radicals ha'e not supported comparable
worth because they 'iew it as being
(A) unrelated to historic de'elopments that ha'e molded the current economic
system
(B) an integral part of the same system that has institutionali!ed 'arious forms of
ine"uity
(C) likely to undermine the unity of a reform mo'e(men by polari!ing the
different interest groups
() too limited and restricted in its uses to promote fundamental changes in the
system
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(#) inherently flawed in that it has gi'en rise to the concept of a wage hierarchy
,. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to
(A) critici!e inconsistent e$periments
(B) suggest a new direction for research
(C) describe an intriguing geophysical phenomenon
() present e'idence supporting a theory
(#) e'aluate data relating to lunar geology
Passage 83 (20/22)
Hstorans have ong thought that Amerca was, from the begnnng,
profoundy nfuenced by the Lockean noton of berty, wth ts strong emphass on
ndvdua rghts and sef-nterest. Yet n hs recent book, hstoran |. G. A. Pocock
argues that eary Amercan cuture was actuay rooted n the wrtngs of
Machave, not Locke. The mpcatons of ths substtuton are mportant: f
Pococks argument s rght, then Amercans may not be as deepy ndvduastc
and captastc as many beeve.
Pocock argues that out of the wrtngs of antquty Machave created a body
of potca thnkng caed "cassca repubcansm." Ths body of thought revved
the ancent beef that a human beng was by nature a ctzen who acheved mora
fufment by partcpatng n a sef-governng repubc. Lberty was nterpreted as
a condton that s reazed when peope are vrtuous and are wng to sacrfce
ther ndvdua nterests for the sake of the communty. To be competey vrtuous,
peope had to be ndependent and free of the petty nterests of the marketpace.
The greatest enemy of vrtue was commerce. Ths cassca repubcan tradton s
sad by Pocock to have shaped the deoogy of Amerca durng the eghteenth
century.
Many events n eary Amercan hstory can be renterpreted n ght of Pococks
anayss. |efferson s no onger seen as a progressve reader of Locke eadng
Amerca nto ts ndvduastc future; nstead |efferson s understood as a fgure
obsessed wth vrtue and corrupton and fearfu of new commerca deveopments.
Infuenced by Pocock, some hstorans have even argued that a communtaran
and precaptast mentaty was pervasve among the eghteenth-century farmers
of Amerca.
Yet Pococks thess and the renterpretaton of the hstory of eghteenth-
century Amerca engendered by t are of dubous vadty. If Amercans dd beeve
n the deas of cassca vrtue that stressed cvc duty and made the whoe
communty greater than ts dscrete parts, then why dd the coonsts ack a sense
of obgaton to support the greater good of the Brtsh Empre? If ndeed Amerca
has not aways been the socety of ndvdua rghts and sef-nterest that t s
today, how and when dd t be come so? Cassca repubcansm s etst, and t
certany had tte to offer the mportant new soca groups of artsans and
GMAT 22.
shopkeepers that emerged n Amerca durng the eghteenth century. These
mdde-cass radcas, for whom |ohn Wkes and Thomas Pane were spokesmen,
had none of the ndependence from the market that the anded gentry had. They
were ess concerned wth vrtue and communty than they were wth equaty and
prvate rghts. They hated potca prvege and wanted freedom from an ete-
domnated state. In short, the Unted States was created not n a mood of cassca
anxety over vrtue and corrupton, but n a mood of bera optmsm over
ndvdua profts and prosperty.
1. &hich of the following best states the author4s main point%
(A) Classical republicanism could not ha'e been the ideological basis of
eighteenth(century America.
(B) Classical republicanism is an elitist theory that was re<ected by eighteenth(
century artisans and shopkeepers.
(C) @ocock understates the importance of the contributions ?achia'elli made to
the formation of early American culture.
() @ocock fails to capture the great e$tent to which eighteenth(century
Americans were committed to a sense of ci'ic duty.
(#) @ocock4s account of Aefferson is incompatible with Aefferson4s commitment to
a Kockean notion of liberty.
2. The conception of liberty that/ according to @ocock/ formed the basis of
America4s eighteenth(century ideology is most clearly e$hibited by which of the
following indi'iduals%
(A) The merchant who rebuilds the damaged sidewalk in front of his store in
order to a'oid potential lawsuits by customers who might fall there
(B) The professor who allows her students to help her design the content and the
format of the courses she teaches
(C) The doctor who bows to go'ernment pressure and agrees to treat a small
number of low(income patients at no cost
() The lawyer who argues that a state law prohibiting smoking in public places
unfairly encroaches on the rights of smokers
(#) The engineer whose business suffers as a result of the personal time and
energy he de'otes to a program to clean up city streets
.. According to the author/ eighteenth(century American artisans and shopkeepers
had little reason to
(A) support the political efforts of Thomas Aefferson
(B) re<ect the ideals of classical 'irtue
(C) embrace the principles of classical republicanism
() renounce the political ob<ecti'es of the British #mpire
(#) worry about increasing profits and maintaining general prosperity
220 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
0. The author mentions which of the following as a fact that weakens @ocock4s
argument about the ideology of eighteenth(century America%
(A) Aefferson4s obsession with 'irtue and corruption and his fear of commercial
de'elopment
(B) The precapitalist mentality that was per'asi'e among farmers in early
America
(C) The political decline of artisans and shopkeepers in eighteenth(century
America
() The colonists4 lack of commitment to support the general welfare of the
British #mpire
(#) The e$istence of political pri'ilege in early American society
1. The passage suggests that/ if classical republicanism had been the ideology of
eighteenth(century America/ which of the following would ha'e resulted%
(A) @eople would ha'e been moti'ated to open small businesses and e$pand
commercial acti'ity.
(B) Citi!ens and politicians would not ha'e been encouraged to agitate for
increased indi'idual rights.
(C) @eople would ha'e been con'inced that by pursuing their own interests they
were contributing to the good of the group.
() The political and social pri'ileges en<oyed by the landed gentry would ha'e
been destroyed.
(#) A mood of optimism among people o'er indi'idual profits and prosperity
would ha'e been created.
2. The author implies that @ocock4s argument about the ideology of eighteenth(
century America would be more plausible if the argument e$plained which of the
following%
(A) )ow a society that was once committed to the ideals of classical 'irtue could
be transformed into a society of indi'idual rights and self(interest
(B) )ow Thomas Aefferson could ha'e become obsessed with indi'idual rights
and with prosperity and profits
(C) &hy classical republicanism had such wide appeal among those who were
free from the demands of the marketplace
() &hy many colonists who embraced classical republicanism were reluctant to
place their indi'idual interests abo'e those of Breat Britain
(#) &hy the landed gentry in eighteenth(century America should ha'e belie'ed
that moral fulfillment is achie'ed by participating in a self(go'erning
republic
-. According to the passage/ @ocock4s theory suggests that many eighteenth(century
Americans belie'ed that increasing commercial acti'ity would
GMAT 221
(A) force the landed gentry to relin"uish their 'ast holdings
(B) enrich the nation and increase indi'idual rights
(C) cause some people to forfeit their liberty and 'irtue
() create a mood of optimism about national prosperity
(#) strengthen the political appeal of middle(class radicals
6. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) refuting a proposed thesis about eighteenth(century America
(B) analy!ing a long(established interpretation of American history
(C) critici!ing a set of deeply held beliefs about early American ideology
() reconciling opposing interpretations of eighteenth(century American ideology
(#) defending a no'el reading of the ideology of eighteenth(century America
Passage 84 (21/22)
Astrophyscsts wrestng wth the study of a new knd of star, the fat, "two-
dmensona" confguratons known as accreton dsks have recenty ganed new
nsghts nto the behavor of these stars. Accreton dsks exst n a varety of
stuatons where matters swr around a compact star such as a whte dwarf star
or a neutron star. Accreton dsks are aso suspected of payng a part n more
exotc stuatons, n whch the centra ob|ect s magned to be a supermassve
back hoe, the utmate form of coapsed matter, rather than a compact star. The
modeng of accreton dsks s st n ts nfancy, a stuaton anaogous to the days
when ordnary stars were modeed by usng eementary scang aws wthout
beneft of knowedge of the nucear processes that power the stars. Smary, the
basc physcs of the power by whch accreton dsks radate, thought to orgnate
n a form of turbuent frcton, s known ony at the crudest eve.
Accreton dsks were frst defned n the context of Catacysmc varabes. In
these systems, matter from the outer ayers of an ordnary star s attracted by the
gravtatona nfuence of a nearby orbtng whte dwarf star, the matter ost from
the ordnary star cannot strke the surface of the tny whte dwarf drecty but
settes nto an orbt around the star. The vscosty n the dsk thus formed causes
heatng, radaton, and a sow sprang of dsk matter onto the surface of the
whte dwarf.
The rapd advances made n x-ray astronomy n the past decade have
dentfed a second type of system n whch accreton dsks occur. In such a
system, an accreton dsk whrs about a neutron star rather than a whte dwarf.
The nner reaches of the accreton dsk extend deepy nto the gravtatona
potenta of the neutron star where very rapd moton s the rue. The energy
reeased by frcton and the actua ranng of the matera from the dsk onto the
surface of the neutron star s so great that radaton s gven off n a powerfu food
of x-rays. And n at east one case, x-ray astronomers beeve that the ob|ect n
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the center of an accreton dsk s a back hoe, suggestng that a thrd system may
exst.
It had been assumed that portons of accreton dsks woud be unstabe and
that, as a resut, cumpng of ther matter nto rngs woud occur. There s no
evdence from observaton, however, that accreton dsks do, n fact, suffer from
these nstabtes. In recent work, Abramowcz has shown that added gravtatona
effects due to genera reatvty may ater the expected Newtonan gravtatona
reatonshps n such a way that the dsk remans stabe, ndcatng that t s
possbe that these predcted nstabtes do not occur.
Further progress toward understandng accreton dsks w nvove defnng
and proposng soutons to restrcted probems |ust as was done n ths case and
was done and contnues to be done for ordnary stars. Abramowcz work s a
vauabe exampe of the care that must be taken before reachng concusons
regardng accreton dsks.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) comparing Abramowic!4 work to the work of earlier astrophysicists
(B) pro'iding information about accretion disks and discussing significant new
work
(C) defining the conditions under which accretion disks can be obser'ed
() e$ploring the "uestion of whether a black hole can e'er be the central ob<ect
of an accretion disk
(#) describing the phenomenon of accretion disks and re'iewing se'eral
conflicting theories of their origins
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that predictions of the instability of accretion
disks were based on which of the following%
(A) A calculation of the probable effects of standard 9ewtonian gra'itational
relationships
(B) A calculation of the probable relationship between general relati'ity and
standard 9ewtonian gra'itational relationships
(C) A calculation of the energy released by friction within a compact star
() 8bser'ation of the $(rays radiated by compact stars
(#) 8bser'ation of the clumping of accretion disk matter into rings around
compact stars
.. The author4s attitude toward Abramowic!4 work can best be described as one of
(A) uncertain appro'al
(B) un"ualified respect
(C) mild interest
() careful dismissal
(#) hostile skepticism
GMAT 22-
0. The passage suggests which of the following about current scientific knowledge
of the nuclear processes of ordinary stars%
(A) 3ts pattern of de'elopment has been analogous to that of de'elopments in $(
ray astronomy.
(B) 3ts role in the e$planation of turbulent friction has been significant.
(C) 3t has contributed to a more accurate modeling of ordinary stars.
() 3t lags behind knowledge of scaling laws.
(#) 3t e$plains the beha'ior of accretion disks as well as that of ordinary stars.
1. The passage suggests that Abramowic!4 work was moti'ated by which of the
following assumptions%
(A) The "uantity of energy released by accretion disks can be as large as it is only
if the disks are stable.
(B) 3mpro'ed techni"ues in $(ray astronomy would re'eal any instabilities
occurring in accretion disks.
(C) The lack of obser'ational e'idence of instabilities in accretion disks suggests
that predictions of their occurrence might be wrong.
() Mnown methods of obser'ing accretion disk surrounding compact stars and
black holes do not permit the obser'ation of the matter in accretion disks.
(#) The gra'itational potential of compact stars does not 'ary from star to star.
2. The passage implies which of the following about the progress of knowledge in
astrophysics%
(A) Adherence to outdated theories has/ in the past/ limited the acti'ities of
astrophysicists and restricted progress.
(B) @rogress has/ in the past/ occurred only as a result of significant
breakthroughs in basic physics and chemistry.
(C) @rogress has/ in the past/ occurred as a result of a process of defining and
sol'ing restricted problems.
() Bi'en the recent ac"uisition of knowledge about the nuclear processes of
stars/ further progress is likely to be limited to the refinement of what is
already known.
(#) Conclusions in astrophysics ha'e/ in the past/ been seriously flawed/ thus
limiting progress/ although there ha'e recently been signs of change.
-. The passage suggests that/ compared to the study of ordinary stars/ the study of
accretion disks is
(A) deri'ati'e
(B) more sophisticated
(C) less clearly focused
() at an earlier stage of de'elopment
226 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) more dependent on technological ad'ances
6. According to the passage/ some accretion disks originated in
(A) an increase in heat and radiation around an ordinary star
(B) a powerful flood of $(rays emitted by a neutron star
(C) a collision between two stars
() the turbulent friction on the surface of a compact star
(#) the accumulation of matter remo'ed from an ordinary star
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the significance of Abramowic!4 work is
that it
(A) pro'ides a means of measuring the gra'itational potential of neutron stars
(B) opens a new area for e$ploration in the field of $(ray astronomy
(C) pro'es that scaling laws cannot be applied to accretion disks
() proposes a new system of classification of stars
(#) suggests a resolution of a discrepancy between a theoretical prediction and
actual obser'ation
Passage 85 (22/22)
It s an unfortunate fact that most North Amercans know tte about Amercan
Indan cuture and hstory. Schoars have studed such matters, but they have not
succeeded n broadcastng ther concusons wdey. Thus, t s st not wdey
known that Amercan Indans have epcs, that they performed pays ong before
Europeans arrved, and that they practced potcs and carred on trade.
One way to gan a fuer apprecaton of ths rch cuture s to examne
Amercan Indan poetry, for poetry s n a cutures the most centra and artcuate
of the arts. It s especay mportant that we study Amercan Indan poetry as ths
poetry can create a context that gves cohesve expresson to the crafts, the
artfacts, and the soated facts that many Amercans have managed to notce
wy-ny. Even a survey of Amercan Indan poetry reveas a range of poetc
thought and technque that defes easy generazaton. |arod Ramsey hazards a
summary, however, whch serves at east to gve the unntated reader some
sense of what Amercan Indan poetry s ke. Overa, he wrtes, t represents "an
ora, formuac, tradtona, and anonymous art form," whose approach s to
emphasze the "mythc and sacred" components of reaty. It "fourshed through
pubc performances... by sked rectasts whose audences aready knew the
ndvdua stores" and vaued the performers for ther "abty to expot ther
matera dramatcay and to combne them ther stores n onger cyces"
rather than for ther "pot nventon." Because ths poetry beongs to hghy
ethnocentrc trba peopes, whose cutures "we st do not know much about," t
"s key to seem a the more terse, even cryptc."
GMAT 22,
Amercan Indan poetry has another feature that Ramsey gnores: t s aways
functona. Whether sung, chanted, or rected; whether performed ceremonay,
as entertanment, or as part of a task such as curng a patent or grndng corn; or
whether rected ndvduay or by a group, t s aways fuy woven nto the fabrc
of ordnary fe.
For compcated reasons, Amercan Indan poetry has bascay been gnored
by non-Indan cutures. Kenneth Lncon wrtes that faure to hear Amercan Indan
voces resuts "party...from the tragedes of trba dsocaton, party from
mstransaton, party from msconceptons about terature, party from cutura
ndfference." Bran Swann suggests an addtona expanaton: trba poetry s
ora, whereas Europeans arrved n the New Word wth a deepy ngraned beef n
the prmacy of the wrtten word. As a resut, European settes found t hard to
magne that poetry coud exst wthout wrtten texts and thus that the Amercan
Indans had acheved somethng parae to what Europeans caed terature ong
before Europeans arrved. As a consequence, Europeans dd not fuy respond to
the rch vtaty of Amercan Indan poetry.
1. According to the passage/ American 3ndian cultures ha'e produced all of the
following forms of artistic e$pression #DC#@T
(A) crafts
(B) dramas
(C) songs
() written poems
(#) oral epics
2. According to Aarold =amsey/ American 3ndian poetry is an art form characteri!ed
by its
(A) unusual depictions of landscapes
(B) integration with e'eryday affairs
(C) uni'ersal accessibility
() highly original plots
(#) adaptability to public performance
.. According to Menneth Kincoln/ one of the reasons that non(3ndians ha'e had little
knowledge of American 3ndian poetry is that American 3ndian poems
(A) ha'e been poorly translated
(B) ha'e not yet attracted the scholarly attention they deser'e
(C) can be appreciated only when presented orally
() are difficult to understand without a background in comparati'e mythology
(#) are too stylistically comple$
0. According to the passage/ it would be unusual for American 3ndian poetry to be
2.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) attributed to specific authors
(B) sung by a group of performers
(C) chanted while working
() sung during a sacred ceremony
(#) performed in a dramatic manner
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Brian ;wann belie'es which of the
following about the #uropean settlers of America%
(A) They probably were more literate/ on the a'erage/ than the general #uropean
population they left behind.
(B) They probably thought it necessary to understand American 3ndian politics
before studying American 3ndian literature.
(C) They probably did not recogni!e e'idence of an oral poetic tradition in the
American 3ndian cultures they encountered.
() They probably could not appreciate American 3ndian poetry because it was
composed in long narrati'e cycles.
(#) They probably did not study American 3ndian poetry because its sub<ect
matter was too practically oriented.
2. The tone of lines 12(12 suggests that the author belie'es that most Americans4
knowledge of American 3ndian culture can best be characteri!ed as
(A) spotty and contradictory
(B) stereotyped and limited
(C) confused and inaccurate
() unsystematic and superficial
(#) 'ague and biased
-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of
the passage%
(A) An obser'ation is made and "ualifications of it are pro'ided.
(B) A phenomenon is noted and e$planations for it are presented.
(C) A hypothesis is presented and arguments against it are cited.
() A prognosis is made and e'idence supporting it is discussed.
(#) A criticism is presented and information e$panding it is pro'ided.
GMAT 15Passages
Passage 86 (1/15)
Eary modes of the geography of the metropos were unceuar: that s, they
assumed that the entre urban dstrct woud normay be domnated by a snge
centra dstrct, around whch the varous economc functons of the communty
GMAT 2.1
woud be focused. Ths centra busness dstrct (CBD) s the source of so-caed
hgh-order goods and servces, whch can most effcenty be provded from a
centra ocaton rather than from numerous wdey dspersed ocatons. Thus,
retaers of nfrequenty and rreguary purchased goods, such as fur coats,
|ewery, and antque furnture, and specazed servce outets, such as theaters,
advertsng agences, aw frms, and government agences, w generay be found
n the CBD. By contrast, ess costy, more frequenty demanded goods, such as
groceres and housewares, and ow-order servces, such as shoe repar and
hardressng, w be avaabe at many sma, wdey scattered outets throughout
the metropos.
Both the concentrc-rng mode of the metropos, frst deveoped n Chcago n
the ate nneteenth century, and the sector mode, cosey assocated wth the
work of Homer Hoyt n the 1930s, make the CBD the foca pont of the metropos.
The concentrc-rng mode assumes that the varyng degrees of need for
accessbty to the CBD of varous knds of economc enttes w be the man
determnant of ther ocaton. Thus, whoesae and manufacturng frms, whch
need easy accessbty to the specazed ega, fnanca, and governmenta
servces provded n the CBD, w normay be ocated |ust outsde the CBD tsef.
Resdenta areas w occupy the outer rngs of the mode, wth ow-ncome groups
resdng n the reatvey crowded oder housng cose to the busness zone and
hgh-ncome groups occupyng the outermost rng, n the more spacous, newer
resdenta areas but up through urban expanson.
Homer Hoyts sector mode s a modfed verson of the concentrc-rng mode.
Recognzng the nfuence of eary estabshed patterns of geographc dstrbuton
on the ater growth of the cty, Hoyt deveoped the concept of directional inertia.
Accordng to Hoyt, custom and soca pressures tend to perpetuate ocatona
patterns wthn the cty. Thus, f a partcuar part of the cty (say, the east sde)
becomes a common resdenta area for hgher-ncome fames, perhaps because
of a partcuar topographca advantage such as a ake or other desrabe feature,
future expanson of the hgh-ncome segment of the popuaton s key to proceed
n the same drecton. In our exampe, as the metropos expands, a wedge-
shaped sector woud deveop on the east sde of the cty n whch the hgher-
ncome resdence woud be custered. Lower-ncome resdences, aong wth
manufacturng factes, woud be confned, therefore, to the western margns of
the CBD.
Athough Hoyts mode undoubtedy represented an advance n sophstcaton
over the smper concentrc-rng mode, nether mode fuy accounts for the
ncreasng mportance of foca ponts other than the tradtona CBD. Recent years
have wtnessed he estabshment around oder ctes of secondary nuce centered
on suburban busness dstrcts. In other cases, partcuar knds of goods, servces,
and manufacturng factes have custered n specazed centers away from the
CBD, encouragng the deveopment of partcuar housng patterns n the ad|acent
areas. A new mutceuar mode of metropotan geography s needed to express
2.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
these and other emergng trends of urban growth.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain the significance of )oyt4s concept of directional inertia and its effect
on patterns of urban growth
(B) emphasi!e the inade"uacy of past attempts to e$plain patterns of urban
geography
(C) analy!e two 'arying theories concerning the distribution of residential areas
within and around the metropolis
() describe two models of metropolitan geography and suggest their limitations
(#) show the importance of the central business district as a focus for urban
growth
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that according to a unicellular urban model/
law firms are commonly located near the center of a city mainly because
(A) law firms benefit from the pro$imity to financial and go'ernmental ser'ices
that a center city location pro'ides
(B) the demand for legal ser'ices is too irregular to support many small law firms
in the outer districts of the city
(C) law firms re"uire accessibility to the wholesale and retail businesses that
pro'ide a ma<or share of their clientele
() the high(income groups that make up the primary users of legal ser'ices
demand easy access to the firms4 offices
(#) the speciali!ed ser'ice personnel re"uired by a law firm are often interested in
residing as close as possible to the city center
.. According to the concentric(ring model/ in which of the following orders (from
the center of the city outward) would the areas of the typical city be arranged%
(A) central business district/ low(income housing/ wholesale and manufacturing
businesses/ high(income housing
(B) central business district/ wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ low(
income housing/ high(income housing
(C) wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ central business district/ low(
income housing/ high(income housing
() central business district/ high(income housing/ wholesale and manufacturing
businesses/ low(income housing
(#) wholesale and manufacturing businesses/ low(income housing/ central
business district/ high(income housing
0. According to the passage/ the sector model differs from the concentric(ring model
primarily in that it
(A) stresses the role of topographic features in determining patterns of urban
GMAT 2..
de'elopment
(B) emphasi!es the continuing e$pansion of the city as an influence on urban
de'elopment
(C) recogni!es the importance of focal points of urban growth other than the
traditional central business district
() assumes that the need for access to the central business district is the main
determinant of urban de'elopmental patterns
(#) takes into account the influence of certain social factors on urban
geographical patterns
1. The passage states that both the concentric(ring model and the sector model
(A) inade"uately represent the forms of urban de'elopment emerging in today4s
cities
(B) need to be considerably refined to be of real use to students of urban growth
(C) ha'e been superseded by more recently de'eloped models of urban growth
() represent older cities more accurately than they do newly founded
metropolitan areas
(#) fail to e$plain the rapid outward growth of cities that has occurred in recent
years
2. According to the passage/ an updated model of urban geography would indicate
the
(A) phenomenal growth in population and area of suburban residential districts
beyond the limits of the city itself
(B) recent decline in the influence of business and industry o'er the geographical
patterns of urban growth
(C) growing importance of urban business and ser'ice centers located away from
the central business district
() clustering of business facilities in recently built areas/ while older districts are
turned into residential areas
(#) gradual displacement of older urban centers by new/ more highly speciali!ed
cities in geographically dispersed locations
-. All of the following are e$amples of the emerging trends of urban growth
described in the last paragraph of the passage #DC#@T
(A) the construction in a suburban community of a large shopping mall where
many of the local residents do most of their buying
(B) the opening of an industrial park on the outskirts of a declining older city
(C) the construction of hospital(medical school comple$ near a highway fifteen
miles from a downtown business district
() the building of a residential de'elopment near a suburban tool factory to
2.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
house the factory workers and their families
(#) the creation of a lu$ury housing de'elopment in a rural setting thirty miles
from the center of a city
6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph of
the passage%
(A) 3t summari!es the information presented in the first three paragraphs and
draws some conclusions.
(B) 3t outlines a new model/ applies it to recent phenomena/ and argues in fa'or
of its adoption.
(C) 3t introduces no e'idence in support of an e$isting model.
() 3t e'aluates two models in the light of recent e'idence and ad'ocates the
de'elopment of a third model.
(#) 3t compares one model unfa'orably with another and de'elops the
comparison by citing e$amples.
Passage 87 (2/15)
There s wdespread beef that the emergence of gant ndustres has been
accompaned by an equvaent surge n ndustra research. A recent study of
mportant nventons made snce the turn of the century reveas that more than
haf were the product of ndvdua nventors workng aone, ndependent of
organzed ndustra research. Whe ndustra aboratores contrbuted such
mportant products as nyon and transstors, ndependent nventors deveoped ar
condtonng, the automatc transmsson, the |et engne, the hecopter, nsun,
and streptomycn. St other nventons, such as staness stee, teevson,
scones, and Pexgas were deveoped through the combned efforts of
ndvduas and aboratory teams.
Despte these fndng, we are urged to support monopostc power on the
grounds that such power creates an envronment supportve of nnovaton. We are
tod that the ndependent nventor, aong wth the sma frm, cannot afford to
undertake the mportant research needed to mprove our standard of vng whe
protectng our dmnshng resources; that ony the gant corporaton or
congomerate, wth ts prodgous assets, can afford the knd of expendtures that
produce the technoogca advances vta to economc progress. But when we
examne expendtures for research, we fnd that of the more than $35 bon spent
each year n ths country, amost two-thrds s spent by the federa government.
More than haf of ths government expendture s funneed nto mtary research
and product deveopment, accountng for the enormous ncrease n spendng n
such ndustres as nucear energy, arcraft, msses, and eectroncs. There are
those who consder t questonabe that these defense-nked research pro|ects w
ether mprove our standard of vng or do much to protect our dmnshng
resources.
GMAT 2.1
Recent hstory has demonstrated that we may have to ater our ongstandng
concepton of the process actuated by competton. The prce varabe, once
perceved as the domnant aspect of the process, s now subordnate to the
competton of the new product, the new busness structure, and the new
technoogy. Whe t can be assumed that n a hghy compettve ndustry not
domnated by snge corporaton, nvestment n nnovaton-a rsky and expensve
budget tem-mght meet resstance from management and stockhoders
concerned about cost-cuttng, effcent organzaton, and arge advertsng
budgets, t woud be an egregous error to equate the monopostc producer wth
bountfu expendtures on research. Large-scae enterprses tend to operate more
comfortaby n stabe and secure crcumstances, and ther managera
bureaucraces tend to promote the status quo and resst the threat mpct n
change. Moreover, n some cases, ndustra gants faced wth tte or no
competton seek to avod the capta oss resutng from obsoescence by
deberatey obstructng technoogca progress. By contrast, sma frms
undeterred by arge nvestments n pant and capta equpment often
aggressvey pursue new technques and new products, nvestng n nnovaton n
order to expand ther market shares.
The congomerates are not, however, competey except from strong
compettve pressures. There are nstances n whch they too must compete wth
another ndustra Goath, and then ther weapons may ncude arge expendtures
for nnovaton.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) ad'ocate an increase in go'ernment support of organi!ed industrial research
(B) point out a common misconception about the relationship between the e$tent
of industrial research and the growth of monopolistic power in industry
(C) describe the inade"uacies of small firms in dealing with the important matter
of research and inno'ation
() show that America4s strength depends upon indi'idual ingenuity and
resourcefulness
(#) encourage free(market competition among industrial giants
2. According to the passage/ important in'entions of the twentieth century
(A) were produced largely as a result of go'ernmental support for military
weapons research and de'elopment
(B) came primarily from the huge laboratories of monopolistic industries
(C) were produced at least as fre"uently by independent in'entors as by research
teams
() ha'e greater impact on smaller firms than on conglomerates
(#) sometimes ad'ersely affect our standard of li'ing and diminish our natural
resources
2.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph of
the passage%
(A) #$penditures for 'arious aspects of research are listed.
(B) =easons for supporting monopolistic power are gi'en and then "uestioned.
(C) Arguments are presented for minimi!ing competiti'e bidding for research.
() =esources necessary for research are defined.
(#) Costs for 'aried aspects of military research are "uestioned.
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author
(A) has little confidence in the ability of monopolistic industry to produce the
important in'entions of the future
(B) would rather see the federal go'ernment spend money on social ser'ices than
on the defense establishment
(C) fa'ors a conser'ati'e approach to inno'ation and places trust in
conglomerates to pro'ide efficient production
() feels that price should still be the dominant 'ariable in the competiti'e
process
(#) belie'es that e$cessi'e competition is a deterrent to inno'ation
1. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
3. &hat portion of the research dollar in this country is spent each year by the
federal go'ernment%
33. :nder what circumstances is an industrial giant likely to in'est hea'ily in
inno'ation%
333. &hy might a monopolistic producer want to suppress an inno'ation%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2. &ith which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most
likely to agree%
(A) ?onopolistic power creates an en'ironment supporti'e of inno'ation.
(B) Bo'ernmental e$penditure for military research will do much to protect our
dwindling resources.
(C) 3ndustrial giants/ with their managerial bureaucracies/ respond more "uickly
to technological change than smaller firms do.
() >irms with a small share of the market aggressi'ely pursue inno'ations
because they are not locked into old capital e"uipment.
(#) The independent in'entor cannot afford to undertake the research needed to
GMAT 2.-
impro'e our standard of li'ing.
-. &hich of the following proposals best responds to the issues raised by the author%
(A) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be lifted/ and go'ernment
funding should be made a'ailable to large corporations wishing to engage in
research.
(B) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be tightened/ and go'ernment
funding should be made a'ailable to small corporations and independent
indi'iduals wishing to engage in research.
(C) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be tightened/ and no
go'ernment funding should be pro'ided to any corporations or indi'iduals
wishing to engage in research.
() The amount the go'ernment spends on military research should be decreased/
and the amount it spends to impro'ed the standard of li'ing should be
increased.
(#) Bo'ernmental restraints on monopolies should be lifted/ and no go'ernment
funding should be pro'ided to any corporations or indi'iduals wishing to
engage in research.
6. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s main point%
(A) 3n the last decade/ conglomerates ha'e significantly increased their research
budgets for defense technology.
(B) Ta$ restructuring permits smaller firms to write off a larger percentage of
profits against research.
(C) A ten(year study of the e$tent of resources de'oted to research by smaller
enterprises re'eals a steady decline.
() ?ilitary research is being directed more e$tensi'ely to space technology than
to short(range missiles.
(#) Competition from foreign industries has increased the cost of labor and
materials.
Passage 88 (3/15)
Shaws defense of a theater of deas brought hm up aganst both hs great
bugbears-commercazed art on the one hand and Art for Arts Sake on the
other. Hs teachng s that beauty s a by-product of other actvty; that the artst
wrtes out of mora passon (n forms varyng from potca convcton to regous
zea), not out of ove of art; that the pursut of art for ts own sake s a form of sef-
ndugence as bad as any other sort of sensuaty. In the end, the errors of "pure"
art and of commercazed art are dentca: they both appea prmary to the
senses. True art, on the other hand, s not merey a matter of peasure. It may be
unpeasant. A favorte Shavan metaphor for the functon of the arts s that of
2.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
tooth-pung. Even f the patent s under aughng gas, the tooth s st pued.
The hstory of aesthetcs affords more exampes of a ddactc than of a
hedonst vew. But Shaws ddactcsm takes an unusua turn n ts appcaton to
the hstory of arts. If, as Shaw hods, deas are a most mportant part of a work of
art, and f, as he aso hods, deas go out of date, t foows that even the best
works of art go out of date n some mportant respects and that the generay hed
vew that great works are n a respects eterna s not shared by Shaw. In the
preface to Three Plays for Puritans, he mantans that renewa n the arts means
renewa n phosophy, that the frst great artst who comes aong after a renewa
gves to the new phosophy fu and fna form, that subsequent artsts, though
even more gfted, can do nothng but refne upon the master wthout matchng
hm. Shaw, whose essenta modesty s as dsarmng as hs pose of vanty s
dsconcertng, assgns to hmsef the roe, not of the master, but of the poneer,
the roe of a Marowe rather than of a Shakespeare. "The whrgg of tme w
soon brng my audences to my own pont of vew," he wrtes, "and then the next
Shakespeare that comes aong w turn these petty tentatves of mne nto
masterpeces fna for ther epoch."
"Fna for ther epoch"-even Shakespearean masterpeces are not fna
beyond that. No one, says Shaw, w ever wrte a better tragedy than 'ear or a
better opera than -on .iovanni or a better musc drama than -er *ing des
+i$elungen/ but |ust as essenta to a pay as ths aesthetc mert s mora
reevance whch, f we take a naturastc and hstorca vew of moras, t oses, or
party oses, n tme. Shaw, who has the courage of hs hstorcsm, consstenty
wthstands the vew that mora probems do not change, and argues therefore
that for us modern terature and musc form a Bbe surpassng n sgnfcance the
Hebrew Bbe. That s Shaws antcpatory chaenge to the neo-orthodoxy of today.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss
(A) the unorthodo$y of ;haw4s 'iews on the Bible
(B) the aesthetic merit of ;haw4s plays
(C) ;haw4s theory of art
() ;ha'ian e$amples of the theater of ideas
(#) ;haw4s naturalistic and historical 'iew of morals
2. The author sets off the word *pure+ (line ,) with "uotation marks in order to
(A) contrast it with the word *true/+ which appears later (line 15)
(B) suggest that/ in this conte$t/ it is synonymous with *commerciali!ed+ (line ,)
(C) underscore its importance
() strip away its negati'e connotations
(#) emphasi!e its positi'e connotations
.. According to the author/ ;haw compares art to tooth(pulling (lines 12(10) in
order to show that
GMAT 2.,
(A) the moral rele'ance of a work of art must be e$tracted from the epoch in
which it was created
(B) true art is painful to the senses
(C) e'en the best works of art go out of date
() pleasure is not the sole purpose of art
(#) all art has a lasting effect on its audience
0. According to the author/ ;haw4s didacticism was unusual in that it was
characteri!ed by
(A) idealism
(B) historicism
(C) hedonism
() moralism
(#) religious !eal
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ;haw would probably agree with all of
the following statements about ;hakespeare #DC#@TE
(A) )e wrote out of a moral passion.
(B) All of his plays are out of date in some important respect.
(C) )e was the most profound and original thinker of his epoch.
() )e was a greater artist than ?arlowe.
(#) )is ear gi'es full and final form to the philosophy of his age.
2. &hich of the following does the author cite as a contradiction in ;haw%
(A) &hereas he pretended to be 'ain/ he was actually modest.
(B) )e "uestioned the significance of the )ebrew Bible/ and yet he belie'ed that
a great artist could be moti'ated by religious !eal.
(C) Although he insisted that true art springs from moral passion/ he re<ected the
notion that morals do not change.
() )e considered himself to be the pioneer of a new philosophy/ but he hoped
his audiences would e'entually adopt his point of 'iew.
(#) 8n the one hand/ he held that ideas are a most important part of a work of artI
on the other hand/ he belie'ed that ideas go out of date.
-. The ideas attributed to ;haw in the passage suggest that he would most likely
agree with which of the following statements%
(A) #'ery great poet digs down to a le'el where human nature is always and
e'erywhere alike.
(B) A play cannot be comprehended fully without some knowledge and
imaginati'e understanding of its conte$t.
(C) A great music drama like !er "ing des Nibelungen springs from a lo'e of
205 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
beauty/ not from a lo'e of art.
() ?orality is immutableI it is not something to be discussed and worked out.
(#) !on #io$anni is a masterpiece because it is as rele'ant today as it was when
it was created.
6. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
3. According to ;haw/ what is the most important part of a work of art%
33. 3n ;haw4s 'iew/ what does the )ebrew Bible ha'e in common with on
Bio'anni%
333. According to the author/ what was ;haw4s assessment of himself as a
playwright%
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
,. As it is re'ealed in the passage/ the author4s attitude toward ;haw can best be
described as
(A) condescending
(B) completely neutral
(C) appro'ing
() en'ious
(#) adulatory
Passage 89 (4/15)
One of the many theores about acohosm s the earnng and renforcement
theory, whch expans acohosm by consderng acoho ngeston as a refex
response to some stmuus and as a way to reduce an nner drve state such as
fear or anxety. Characterzng fe stuatons n terms of approach and avodance,
ths theory hods that persons tend to be drawn to peasant stuatons and
repeed by unpeasant ones. In the atter case, acoho ngeston s sad to reduce
the tenson or feengs of unpeasantness and to repace them wth the feeng of
euphora generay observed n most persons after they have consumed one or
more drnks.
Some expermenta evdence tends to show that acoho reduces fear n the
approach-avodance stuaton. Conger traned one group of rats to approach a
food goa and, usng averson condtonng, traned another group to avod eectrc
shock. After an n|ecton of acoho the pu away from the shock was measurabe
weaker, whe the pu toward the food was unchanged.
GMAT 201
The obvous troubes experenced by acohoc persons appear to contradct
the earnng theory n the expanaton of acohosm. The dscomfort, pan, and
punshment they experence shoud presumaby serve as a deterrent to drnkng.
The fact that acohoc persons contnue to drnk n the face of famy dscord, oss
of empoyment, ness, and other seques of repeated bouts s expaned by the
proxmty of the drve reducton to the consumpton of acoho; that s, acoho has
the mmedate effect of reducng tenson whe the unpeasant consequences of
drunken behavor come ony ater. The earnng paradgm, therefore, favors the
estabshment and repetton of the resort to acoho.
In fact, the anxetes and feengs of gut nduced by the consequences of
excessve acoho ngeston may themseves become the sgna for another bout
of acoho abuse. The way n whch the cue for another bout coud be the anxety
tsef s expaned by the process of stmuus generazaton: condtons or events
occurrng at the tme of renforcement tend to acqure the characterstcs of state
of anxety or fear, the emotona state tsef takes on the propertes of a stmuus,
thus trggerng another drnkng bout.
The roe of punshment s becomng ncreasngy mportant n formuatng a
cause of acohosm based on the prncpes of earnng theory. Whe punshment
may serve to suppress a response, experments have shown that n some cases t
can serve as a reward and renforce the behavor. Thus f the acohoc person has
earned to drnk under condtons of both reward and punshment, ether type of
condton may precptate renewed drnkng.
Ampe expermenta evdence supports the hypothess that excessve acoho
consumpton can be earned. By graduay ncreasng the concentraton of acoho
n drnkng water, psychoogsts have been abe to nduce the ngeston of arger
amounts of acoho by an anma than woud be normay consumed. Other
researchers have been abe to acheve smar resuts by varyng the schedue of
renforcement-that s, by requrng the anma to consume arger and arger
amounts of the acoho soutons before rewardng t. In ths manner, anmas earn
to drnk enough to become dependent on acoho n terms of demonstratng
wthdrawa symptoms.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) compare the learning and reinforcement theory to other theories of
alcoholism
(B) discuss how the beha'ior of alcoholic persons is e$plained by learning theory
(C) argue that alcoholism is a learned beha'ior
() e$plain how fear and an$iety stimulate and reinforce drinking in alcoholic
persons
(#) present e$perimental e'idence in support of the learning and reinforcement
theory of alcoholism
2. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
202 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) &hat are some of the psychosocial problems associated with alcoholism%
(B) &hich has pro'en more effecti'e in the treatment of alcoholism/ a'ersion
conditioning or reinforcement%
(C) &hy does alcohol ingestion reduce tension and gi'e rise to a feeling of
euphoria in most people%
() According to the learning theory/ in what cases does punishment reinforce
rather than deter drinking in alcoholic persons%
(#) Are some persons genetically predisposed to alcoholism%
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a'ersion conditioning is based primarily
on the principle that
(A) electric shock stimulates a response
(B) beha'ior that is punished will be a'oided
(C) pain is a stronger stimulus than pleasure
() alcohol reduces fear
(#) beha'ior that is rewarded will be repeated
0. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of stimulus
generali!ation%
(A) 3t contradicts the learning and reinforcement theory of alcoholism.
(B) 3t is the process by which an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but
not to similar stimuli.
(C) 3t supports the hypothesis that e$cessi'e alcohol consumption can be learned.
() 3t e$plains why people tend to a'oid beha'ior that is associated with painful
e$periences.
(#) 3t occurs when the conditions associated with a stimulus come to e'oke the
same response as the stimulus itself e'okes.
1. The author cites Conger4s e$periment with two groups of rats in order to
(A) show that ingestion of alcohol does not affect appetite
(B) corroborate the findings of other academic researchers
(C) show that alcohol decreases fear
() dispro'e the learning and reinforcement theory
(#) con'ince the reader of the usefulness of beha'ioral research
2. According to the passage/ which of the following could induce an alcoholic to
drink%
3. The need to relie'e tension
33. An$ieties resulting from guilt feelings about pre'ious drinking bouts
333. @unishment for alcoholic beha'ior
(A) 3 only
GMAT 20.
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. The passage contains information that supports which of the following
statements%
(A) 3f the pleasurable taste of whisky leads to an ac"uired taste for brandy/ then
stimulus generali!ation has occurred.
(B) ;lapping a child for misbeha'ing may o'er time encourage the child to repeat
the misbeha'ior.
(C) 3f a person has learned to drink under two sets of conditions/ both must be
present in order to induce that person to drink again.
() Continued hea'y use of alcohol usually causes se'ere damage to the body
and ner'ous system.
(#) &hen consumed in moderation/ alcohol may benefit health.
6. According to the passage/ how does the beha'ior of alcoholics appear to
contradict learning theory%
(A) Kearning theory holds that people are drawn by pleasant situations and
repelled by unpleasant ones/ but in alcoholics that pattern appears to be
re'ersed.
(B) Contrary to learning theory/ alcoholic persons do not respond to life situations
in terms of approach and a'oidance.
(C) The unpleasant conse"uences of e$cessi'e alcoholic consumption do not
deter alcoholics from drinking/ as might be predicted from learning theory.
() According to learning theory/ drinking is a refle$ response to an e$ternal
stimulus/ but for alcoholics it is more often a way to reduce an inner dri'e
such as fear.
(#) 3nstead of the feeling of euphoria predicted by learning theory/ alcoholics
fre"uently e$perience discomfort and pain after drinking.
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the learning and
reinforcement theory of alcoholism as
(A) credible
(B) unassailable
(C) outdated
() fallacious
(#) re'olutionary
Passage 90 (5/15)
200 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(The foowng passage was wrtten n 1977.)
Changes n the voume of unempoyment are governed by three fundamenta
forces: the growth of the abor force, the ncrease n output per man-hour, and the
growth of tota demand for goods and servces. Changes n the average hours of
work enter n exacty parae fashon but have been quanttatvey ess sgnfcant.
As productvty rses, ess abor s requred per doar of natona product, or more
goods and servces can be produced wth the same number of man-hours. If
output does not grow, empoyment w certany fa; f producton ncreases more
rapdy than productvty (ess any decne n average hours worked), empoyment
must rse. But the abor force grows, too. Uness gross natona product (tota fna
expendture for goods and servces corrected for prce changes) rses more rapdy
than the sum of productvty ncrease and abor force growth (agan modfed for
any change n hours of work), the ncrease n empoyment w be nadequate to
absorb the growth n the abor force. Inevtaby the unempoyment rate w
ncrease. Ony when tota producton expands faster than the rate of abor force
growth pus the rate of productvty ncrease and mnus the rate at whch average
annua hours fa does the unempoyment rate fa. Increases n productvty were
more mportant than growth of the abor force as sources of the wde gans n
output experenced n the perod from the end of Word War II to the md-sxtes.
These ncreases n potenta producton smpy were not matched by ncreases n
demand adequate to mantan steady fu empoyment.
Except for the recesson years of 1949, 1954, and 1958, the rate of economc
growth exceeded the rate of productvty ncrease. However, n the ate 1950s
productvty and the abor force were ncreasng more rapdy than usua, whe the
growth of output was sower than usua. Ths accounted for the change n
empoyment rates.
But f part of the natona purpose s to reduce and contan unempoyment,
arthmetc s not enough. We must know whch of the basc factors we can contro
and whch we wsh to contro. Unempoyment woud have rsen more sowy or
faen more rapdy f productvty had ncreased more sowy, or the abor force
had ncreased more sowy, or the hours of work had faen more steepy, or tota
output had grown more rapdy. These are not ndependent factors, however, and
a change n any of them mght have caused changes n the others.
A socety can choose to reduce the growth of productvty, and t can probaby
fnd ways to frustrate ts own creatvty. However, whe a reducton n the growth
of productvty at the expense of potenta output mght resut n hgher
empoyment n the short run, the ong-run effect on the natona nterest woud be
dsastrous.
We must aso gve consderaton to the fact that hdden beneath natona
averages s contnuous movement nto, out of, between, and wthn abor markets.
For exampe, 15 years ago, the average number of persons n the abor force was
73.4 mon, wth about 66.7 mon empoyed and 3.9 mon unempoyed. Yet 14
GMAT 201
mon experenced some term of unempoyment n that year. Some were new
entrants to the abor force; others were ad off temporary. The remander were
those who were permanenty or ndefntey severed from ther |obs. Thus, the
average number unempoyed durng a year understates the actua voume of
nvountary dspacement that occurs.
Hgh unempoyment s not an nevtabe resut of the pace of technoogca
change but the consequence of passve pubc pocy. We can antcpate a
moderate ncrease n the abor force accompaned by a sow and rreguar decne
n hours of work. It foows that the output of the economy-and the aggregate
demand to buy t-must grow by more than 4 percent a year |ust to prevent the
unempoyment rate from rsng, and by even more f the unempoyment rate s to
fa further. Yet our economy has sedom, f ever, grown at a rate greater than 3.5
percent for any extended ength of tme. We have no cause of compacency.
Postve fsca, monetary, and manpower poces w be needed n the future.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) define the economic terms used in the discussion of employment
(B) critici!e the decisions of past administrations during recession years
(C) call for the application of positi'e economic control policies in the years that
lie ahead
() allay current fears about increasing unemployment
(#) document the rise of American producti'ity since &orld &ar 33
2. According to the passage/ if the labor force does not grow and there is no decline
in the a'erage number of hours worked/ under which of the following conditions
will the employment rate ine'itably rise%
(A) Total production e$pands faster than the total demand for goods and ser'ices.
(B) The total demand for goods and ser'ices and producti'ity both rise.
(C) 8utput per man(hour and gross national product both rise.
() @roducti'ity increases more rapidly than production.
(#) @roduction increases more rapidly than output per man(hour.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage than in the late 1,15s/ which of the following
occurred%
3. The growth in output was less than ..1 percent.
33. The a'erage number of hours worked declined.
333. The increase in output per man(hour was greater than usual.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
202 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. 3t can be inferred from the passage that during the recession years of 1,0,/ 1,10/
and 1,16/ which of the following most likely occurred%
(A) The labor force increased more rapidly than it did in any other year between
1,01 and 1,21.
(B) ?ore labor was re"uired per dollar of national product than in any other year
between 1,01 and 1,21.
(C) The a'erage number of hours worked rose.
() >ull employment was attained.
(#) The rate of unemployment increased.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if a policy to increase employment by
reducing the growth of producti'ity at the e$pense of potential output were
adopted/ the author most likely would regard it as
(A) sound but inade"uate
(B) o'erly aggressi'e
(C) fri'olous
() insidious
(#) unob<ectionable
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ according to the author/ the actual
number of people who e$perience some term of unemployment during any gi'en
year
(A) is the difference between the number of persons in the labor force and the
number of persons employed that year
(B) does not reflect mo'ement into/ out of/ between/ and within labor markets
(C) e$ceeds the a'erage number unemployed during that year
() o'erstate the 'olume of in'oluntary displacement that occurs during the year
(#) is impossible to calculate
-. The passage contains information that answers all of the following "uestions
#DC#@TE
(A) &hat is gross national product%
(B) &hat effect does a change in producti'ity in'ariably ha'e on gross national
product%
(C) :nder what conditions might employment rise in the short run%
() &hat effect does an increase in output and a decrease in number of hours
worked ha'e on producti'ity%
(#) &hat was the a'erage number of people unemployed in 1,22%
6. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the fifth paragraph of
GMAT 20-
the passage%
(A) An assertion is made/ data are pro'ided to support it/ and the assertion is
reiterated in different words.
(B) ;e'eral figures are gi'en and hypothesis is formulated to e$plain them.
(C) An e$ample is gi'en to support the conclusion drawn in the preceding
paragraph.
() A statement is made/ data are pro'ided to illustrate and amplify the statement/
and a conclusion is drawn.
(#) A generali!ation is made and an e$ample is gi'en to refute it.
,. &hich of the following proposals best responds to the author4s concerns%
(A) The go'ernment should manipulate the si!e of the labor force to pre'ent
future recessions.
(B) The go'ernment should maintain some controls o'er the economy/ but it
should allow the employment rate to rise and fall with the gross national
product/ as a check on labor costs.
(C) @eople should accept that unemployment is undesirable but una'oidable.
() The go'ernment should manage the economy carefully.
(#) The go'ernment should not interfere in the interplay among the three forces
affecting unemployment.
15. &hich of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) &e can and must take steps to ensure that the unemployment rate does not
continue to rise as our population and our use of technology increase.
(B) 3ncreases in potential production must be matched by increases in demand in
order to maintain steady full employment.
(C) )igh unemployment is not an ine'itable result of the pace of technological
change but the conse"uence of passi'e public policy.
() 3f part of the national purpose is to reduce and contain unemployment/
arithmetic is not enough.
(#) >ull employment/ regardless of fluctuations in the economy/ is within the
realm of possibility.
Passage 91 (6/15)
A ma|orty taken coectvey may be regarded as a beng whose opnons and,
most frequenty, whose nterests are opposed to those of another beng, whch s
styed a mnorty. If t s admtted that a man possessng absoute power may
msuse that power by wrongng hs adversares, why shoud a ma|orty not be
abe to the same reproach? Men are not apt to change ther characters by
aggomeraton; nor does ther patence n the presence of obstaces ncrease wth
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the conscousness of ther strength. For these reasons we shoud not wngy
nvest any group of our feows wth that unmted authorty whch we shoud
refuse to any ndvdua.
One soca power must aways predomnate over others, but berty s
endangered when ths power s checked by no obstaces whch may retard ts
course and force t to moderate ts own vehemence. Unmted power s n tsef a
bad and dangerous thng, and no power on earth s so worthy of honor for tsef or
of reverenta obedence to the rghts whch t represents that we shoud admt ts
uncontroed and a-predomnant authorty. When the rght and means of absoute
command are conferred on a peope or a kng, on an arstocracy or a democracy,
a monarchy or a repubc, there has been mpanted the germ of tyranny.
The man ev of the present democratc nsttutons of the Unted States does
not arse, as s often asserted n Europe, from ther weakness, but from ther
overpowerng strength; the excessve berty whch regns n that country s not so
aarmng as s the very nadequate securty whch exsts aganst tyranny.
When an ndvdua or a party s wronged n the Unted States, to whom can
he appy for redress? If to the pubc opnon, pubc opnon consttutes the
ma|orty; f to the egsature, t represents the ma|orty and mpcty obeys ts
n|unctons; f to the executve power, t s apponted by the ma|orty and remans
a passve too n ts hands; the pubc troops consst of the ma|orty under arms;
the |ury s the ma|orty nvested wth the rght of hearng |udca cases, and n
certan states even the |udges are eected by the ma|orty. However nqutous or
absurd the ev companed about, no sure barrer s estabshed to defend aganst
t.
1. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage%
(A) The Tyranny of the ?a<ority
(B) emocracyE Triumph of the @eople
(C) Abuses of @ower
() The >ailure of emocracy in the :nited ;tates
(#) ?inority =ights
2. &hich of the following best paraphrases the author4s statement in the third
sentence of paragraph 1 (lines -(11)%
(A) 3ndi'iduals do not change their beha'ior when they act in concert with others
who are likeminded/ and/ knowing they are acting as part of the group/ they
are not likely to show greater restraint when opposed than they would if they
were acting indi'idually.
(B) Broups are not different from one another/ they all show strong impatience
when thwarted.
(C) The character of men is formed by the accumulation of their traits/ and
patience is not a common trait among men of strength.
GMAT 20,
() The leopard does not change its spots no matter how long it li'es/ and it is/
and remains/ patient in the presence of obstacles.
(#) ?en change their beha'ior when they act in groupsI they are more patient
when they are in the company of their fellows than they are when they are
alone.
.. &ith which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most
likely to agree%
(A) emocracy is no greater defense against tyranny than is monarchy or
aristocracy.
(B) ?inority rule would probably be more responsi'e to the needs of all people
than ma<ority rule.
(C) 9o go'ernment should be trusted since all go'ernments are e"ually
tyrannical.
() ;ince one social power must always predominate o'er others/ it is futile to
pro'ide checks and balances in go'ernment.
(#) To render itself immune to the germ of tyranny/ the :nited ;tates should
strengthen its political institutions.
0. &hich of the following/ assuming that each is true/ would most weaken the point
that the author is making in the last two paragraphs of the passage%
(A) The framers of the :.;. Constitution deliberately separated the three branches
of the go'ernment to pre'ent tyranny.
(B) There is not a single ma<ority in the :nited ;tatesI there are many ma<orities/
each composed of a different collection of indi'iduals and each acting as a
restraint on the others.
(C) The >irst Amendment to the :.;. Constitution specifically guarantees the
right of each citi!en to petition the go'ernment for redress of grie'ances.
() #'en though the :nited ;tates is not a direct democracy/ all :.;. citi!ens
ha'e an e"ual opportunity to participate in political life and to hold public
office.
(#) The framers of the :.;. Constitution had two primary concernsE to pre'ent the
go'ernment from e$ercising tyranny o'er the people and to pre'ent the
ma<ority from e$ercising tyranny o'er the minority.
1. The author4s treatment of the topic of the passage can best be described as
(A) ironic
(B) neutral
(C) logical
() irre'erent
(#) diffident
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2. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) challenging a commonly held belief
(B) contrasting two opposing 'iews
(C) ad'ocating a course of action
() reconciling an apparent conflict
(#) proposing a solution to an unrecogni!ed problem
Passage 92 (7/15)
Athough much has been wrtten about the theoogca confcts wth
Darwnan theory, tte s known of the powerfu scentfc ob|ectons that modfed
Darwns beefs.
Durng Darwns fetme, the accepted theory of heredty was not Mendes
theory of partcuate nhertance, whch, though pubshed, was unrecognzed, but
the theory of bendng nhertance, whch hods that forms ntermedate between
those of the parents resut from matng. |enkn ponted out that f a rare and
favorabe mutaton occurred, t woud soon be bended out by repeated crossngs
from the wd-type form. Dsputng Darwns concepton of evouton as proceedng
through the natura seecton of those wth sghty better characterstcs that
arose randomy, |enkn concuded that natura seecton coud not account for the
tremendous dversty of fe, hypotheszng that arge numbers of organsms
mutated smutaneousy n the same drecton-a controed orthogenetc process
resembng a seres of "speca creatons."
Snce "speca creatonsm" was an deoogca target of hs, Darwn found
hmsef n a quandary. Athough he dd not abandon hs theory, he admtted that
natura seecton payed a much smaer part n evouton than he had prevousy
camed. He aso embraced the Lamarckan concept that acqured trats n parents
are transmtted to ther offsprng, thus provdng a mechansm by whch an entre
popuaton coud change n the same drecton at once.
Another potent ob|ecton came from the physcsts ed by Lord Kevn, who
contested the assumpton of prevous geoogsts and boogsts that fe had
exsted for bons of years, f not nfntey. How, they asked, coud evouton
proceed by sow steps n mons of years, and how coud advanced forms
recenty evoved show such great dfferences? The Kevnsts, basng ther
concuson on the assumpton that the sun was an ncandescent qud mass
rapdy radatng heat, cacuated that the age of the earth was between 20 and
40 mon years.
Admttng that ther cacuatons were correct and ther premses ratona,
Darwn was forced to ad|ust ths theory. He proposed that change had occurred
much more rapdy n the past than n the present, where speces seemed statc,
and that more advanced forms vared more rapdy than ower forms. Ths
GMAT 211
provded further reason to advocate Lamarcks theory of nhertance, because that
coud account for the rapd change.
Interestngy, both these retreats of Darwn were ater shown to be fauty. The
dscovery that the sun runs on a neary nfnte amount of atomc fue totay
nvadated Kevns argument, Mende was "redscovered" n the twenteth
century, when t was ponted out that the partcuate nature of nhertance meant
that favorabe mutaton not ony coud persst, but coud rapdy become
prevaent.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) outline the process by which arwin formulated and modified his theory of
natural selection
(B) propose a new interpretation of arwin4s theory of e'olution
(C) e$plain how other scientists of the time helped arwin modify and perfect his
theories
() defend arwinian theory against the ob<ections raised by arwin4s
contemporaries in the scientific community
(#) discuss some of the scientific contro'ersy that arwin sparked and describe
his response to it
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the theory of blending inheritance would
predict that the offspring of
(A) two strains of snapdragons/ one with abnormal/ radically symmetrical flowers
and the other with normal/ bilaterally symmetrical flowers/ would always
ha'e normal/ bilaterally symmetrical flowers
(B) a white horse and a black horse would always be gray
(C) a man with type A blood and a woman with type B blood would always ha'e
type A/ type B/ or type AB blood
() a fly with large eyes and a fly with small eyes would always ha'e one large
eye and one small eye
(#) two pink(flowered plants would always be red or white
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *wild(type+ (line 12) means
(A) nonmutant
(B) rare
(C) abnormal
() random
(#) fa'orable
0. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would tend to support the
Kamarckian concept that arwin embraced%
(A) )uman beings e'ol'ed from now(e$tinct animals much like chimpan!ees as a
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result of an erratic accumulation of changes in the gene pool through
thousands of generations.
(B) ;ome parental traits disappear in offspring and reappear in the following
generation.
(C) All species of organisms were immutably created in their present forms.
() =ats who ha'e had their trails cut off produce tailless offspring.
(#) Those hereditary traits that make their owners more likely to grow up and
reproduce become increasingly common in a population from one generation
to the ne$t.
1. The author4s attitude toward Aenkin and Mel'in can best be described as
(A) respectful
(B) contemptuous
(C) ambi'alent
() denunciatory
(#) adulatory
2. According to the passage/ arwin modified his beliefs in order to
(A) bring them into line with the theory of particulate inheritance
(B) dispro'e Kord Mel'in4s 'iew on the age of the earth
(C) meet the ob<ections of Aenkin and Kamarck
() resol'e theological conflicts about e'olution
(#) dissociate himself from those who belie'ed in *special creationism+ (line 21)
-. The author sets off the word *redisco'ered+ (line 11) in "uotation marks in order
to
(A) emphasi!e that ma<or scientific theories are rarely acknowledged or accepted
when they are first promulgated
(B) indicate that the term is somewhat ironic/ since ?endel4s work was 'irtually
ignored when it was published
(C) rebuke the scientific community for deliberately suppressing ?endel4s work
until long after his death
() underscore the similarity between ?endel4s theory of particulate inheritance
and the theory of blending inheritance that was accepted during his lifetime
(#) suggest that a scientist of arwin4s stature should ha'e read ?endel4s work
when it was first published and immediately recogni!ed its importance
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if ?endel4s work had been recogni!ed
and accepted during arwin4s lifetime/ it would ha'e had which of the following
effect%
3. 3t would ha'e refuted Aenkin4s ob<ections to arwin4s theories.
GMAT 21.
33. 3t would ha'e supported arwin4s theory that e'olution proceeds by 'ery
slow steps o'er millions of years.
333. 3t would ha'e clarified and supported arwin4s theory of natural selection.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
,. All of the following can be reasonably inferred from the passage #DC#@TE
(A) The idea that e'olution occurs by means of natural selection was not widely
accepted until the twentieth century.
(B) arwin4s theories were originally predicated on the assumption that the earth
is more than 05 million years old.
(C) ?any of arwin4s ideas about heredity were later shown to be incorrect.
() 8ther scientists of arwin4s time/ including both Aenkin and Kamarck/
belie'ed in e'olution.
(#) arwin was the only scientist of his day who belie'ed in natural selection.
Passage 93 (8/15)
In terms of ts prevaence, obesty s the eadng dsease n the Unted States.
There s no unversay accepted standard for obesty, defned generay as an
excess of adpose tssue, but a common rue of thumb cassfes peope who are
more than 20 percent above ther desrabe weght as obese. By ths measure, 30
percent of men and 40 percent of women n Amerca are obese. Athough studes
show that few of these peope w ever recover fuy and permanenty from the
dsease, the ncdence of obesty n future generatons can be reduced.
Adpose tssue s a trumph of evouton. Fat yeds 9 caores per gram, whe
proten, ke carbohydrates, yeds ony 4 caores per gram. Fat aso contans
much ess water than proten does. Therefore, fat s much more effcent for
storng excess energy than s proten. Prmtve humans, wth uncertan food
sources, had a great need for excess fat, and ther bodes adapted accordngy.
Modern humans, wth a predctabe food suppy and a sedentary fe-stye, are
burdened by ths vestge of evouton. Athough they need some adpose tssue to
provde nsuaton and protect nterna organs from n|ury, modern humans need
much ess than ther prmtve ancestors dd.
In an attempt to shed excess adpose tssue, many Amercans turn from one
fad det to another, and a bon-doar det ndustry has grown up to ad them n
ther efforts. Nevertheess, the fve-year cure rate for obesty s very ow. In fact,
by comparson, cancer s more curabe. The reasons for ths are psychoogca as
we as physoogca.
210 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
From a physca standpont, osng a pound or two a week for a few weeks s
not dffcut because most of the oss s n the form of proten and water, and
proten carres four tmes ts weght n water. However, proten s aso the ony
source of ntrogen n the body, and when the body oses too much ntrogen, t acts
to correct the mbaance by excretng ess ntrogen than t takes n. Hence beyond
a certan pont addtona weght oss must come from adpose tssue, whch,
because of ts compactness, takes onger to shed. The bodys tendency to return
to ntrogen baance and to protect ts energy reserves can be so strong that
deters may stop osng or even gan weght whe st expendng more caores
than they ngest. As a resut, they frequenty suffer not ony from hunger,
weakness, and a decreased metaboc rate, but aso from depresson and
nactvty, a of whch ead them to abandon ther dets. Probaby because of
numerous psychoogca factors as we as physoogca factors such as ncreased
pd synthess, they then tend to regan weght rapdy.
Whe vgorous attempts to reduce obesty n Amerca shoud be amed at a
affected, the most successfu efforts are key to be those drected toward
chdren. If the advertsng and food ndustres stop tryng to se hgh-caore,
nutrtonay defcent food to chdren, and f parents understand that the feedng
patterns they mpose on ther chdren can determne the adoescent and adut
eatng habts those chdren w deveop, the future generaton may not be as fat
as ours s.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain why pre'ention is the best defense against obesity
(B) critici!e the food and ad'ertising industries for encouraging bad eating habits
and thus contributing to the pre'alence of obesity in the :nited ;tates
(C) recruit 'olunteers for a national crusade against obesity
() discourage dependency on fad diets as a method for losing weight
(#) argue that obesity is a genetic disorder that is 'irtually impossible to cure
2. By the rule of thumb mentioned in the passage/ which of the following would be
considered obese%
3. A 21(pound toddler whose desirable weight is 25 pounds
33. A large(framed woman weighting 105 pounds whose desirable weight for
her height is between 112 and 125 pounds
333. A 1-1(pound man who was 21 pounds o'er his desirable weight and then
gained an additional 15 pounds
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
GMAT 211
.. &hich of the following/ if true/ best helps to e$plain why a greater percentage of
women than men in the :nited ;tates are considered obese by the measure
mentioned in the passage%
(A) The measure is the same for both men and women/ but it is normal for
women to carry a greater percentage of fat at any weight.
(B) The a'erage man is hea'ier than the a'erage womanI therefore/ men generally
need to gain more weight than women do before they are considered obese.
(C) There are more women in the :nited ;tates than there are men.
() Because of the influence of the fashion and film industries/ many American
women consider themsel'es obese e'en though they are not.
(#) &omen burn off fewer calories than men because their bodies contain a lower
percentage of muscle/ and muscle burns calories at a faster rate than fat.
0. According to the passage/ modern humans do not need to store as much fat as
primiti'e humans because
(A) modern humans work fewer hours than their primiti'e forebears did
(B) the diet of modern humans is higher in protein than was the diet of primiti'e
humans
(C) modern humans eat more regularly than primiti'e humans did
() primiti'e humans had to insulate their bodies from the cold whereas modern
humans do not
(#) the food consumed by modern humans has a higher nutritional 'alue than that
consumed by primiti'e humans
1. All of the following statements about protein are supported by the passage
#DC#@TE
(A) Bram for gram/ foods that are high in protein are lower in calories than foods
that are high in fat.
(B) The body gets all of its nitrogen from protein.
(C) 9ine grams of protein yield the same number of calories as 0 grams of fat.
() @rotein is not con'erted into adipose tissue.
(#) >i'e grams of protein carry 25 grams of water.
2. The author mentions that *cancer is more curable+ (line 2-) than obesity in order
to
(A) underscore the point that obesity is the leading disease in the :nited ;tates
(B) support the conclusion that it is easier to keep people from becoming obese
than it is to cure them once they are
(C) discourage obese people from trying to lose weight
() demonstrate by analogy that more money should be spent on obesity research
(#) refute the contention that the causes of obesity are purely physiological
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
-. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat percent of the total population in the :nited ;tates is obese%
(B) &hat psychological factors cause people to gain weight rapidly once they go
off a diet%
(C) &hat function does nitrogen perform in the body%
() )ow is an indi'idual4s desirable eight determined%
(#) 3f a snack bar contains 1.5 calories and 0 grams of fat/ what percentage of the
calories in the bar come from fat%
6. The author mentions all of the following as factors that cause obese people to
abandon diets #DC#@T
(A) depression
(B) increased lipid synthesis
(C) a negati'e nitrogen balance
() ener'ation
(#) a lower metabolic rate
,. &hich of the following/ if it could be demonstrated/ would most strengthen the
claim that the feeding patterns of children *can determine the adolescent and
adult eating habits those children will de'elop+ (lines 11(12)%
(A) The incidence of obesity in children whose parents are both obese is 65
percent.
(B) Thirty(si$ percent of infants who are obese during their first half year of life
are also o'erweight between the ages of 25 and .2.
(C) #$cessi'e weight gain during the teen years can set the stage for a lifetime
battle against the bulge.
() :p to 65 percent of youngsters who are fat as 1(year(olds end up fat as adults.
(#) The a'erage child witnesses more than 11/555 commercials a year for snacks/
candy/ and soft drinks laden with fat/ sugar/ and calories.
Passage 94 (9/15)
The mpressonst panters expressy dsavowed any nterest n phosophy, yet
ther new approach to art had far-reachng phosophca mpcatons. For the vew
of matter that the Impressonsts assumed dffered profoundy from the vew that
had prevousy prevaed among artsts. Ths vew heped to unfy the artstc
works created n the new stye.
The ancent Greeks had conceved of the word n concrete terms, even
endowng abstract quates wth bodes. Ths Greek vew of matter perssted, so
far as pantng was concerned, nto the nneteenth century. The Impressonsts, on
the other hand, vewed ght, not matter, as the utmate vsua reaty. The
phosopher Tane expressed the Impressonst vew of thngs when he sad, "The
GMAT 21-
chef person n a pcture s the ght n whch everythng s bathed."
In Impressonst pantng, sod bodes became mere refectors of ght, and
dstnctons between one ob|ect and another became arbtrary conventons; for by
ght a thngs were weded together. The treatment of both coor and outne was
transformed as we. Coor, formery consdered a property nherent n an ob|ect,
was seen to be merey the resut of vbratons of ght on the ob|ects cooress
surface. And outne, whose functon had formery been to ndcate the mts of
ob|ects, now marked nstead merey the boundary between unts of pattern, whch
often merged nto one another.
The Impressonst word was composed not of separate ob|ects but of many
surfaces on whch ght struck and was refected wth varyng ntensty to the eye
through the atmosphere, whch modfed t. It was ths process that produced the
mosac of coors that formed an Impressonst canvas. "Lght becomes the soe
sub|ect of the pcture," wrtes Maucar. "The nterest of the ob|ect upon whch t
pays s secondary. Pantng thus conceved becomes a purey optc art."
From ths profoundy revoutonary form of art, then, a deas-regous,
mora, psychoogca-were excuded, and so were a emotons except certan
aesthetc ones. The peope, paces, and thngs depcted n an Impressonst pcture
do not te story or convey any speca meanng; they are, nstead, merey parts of
pattern of ght drawn from nature and captured on canvas by the artst.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining how the 3mpressionists were influenced by scientific studies of
light and color
(B) discussing the philosophical implications of the 3mpressionist style of
painting
(C) identifying the re'olutionary artistic techni"ues de'eloped by the
3mpressionist painters
() analy!ing the influence of thinkers like Taine and ?auclair on 3mpressionist
painting
(#) defending the importance of the 3mpressionist painters in the history of
modern art
2. According to the passage/ the 3mpressionists differed from the ancient Breeks in
that the 3mpressionists
(A) considered color to be property inherent in ob<ects
(B) placed a higher 'alue on the narrati'e element in painting
(C) depicted the ob<ects in a painting as isolated/ rather than united in a single
pattern
() treated light/ rather than matter/ as the ultimate reality
(#) regarded art primarily as a medium for e$pressing moral and aesthetic ideas
216 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
.. The author4s "uotation of a statement by Taine (lines 11(12) ser'es which of the
following functions in the passage%
(A) 3t furnishes a specific e$ample of an 3mpressionist painting that features light
as its chief sub<ect.
(B) 3t resol'es an apparent contradiction in the philosophy of the 3mpressionists.
(C) 3t "ualifies the statement that the ancient Breeks 'iewed the world in concrete
terms.
() 3t summari!es the uni"ue perspecti'e that the 3mpressionists brought to
painting.
(#) 3t pro'ides a concrete illustration of the far(reaching philosophical
implications of 3mpressionism.
0. According to the passage/ the 3mpressionists belie'ed that the atmosphere
(A) reflects light with 'arying intensity
(B) creates the illusion of color in colorless surfaces
(C) modifies the shapes of ob<ects
() is the result of 'ibrations of light
(#) affects the way we percei'ed color
1. The author4s use of the term *mosaic of colors+ (line .2) suggests that
3mpressionist paintings were characteri!ed by
(A) discontinuous dabs of unmi$ed pigment
(B) broad/ sweeping brush strokes
(C) clearly defined forms and ob<ects
() sub<ects de'oid of emoti'e or literary "ualities
(#) the glowing reds/ greens/ and midnight blues of stained glass
2. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
3. )ow did the 3mpressionists percei'e matter%
33. &hat is the unifying element in a typical 3mpressionist painting%
33. )ow did the 3mpressionists4 'iew of color differ from that of eighteenth(
century artists%
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
-. The ideas attributed to the 3mpressionists in the passage suggest that an
3mpressionist painter would be most likely to agree with which of the following
statement%
GMAT 21,
(A) A picture is significant primarily as a manifestation of the artist4s mental state.
(B) The highest purpose of art is to teach religious truths.
(C) The "uality of a picture has nothing to do with the nature of the ob<ects it
depicts.
() An artist should stri'e to recreate on can'as the inner nature of ob<ects from
real life.
(#) 3t is futile to attempt to paint pictures that aim to copy the optical appearance
of the world.
Passage 95 (10/15)
Radaton occurs from three natura sources: radoactve matera n the
envronment, such as n so, rock, or budng materas; cosmc rays; and
substances n the human body, such as radoactve potassum n bone and
radoactve carbon n tssues. These natura sources account for an exposure of
about 100 mrems a year for the average Amercan.
The argest snge source of man-made radaton s medca X rays, yet most
scentsts agree that hazards from ths source are not as great as those from
weapons test faout, snce strontum 90 and carbon 14 become ncorporated nto
the body, hence deverng radaton for an entre fetme. The ssue s, however,
by no means uncontroversa. The ast two decades have wtnessed ntensfed
examnaton and dspute about the effects of ow-eve radaton, begnnng wth
the Unted Natons Scentfc Commttee on the Effects of Atomc Radaton, whch
reported n 1958 that "even the smaest amounts of radaton are key to cause
deeterous genetc and perhaps aso somatc effects."
A survey conducted n Brtan confrmed that an abnormay hgh percentage
of patents sufferng from arthrts of the spne who had been treated wth X rays
contracted cancer. Another study reveaed a hgh ncdence of chdhood cancer n
cases where the mother had been gven prenata pevc X rays. These studes
have ponted to the need to reexamne the assumpton that exposure to ow-near
energy transfer presents ony a mnor rsk.
Recenty, examnaton of the death certfcates of former empoyees of a West
Coast pant that produces putonum for nucear weapons reveaed markedy
hgher rates for cancers of the pancreas, ung, bone marrow, and ymphatc
system than woud have been expected n a norma popuaton.
Whe the Natona Academy of Scences commttee attrbutes ths dfference
to chemca or other envronmenta causes rather than radaton, other scentsts
mantan that any radaton exposure, no matter how sma, eads to an ncrease n
cancer rsk. It s beeved by some that a dose of one rem, f sustaned over many
generatons, woud ead to an ncrease of 1 percent n the number of serous
genetc defects at brth, a possbe ncrease of 1,000 dsorders per mon brths.
In the meantme, reguatory efforts have been dsorganzed, fragmented,
225 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
nconsstent, and characterzed by nternecne strfe and bureaucratc deays. A
Senate report concuded that coordnaton of reguaton among nvoved
departments and agences was not possbe because of |ursdctona dsputes and
confuson. One federa agency has been unsuccessfu n ts efforts to obtan
suffcent fundng and manpower for the enforcement of exstng radaton aws,
and the charperson of a pane especay created to deveop a coordnated federa
program has resgned.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain the difference between natural and man(made radiation
(B) arouse concern about the risks connected with e$posure to radiation
(C) critici!e the :nited 9ations ;cientific Committee on the #ffects of Atomic
=adiation
() ad'ocate limiting the use of atomic weapons testing/ since the fallout is
e$tremely ha!ardous
(#) publici!e the results of British medical sur'ey
2. &hich of the following/ according to the passage/ is a list of three natural sources
of radiation%
(A) =adioacti'e potassium in bone/ strontium ,5/ uranium ore
(B) Carbon 10 in tissues/ cosmic rays/ D rays
(C) Cosmic rays/ radioacti'e potassium in bones/ radioacti'e carbon in tissues
() @lutonium/ radioacti'e material in rock/ strontium ,5
(#) D rays/ carbon 10/ plutonium
.. &hich of the following does the author cite in support of the "uotation from the
:nited 9ations ;cientific Committee on the #ffects of Atomic =adiation (lines
16(25)%
3. ;trontium ,5 and carbon 10 become incorporated into the body and deli'er
radiation for an entire lifetime.
33. An abnormally high percentage of patients with arthritis of the spine who
were treated with D rays subse"uently contracted cancer.
333. A high incidence of cancer appeared among children of mothers who had
been gi'en prenatal pel'ic D rays.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) )ow many millirems of radiation from man(made sources is the a'erage
GMAT 221
American e$posed to each year%
(B) 3s e$posure to radiation linked to any other diseases besides cancer%
(C) )ow many types of radiation are there%
() &hat is the ma$imum le'el of radiation to which humans can safely be
e$posed%
(#) &hy is e$posure to the fallout from weapons testing considered by some to be
more ha!ardous than e$posure to D rays%
1. According to the passage/ some scientists belie'e that a dose of one rem of
radiation continued o'er a period of generations would
(A) raise the strontium ,5 le'els in the body but otherwise ha'e little effect
(B) relie'e the acute suffering of those afflicted with arthritis of the spine without
side effects
(C) ha'e the effect of increasing by 1 percent the cases of serious genetic defects
() ha'e little impact on the regulatory efforts of federal agencies
(#) cause an additional 1/555 per million cases of cancer of the bone marrow or
lymphatic system
2. 3t can be inferred from the last paragraph of the passage that the chairperson who
resigned from the panel to de'elop a coordinated federal program for radiation
regulation most likely did so because
(A) he or she disagreed with the findings of the ;enate committee
(B) his or her agency could not obtain funding or manpower for implementation
of e$isting laws
(C) he or she supported the position of the 9ational Academy of ;ciences
committee and opposed regulation of radiation e$posure
() he or she was disorgani!ed and inconsistent in chairing the panel
(#) regulatory efforts ha'e been balked by disputes/ confusion/ and bureaucratic
delays
-. The passage contains e'idence suggesting that it was most likely written
(A) in 1,16
(B) by a British scientist
(C) for the <ournal of the 9ational Academy of ;ciences
() by a lobbyist for the defense industry
(#) in the late 1,-5s
6. The passage implies that each of the following statements about radiation has
been disputed #DC#@T%
(A) #'en small doses of radiation are likely to cause birth defects.
(B) #$posure to low(linear energy transfer presents only a minor risk.
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) ?any small doses of radiation are as harmful as a single large dose.
() )umans can tolerate a certain amount of radiation.
(#) #$posure to radiation causes cancer.
Passage 96 (11/15)
Many readers assume that, as a neocassca terary crtc, Samue |ohnson
woud normay prefer the abstract, the forma, and the reguated to the concrete,
the natura, and the spontaneous n a work of terature. Yet any cose readng of
|ohnsons crtcsm shows that |ohnson s not bnd to the mportance of the
mmedate, vvd, specfc deta n terature; rather, he woud underscore the
need for the telling rather than the merey accidental deta.
In other ways, too, |ohnsons crtca method had much n common wth that
of the Romantcs, wth whom |ohnson and, ndeed, the entre neocassca tradton
are generay supposed to be n confct. |ohnson was we aware, for exampe, of
the sterty of terary crtcsm that s egastc or pedantc, as was the case wth
the worst products of the neocassca schoo. Hs famous argument aganst the
savsh foowng of the "three untes" of cassca drama s a good exampe, as s
hs defense of the supposedy egtmate "tragcomc" mode of Shakespeares
atest pays. Note, n partcuar, the bass of that defense: "That ths s a practce
contrary to the rues of crtcsm," |ohnson wrote, "w be ready aowed; but
there s aways an appea from crtcsm to nature."
The sentment thus expressed coud easy be endorsed by any of the
Romantcs; the emprcsm t exempfes s vta quaty of |ohnsons crtcsm, as s
the wngness to |ettson "aws" of crtcsm when to do so makes possbe a more
drect appea to the emotons of the reader. Addsons Cato, hghy prased n
|ohnsons day for ts "correctness," s damned wth fant prase by |ohnson: "Cato
affords a spendd exhbton of artfca and fcttous manners, and devers |ust
and nobe sentments, n dcton easy, eevated, and harmonous, but ts hopes
and fears communcate no vbraton to the heart." Wordsworth coud hardy
demur.
Even on the queston of poetc dcton, whch, accordng to the usua
nterpretaton of Wordsworths 1800 preface to the 'yrical Ballads, was the centra
area of confct between Romantc and Augustan, |ohnsons vews are surprsngy
"modern." In hs 'ife of -ryden, he defends the use of a speca dcton n poetry,
t s true; but hs reasons are a-mportant. For |ohnson, poetc dcton shoud
serve the ends of drect emotona mpact and ease of comprehenson, not those
of fase profundty or grandosty. "Words too famar," he wrote, "or too remote,
defeat the purpose of a poet. From those sounds whch we hear on sma or on
coarse occasons, we do not easy receve strong mpressons, or deghtfu
mages; and words to whch we are neary strangers, whenever they occur, draw
GMAT 22.
that attenton on themseves whch they shoud transmt to thngs." If the poetc
dcton of the neocassca poets, at ts worst, erects needess barrers between
reader and meanng, that envsoned by |ohnson woud do |ust the opposte: t
woud put the reader n coser contact wth the "thngs" that are the poems
sub|ect.
1. The author of the passage de'elops her points about Aohnson primarily by
(A) contrasting Aohnson4s critical methods with those of his contemporaries
(B) citing specific illustrations drawn from Aohnson4s work
(C) alluding to contemporary comments about Aohnson4s theories
() "uoting Aohnson4s remarks about the critical approaches pre'alent in his own
day
(#) emphasi!ing the fallacies inherent in the most common 'iew of Aohnson
2. The passage implies that the <udging of literary works according to preconcei'ed
rules
(A) tends to lessen the effecti'eness of much modern literary criticism
(B) is the primary distinguishing mark of the neoclassical critic
(C) was the primary neoclassical techni"ue against which the =omantics rebelled
() is the underlying basis of much of Aohnson4s critical work
(#) characteri!es e$amples of the worst neoclassical criticism
.. The passage implies that the neoclassical critics generally condemned
(A) ;hakespeare4s use of the *tragicomic+ (line 16) literary mode
(B) the sla'ish following of the *three unities+ (line 12) in drama
(C) attempts to <udge literary merit on the basis of *correctness+ (line 26)
() artificiality and abstraction in literary works
(#) the use of a special diction in the writing of poetry
0. According to the author/ Aohnson4s defense of ;hakespeare4s latest plays
illustrates Aohnson4s reliance on which of the following in his criticism%
(A) The sentiments endorsed by the =omantics
(B) The criteria set forth by &ordsworth in his 1655 preface to the yrical
%allads
(C) The precedents established by the Breek and =oman playwrights of the
Classical Age
() The principles followed by the neoclassical school of criticism
(#) )is own e$perience and <udgment
1. According to the passage/ Aohnson4s opinion of Addison4s Cato was
(A) roundly condemnatory
(B) somewhat self(contradictory
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(C) ultimately negati'e
() effusi'ely adulatory
(#) uncharacteristically bold
2. According to the passage/ Aohnson4s 'iews on the use of a special diction in the
writing of poetry were
(A) *modern+ in their re<ection of a clear(cut di'ision between the diction of
poetry and that of prose
(B) *neoclassical+ in their emphasis on the use of language that appeals directly
to the emotions of the reader
(C) *=omantic+ in their defense of the idea that a special diction for poetry could
be stylistically effecti'e
() *modern+ in their underlying concern for the impact of the literary work on
the sensibility of the reader
(#) *neoclassical+ in their emphasis on ease of comprehension as a literary 'irtue
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in addition to being a literary critic/
Aohnson was also a
(A) surprisingly modern poet
(B) poet in the Augustan mode
(C) dramatist
() biographer
(#) naturalist
6. &hich one of the following statements best summari!es the main point of the
passage%
(A) Although many of Aohnson4s critical opinions resemble those of the
neoclassical critics/ his basic concerns are closer to those of the =omantics.
(B) The usual classification of Aohnson as a member of the neoclassical school of
criticism is based on an inaccurate e'aluation of his critical theories and
ideals.
(C) The =omantic critics were mistaken in their belief that the critical ideas they
formulated represented a departure from those propounded by Aohnson.
() Although many of Aohnson4s critical opinions resemble those of the =omantic
critics/ his basic concerns are closer to those of the neoclassical critics.
(#) Aohnson4s literary criticism represents an attempt to unify the best elements of
the neoclassical and the =omantic schools of criticism.
,. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) defending a reputation
(B) reconciling conflicting 'iews
(C) comparing two schools of thought
GMAT 221
() challenging an assumption
(#) presenting new e'idence in support of an established theory
Passage 97 (12/15)
The dea of budng "New Towns" to absorb growth s frequenty consdered a
cure-a for urban probems. It s erroneousy assumed that f new resdents can be
dverted from exstng centers, the present urban stuaton at east w get no
worse. It s further and equay erroneousy assumed that snce European New
Towns have been fnancay and socay successfu, we can expect the same sorts
of resuts n the Unted States.
Present pannng, thnkng, and egsaton w not produce the knds of New
Town that have been successfu abroad. It w mutpy suburbs or encourage
deveopments n areas where and s cheap and constructon proftabe rather
than where New Towns are genuney needed.
Such -consdered pro|ects not ony w fa to reeve pressures on exstng
ctes but w, n fact, tend to weaken those ctes further by drawng away hgh-
ncome ctzens and ncreasng the concentraton of ow-ncome groups that are
unabe to provde tax ncome. The remanng taxpayers, accordngy, w face
ncreasng burdens, and ndustry and commerce w seek escape. Unfortunatey,
ths mechansm s aready at work n some metropotan areas.
The promoters of New Towns so far n the Unted States have been
deveopers, buders, and fnanca nsttutons. The man nterest of these
promoters s economc gan. Furthermore, federa reguatons desgned to promote
the New Town dea do not consder soca needs as the European New Town pans
do. In fact, our reguatons specfy vrtuay a the ngredents of the typca
suburban communty, wth a bt of potca rhetorc thrown n.
A workabe Amercan New Town formua shoud be estabshed as frmy here
as the natona formua was n Brtan. A possbe soca and governmenta
nnovatons as we as fnanca factors shoud be thoroughy consdered and
accommodated n ths pocy. Its ob|ectves shoud be ceary stated, and both
ncentves and penates shoud be provded to ensure that the ob|ectves are
pursued. If such a pocy s deveoped, then the New Town approach can pay an
mportant roe n aevatng Amercas urban probems.
1. The passage contains information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) &here did the idea of 9ew Towns originate%
(B) )ow does Britain4s 9ew Town formula differ from that of other #uropean
countries%
(C) &hat is the purpose of building 9ew Towns%
() &hat incenti'es and penalties will be necessary to make a 9ew Town
formula workable%
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) &hy ha'e #uropean 9ew Towns been financially successful%
2. The author belie'es that 9ew Towns are not being built where they are genuinely
needed because
(A) the go'ernment offers de'elopers incenti'es to build in other areas
(B) the promoters of 9ew Town are moti'ated chiefly by self(interest
(C) few people want to li'e in areas where land is still cheap
() no studies ha'e been done to determine the best locations
(#) federal regulations make construction in those areas less profitable
.. According to the author/ ill(considered 9ew Towns will tend to weaken e$isting
cities in which of the following ways%
3. They will cause an erosion in the ta$ base of e$isting cities.
33. The will di'ert residents from e$isting cities to other areas.
333. They will increase the number of low(income residents in e$isting cities.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
0. According to the passage/ as compared with American 9ew Towns/ #uropean
9ew Towns ha'e been designed with greater concern for
(A) social needs
(B) financial factors
(C) urban congestion
() the profits of de'elopers and builders
(#) the en'ironment
1. The author4s tone in discussing *de'elopers/ builders/ and financial institutions+
(lines 21(22) can best be described as
(A) critical
(B) pedantic
(C) e'asi'e
() captious
(#) 'itriolic
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about suburbs%
(A) They are a panacea for urban problems.
(B) They will soon be plagued by the same problems that now plague cities.
GMAT 22-
(C) They are poor models for 9ew Towns.
() They dri'e up property 'alues in inner cities.
(#) They alle'iate some/ but not all/ of America4s urban problems.
-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the present American
9ew Town formula to be
(A) thoroughly considered
(B) insufficiently inno'ati'e
(C) potentially workable
() o'erly restricti'e
(#) financially sound
6. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) arguing for a change in policy
(B) e$ploring the implications of no'el idea
(C) comparing and contrasting two manifestations of the same phenomenon
() proposing a radically new solution to an old problem
(#) summari!ing recent research on a topic
Passage 98 (13/15)
In reacton to a rgd, overrefned cassca currcuum, some educatona
phosophers have swung sharpy to an espousa of "fe experence" as the soe
source of earnng. Usng ther narrow nterpretaton of |ohn Deweys theores for
support and spoutng such phrases as "Teach the chd, not the sub|ect," they
demand an end to rgorous study and nsst that ony through dong can earnng
take pace. Whe not a adherents to ths phosophy woud totay emnate the
study of great books, the gradua subordnaton of terature n the schoo
currcuum refects ther nfuence.
What s the purpose of terature? Why read f fe aone s to be our teacher?
|ames |oyce tes us that the artst reveas the human condton by re-creatng fe
out of fe; Arstote, that art presents unversa truths because ts form s taken
from nature. Thus, conscousy or otherwse, great wrters extend our
understandng of ourseves and our word. We can soar wth them to the heghts
of aspraton or pummet wth them to the depths of despar. How much wder s
the understandng we gan from readng than from vewng fe through the
keyhoe of our ndvdua experence.
Ths functon of terature, the enargng of our fe sphere, s of ma|or
mportance n tsef. Addtonay, however, terature suggests soutons to soca
probems. The overweenng ambtons of potca eaders-and ther sneerng
contempt for the aw-dd not appear for the frst tme n the wrtngs of Bernsten
and Woodward. The probems and behavor of the gut-rdden dd not awat the
226 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
appearance of the bearded psychoanaysts of the nneteenth century.
Federa |udge Learned Hand wrote, "I venture to beeve that t s as mportant
to a |udge caed upon to pass on a queston of consttutona aw, to have at east
a bowng acquantance wth Thucyddes, Gbbon, and Carye, wth Homer, Dante,
Shakespeare, and Mton, wth Montagne and Rabeas, wth Pato, Bacon, Hume,
and Kant, as wth the books whch have been specfcay wrtten on the sub|ect.
For n such matters everythng turns upon the sprt n whch he approaches the
questons before hm."
How do we overcome our dssenter? We must start wth the fed of
agreement: the beef that educaton shoud serve to mprove the ndvdua and
socety. We must persuade our dssenters that the voces of human experence
stretch our human facutes and open us to earnng. We must convnce them of
the unty of fe and art. We must prove to them that far from beng separate,
terature s that part of fe that umnes fe.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) list the writers who make up the backbone of a great literature curriculum
(B) e$plain the function of literature
(C) ad'ocate the adoption of a new philosophy of education
() plead for the retention of great literature as a fundamental part of the school
curriculum
(#) o'ercome the opposition of ewey4s followers to the inclusion of
contemporary literature in the curriculum
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers those who belie'e in
*Flife e$perience4 as the sole source of learning+ (line .) to be
(A) practical
(B) progressi'e
(C) misguided
() infle$ible
(#) ignorant
.. Based on the information in the passage/ with which of the following statements
about education would Aohn ewey be most likely to agree%
(A) #ducation should be a continuous reconstruction of li'ing e$perience/ with
the child the center of concern.
(B) #ducation is the imparting of knowledge/ not the drawing out of what is
already in the child.
(C) Though rigid/ the classical curriculum has ser'ed us well for centuries and
should be restored.
() The purpose of education is to correct the ine"ualities brought about by the
rise of ci'ili!ation.
GMAT 22,
(#) Children should be taught only the skills and knowledge they need to get
ahead.
0. The author implies that children who learn e$clusi'ely by doing are likely to
(A) be good problem sol'ers but poor <udges
(B) be more guilt(ridden than those who learn both by doing and reading
(C) ha'e below(a'erage reading skills
() belie'e that art has nothing to do with life
(#) ha'e a myopic 'iew of themsel'es and the world
1. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph of
the passage%
(A) An idea is reiterated/ a new idea is introduced/ and two supporting e$amples
are gi'en.
(B) The preceding paragraph is summari!ed and conclusions are drawn.
(C) A new idea is introduced/ the idea is "ualified/ and the implications of the
idea are analy!ed.
() The main idea of the preceding paragraph is restated/ and e'idence is gi'en to
support it.
(#) Two functions of literature are identified/ and an e$ample of each is gi'en.
2. The author "uotes Audge Kearned )and (lines .2(01 primarily in order to
(A) call attention to the writing of Thucydides and Carlyle
(B) support the point that literature broadens the reader4s understanding
(C) point out that constitutional law is a part of the great literature of the past
() show that e'eryone/ including <udges/ en<oys reading
(#) gi'e specific e$amples of writers who ha'e suggested solutions to social
problems
-. &hich of the following could best be substituted for the words *the sub<ect+ (line
.,) in the "uotation from Audge )and without altering the meaning of the
"uotation%
(A) The "uestion of constitutional law before the <udge
(B) The contempt of political leaders for the law
(C) ;ocial problems
() The liberal arts/ specifically history/ literature/ and philosophy
(#) The human condition
6. The passage supplies information to suggest that the author and the educational
philosophers mentioned in the first paragraph would agree that
(A) learning is the key to adaptability in an e'er(changing en'ironment
(B) the traditional classroom should be transformed into a learning laboratory
2-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) the purpose of education is to impro'e society as well as the indi'idual
() one must know history in order to understand the present and the future
(#) the primary aim of education is the transmission of culture
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author makes which of the following
assumptions about his readers%
(A) They belie'e that schools should reflect society.
(B) They belie'e that the sub<ect/ not the child/ should be taught.
(C) They fa'or a return to the classical curriculum.
() They share his 'iew that the study of great books is essential to education.
(#) They belie'e that only through reading can learning take place.
Passage 99 (14/15)
Methods for typng bood were deveoped around the turn of the century,
about the same tme that fngerprnts were frst used for dentfcaton. Ony n the
ast decade or two, however, have scentsts begun to beeve that genetc
markers n bood and other body fuds may someday prove as usefu n crme
detecton as fngerprnts.
The standard ABO bood typng has ong been used as a form of negatve
dentfcaton. Added sophstcaton came wth the dscovery of addtona
subgroups of genetc markers n bood and wth the dscovery that genetc
markers are present not ony n bood but aso n other body fuds, such as
perspraton and sava.
These dscoveres were of tte use n crme detecton, however, because of
the crcumstances n whch poce scentsts must work. Rather than a pentfu
sampe of bood freshy drawn from a patent, the crme aboratory s key to
receve ony a tny feck of dred bood of unknown age from an unknown "donor"
on a shrt or a scrap of rag that has spent hours or days exposed to ar, hgh
temperature, and other contamnants.
Brtsh scentsts found a method for dentfyng genetc markers more
precsey n sma sampes. In ths process, caed eectrophoress, a sampe s
paced on a tray contanng a ge through whch an eectrca current s then
passed. A traned anayst reads the resutng patterns n the ge to determne the
presence of varous chemca markers.
Eectrophoress made t possbe to dentfy severa thousand subgroups of
bood types rather than the tweve known before. However, the equpment and
speca tranng requred were expensve. In addton, the process coud ead to the
destructon of evdence. For exampe, repeated tests of a bood-fecked shrt-one
for each marker-ed to ncreasng deteroraton of the evdence and the cost of a
week or more of aboratory tme.
It remaned for another Brtsh researcher, Bran Wrexa, to demonstrate that
GMAT 2-1
smutaneous anayses, usng an nexpensve eectrophoress apparatus, coud test
for ten dfferent genetc markers wthn a 24-hour perod. Ths deveopment made
the study of bood and other fud sampes an even more vauabe too for crme
detecton.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with describing
(A) how ad'ances in crime detection methods ha'e led to new disco'eries in
science
(B) 'arious ways in which crime detection laboratories assist the police
(C) the de'elopment of new scientific tools for use in crime detection
() areas of current research in the science of crime detection
(#) de'elopments in genetic research and their application to crime detection
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that electrophoresis resembles fingerprinting
in that both
(A) pro'ide a form of negati'e identification in crime detection
(B) were first de'eloped by British scientists
(C) may be used to help identify those who were present at the time of a crime
() were de'eloped by scientists at around the same time
(#) must be employed almost immediately after a crime to be effecti'e
.. The author sets off the word *Fdonor4+ (line 16) with "uotation marks in order to
(A) emphasi!e that most of the blood samples recei'ed by crime laboratories
come from anonymous sources
(B) underscore the contrast between the work done in a crime laboratory and that
done in a blood bank
(C) call attention to the fact that/ because of underfunding/ crime laboratories are
forced to rely on charitable contributions
() show that the word is being used in a technical/ rather than a general/ sense
(#) indicate that the blood samples recei'ed by crime laboratories are not gi'en
freely
0. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) 3s e'idence of genetic markers in bodily fluids admissible in court%
(B) Can electrophoresis be used to identify genetic markers in sali'a%
(C) )ow many subgroups of blood types are currently identifiable%
() )ow accurate is the process of electrophoresis%
(#) )ow many tests for genetic markers must police scientists run in order to
establish the identity of a criminal%
1. According to the passage/ all of the following may reduce the usefulness of a
2-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
fluid sample for crime detection #DC#@T
(A) the passage of time
(B) discoloration or staining
(C) e$posure to heat
() the small si!e of the sample
(#) e$posure to contaminants
2. The passage implies that electrophoresis may help scientists determine
(A) whether or not a sample of blood could ha'e come from a particular person
(B) the age and condition of a dried specimen of blood or other bodily fluid
(C) when and where a crime was probably committed
() the cause of death in homicide cases
(#) the age/ gender/ and ethnic background of an unknown criminal suspect
-. According to the passage/ Brian &re$all4s refinement of electrophoresis led to
(A) more accurate test results
(B) easier a'ailability of fluid samples
(C) wider applicability of genetic analysis
() increased costs of testing
(#) more rapid testing
6. &hich of the following statements about genetic markers can be inferred from the
passage%
3. They carry an electrical charge.
33. They cannot be identified through standard AB8 blood typing.
333. They were of no use in crime detection before the in'ention of
electrophoresis.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Passage 100 (15/15)
The deegates to the Consttutona Conventon were reasts. They knew that
the greatest battes woud take pace after the conventon, once the Consttuton
had aready been drafted and sgned. The deegates had overstepped ther
bounds. Instead of amendng the Artces of Confederaton by whch the Amercan
states had prevousy been governed, they had proposed an entrey new
government. Under these crcumstances, the conventon was understandaby
GMAT 2-.
reuctant to submt ts work to the Congress for approva.
Instead, the deegates decded to pursue what amounted to a revoutonary
course. They decared that ratfcaton of the new Consttuton by nne states
woud be suffcent to estabsh the new government. In other words, the
Consttuton was beng submtted drecty to the peope. Not even the Congress,
whch had caed the conventon, woud be asked to approve ts work.
The eaders of the conventon shrewdy wshed to bypass the state
egsatures, whch were attached to states rghts and whch requred n most
cases the agreement of two houses. For speedy ratfcaton of the Consttuton,
the snge-chambered, specay eected state ratfyng conventons offered the
greatest promse of agreement.
Batte nes were qucky drawn. The Federasts, as the supporters of the
Consttuton were caed, had one sod advantage: they came wth a concrete
proposa. Ther opponents, the Antfederasts, came wth none. Snce the
Antfederasts were opposng somethng wth nothng, ther ob|ectons, though
sncere, were bascay negatve. They stood for a pocy of drft whe the
Federasts were provdng cear eadershp.
Furthermore, athough the Antfederasts camed to be the democratc group,
ther opposton to the Consttuton dd not necessary sprng from a more
democratc vew of government. Many of the Antfederasts were as dstrustfu of
the common peope as ther opponents. In New York, for exampe, Governor
George Cnton crtczed the peope for ther fckeness and ther tendency to
"vbrate from one extreme to another." Ebrdge Gerry of Massachusetts, who
refused to sgn the Consttuton, asserted that "the evs we experence fow from
the excess of democracy," and |ohn F. Mercer of Maryand professed tte fath n
hs neghbors as voters when he sad that "the peope cannot know and |udge the
character of canddates."
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) contrasting the opposing sides in a battle
(B) analy!ing the effects of an e'ent
(C) urging a reassessment of history
() critici!ing the opponents of a plan
(#) describing the background of conflict
2. According to the passage/ the delegates to the Constitutional Con'ention did not
submit their work to Congress for appro'al because
(A) they knew that most members of congress would want to broaden the powers
of the national go'ernment
(B) it was unclear whether Congress had the legal right to offer or withhold such
appro'al
(C) they considered it more democratic to appeal directly to the citi!ens of the
2-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
separate states
() they belie'ed that Congress would not accept the sweeping changes they had
proposed
(#) Congress was dominated by a powerful group of Antifederalist leaders
.. According to the passage/ in contrast to most state legislatures/ state ratifying
con'entions were
(A) elected
(B) unicameral
(C) characteri!ed by strong leadership
() nearly unanimous in their support of the new Constitution
(#) opposed to states4 rights
0. The author characteri!es the leaders of the Constitutional Con'ention as
(A) shrewd and 'isionary
(B) liberal and enlightened
(C) radical and idealistic
() cle'er and pragmatic
(#) elo"uent and persuasi'e
1. 3n stating that the Antifederalists *were opposing something with nothing+ (line
26)/ the author suggests that the Antifederalists
(A) based most of their arguments on their antidemocratic sentiments
(B) lacked leaders who were as articulate as the >ederalist leaders
(C) were unable to rally significant support for their position among the populace
() had few reasonable arguments to put forth in support of their position
(#) offered no alternati'e plan of go'ernment of their own
2. &hich of the following statements about #lbridge Berry can be inferred from the
passage%
(A) )e was a delegate to the ?assachusetts state ratifying con'ention.
(B) )e was a delegate to the Constitutional Con'ention.
(C) )e was the architect of the *policy of drift+ (line .5) ad'ocated by the
Antifederalists.
() )e claimed to ha'e a more democratic 'iew of go'ernment than the
>ederalists.
(#) )e was one of the leaders of the Antifederalist @arty.
-. The author4s "uotation of Aohn >. ?ercer (lines 0.(01) ser'es which of the
following functions in the passage%
(A) 3t summari!es the last paragraph.
GMAT 2-1
(B) 3t furnishes a concrete e$ample.
(C) 3t articulates the main point of the passage.
() 3t clarifies the preceding "uotation.
(#) 3t e$presses a general conclusion.
6. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage%
(A) i'ided Keadership at the Constitutional Con'ention
(B) )ow the Constitution Became Kaw
(C) The :.;. ConstitutionE 3ts ;trengths and &eaknesses
() The Battle for =atification of the Constitution
(#) The Ciews of the Antifederalists on emocracy
OG 17Passages
Passage 101 (1/17)
Two recent pubcatons offer dfferent assessment of the career of the famous
Brtsh nurse Forence Nghtngae. A book by Anne Summers seeks to debunk the
deazatons and present a reaty at odds wth Nghtngaes heroc reputaton.
Accordng to Summers, Nghtngaes mportance durng the Crmean War has
been exaggerated: not unt near the wars end dd she become supervsor of the
femae nurses. Addtonay, Summers wrtes that the contrbuton of the nurses to
the reef of the wounded was at best margna. The prevang probems of
mtary medcne were caused by army organzatona practces, and the addton
of a few nurses to the medca staff coud be no more than symboc. Nghtngaes
pace n the natona pantheon, Summers asserts, s argey due to the
propagandstc efforts of contemporary newspaper reporters.
By contrast, the edtors of a new voume of Nghtngaes etters vew
Nghtngae as a person who sgnfcanty nfuenced not ony her own age but aso
subsequent generatons. They hghght her ongong efforts to reform santary
condtons after the war. For exampe, when she earned that peacetme vng
condtons n Brtsh barracks were so horrbe that the death rate of ensted men
far exceeded that of neghborng cvan popuatons, she succeeded n
persuadng the government to estabsh a Roya Commsson on the Heath of the
Army. She used sums rased through pubc contrbutons to found a nurses
tranng hospta n London. Even n admnstratve matters, the edtors assert, her
practca ntegence was formdabe: as recenty as 1947 the Brtsh Armys
medca servces were st usng the cost-accountng system she had devsed n
the 1860s.
I beeve that the evdence of her etters supports contnued respect for
Nghtngaes brance and creatvty. When counseng a vage schoomaster to
encourage chdren to use ther facutes of observaton, she sounds ke a modern
2-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
educator. Her nsstence on cassfyng the probems of the needy n order to
devse approprate treatments s smar to the approach of modern soca workers.
In sum, athough Nghtngae may not have acheved a of her goas durng the
Crmean War, her breadth of vson and abty to reaze ambtous pro|ects have
earned her an emnent pace among the ranks of soca poneers.
-.. The passage is primarily concerned with e'aluating
(A) the importance of >lorence 9ightingale4s inno'ations in the field of nursing
(B) contrasting approaches to the writing of historical biography
(C) contradictory accounts of >lorence 9ightingale4s historical significance
() the "uality of health care in nineteenth(century #ngland
(#) the effect of the Crimean &ar on de'elopments in the field of health care
-0. According to the passage/ the editors of 9ightingale4s letters credit her with
contributing to which of the following%
(A) 3mpro'ing of the sur'i'al rate for soldiers in British Army hospitals during
the Crimean &ar
(B) The de'elopment of a nurses4 training curriculum that was far in ad'ance of
its day
(C) The increase in the number of women doctors practicing in British Army
hospitals
() #stablishment of the first facility for training nurses at a ma<or British
uni'ersity
(#) The creation of an organi!ation for monitoring the peacetime li'ing
conditions of British soldiers
-1. The passage suggests which of the following about 9ightingale4s relationship
with the British public of her day%
(A) ;he was highly respected/ her pro<ects recei'ing popular and go'ernmental
support.
(B) ;he encountered resistance both from the army establishment and the general
public.
(C) ;he was supported by the working classes and opposed by the wealthier
classes.
() ;he was supported by the military establishment but had to fight the
go'ernmental bureaucracy.
(#) After initially being recei'ed with enthusiasm/ she was "uickly forgotten.
-2. The passage suggests which of the following about sanitary conditions in Britain
after the Crimean &ar%
(A) &hile not ideal/ they were superior to those in other parts of the world.
(B) Compared with conditions before the war/ they had deteriorated.
GMAT 2--
(C) They were more ad'anced in rural areas than in the urban centers.
() They were worse in military camps than in the neighboring ci'ilian
populations.
(#) They were uniformly crude and unsatisfactory throughout #ngland.
--. &hich of the following statements regarding the differing interpretations of
9ightingale4s importance would the author most likely agree%
(A) ;ummers misunderstood both the importance of 9ightingale4s achie'ements
during the Crimean &ar and her subse"uent influence on British policy.
(B) The editors of 9ightingale4s letters made some 'alid points about her
practical achie'ements/ but they still e$aggerated her influence on
subse"uent generations.
(C) Although ;ummers4 account of 9ightingale4s role in the Crimean &ar may be
accurate/ she ignored e'idence of 9ightingales4 subse"uent achie'ement that
suggests that her reputation as an eminent social reformer is well deser'ed.
() The editors of 9ightingale4s letters mistakenly propagated the outdated
ideali!ation of 9ightingale that only impedes attempts to arri'e at a balance
assessment of her true role.
(#) The e'idence of 9ightingale4s letters supports ;ummers4 conclusions both
about 9ightingale4s acti'ities and about her influence.
-6. &hich of the following is an assumption underlying the author4s assessment of
9ightingale4s creati'ity%
(A) #ducational philosophy in 9ightingale4s day did not normally emphasi!e
de'eloping children4s ability to obser'e.
(B) 9ightingale was the first to notice the poor li'ing conditions in British
military barracks in peacetime.
(C) 9o educator before 9ightingale had thought to enlist the help of 'illage
schoolmasters in introducing new teaching techni"ues.
() :ntil 9ightingale began her work/ there was no concept of organi!ed help for
the needy in nineteenth(century Britain.
(#) The British Army4s medical ser'ices had no cost(accounting system until
9ightingale de'ised one in the 16254s.
-,. 3n the last paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) summari!ing the arguments about 9ightingale presented in the first two
paragraphs
(B) refuting the 'iew of 9ightingale4s career presented in the preceding paragraph
(C) analy!ing the weaknesses of the e'idence presented elsewhere in the passage
() citing e'idence to support a 'iew of 9ightingale4s career
(#) correcting a factual error occurring in one of the works under re'iew
2-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Passage 102 (2/17)
A meteor stream s composed of dust partces that have been e|ected from a
parent comet at a varety of veoctes. These partces foow the same orbt as
the parent comet, but due to ther dfferng veoctes they sowy gan on or fa
behnd the dsntegratng comet unt a shroud of dust surrounds the entre
cometary orbt. Astronomers have hypotheszed that a meteor stream shoud
broaden wth tme as the dust partces ndvdua orbts are perturbed by
panetary gravtatona feds. A recent computer-modeng experment tested ths
hypothess by trackng the nfuence of panetary gravtaton over a pro|ected
5,000-year perod on the postons of a group of hypothetca dust partces. In the
mode, the partces were randomy dstrbuted throughout a computer smuaton
of the orbt of an actua meteor stream, the Gemnd. The researcher found, as
expected, that the computer-mode stream broadened wth tme. Conventona
theores, however, predcted that the dstrbuton of partces woud be
ncreasngy dense toward the center of a meteor stream. Surprsngy, the
computer-mode meteor stream graduay came to resembe a thck-waed, hoow
ppe.
Whenever the Earth passes through a meteor stream, a meteor shower
occurs. Movng at a tte over 1,500,000 mes per day around ts orbt, the Earth
woud take, on average, |ust over a day to cross the hoow, computer-mode
Gemnd stream f the stream were 5,000 years od. Two bref perods of peak
meteor actvty durng the shower woud be observed, one as the Earth entered
the thck-waed "ppe" and one as t exted. There s no reason why the Earth
shoud aways pass through the streams exact center, so the tme nterva
between the two bursts of actvty woud vary from one year to the next.
Has the predcted twn-peaked actvty been observed for the actua yeary
Gemnd meteor shower? The Gemnd data between 1970 and 1979 show |ust
such a bfurcaton, a secondary burst of meteor actvty beng ceary vsbe at an
average of 19 hours (1,200,000 mes) after the frst burst. The tme ntervas
between the bursts suggest the actua Gemnd stream s about 3,000 years od.
65. The primary focus of the passage is on which of the following%
(A) Comparing two scientific theories and contrasting the predictions that each
would make concerning a natural phenomenon
(B) escribing a new theoretical model and noting that it e$plains the nature of
obser'ations made of a particular natural phenomenon
(C) #'aluating the results of a particular scientific e$periment and suggesting
further areas for research
() #$plaining how two different natural phenomena are related and
demonstrating a way to measure them
(#) Analy!ing recent data deri'ed from obser'ations of an actual phenomenon
GMAT 2-,
and constructing a model to e$plain the data
61. According to the passage/ which of the following is an accurate statement
concerning meteor streams%
(A) ?eteor streams and comets start out with similar orbits/ but only those of
meteor streams are perturbed by planetary gra'itation.
(B) ?eteor streams grow as dust particles are attracted by the gra'itational fields
of comets.
(C) ?eteor streams are composed of dust particles deri'ed from comets.
() Comets may be composed of se'eral kinds of materials/ while meteor streams
consist only of large dust particles.
(#) 8nce formed/ meteor streams hasten the further disintegration of comets.
62. The author states that the research described in the first paragraph was undertaken
in order to
(A) determine the age of an actual meteor stream
(B) identify the 'arious structural features of meteor streams
(C) e$plore the nature of a particularly interesting meteor stream
() test the hypothesis that meteor streams become broader as they age
(#) show that a computer model could help in e$plaining actual astronomical data
6.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would most
probably be obser'ed during the #arth4s passage through a meteor stream if the
con'entional theories mentioned in line 16 were correct%
(A) ?eteor acti'ity would gradually increase to a single/ intense peak/ and then
gradually decline.
(B) ?eteor acti'ity would be steady throughout the period of the meteor shower.
(C) ?eteor acti'ity would rise to a peak at the beginning and at the end of the
meteor shower.
() =andom bursts of 'ery high meteor acti'ity would be interspersed with
periods of 'ery little acti'ity.
(#) 3n years in which the #arth passed through only the outer areas of a meteor
stream/ meteor acti'ity would be absent.
60. According to the passage/ why do the dust particles in a meteor stream e'entually
surround a comet4s original orbit%
(A) They are e<ected by the comet at differing 'elocities.
(B) Their orbits are uncontrolled by planetary gra'itational fields.
(C) They become part of the meteor stream at different times.
() Their 'elocity slows o'er time.
(#) Their e<ection 'elocity is slower than that of the comet.
265 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
61. The passage suggests that which of the following is a prediction concerning
meteor streams that can be deri'ed from both the con'entional theories
mentioned in line 16 and the new computer(deri'ed theory%
(A) ust particles in a meteor stream will usually be distributed e'enly
throughout any cross section of the steam.
(B) The orbits of most meteor streams should cross the orbit of the #arth at some
point and gi'e rise to a meteor shower.
(C) 8'er time the distribution of dust in a meteor stream will usually become
denser at the outside edges of the stream than at the center.
() ?eteor showers caused by older meteor streams should be/ on a'erage/
longer in duration than those caused by 'ery young meteor streams.
(#) The indi'idual dust particles in older meteor streams should be/ on a'erage/
smaller than those that compose younger meteor streams.
62. 3t can be inferred from the last paragraph of the passage that which of the
following must be true of the #arth as it orbits the ;un%
(A) ?ost meteor streams it encounters are more than 2/555 years old.
(B) &hen passing through a meteor stream/ it usually passes near to the stream4s
center.
(C) 3t crosses the Beminid meteor stream once e'ery year.
() 3t usually takes o'er a day to cross the actual Beminid meteor stream.
(#) 3t accounts for most of the gra'itational perturbation affecting the Beminid
meteor stream.
6-. &hich of the following is an assumption underlying the last sentence of the
passage%
(A) 3n each of the years between 1,-5 and 1,-,/ the #arth took e$actly 1, hours
to cross the Beminid meteor stream.
(B) The comet associated with the Beminid meteor stream has totally
disintegrated.
(C) The Beminid meteor stream should continue to e$ist for at least 1/555 years.
() The Beminid meteor stream has not broadened as rapidly as the con'entional
theories would ha'e predicted.
(#) The computer(model Beminid meteor stream pro'ides an accurate
representation of the de'elopment of the actual Beminid stream.
Passage 103 (3/17)
The new schoo of potca hstory that emerged n the 1960s and 1970s
sought to go beyond the tradtona focus of potca hstorans on eaders and
government nsttutons by examnng drecty the potca practces of ordnary
ctzens. Lke the od approach, however, ths new approach excuded women. The
GMAT 261
very technques these hstorans used to uncover mass potca behavor n the
nneteenth-century Unted States-quanttatve anayses of eecton returns, for
exampe-were useess n anayzng the potca actvtes of women, who were
dened the vote unt 1920.
By redefnng "potca actvty," hstoran Paua Baker has deveoped a
potca hstory that ncudes women. She concudes that among ordnary ctzens,
potca actvsm by women n the nneteenth century prefgured trends n
twenteth-century potcs. Defnng "potcs" as "any acton taken to affect the
course of behavor of government or of the communty," Baker concudes that,
whe votng and hodng offce were restrcted to men, women n the nneteenth
century organzed themseves nto socetes commtted to soca ssues such as
temperance and poverty. In other words, Baker contends, women actvsts were
eary practtoners of nonpartsan, ssue-orented potcs and thus were more
nterested n enstng awmakers, regardess of ther party affaton, on behaf of
certan ssues than n ensurng that one party or another won an eecton. In the
twenteth century, more men drew coser to womens deas about potcs and
took up modes of ssue-orented potcs that Baker sees women as havng
poneered.
1.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) enumerate reason why both traditional scholarly methods and newer scholarly
methods ha'e limitations
(B) identify a shortcoming in a scholarly approach and describe an alternati'e
approach
(C) pro'ide empirical data to support a long(held scholarly assumption
() compare two scholarly publications on the basis of their authors4 backgrounds
(#) attempt to pro'ide a partial answer to a long(standing scholarly dilemma
1.2. The passage suggests which of the following concerning the techni"ues used by
the new political historians described in the first paragraph of the passage%
(A) They in'ol'ed the e$tensi'e use of the biographies of political party leaders
and political theoreticians.
(B) They were concei'ed by political historians who were reacting against the
political climates of the 1,25s and 1,-5s.
(C) They were of more use in analy!ing the positions of :nited ;tates political
parties in the nineteenth century than in analy!ing the positions of those in
the twentieth century.
() They were of more use in analy!ing the political beha'ior of nineteenth(
century 'oters than in analy!ing the political acti'ities of those who could
not 'ote during that period.
(#) They were de'ised as a means of tracing the influence of nineteenth(century
political trends on twentieth(century political trends.
262 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1... 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage "uotes Baker directly in the
second paragraph primarily in order to
(A) clarify a position before pro'iding an alternati'e of that position
(B) differentiate between a no'el definition and traditional definitions
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of a point agreed on by different generations of scholars
() pro'ide an e$ample of the prose style of an important historian
(#) amplify a definition gi'en in the first paragraph
1.0. According to the passage/ @aula Baker and the new political historians of the
1,254s and 1,-54s shared which of the following%
(A) A commitment to interest(group politics
(B) A disregard for political theory and ideology
(C) An interest in the ways in which nineteenth(century politics prefigured
contemporary politics
() A reliance on such "uantitati'e techni"ues as the analysis of election returns
(#) An emphasis on the political in'ol'ement of ordinary citi!ens
1.1. &hich of the following best describes the structure of the first paragraph of the
passage%
(A) Two scholarly approaches are compared/ and a shortcoming common to both
is identified.
(B) Two ri'al schools of thought are contrasted/ and a third is alluded to.
(C) An outmoded scholarly approach is described/ and a correcti'e approach is
called for.
() An argument is outlined/ and counterarguments are mentioned.
(#) A historical era is described in terms of its political trends.
1.2. The information in the passage suggests that a pre(1,254s political historian
would ha'e been most likely to undertake which of the following studies%
(A) An analysis of 'oting trends among women 'oters of the 1,254s
(B) A study of male 'oters4 gradual ideological shift from party politics to issue(
oriented politics
(C) A biography of an influential nineteenth(century minister of foreign affairs
() An analysis of narrati'es written by pre'iously unrecogni!ed women acti'ists
(#) A study of 'oting trends among naturali!ed immigrant laborers in a
nineteenth(century logging camp
Passage 104 (4/17)
New observatons about the age of some gobuar custers n our Mky Way
gaaxy have cast doubt on a ong-hed theory about how the gaaxy was formed.
GMAT 26.
The Mky Way contans about 125 gobuar custers (compact groups of anywhere
from severa tens of thousands to perhaps a mon stars) dstrbuted n a roughy
spherca hao around the gaactc nuceus. The stars n these custers are beeved
to have been born durng the formaton of the gaaxy, and so may be consdered
recs of the orgna gaactc nebua, hodng vta cues to the way the formaton
took pace.
The conventona theory of the formaton of the gaaxy contends that roughy
12 to 13 bon years ago the Mky Way formed over a reatvey short tme (about
200 mon years) when a spherca coud of gas coapsed under the pressure of
ts own gravty nto a dsc surrounded by a hao. Such a rapd formaton of the
gaaxy woud mean that a stars n the hao shoud be very neary the same age.
However, the astronomer Mchae Bote has found consderabe varaton n
the ages of gobuar custers. One of the custers studed by Bote s 2 bons
years oder than most other custers n the gaaxy, whe another s 2 bon years
younger. A coeague of Bote contends that the custer caed Paomar 12 s 5
bon years younger than most other gobuar custers.
To expan the age dfferences among the gobuar custers, astronomers are
takng a second ook at "renegade" theores. One such newy fashonabe theory,
frst put forward by Rchard Larson n the eary 1970s, argues that the hao of the
Mky Way formed over a perod of a bon or more years as hundreds of sma gas
couds drfted about, coded, ost orbta energy, and fnay coapsed nto a
centray condensed eptca system. Larsons concepton of a "umpy and
turbuent" protogaaxy s compemented by computer modeng done n the
1970s by mathematcan Aan Toomre, whch suggests that cosey nteractng
spra gaaxes coud ose enough orbta energy to merge nto a snge gaaxy.
1.-. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) the importance of determining the age of globular clusters in assessing when
the ?ilky &ay gala$y was formed
(B) recent changes in the procedure used by astronomers to study the formation
of the ?ilky &ay gala$y
(C) current disputes among astronomers regarding the si!e and form of the ?ilky
&ay gala$y
() the effect of new disco'eries regarding globular clusters on theories about the
formation of the ?ilky &ay gala$y
(#) the origin/ nature/ and significance of groups of stars known as globular
clusters
1.6. According to the passage/ one way in which Karson4s theory and the con'entional
theory of the formation of the ?ilky &ay gala$y differs is in their assessment of
the
(A) amount of time it took to form the gala$y
260 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) si!e of the gala$y immediately after its formation
(C) particular gas in'ol'ed in the formation of the gala$y
() importance of the age of globular clusters in determining how the gala$y was
formed
(#) shape of the halo that formed around the gala$y
1.,. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be most useful in supporting the
conclusions drawn from recent obser'ations about globular clusters%
(A) There is firm e'idence that the absolute age of the ?ilky &ay gala$y is
between 15 and 1- billion years.
(B) A sur'ey re'eals that a gala$y close to the ?ilky &ay gala$y contains
globular clusters of ages close to the age of @alomar 12.
(C) A mathematical model pro'es that small gas clouds mo'e in regular patterns.
() ;pace probes indicate that the stars in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are composed of
se'eral different types of gas.
(#) A study of o'er 1/155 indi'idual stars in the halo of the ?ilky &ay gala$y
indicates wide discrepancies in there ages.
105. 3f Bolte and his colleague are both correct/ it can be inferred that the globular
cluster @alomar 12 is appro$imately
(A) 1 billion years younger than any other cluster in the gala$y
(B) the same age as most other clusters in the gala$y
(C) - billion years younger than another cluster in the gala$y
() 12 billion years younger than most other clusters in the gala$y
(#) 2 billion years younger than most other clusters in the gala$y
101. The passage suggests that Toomre4s work complements Karson4s theory because
it
(A) specifies more precisely the time frame proposed by Karson
(B) subtly alters Karson4s theory to make it more plausible
(C) supplements Karson4s hypothesis with direct astronomical obser'ations
() pro'ides theoretical support for the ideas suggested by Karson
(#) e$pands Karson4s theory to make it more widely applicable
102. &hich of the following most accurately states a finding of Bolte4s research/ as
described in the passage%
(A) The globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are 2 billion years older than
predicted by the con'entional theory.
(B) The ages of at least some globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y differ by
at least 0 billion years.
(C) 8ne of the globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y is 1 billion years
GMAT 261
younger than most others.
() The globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are significantly older than the
indi'idual stars in the halo.
(#) ?ost globular clusters in the ?ilky &ay gala$y are between 11 and 11 billion
years old.
10.. The author of the passage puts the word *renegade+ (line 2,) in "uotation marks
most probably in order to
(A) emphasi!e the lack of support for the theories in "uestion
(B) contrast the contro'ersial "uality of the theories in "uestion with the
respectable character of their formulators
(C) generate skepticism about the theories in "uestion
() ridicule the scientists who once doubted the theories in "uestion
(#) indicate that the theories in "uestion are no longer as uncon'entional as they
once seemed
Passage 105 (5/17)
Durng the 1960s and 1970s, the prmary economc deveopment strategy of
oca governments n the Unted States was to attract manufacturng ndustres.
Unfortunatey, ths strategy was usuay mpemented at another communtys
expense: many manufacturng factes were ured away from ther moorngs
esewhere through tax ncentves and sck promotona efforts. Through the
transfer of |obs and reated revenues that resuted from ths practce, one towns
trumph coud become another towns tragedy.
In the 1980s the strategy shfted from ths zero-sum game to one caed
"hgh-technoogy deveopment," n whch oca governments competed to attract
newy formed hgh-technoogy manufacturng frms. Athough ths approach was
preferabe to vctmzng other geographca areas by takng ther |obs, t aso had
ts shortcomngs: hgh-tech manufacturng frms empoy ony a specay traned
fracton of the manufacturng workforce, and there smpy are not enough hgh-
tech frms to satsfy a geographc areas.
Recenty, oca governments have ncreasngy come to recognze the
advantages of yet a thrd strategy: the promoton of homegrown sma busnesses.
Sma ndgenous busnesses are created by a neary ubqutous resource, oca
entrepreneurs. Wth roots n ther communtes, these ndvduas are ess key to
be entced away by ncentves offered by another communty. Indgenous ndustry
and taent are kept at home, creatng an envronment that both provdes |obs and
fosters further entrepreneurshp.
100. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) ad'ocate more effecti'e strategies for encouraging the de'elopment of high(
technology enterprises in the :nited ;tates
262 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) contrast the incenti'es for economic de'elopment offered by local
go'ernments with those offered by the pri'ate sector
(C) acknowledge and counter ad'erse criticism of programs being used to
stimulate local economic de'elopment
() define and e$plore promotional efforts used by local go'ernments to attract
new industry
(#) re'iew and e'aluate strategies and programs that ha'e been used to stimulate
economic de'elopment
101. The passage suggests which of the following about the ma<ority of :nited ;tates
manufacturing industries before the high(technology de'elopment era of the
1,654s%
(A) They lost many of their most inno'ati'e personnel to small entrepreneurial
enterprises.
(B) They e$perienced a ma<or decline in profits during the 1,254s and 1,-54s.
(C) They could pro'ide real economic benefits to the areas in which they were
located.
() They employed workers who had no speciali!ed skills.
(#) They acti'ely interfered with local entrepreneurial 'entures.
102. The tone of the passage suggests that the author is most optimistic about the
economic de'elopment potential of which of the following groups%
(A) Kocal go'ernments
(B) )igh(technology promoters
(C) Kocal entrepreneurs
() ?anufacturing(industry managers
(#) #conomic de'elopment strategists
10-. The passage does 98T state which of the following about local entrepreneurs%
(A) They are found nearly e'erywhere.
(B) They encourage further entrepreneurship.
(C) They attract out(of(town in'estors.
() They employ local workers.
(#) They are established in their communities.
106. The author of the passage mentions which of the following as an ad'antage of
high(technology de'elopment%
(A) 3t encourages the moderni!ation of e$isting manufacturing facilities.
(B) 3t promotes healthy competition between ri'al industries.
(C) 3t encourages the growth of related industries.
() 3t takes full ad'antage of the e$isting workforce.
GMAT 26-
(#) 3t does not ad'antage one local workforce at the e$pense of another.
Passage 106 (6/17)
Researchers compared the number of tooth fractures n present-day
carnvores wth tooth fractures n carnvores that ved 36,000 to 10,000 years ago
and that were preserved n the Rancho La Brea tar pts n Los Angees. The
breakage frequences n the extnct speces were strkngy hgher than those n
the present-day speces.
In consderng possbe expanatons for ths fndng, the researchers dsmssed
demographc bas because oder ndvduas were not overrepresented n the foss
sampes. They re|ected preservatona bas because a tota absence of breakage
n two extnct speces demonstrated that the fractures were not the resut of
abrason wthn the pts. They rued out oca bas because breakage data obtaned
from other Pestocene stes were smar to the La Brea data. The expanaton
they consder most pausbe s behavora dfferences between extnct and
present-day carnvores-n partcuar, more contact between the teeth of
predators and the bones of prey due to more thorough consumpton of carcasses
by the extnct speces. Such thorough carcass consumpton mpes to the
researchers ether that prey avaabty was ow, at east seasonay, or that there
was ntense competton over ks and a hgh rate of carcass theft due to reatvey
hgh predator denstes.
2.1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present se'eral e$planations for a well(known fact
(B) suggest alternati'e method of resol'ing a debate
(C) argue in fa'or of a contro'ersial theory
() "uestion the methodology used in a study
(#) discuss the implications of a research finding
2.2. The passage suggests that/ compared with @leistocene carni'ores in other areas/
@leistocene carni'ores in the Ka Brea area
(A) included the same species/ in appro$imately the same proportions
(B) had a similar fre"uency of tooth fractures
(C) populated the Ka Brea more densely
() consumed their preys more thoroughly
(#) found it harder to obtain sufficiency prey
2... According to the passage/ the researchers belie'es that the high fre"uency of
tooth breakage in carni'ores found at Ka Brea was caused primarily by
(A) the aging process in indi'idual carni'ores
(B) contact between the fossils in the pits
266 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) poor preser'ation of the fossils after they were remo'ed from the pits
() the impact of carni'ores4 teeth against the bones of their prey
(#) the impact of carni'ores4 teeth against the bones of other carni'ores during
fights o'er kills
2.0. The researchers4 conclusion concerning the absence of demographic bias would
be most seriously undermined if it were found that
(A) the older as indi'idual carni'ore is/ the more likely it is to ha'e a large
number of tooth fractures
(B) the a'erage age at death of a present(day carni'ores is greater than was the
a'erage age at death of a @leistocene carni'ore
(C) in @leistocene carni'ore species/ older indi'iduals consumed carcasses as
thoroughly as did younger indi'iduals
() the methods used to determine animals4 ages in fossil samples tend to
misidentify many older indi'iduals as younger indi'iduals
(#) data concerning the ages of fossil samples cannot pro'ide reliable information
about beha'ioral differences between e$tinct carni'ores and present(day
carni'ores
2.1. The passage suggests that if the researchers had not found that two e$tinct
carni'ore species were free of tooth breakage/ the researchers would ha'e
concluded that
(A) the difference in breakage fre"uencies could ha'e been the result of damage
to the fossil remains in the Ka Brea pits
(B) the fossils in other @leistocene sites could ha'e higher breakage fre"uencies
than do the fossils in the Ka Brea pits
(C) @leistocene carni'ore species probably beha'ed 'ery similarly to one another
with respect to consumption of carcass
() all @leistocene carni'ores species differed beha'iorally from present(day
carni'ore species
(#) predator densities during the @leistocene era were e$tremely high
Passage 107 (7/17)
Durng the nneteenth-century, occupatona nformaton about women that
was provded by the Unted States census-a popuaton count conducted each
decade-became more detaed and precse n response to soca changes.
Through 1840, smpe enumeraton by househod mrrored a home-based
agrcutura economy and herarchca soca order: the head of the househod
(presumed mae or absent) was specfed by name, whereas other househod
members were ony ndcated by the tota number of persons counted n varous
categores, ncudng occupatona categores. Lke farms, most enterprses were
GMAT 26,
famy-run, so that the census measured economc actvty as an attrbute of the
entre househod, rather than of ndvduas.
The 1850 census, party respondng to antsavery and womens rghts
movements, ntated the coecton of specfc nformaton about each ndvdua n
a househod. Not unt 1870 was occupatona nformaton anayzed by gender: the
census superntendent reported 1.8 mon women empoyed outsde the home n
"ganfu and reputabe occupatons." In addton, he arbtrary attrbuted to each
famy one woman "keepng house." Overap between the two groups was not
cacuated unt 1890, when the rapd entry of women nto the pad abor force and
soca ssues arsng from ndustrazaton were causng womens advocates and
women statstcans to press for more thorough and accurate accountng of
womens occupatons and wages.
2.2. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain and criti"ue the methods used by early statisticians
(B) compare and contrast a historical situation with a current(day one
(C) describe and e$plain a historical change
() discuss historical opposition to an established institution
(#) trace the origin of a contemporary contro'ersy
2.-. #ach of the following aspects of nineteenth(century :nited ;tates censuses is
mentioned in the passage #DC#@T the
(A) year in which data on occupations began to be analy!ed by gender
(B) year in which specific information began to be collected on indi'iduals in
addition to the head of the household
(C) year in which o'erlap between women employed outside the home and
women keeping house was first calculated
() way in which the 16,5 census measured women4s income le'els and
educational backgrounds
(#) way in which household members were counted in the 1605 census
2.6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the 1605 :nited ;tates census pro'ided a
count of which of the following%
(A) &omen who worked e$clusi'ely in the home
(B) @eople engaged in nonfarming occupations
(C) @eople engaged in social mo'ements
() &omen engaged in family(run enterprises
(#) ?en engaged in agriculture
2.,. The author uses the ad<ecti'e *simple+ in line 1 most probably to emphasi!e that
the
(A) collection of census information became progressi'ely more difficult
2,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
throughout the nineteenth(century
(B) technology for tabulating census information was rudimentary during the first
half of the nineteenth century
(C) home(based agricultural economy of the early nineteenth century was easier
to analy!e than the later industrial economy
() economic role of women was better defined in the early nineteenth century
than in the late nineteenth century
(#) information collected by early(nineteen(century censuses was limited in its
amount of detail
205. The passage suggests which of the following about the *women4s ad'ocates and
women statisticians+ mentioned in lines 2-(26%
(A) They wanted to call attention to the lack of pay for women who worked in the
home.
(B) They belie'ed that pre'ious census information was inade"uate and did not
reflect certain economic changes in the :nited ;tates.
(C) They had begun to press for changes in census(taking methods as part of their
participation in the antisla'ery mo'ement.
() They thought that census statistics about women would be more accurate if
more women were employed as census officials.
(#) They had conducted independent studies that disputed the official statistics
pro'ided by pre'ious :nited ;tates censuses.
Passage 108 (8/17)
The modern mutnatona corporaton s descrbed as havng orgnated when
the owner-managers of nneteenth-century Brtsh frms carryng on nternatona
trade were repaced by teams of saared managers organzed nto herarches.
Increases n the voume of transactons n such frms are commony beeved to
have necesstated ths structura change. Nneteenth-century nventons ke the
steamshp and the teegraph, by factatng coordnaton of managera actvtes,
are descrbed as key factors. Sxteenth- and seventeenth-century chartered
tradng companes, despte the nternatona scope of ther actvtes, are usuay
consdered rreevant to ths dscusson: the voume of ther transactons s
assumed to have been too ow and the communcatons and transport of ther day
too prmtve to make comparsons wth modern mutnatonas nterestng.
In reaty, however, eary tradng companes successfuy purchased and
outftted shps, but and operated offces and warehouses, manufactured trade
goods for use abroad, mantaned tradng posts and producton factes overseas,
procured goods for mport, and sod those goods both at home and n other
countres. The arge voume of transactons assocated wth these actvtes seems
to have necesstated herarchca management structures we before the advent
GMAT 2,1
of modern communcatons and transportaton. For exampe, n the Hudsons Bay
Company, each far-fung tradng outpost was managed by a saared agent, who
carred out the trade wth the Natve Amercans, managed day-to-day operatons,
and oversaw the posts workers and servants. One chef agent, answerabe to the
Court of Drectors n London through the correspondence commttee, was
apponted wth contro over a of the agents on the bay.
The eary tradng companes dd dffer strkngy from modern mutnatonas
n many respects. They depended heavy on the natona governments of ther
home countres and thus characterstcay acted abroad to promote natona
nterests. Ther top managers were typcay owners wth a substanta mnorty
share, whereas senor managers hodngs n modern mutnatonas are usuay
nsgnfcant. They operated n a pre-ndustra word, graftng a system of
captast nternatona trade onto a pre-modern system of artsan and peasant
producton. Despte these dfferences, however, eary tradng companes
organzed effectvey n remarkaby modern ways and mert further study as
anaogues of more modern structures.
201. The author4s main point is that
(A) modern multinationals originated in the si$teenth and se'enteenth centuries
with the establishment of chartered trading companies
(B) the success of early chartered trading companies/ like that of modern
multinationals/ depended primarily on their ability to carry out comple$
operations
(C) early chartered trading companies should be more seriously considered by
scholars studying the origins of modern multinationals
() scholars are "uite mistaken concerning the origins of modern multinationals
(#) the management structures of early chartered trading companies are
fundamentally the same as those of modern multinationals
202. According to the passage/ early chartered trading companies are usually described
as
(A) irrele'ant to a discussion of the origins of the modern multinational
corporation
(B) interesting but ultimately too unusually to be good sub<ects for economic
study
(C) analogues of nineteenth(century British trading firms
() rudimentary and 'ery early forms of the modern multinational corporation
(#) important national institutions because they e$isted to further the political
aims of the go'ernments of their home countries
20.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would characteri!e the
acti'ities engaged in by early chartered trading companies as being
(A) comple$ enough in scope to re"uire a substantial amount of planning and
2,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
coordination on the part of management
(B) too simple to be considered similar to those of a modern multinational
corporation
(C) as intricate as those carried out by the largest multinational corporations today
() often unprofitable due to slow communications and unreliable means of
transportation
(#) hampered by the political demands imposed on them by the go'ernments of
their home countries
200. The author lists the 'arious acti'ities of early chartered trading companies in
order to
(A) analy!e the 'arious ways in which these acti'ities contributed to changes in
management structure in such companies
(B) demonstrate that the 'olume of business transactions of such companies
e$ceeded that of earlier firms
(C) refute the 'iew that the 'olume of business undertaken by such companies
was relati'ely low
() emphasi!e the international scope of these companies4 operations
(#) support the argument that such firms coordinated such acti'ities by using
a'ailable means of communication and transport
201. &ith which of the following generali!ations regarding management structures
would the author of the passage most probably agree%
(A) )ierarchical management structures are the most efficient management
structures possible in a modern conte$t.
(B) >irms that routinely ha'e a high 'olume of business transactions find it
necessary to adopt hierarchical management structures.
(C) )ierarchical management structures cannot be successfully implemented
without modern communications and transportation.
() ?odern multinational firms with a relati'ely small 'olume of business
transactions usually do not ha'e hierarchically organi!ed management
structures.
(#) Companies that adopt hierarchical management structures usually do so in
order to facilitate e$pansion into foreign trade.
202. The passage suggests that modern multinationals differ from early chartered
trading companies in that
(A) the top managers of modern multinationals own stock in their own companies
rather than simply recei'ing a salary
(B) modern multinationals depend on a system of capitalist international trade
rather than on less modern trading systems
(C) modern multinationals ha'e operations in a number of different foreign
GMAT 2,.
counties rather than merely in one or two
() the operations of modern multinationals are highly profitable despite the
more stringent en'ironmental and safety regulations of modern go'ernments
(#) the o'erseas operations of modern multinationals are not go'erned by the
national interests of their home countries
20-. The author mentions the artisan and peasant production systems of early
chartered trading companies as an e$ample of
(A) an area of operations of these companies that was unhampered by
rudimentary systems of communications and transport
(B) a similarity that allows fruitful comparison of these companies with modern
multinationals
(C) a positi'e achie'ement of these companies in the face of 'arious difficulties
() a system that could not ha'e emerged in the absence of management
hierarchies
(#) a characteristic that distinguishes these companies from modern
multinationals
206. The passage suggests that one of the reasons that early chartered trading
companies deser'e comparison with early modern multinationals is
(A) the degree to which they both depended on new technology
(B) the similar nature of their management structures
(C) similarities in their top managements4 degree of ownership in the company
() their common dependence on political stability abroad in order to carry on
foreign operations
(#) their common tendency to re'olutioni!e systems of production
Passage 109 (9/17)
In an unfnshed but hghy suggestve seres of essays, the ate Sarah
Esensten has focused attenton on the evouton of workng womens vaues from
the turn of the century to the Frst Word War. Esensten argues that turn-of-the-
century women nether whoy accepted nor re|ected what she cas the domnant
"deoogy of domestcty," but rather took ths and other avaabe deooges-
femnsm, socasm, trade unonsm-and modfed or adapted them n ght of
ther own experences and needs. In thus mantanng that wage-work heped to
produce a new "conscousness" among women, Esensten to some extent
chaenges the recent, controversa proposa by Lese Tenter that for women the
work experence ony served to renforce the attractveness of the domnant
deoogy. Accordng to the Tenter, the degradng condtons under whch many
femae wage earners worked made them vew the famy as a source of power and
esteem avaabe nowhere ese n ther soca word. In contrast, Esenstens study
2,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
nssts that wage-work had other mpcatons for womens denttes and
conscousness. Most mportanty, her work ams to demonstrate that wage-work
enabed women to become aware of themseves as a dstnct soca group capabe
of defnng ther coectve crcumstance. Esensten nssts that as a group
workng-cass women were not abe to come to coectve conscousness of ther
stuaton unt they began enterng the abor force, because domestc work tended
to soate them from one another.
Unfortunatey, Esenstens unfnshed study does not deveop these deas n
suffcent depth or deta, offerng tantazng hnts rather than an exhaustve
anayss. Whatever Esenstens overa pan may have been, n ts current form
her study suffers from the mted nature of the sources she depended on. She
uses the speeches and wrtngs of reformers and abor organzers, who she
acknowedges were far from representatve, as the voce of the typca woman
worker. And there s ess than adequate attenton gven to the dfferng vaues of
mmgrant groups that made up a sgnfcant proporton of the popuaton under
nvestgaton. Whe rasng mportant questons, Esenstens essays do not
provde defntve answer, and t remans for others to take up the chaenges they
offer.
20,. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) critici!e a scholar4s assumptions and methodology
(B) e'aluate an approach to women4s study
(C) compare two sociological theories
() correct a misconception about feminist theory
(#) defend an unpopular ideology
215. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in #isenstein4s 'iew/ working women at
the turn of the century had which of the following attitudes toward the dominant
ideology of their time%
(A) They resented the dominant ideology as degrading.
(B) They preferred the dominant ideology to other a'ailable ideologies.
(C) They began to 'iew the dominant ideology more fa'orably as a result of their
e$periences in the labor force.
() They accepted some but not all aspects of the dominant ideology.
(#) They belie'ed that the dominant ideology isolated them from one another.
211. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph of
the passage%
(A) A chronological account of a historical de'elopment is presented/ and then
future de'elopments are predicted.
(B) A term is defined according to se'eral different schools of thought/ and then a
new definition is formulated.
GMAT 2,1
(C) A theory is presented/ an alternati'e 'iewpoint is introduced/ and then the
reasoning behind the initial theory is summari!ed.
() A tentati'e proposal is made/ reasons for and against it are weighed/ and then
a modified 'ersion of the proposal is offered.
(#) A contro'ersy is described/ its historical implications are assessed/ and then a
compromise is suggested.
212. &hich of the following would the author of the passage be most likely to appro'e
as a continuation of #isenstein4s study%
(A) An oral history of prominent women labor organi!ers
(B) An analysis of letters and diaries written by typical female wage earners at the
turn of the century
(C) An assessment of what different social and political groups defined as the
dominant ideology in the early twentieth century
() A theoretical study of how socialism and feminism influenced one another at
the turn of the century
(#) A documentary account of labor4s role in the introduction of women into the
labor force
Passage 110 (10/17)
Neotropca coasta mangrove forests are usuay "zona," wth certan
mangrove speces found predomnanty n the seaward porton of the habtat and
other mangrove speces on the more andward portons of the coast. The earest
research on mangrove forests produced descrptons of speces dstrbuton from
shore to and, wthout exporng the causes of the dstrbutons.
The dea that zonaton s caused by pant successon was frst expressed by |.
H. Davs n a study of Forda mangrove forests. Accordng to Davs scheme, the
shorene s beng extended n a seaward drecton because of the "and-budng"
roe of mangroves, whch, by trappng sedments over tme, extend the shore. As
a habtat graduay becomes more nand as the shore extends, the "and-
budng" speces are repaced. Ths contnuous process of accreton and
successon woud be nterrupted ony by hurrcanes or storm fushngs.
Recenty the unversa appcaton of Davs successon paradgm has been
chaenged. It appears that n areas where weak currents and weak tda energes
aow the accumuaton of sedments, mangroves w foow and formaton and
acceerate the rate of so accreton; successon w proceed accordng to Davs
scheme. But on stabe coastnes, the dstrbuton of mangrove speces resuts n
other patterns of zonaton; "and budng" does not occur.
To fnd a prncpe that expans the varous dstrbuton patterns, severa
researchers have ooked to santy and ts effects on mangrove. Whe mangroves
can deveop n fresh water, they can aso thrve n santes as hgh as 2.5 tmes
2,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
that of seawater. However, those mangrove speces found n freshwater habtats
do we ony n the absence of competton, thus suggestng that santy toerance
s a crtca factor n compettve success among mangrove speces. Research
suggests that mangroves w normay domnate hghy sane regons, athough
not because they requre sat. Rather, they are metabocay effcent (and hence
grow we) n portons of an envronment whose hgh santy excudes pants
adapted to ower santes. Tdes create dfferent degrees of santy aong a
coastne. The characterstc mangrove speces of each zone shoud exhbt a
hgher metaboc effcency at that santy than w any potenta nvader,
ncudng other speces of mangrove.
21.. The primary of the purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute the idea that the !onation e$hibited in mangro'e forests is caused by
adaptation to salinity
(B) describe the pattern of !onation typically found in >lorida mangro'e forests
(C) argue that a'is4 succession paradigm cannot be successfully applied to
>lorida mangro'e forests
() discuss hypotheses that attempt to e$plain the !onation of coastal mangro'e
forests
(#) establish that plants that do well in saline forest en'ironments re"uire salt to
achie'e ma$imum metabolic efficiency
210. According to the passage/ the earliest research on mangro'e forest produced
which of the following%
(A) ata that implied random patterns of mangro'e species distribution
(B) escriptions of species distributions suggesting !onation
(C) escriptions of the de'elopment of mangro'e forests o'er time
() =eclassification of species formerly thought to be identical
(#) ata that confirmed the *land(building+ role of mangro'es
211. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a'is4 paradigm does 98T apply to
which of the following%
(A) The shoreline of >lorida mangro'e forests first studies by a'is
(B) A shoreline in an area with weak currents
(C) A shoreline in an area with weak tidal energy
() A shoreline e$tended by *land(building+ species of mangro'e
(#) A shoreline in which few sediments can accumulate
212. 3nformation in the passage indicates that the author would most probably regard
which of following statements as 39C8==#CT%
(A) Coastal mangro'e forests are usually !onal.
(B) )urricanes interrupt the process of accretion and succession that e$tends
GMAT 2,-
e$isting shorelines.
(C) ;pecies of plants that thri'e in a saline habitat re"uire salt to flourish.
() @lants with the highest metabolic efficiency in a gi'en habitat tend to e$clude
other plants from that habitat.
(#) ;horeline in areas with weak currents and tides are more likely to be e$tended
through the process of accumulation of sediment than are shorelines with
strong currents and tides.
Passage 111 (11/17)
Modern manufacturers, who need reabe sources of materas and
technoogcay advanced components to operate proftaby, face an ncreasngy
dffcut choce between ownng the producers of these tems (a practce known as
backward ntegraton) and buyng from ndependent producers. Manufacturers
who ntegrate may reap short-term rewards, but they often restrct ther future
capacty for nnovatve product deveopment.
Backward ntegraton removes the need for some purchasng and marketng
functons, centrazes overhead, and permts manufacturers to emnate
dupcated efforts n research and deveopment. Where components are
commodtes (ferrous metas or petroeum, for exampe), backward ntegraton
amost certany boosts profts. Nevertheess, because product nnovaton means
adoptng the most technoogcay advanced and cost-effectve ways of makng
components, backward ntegraton may enta a serous rsk for a technoogcay
actve company-for exampe, a producer of sophstcated consumer eectroncs.
A company that decdes to make rather than buy mportant parts can ock
tsef nto an outdated technoogy. Independent suppers may be unwng to
share nnovatons wth assembers wth whom they are competng. Moreover,
when an assember sets out to master the technoogy of producng advanced
components, the resutng demands on ts resources may compromse ts abty to
assembe these components successfuy nto end products. Long-term contracts
wth suppers can acheve many of the same cost benefts as backward
ntegraton wthout compromsng a companys abty to nnovate.
However, movng away from backward ntegraton s not a compete souton
ether. Deveopng nnovatve technooges requres ndependent suppers of
components to nvest huge sums n research and deveopment. The resutng ow
proft margns on the sae of components threaten the ong-term fnanca stabty
of these frms. Because the abty of end-product assembers to respond to
market opportuntes depends heavy on suppers of components, assembers are
often forced to ntegrate by purchasng the suppers of components |ust to keep
ther suppers n busness.
21-. According to the passage/ all of the following are benefits associated with
backward integration #DC#@TE
2,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) impro'ement in the management of o'erhead e$penses
(B) enhancement of profit margins on sales of components
(C) simplification of purchasing and marketing operations
() reliability of a source of necessary components
(#) elimination of unnecessary research efforts
216. According to passage/ when an assembler buys a firm that makes some important
component of the end product that the assembler produces/ independent suppliers
of the same component may
(A) withhold technological inno'ations from the assembler
(B) e$perience impro'ed profit margins on sales of their products
(C) lower their prices to protect themsel'es from competition
() suffer financial difficulties and go out of business
(#) stop de'eloping new 'ersions of the component
21,. &hich of the following best describes the way the last paragraph functions in the
conte$t of the passage%
(A) The last in a series of arguments supporting the central argument of the
passage is presented.
(B) A 'iewpoint is presented which "ualifies one presented earlier in the passage.
(C) #'idence is presented in support of the argument de'eloped in the preceding
paragraph.
() Nuestions arising from the earlier discussion are identified as points of
departure for further study of the topic.
(#) A specific e$ample is presented to illustrate the main elements of argument
presented in the earlier paragraphs.
225. According to the passage/ which of the following relationships between profits
and in'estments in research and de'elopment holds true for producers of
technologically ad'anced components%
(A) ?odest in'estments are re"uired and the profit margins on component sales
are low.
(B) ?odest in'estments are re"uired but the profit margins on component sales
are "uite high.
(C) espite the huge in'estments that are re"uired/ the profit margins on
components sales are high.
() Because huge in'estments are re"uired/ the profit margins on component
sales are low.
(#) Kong(term contractual relationships with purchasers of components ensure a
high ratio of profits to in'estment costs.
GMAT 2,,
Passage 112 (12/17)
Homeostass, an anmas mantenance of certan nterna varabes wthn an
acceptabe range, partcuary n extreme physca envronments, has ong
nterested boogsts. The desert rat and the came n the most water-deprved
envronments, and marne vertebrates n an a-water envronment, encounter the
same reguatory probem: mantanng adequate nterna fud baance.
For desert rats and cames, the probem s conservaton of water n an
envronment where standng water s nonexstent, temperature s hgh, and
humdty s ow. Despte these handcaps, desert rats are abe to mantan the
osmotc pressure of ther bood, as we as ther tota body-water content, at
approxmatey the same eves as other rats. One countermeasure s behavora:
these rats stay n burrows durng the hot part of the day, thus avodng oss of
fud through pantng or sweatng, whch are reguatory mechansms for
mantanng nterna body temperature by evaporatve coong. Aso, desert rats
kdneys can excrete a urne havng twce as hgh a sat content as sea water.
Cames, on the other hand, rey more on smpe endurance. They cannot store
water, and ther reance on an entrey unexceptona kdney resuts n a rate of
water oss through rena functon sgnfcanty hgher than that of desert rats. As a
resut, cames must toerate osses n body water of up to thrty percent of ther
body weght. Nevertheess, cames do rey on a speca mechansm to keep water
oss wthn a toerabe range: by seatng and pantng ony when ther body
temperature exceeds that whch woud k a human, they conserve nterna water.
Marne vertebrates experence dffcuty wth ther water baance because
though there s no shortage of seawater to drnk, they must drnk a ot of t to
mantan ther nterna fud baance. But the excess sats from the seawater must
be dscharged somehow, and the kdneys of most marne vertebrates are unabe
to excrete a urne n whch the sats are more concentrated than n seawater. Most
of these anmas have speca sat-secretng organs outsde the kdney that enabe
them to emnate excess sat.
221. &hich of the following most accurately states the purpose of the passage%
(A) To compare two different approaches to the study of homeostasis
(B) To summari!e the findings of se'eral studies regarding organisms4
maintenance of internal 'ariables in e$treme en'ironments
(C) To argue for a particular hypothesis regarding 'arious organisms4
conser'ation of water in desert en'ironments
() To cite e$amples of how homeostasis is achie'ed by 'arious organisms
(#) To defend a new theory regarding the maintenance of ade"uate fluid balance
222. According to the passage/ the camel maintains internal fluid balance in which of
the following ways%
.55 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3. By beha'ioral a'oidance of e$posure to conditions that lead to fluid loss
33. By an ability to tolerate high body temperatures
333. By reliance on stored internal fluid supplies
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some mechanisms that regulate internal
body temperature/ like sweating and panting/ can lead to which of the following%
(A) A rise in the e$ternal body temperature
(B) A drop in the body4s internal fluid le'el
(C) A decrease in the osmotic pressure of the blood
() A decrease in the amount of renal water loss
(#) A decrease in the urine4s salt content
220. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author characteri!es the camel4s
kidney as *entirely une$ceptional+ (line 20) primarily to emphasi!e that it
(A) functions much as the kidney of a rat functions
(B) does not aid the camel in coping with the e$ceptional water loss resulting
from the e$treme conditions of its en'ironment
(C) does not enable the camel to e$crete as much salt as do the kidneys of marine
'ertebrates
() is similar in structure to the kidneys of most mammals li'ing in water(
depri'ed en'ironments
(#) re"uires the help of other organs in eliminating e$cess salt
Passage 113 (13/17)
In the seventeenth-century Forentne texte ndustry, women were empoyed
prmary n ow-payng, ow-sk |obs. To expan ths segregaton of abor by
gender, economsts have reed on the usefu theory of human capta. Accordng
to ths theory, nvestment n human capta-the acquston of dffcut |ob-reated
sks-generay benefts ndvduas by makng them egbe to engage n we-
pad occupatons. Womens roe as chd bearers, however, resuts n nterruptons
n ther partcpaton n the |ob market (as compared wth mens) and thus reduces
ther opportuntes to acqure tranng for hghy sked work. In addton, the
human capta theory expans why there was a hgh concentraton of women
workers n certan ow-sk |obs, such as weavng, but not n others, such as
combng or cardng, by postng that because of ther prmary responsbty n
GMAT .51
chd rearng women took occupatons that coud be carred out n the home.
There were, however, dfferences n pay scaes that cannot be expaned by
the human capta theory. For exampe, mae constructon workers were pad
sgnfcanty hgher wage than femae taffeta weavers. The wage dfference
between these two ow-sk occupatons stems from the segregaton of abor by
gender: because a mted number of occupatons were open to women, there was
a arge suppy of workers n ther feds, and ths "overcrowdng" resuted n
women recevng ower wages and men recevng hgher wages.
221. The passage suggests that combing and carding differ from wea'ing in that
combing and carding are
(A) low(skill <obs performed by primarily by women employees
(B) low(skill <obs that were not performed in the home
(C) low(skill <obs performed by both male and female employees
() high(skill <obs performed outside the home
(#) high(skill <obs performed by both male and female employees
222. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the e$planation pro'ided by
the human capital theory for women4s concentration in certain occupations in
se'enteenth(century >lorence%
(A) &omen were unlikely to work outside the home e'en in occupations whose
house were fle$ible enough to allow women to accommodate domestic tasks
as well as paid labor.
(B) @arents were less likely to teach occupational skills to their daughters than
they were to their sons.
(C) &omen4s participation in the >lorentine paid labor force grew steadily
throughout the si$teenth and se'enteenth centuries.
() The 'ast ma<ority of female wea'ers in the >lorentine wool industry had
children.
(#) >ew women worked as wea'ers in the >lorentine silk industry/ which was
de'oted to making cloths that re"uired a high degree of skill to produce.
22-. The author of the passage would be most likely to describe the e$planation
pro'ided by the human capital theory for the high concentration of women in
certain occupations in the se'enteenth(century >lorence te$tile industry as
(A) well founded though incomplete
(B) difficult to articulate
(C) plausible but poorly substantiated
() seriously flawed
(#) contrary to recent research
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Passage 114 (14/17)
Maps made by non-Natve Amercans to depct Natve Amercan and tenure,
resources and popuaton dstrbutons appeared amost as eary as Europeans
frst encounters wth Natve Amercans and took many form: mssonares fed
sketches, exporers drawngs, and surveyors maps, as we as maps rendered n
connecton wth treates nvovng and transfers. Most exstng maps of Natve
Amercan ands are reconstructons that are based argey on archaeoogy, ora
reports, and evdence gathered from observers accounts n etter, dares, and
offca reports; accordngy, the accuracy of these maps s especay dependent
on the mapmakers own nterpretve abtes.
Many exstng maps aso refect the 150-year roe of the Bureau of Indan
Affars (BIA) n admnsterng trba ands. Though these maps ncorporate some
nformaton geaned drecty from Natve Amercans, rarey has Natve Amercan
cartography contrbuted to ths offca record, whch has been comped,
surveyed, and authentcated by non-Natve Amercan. Thus our current
cartographc record reatng to Natve Amercan trbes and ther mgratons and
cutura features, as we as terrtoraty and contemporary trust ands, refects the
orgns of the data, the mxed purposes for whch the maps have been prepared,
and changes both n Unted States government pocy and n non-Natve
Amercans atttudes toward an understandng of Natve Amercans.
226. &hich of the following best describes the content of the passage%
(A) A chronology of the de'elopment of different methods for mapping 9ati'e
Americans
(B) A discussion of how the mapmaking techni"ues of 9ati'e Americans differed
from those of #uropeans
(C) An argument concerning the present(day uses to which historical maps of
9ati'e American lands are put
() An argument concerning the nature of information contained in maps of
9ati'e American lands
(#) A proposal for impro'ing the accuracy of maps of 9ati'e American lands
22,. The passage mentions each of the following as a factor affecting current maps of
9ati'e American lands #DC#@T
(A) :nited ;tates go'ernment policy
(B) non(9ati'e Americans4 perspecti'e on 9ati'e Americans
(C) origins of the information utili!ed to produce the maps
() changes in ways that tribal lands are used
(#) the reason for producing the maps
GMAT .5.
2-5. The passage suggests which of the following about most e$isting maps of 9ati'e
American lands%
(A) They do not record the migrations of 9ati'e American tribes.
(B) They ha'e been preser'ed primarily because of their connection with treaties
in'ol'ing land transfers.
(C) They tend to reflect archaeological e'idence that has become outdated.
() They tend to be less accurate when they are based on oral reports than when
they are based on written documents.
(#) They are not based primarily on the mapmakers4 firsthand obser'ations of
9ati'e American lands.
2-1. All of the following are e$amples of the type of e'idence used in creating *?ost
e$isting maps+ (line -(6) #DC#@T
(A) a nineteenth(century go'ernment report on population distribution of a
particular tribe
(B) taped con'ersations with people who li'ed on 9ati'e American tribal lands in
the early twentieth century
(C) aerial photographs of geological features of lands inhabited by 9ati'e
Americans
() findings from a recently e$ca'ated site once inhabited by a certain 9ati'e
American people
(#) a <ournal kept by a non(9ati'e American e$plorer who tra'eled in 9ati'e
American territory in the early nineteenth century
Passage 115 (15/17)
(Ths passage was wrtten n 1984.)
It s now possbe to hear a recordng of Carusos sngng that s far superor to
any made durng hs fetme. A decades-od wax-cynder recordng of ths great
operatc tenor has been dgtzed, and the dgtzed sgna has been processed by
computer to remove the extraneous sound, or "nose," ntroduced by the now
"ancent" wax-cynder recordng process.
Athough ths dgta technque needs mprovements, t represents a new and
superor way of recordng and processng sound whch overcomes many of the
mtatons of anaog recordng. In anaog recordng systems, the orgna sound s
represented as a contnuous waveform created by varatons n the sounds
amptude over tme. When anaog payback systems reproduce ths waveform,
however, they nvaraby ntroduce dstortons. Frst, the waveform produced
durng payback dffers somewhat from the orgna waveform. Second, the
medum that stores the anaog recordng creates nose durng payback whch
gets added to the recorded sounds.
Dgta recordngs, by contrast, reduce the orgna sound to a seres of
.50 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
dscrete numbers that represent the sounds waveform. Because the dgta
payback system "reads" ony numbers, any nose and dstorton that may
accumuate durng storage and manpuaton of the dgtzed sgna w have tte
effect: as ong as the numbers reman recognzabe, the orgna waveform w be
reconstructed wth tte oss n quaty. However, because the waveform s
contnuous, whe ts dgta representaton s composed of dscrete numbers, t s
mpossbe for dgta systems to avod some dstorton. One knd of dstorton,
caed "sampng error," occurs f the sound s samped (.e., ts amptude s
measured) too nfrequenty, so that the amptude changes more than one
quantum (the smaest change n amptude measured by the dgta system)
between sampngs. In effect, the sound s changng too qucky for the system to
record t accuratey. A second form of dstorton s "quantzng error," whch arses
when the amptude beng measured s not a whoe number of quanta, forcng the
dgta recorder to round off. Over the ong term, these errors are random, and the
nose produced (a background buzzng) s smar to anaog nose except that t
ony occurs when recorded sounds are beng reproduced.
2-2. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the first paragraph to the
passage as a whole%
(A) The first paragraph introduces a general thesis that is elaborated on in detail
elsewhere in the passage.
(B) The first paragraph presents a concrete instance of a problem that is discussed
elsewhere in the passage.
(C) The first paragraph describes a traditional process that is contrasted
unfa'orably with a newer process described elsewhere in the passage.
() The first paragraph presents a dramatic e$ample of the potential of a process
that is described elsewhere in the passage.
(#) The first paragraph describes a historic incident that ser'ed as the catalyst for
de'elopments described elsewhere in the passage.
2-.. According the passage/ one of the ways in which analog recording systems differ
from digital recording systems is that analog systems
(A) can be used to reduce background noise in old recordings
(B) record the original sound as a continuous wa'eform
(C) distort the original sound somewhat
() can a'oid introducing e$traneous and nonmusical sounds
(#) can reconstruct the original wa'eform with little loss in "uality
2-0. &hich of the following statements about the numbers by which sound is
represented in a digital system can be inferred from the passage%
(A) They describe the time inter'al between successi'e sounds in a passage of
music.
(B) They model large changes in the amplitude of the initial sound with relati'ely
GMAT .51
poor precision.
(C) They are slightly altered each time they are read by the playback apparatus.
() They are not readily altered by distortion and noise accumulated as the digital
signal is stored and manipulated.
(#) They are stored in the recording medium in small groups that can be read
simultaneously by the playback apparatus.
2-1. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the digital
approach to the processing of sound%
(A) 3t was de'eloped in competition with wa$(cylinder recording technology.
(B) 3t has resulted in the first distortion(free playback system.
(C) 3t has been e$tensi'ely applied to nonmusical sounds.
() 3t cannot yet process music originally recorded on analog e"uipment.
(#) 3t is not yet capable of reprocessing old recordings in a completely distortion(
free manner.
Passage 116 (16/17)
The functon of capta markets s to factate an exchange of funds among a
partcpants, and yet n practce we fnd that certan partcpants are not on a par
wth others. Members of socety have varyng degrees of market strength n terms
of nformaton they brng to a transacton, as we as of purchasng power and
credtworthness, as defned by enders.
For exampe, wthn mnorty communtes, capta markets do not propery
fuf ther functons; they do not provde access to the aggregate fow of funds n
the Unted States. The fnanca system does not generate the credt or
nvestment vehces needed for underwrtng economc deveopment n mnorty
areas. The probem underyng ths dysfuncton s found n a ratonng mechansm
affectng both the avaabe aternatves for nvestment and the amount of
fnanca resources. Ths creates a dstrbutve mechansm penazng members of
mnorty groups because of ther socoeconomc dfferences from others. The
exstng system expresses defnte socay based nvestment preferences that
resut from the prevous aocaton of ncome and that nfuence the aocaton of
resources for the present and future. The system tends to ncrease the nequaty
of ncome dstrbuton. And, n the Unted States economy, a greater nequaty of
ncome dstrbuton eads to a greater concentraton of capta n certan types of
nvestment.
Most tradtona fnanca-market anayss studes gnore fnanca markets
defcences n aocaton because of anaysts nherent preferences for the smpe
mode of perfect competton. Conventona fnanca anayss pays mted
attenton to ssues of market structure and dynamcs, reatve costs of
nformaton, and probems of ncome dstrbuton. Market partcpants are vewed
.52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
as actng as entrey ndependent and homogeneous ndvduas wth perfect
foresght about capta-market behavor. Aso, t s assumed that each ndvdua n
the communty at arge has the same access to the market and the same
opportunty to transact and to express the preference approprate to hs or her
ndvdua nterest. Moreover, t s assumed that transacton costs for varous
types of fnanca nstruments (stocks, bonds, etc.) are equay known and equay
dvded among a communty members.
2-2. The main point made by the passage is that
(A) financial markets pro'ide for an optimum allocation of resources among all
competing participants by balancing supply and demand
(B) the allocation of financial resources takes place among separate indi'idual
participants/ each of whom has access to the market
(C) the e$istence of certain factors ad'ersely affecting members of minority
groups shows that financial markets do not function as con'entional theory
says they function
() in'estments in minority communities can be made by the use of 'arious
alternati'e financial instruments/ such as stocks and bonds
(#) since transaction costs for stocks/ bonds/ and other financial instruments are
not e"ually apportioned among all minority(group members/ the financial
market is sub<ect to criticism
2--. The passage states that traditional studies of the financial market o'erlook
imbalances in the allocation of financial resources because
(A) an optimum allocation of resources is the final result of competition among
participants
(B) those performing the studies choose an o'ersimplified description of the
influences on competition
(C) such imbalances do not appear in the statistics usually compiled to measure
the market4s beha'ior
() the analysts who study the market are unwilling to accept criticism of their
methods as biased
(#) socioeconomic difference form the basis of a rationing mechanism that puts
minority groups at a disad'antage
2-6. The author4s main point is argued by
(A) gi'ing e$amples that support a con'entional generali!ation
(B) showing that the 'iew opposite to the author4s is self(contradictory
(C) critici!ing the presuppositions of a proposed plan
() showing that omissions in a theoretical description make it inapplicable in
certain cases
(#) demonstrating that an alternati'e hypothesis more closely fits the data
GMAT .5-
2-,. A difference in which of the following would be an e$ample of ine"uality in
transaction costs as alluded to in lines 05(0.%
(A) ?a$imum amounts of loans e$tended by a bank to businesses in different
areas
(B) >ees charged to large and small in'estors for purchasing stocks
(C) @rices of similar goods offered in large and small stores in an area
() ;tipends paid to different attorneys for preparing legal suits for damages
(#) #$change rates in dollars for currencies of different countries
265. &hich of the following can be inferred about minority communities on the basis
of the passage%
(A) They pro'ide a significant portion of the funds that become a'ailable for
in'estment in the financial market.
(B) They are penali!ed by the ta$ system/ which increases the ine"uality of the
distribution of income between in'estors and wage earners.
(C) They do no recei'e the share of the amount of funds a'ailable for in'estment
that would be e$pected according to traditional financial(market analysis.
() They are not granted go'ernmental subsidies to assist in underwriting the cost
of economic de'elopment.
(#) They pro'ide the same access to alternati'e sources of credit to finance
businesses as do ma<ority communities.
261. According to the passage/ a "uestionable assumption of the con'entional theory
about the operation of financial markets is that
(A) creditworthiness as determined by lenders is a factor determining market
access
(B) market structure and market dynamics depend on income distribution
(C) a scarcity of alternati'e sources of funds would result from taking
socioeconomic factors into consideration
() those who engage in financial(market transactions are perfectly well informed
about the market
(#) ine"ualities in income distribution are increased by the functioning of the
financial market
262. According to the passage/ analysts ha'e con'entionally tended to 'iew those who
participate in financial market as
(A) <udging in'estment preferences in terms of the good of society as a whole
(B) influencing the allocation of funds through prior ownership of certain kinds of
assets
(C) 'arying in market power with respect to one another
() basing <udgments about future e'ents mainly on chance
.56 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) ha'ing e"ual opportunities to engage in transactions
Passage 117 (17/17)
(The foowng s based on matera wrtten n 1996.)
The Montrea Protoco on Substances that Depete the Ozone Layer, sgned n
1987 by more than 150 natons, has attaned ts short-term goas: t has
decreased the rate of ncrease n amounts of most ozone-depetng chemcas
reachng the atmosphere and has even reduced the atmospherc eves of some of
them. The pro|ecton that the ozone ayer w substantay recover from ozone
depeton by 2050 s based on the assumpton that the protocos reguatons w
be strcty foowed. Yet there s consderabe evdence of voatons, partcuary n
the form of the reease of ozone-depetng chorofuorocarbons (CFCs), whch are
commony used n the refrgeraton, heatng, and ar condtonng ndustres.
These voatons refect ndustry atttudes; for exampe, n the Unted States, 48
percents of respondents n a recent survey of subscrbers to "ir Conditioning&
%eating& and *efrigeration +ews, an ndustry trade |ourna, sad that they dd not
beeve that CFCs damage the ozone ayer. Moreover, some n the ndustry
apparenty do not want to pay for CFC substtutes, whch can run fve tmes the
cost of CFCs. Consequenty, a back market n mported ct CFCs has grown.
Estmates of the contraband CFC trade range from 10,000 to 22,000 tons a year,
wth most of the CFCs orgnatng n Inda and Chna, whose agreements under
the Protoco st aow them to produce CFCs. In fact, the Unted States Customs
Servce reports that CFC-12 s a contraband probem second ony to ct drugs.
26.. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes most o!one(
depleting chemicals in 1,,2 as compared to those in 1,6-%
(A) The le'els of such chemicals in the atmosphere had decreased.
(B) The number of such chemicals that reached the atmosphere had declined.
(C) The amounts of such chemicals released had increased but the amounts that
reached the atmosphere had decreased.
() The rate of increase in amounts of such chemicals reaching the atmosphere
had decreased.
(#) The rate at which such chemicals were being reduced in the atmosphere had
slowed.
260. The author of the passage compares the smuggling of C>C4s to the illicit drug
trade most likely for which of the following reasons%
(A) To "ualify a pre'ious claim
(B) To emphasi!e the e$tent of a problem
(C) To pro'ide an e$planation for an earlier assertion
() To suggest that the illicit C>C trade/ likely the illicit drug trade/ will continue
to increase
GMAT .5,
(#) To suggest that the conse"uences of a relati'ely little(known problem are as
serious as those of a well(known one
261. The passage suggests which of the following about the illicit trade in C>C4s%
(A) 3t would cease if manufacturers in 3ndia and China stopped producing C>C4s.
(B) ?ost people who participate in such trade do not belie'e that C>C4s deplete
the o!one layer.
(C) 3t will probably surpass illicit drugs as the largest contraband problem faced
by the :nited ;tates Custom ;er'ices.
() 3t is fostered by people who do not want to pay the price of C>C substitutes.
(#) 3t has grown primarily because of the e$pansion of the refrigeration/ heating/
and air(conditioning industries in foreign countries.
.15 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
GRE RC (No. 2 No. 9)
No. 2-1
SECTION A
Extended debate concernng the exact pont of orgn of ndvdua foktaes
tod by Afro-Amercan saves has unfortunatey taken precedence over anayss of
the taes meanng and functon. Cutura contnutes wth Afrca were not
dependent on mportaton and perpetuaton of specfc foktaes n ther prstne
form. It s n the pace that taes occuped n the ves of the saves and n the
meanng saves derved from them that the cearest resembances to Afrcan
tradton can be found. Afro-Amercan saves dd not borrow taes ndscrmnatey
from the Whtes among whom they ved. Back peope were most nfuenced by
those Euro-Amercan taes whose functona meanng and aesthetc appea had
the greatest smarty to the taes wth deep roots n ther ancestra homeand.
Regardess of where save taes came from, the essenta pont s that, wth
respect to anguage, devery, detas of characterzaton, and pot, saves qucky
made them ther own.
1-. The author claims that most studies of folktales told by Afro(American sla'es are
inade"uate because the studies
(A) fail to recogni!e any possible #uro(American influence on the folktales
(B) do not pay enough attention to the features of a folktale that best re'eal an
African influence
(C) o'erestimate the number of folktales brought from Africa by the sla'es
() do not consider the fact that a folktale can be changed as it is retold many
times
(#) o'ersimplify the di'erse and comple$ traditions of the sla'es ancestral
homeland
16. The author4s main purpose is to
(A) create a new field of study
(B) discredit an e$isting field of study
(C) change the focus of a field of study
() transplant scholarly techni"ues from one field of study to another
(#) restrict the scope of a burgeoning new field of study
1,. The passage suggests that the author would regard which of the following areas
of in"uiry as most likely to re'eal the sla'es4 cultural continuities with Africa%
(A) The means by which Blacks disseminated their folktales in nineteenth(
century America
GRE .11
(B) ;pecific regional differences in the styles of deli'ery used by the sla'es in
telling folktales
(C) The functional meaning of Black folktales in the li'es of &hite children
raised by sla'e
() The specific way the sla'es used folktales to impart moral teaching to their
children
(#) The comple$ities of plot that appear most fre"uently in the sla'es4 tales
25. &hich of the following techni"ues is used by the author in de'eloping the
argument in the passage%
(A) Bi'ing a clichP a new meaning
(B) @ointedly refusing to define key terms
(C) Alternately presenting generalities and concrete details
() Concluding the passage with a restatement of the first point made in the
passage
(#) Au$taposing statements of what is not the case and statements of what is the
case
The energy contaned n rock wthn the earths crust represents a neary
unmted energy source, but unt recenty commerca retreva has been mted
to underground hot water and/or steam recovery systems. These systems have
been deveoped n areas of recent vocanc actvty, where hgh rates of heat fow
cause vsbe erupton of water n the form of geysers and hot sprngs. In other
areas, however, hot rock aso exsts near the surface but there s nsuffcent
water present to produce eruptve phenomena. Thus a potenta hot dry rock
(HDR) reservor exsts whenever the amount of spontaneousy produced
geotherma fud has been |udged nadequate for exstng commerca systems.
As a resut of recent energy crss, new concepts for creatng HDR recovery
systems-whch nvove drng hoes and connectng them to artfca reservors
paced deep wthn the crust-are beng deveoped. In a attempts to retreve
energy from HDRs, artfca stmuaton w be requred to create ether suffcent
permeabty or bounded fow paths to factate the remova of heat by crcuaton
of a fud over the surface of the rock.
The HDR resource base s generay defned to ncuded crusta rock that s
hotter than 150, s at depths ess than ten kometers, and can be dred wth
presenty avaabe equpment. Athough wes deeper than ten kometers are
techncay feasbe, prevang economc factors w obvousy determne the
commerca feasbty of wes at such depths. Rock temperatures as ow as 100
may be usefu for space heatng; however, for producng eectrcty, temperatures
greater than 200 are desrabe.
The geotherma gradent, whch specfcay determnes the depth of drng
requred to reach a desred temperature, s a ma|or factor n the recoverabty of
.12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
geotherma resources. Temperature gradent maps generated from o and gas
we temperature-depth records kept by the Amercan Assocaton of Petroeum
Geoogsts suggest that tappabe hgh-temperature gradents are dstrbuted a
across the Unted States. (There are many areas, however, for whch no
temperature gradent records exst.)
Indcatons are that the HDR resource base s very arge. If an average
geotherma temperature gradent of 22 per kometer of depth s used, a
staggerng 13,000,000 quadron B.T.U.s of tota energy are cacuated to be
contaned n crusta rock to a ten-kometer depth n the Unted States. If we
conservatvey estmate that ony about 0.2 percent s recoverabe, we fnd a tota
of a the coa remanng n the Unted States. The remanng probem s to baance
the economcs of deeper, hotter, more costy wes and shaower, cooer, ess
expensve wes aganst the vaue of the fna product, eectrcty and/or heat.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) alert readers to the e$istence of )=4s as an a'ailable energy source
(B) document the challengers that ha'e been surmounted in the effort to reco'er
energy from )=4s
(C) warn the users of coal and oil that )=4s are not an economically feasible
alternati'e
() encourage the use of new techni"ues for the reco'ery of energy from
underground hot water and steam
(#) urge consumers to demand "uicker de'elopment of )= resources for the
production of energy
22. The passage would be most likely to appear in a
(A) petrological research report focused on the history of temperature(depth
records in the :nited ;tates
(B) congressional report urging the conser'ation of oil and natural gas reser'es in
the :nited ;tates
(C) technical <ournal article concerned with the reco'erability of newly identified
energy sources
() consumer report describing the e$tent and accessibility of remaining coal
resources
(#) pamphlet designed to introduce homeowners to the ad'antages of )=
space(heating systems
2.. According the passage/ an a'erage geothermal gradient of 22 per kilometer of
depth can be used to
(A) balance the economics of )= energy retrie'al against that of underground
hot water or steam reco'ery systems
(B) determine the amount of energy that will used for space heating in the :nited
GRE .1.
;tates
(C) pro'ide comparisons between hot water and )= energy sources in :nited
;tates
() re'ise the estimates on the e$tent of remaining coal resources in the :nited
;tates
(#) estimate the total )= resource base in the :nited ;tates
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the a'ailability of temperature(depth
records for any specific area in the :nited ;tates depends primarily on the
(A) possibility that )=4s may be found in that area
(B) e$istence of pre'ious attempts to obtain oil or gas in that area
(C) history of successful hot water or steam reco'ery efforts in that area
() failure of inhabitants to conser'e oil gas reser'es in that area
(#) use of coal as a substitute for oil or gas in that area
21. According to the passage/ in all )= reco'ery systems fluid will be necessary in
order to allow
(A) sufficient permeability
(B) artificial stimulation
(C) drilling of holes
() construction of reser'oirs
(#) transfer of heat
22. According to the passage/ if the a'erage geothermal gradient in an area is 22
per kilometer of depth/ which of the following can be reliably predicted%
3. The temperature at the base of a 15(kilometer well will be sufficient for the
production of electricity.
33. rilling of wells deeper than 15 kilometers will be economically feasible.
333. 3nsufficient water is present to produce erupti'e phenomena.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage%
(A) #nergy from &ater ;ourcesE The >easibility of Commercial ;ystems
(B) Beothermal #nergy =etrie'alE Colcanic Acti'ity and )ot ry =ocks
(C) #nergy :ndergroundE Beothermal ;ources Bi'e &ay to >ossil >uels
() Tappable #nergy for America4s >utureE )ot ry =ocks
.10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) )igh Beothermal Bradients in the :nited ;tatesE ?yth or =eality%
SECTION B
Four ega approaches may be foowed n attemptng to channe technoogca
deveopment n socay usefu drecton: specfc drectves, market ncentve
modfcatons, crmna prohbtons, and changes n decson-makng structures.
Specfc drectves nvove the governments dentfyng one or more factors
controng research, deveopment, or mpementaton of a gven technoogy.
Drectves affectng such factors may vary from admnstratve reguaton of
prvate actvty to government ownershp of a technoogca operaton. Market
ncentve modfcatons are deberate ateratons of the market wthn whch
prvate decsons regardng the deveopment and mpementaton of technoogy
are made. Such modfcatons may consst of mposng taxes to cover the costs to
socety of a gven technoogy, grantng subsdes to pay for soca benefts of a
technoogy, creatng the rght to sue to prevent certan technoogca
deveopment, or easng procedura rues to enabe the recovery of damages to
compensate for harm caused by destructve technoogca actvty. Crmna
prohbtons may modfy technoogca actvty n areas mpngng on fundamenta
soca vaues, or they may modfy human behavor key to resut from
technoogca appcatons-for exampe, the deactvaton of automotve pouton
contro devces n order to mprove vehce performance. Ateraton of decson-
makng structures ncudes a possbe modfcatons n the authorty, consttuton,
or responsbty of prvate and pubc enttes decdng questons of technoogca
deveopment and mpementaton. Such ateratons ncude the addton of pubc-
nterest members to corporate boards, the mposton by statute of dutes on
governmenta decson-makers, and the extenson of warrantes n response to
consumer acton.
Effectve use of these methods to contro technoogy depends on whether or
not the goa of reguaton s the optma aocaton of resources. When the ob|ect s
optma resource aocaton, that combnaton of ega methods shoud be used
that most neary yeds the aocaton that woud exst f there were no externa
costs resutng from aocatng resources through market actvty. There are
externa costs when the prce set by buyers and seers of goods fas to ncude
some costs, to anyone, that resut from the producton and use of the goods. Such
costs are nternazed when buyers pay them.
Ar pouton from motor vehces mposes externa costs on a those exposed
to t, n the form of song, materas damage, and dsease: these externates
resut from faure to pace a prce on ar, thus makng t a free good, common to
a. Such externates ead to nonoptma resource aocaton, because the prvate
net product and the soca net product of market actvty are not often dentca. If
a externates were nternazed, transactons woud occur unt barganng coud
no onger mprove the stuaton, thus gvng an optma aocaton of resources at a
GRE .11
gven tme.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with describing
(A) ob<ecti'es and legal method for directing technological de'elopment
(B) technical approaches to the problem of controlling market acti'ity
(C) economic procedures for facilitating transactions between buyers and sellers
() reasons for slowing the technological de'elopment in light of
en'ironmentalist ob<ections
(#) technological inno'ations making it possible to achie'e optimum allocation of
resources
16. The author cites air pollution from motor 'ehicles in lines 10(12 in order to
(A) re'ise cost estimates calculated by including the costs of resources
(B) e'aluate legal methods used to pre'ent technological de'elopments
(C) gi'e e$amples of costs not included in buyer(seller bargains
() refute hypotheses not made on the basis of monetary e$change 'alues
(#) commend technological research undertaken for the common welfare
1,. According to the passage/ transactions between pri'ate buyers and sellers ha'e
effects on society that generally
(A) are harmful when all factors are considered
(B) gi'e rise to e'er(increasing resource costs
(C) reflect an optimal allocation of natural resources
() encompass more than the effects on the buyers and sellers alone
(#) are guided by legal controls on the de'elopment of technology
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author does 98T fa'or which of the
following%
(A) @rotecting the en'ironment for future use
(B) Changing the balance of power between opposing interests in business
(C) 3nter'ening in the acti'ity of the free market
() ?aking prices reflect costs to e'eryone in society
(#) Causing technological de'elopment to cease
21. A gasoline(conser'ation ta$ on the purchase of large automobiles/ with the
proceeds of the ta$ rebated to purchasers of small automobiles/ is an e$ample of
(A) a specific directi'e
(B) a market incenti'e modification
(C) an optimal resource allocation
() an alteration of a decision(making structure
(#) an e$ternal cost
.12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. 3f there were no e$ternal costs/ as they are described in the passage/ which of the
following would be true%
(A) All technology(control methods would be effecti'e.
(B) ;ome resource allocations would be illegal.
(C) @rices would include all costs to members of society.
() ;ome decision(making structures would be altered.
(#) The a'ailability of common goods would increase.
2.. The author assumes that/ in determining what would be an optimal allocation of
resources/ it would be possible to
(A) assign monetary 'alue to all damage resulting from the use of technology
(B) combine legal methods to yield the theoretical optimum
(C) con'ince buyers to bear the burden of damage from technological
de'elopments
() predict the costs of new technological de'elopments
(#) deri'e an e"uation making costs depend on prices
20. 8n the basis of the passage/ it can be inferred that the author would agree with
which of the following statements concerning technological de'elopment%
(A) The go'ernment should own technological operations.
(B) The effect of technological de'elopment cannot be controlled.
(C) ;ome technological de'elopments are beneficial.
() The current state of technological de'elopment results in a good allocation of
resources.
(#) Applications of technological de'elopments are criminally destructi'e.
The whoe bosphere, ke the ndvdua organsms that ve nsde t, exsts n
a chemcay dynamc state. In ths homeostatc system, a great number of
organc compounds are syntheszed, transformed, and decomposed contnuousy;
together, these processes consttute the ma|or parts of the carbon cyce. For the
smooth operaton of ths cyce, degradaton s |ust as mportant as synthess: the
green pants produce great quanttes of poymers, such as ceuose, and
nnumerabe other compounds ke akaods, terpenes, and favonods, that green
pants cannot use as sources of energy durng respraton. The reease of the
carbon n these compounds for recycng depends amost entrey on the acton of
both aerobc and anaerobc bactera and certan types of fung. Some bactera and
fung possess the unque and extremey mportant bochemca asset of beng abe
to catayze the oxdaton of numerous nert products, thereby ntatng reacton
sequences that produce carbon doxde and so return much carbon to a form that
actvey enters nto fe cyces once agan.
21. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions about the carbon cycle%
GRE .1-
3. &hat are some of the compounds that are broken down in the carbon cycle%
33. &hy are some compounds that are in'ol'ed in the carbon cycle less reacti'e
than others%
333. &hat role do bacteria and fungi play in the carbon cycle%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 3 and 333 only
22. The author implies that which of the following is the primary reason that
degradation is as important as synthesis to the smooth operation of the carbon
cycle%
(A) ?ost of the polymers and organic compounds found in the plant kingdom are
chemically unstable.
(B) The synthesis of some organic material depri'es life processes of an energy
source.
(C) ecomposition permits the recycling of carbon that would otherwise be fi$ed
in certain substances.
() ?any organisms cannot use plants as a source of food/ but can feed on
bacteria and fungi.
(#) Bacteria and fungi could not sur'i'e if some carbon compounds were not
degraded.
2-. The author4s contention about the importance of bacteria and fungi in the
production of energy for life processes would be most clearly strengthened if
which of the following were found to be true%
(A) Both aerobes and anaerobes pro'ide sources of energy through the
decomposition of organic material.
(B) ?ost compounds containing carbon are una'ailable as energy sources e$cept
to some bacteria and fungi.
(C) Bacteria and fungi break down inert material in ways that do not in'ol'e
o$idation.
() ?any compounds remain inert/ e'en in the presence of bacteria and fungi.
(#) Bacteria and fungi assist in the synthesis of many organic compounds.
No. 2-2
SECTION A
Even as the number of femaes processed through |uvene courts cmbs
.16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
steady, an mpct consensus remans among schoars n crmna |ustce that
mae adoescents defne the denquency probem n the Unted States. We
suggest two reasons why ths vew perssts. Frst, femae adoescents are accused
prmary of vctmess crmes, such as truancy, that do not nvove cear-cut
damage to persons or property. If commtted by aduts, these actons are not even
consdered prosecutabe; f commtted by |uvene maes, they have tradtonay
been ooked on enenty by the courts. Thus, roncay, the pght of femae
denquents receves tte scrutny because they are accused of commttng
reatvey mnor offenses. Second, the courts have ong |ustfed so-caed
preventve nterventon nto the ves of young femaes vewed as antsoca wth
the ratonae that women are especay vunerabe. Tradtona stereotypes of
women as the weaker and more dependent sex have ed to earer nterventon
and onger perods of msdrected supervson for femae denquents than for
maes.
1-. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the irony pointed out by the
authors in lines 1.(12 of the passage%
(A) >emale delin"uents tend to commit 'ictimless crimes more fre"uently than
their male counterparts.
(B) The predicament of male delin"uents recei'es more attention than that of
females because males are accused of more serious crimes.
(C) Adults are fre"uently punished less se'erely than adolescents for committing
more serious crimes.
() The <u'enile <ustice system cannot correct its biases because it does not e'en
recogni!e them.
(#) Although the number of female delin"uents is steadily increasing/ the crimes
of which they are accused are not particularly serious.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the authors belie'e traditional stereotypes
of women to be
(A) fre"uently challenged
(B) persistently ine$plicable
(C) potentially harmful
() rapidly changing
(#) habitually disregarded
1,. The passage suggests that scholars in criminal <ustice could be critici!ed for
which of the following%
(A) :nderestimating the seriousness of <u'enile crime
(B) =ationali!ing the distinction made between <u'eniles and adults in the legal
system
(C) Concerning themsel'es too little with the pre'ention of <u'enile delin"uency
GRE .1,
() >ocusing on those whose crimes ha'e in'ol'ed damage to persons or
property
(#) >ailing to point out in<ustices in the correctional system
Scattered around the gobe are more than one hundred regons of vocanc
actvty known as hot spots. Unke most vocanoes, hot spots are rarey found
aong the boundares of the contnenta and oceanc pates that comprse the
Earths crust; most hot spots e deep n the nteror of pates and are anchored
deep n the ayers of the Earths surface. Hot spots are aso dstngushed from
other vocanoes by ther avas, whch contan greater amounts of aka metas
than do those from vocanoes at pate margns.
In some cases, pates movng past hot spots have eft tras of extnct
vocanoes n much the same way that wnd passng over a chmney carres off
puffs of smoke. It appears that the Hawaan Isands were created n such a
manner by a snge source of ava, weng up from a hot spot, over whch the
Pacfc Ocean pate passed on a course roughy from the east toward the
northwest, carryng off a ne of vocanoes of ncreasng age. Two other Pacfc
sand chans-the Austra Rdge and the Tuamotu Rdge-parae the
confguraton of the Hawaan chan; they are aso agned from the east toward
the northwest, wth the most recent vocanc actvty near ther eastern
termnuses.
That the Pacfc pate and the other pates are movng s now beyond dspute;
the reatve moton of the pates has been reconstructed n deta. However, the
reatve moton of the pates wth respect to the Earths nteror cannot be
determned easy. Hot spots provde the measurng nstruments for resovng the
queston of whether two contnenta pates are movng n opposte drectons or
whether one s statonary and the other s drftng away from t. The most
compeng evdence that a contnenta pate s statonary s that, at some hot
spots, avas of severa ages are superposed nstead of beng spread out n
chronoogca sequence. Of course, reconstructon of pate moton from the tracks
of hot-spot vocanoes assumes that hot spots are mmobe, or neary so. Severa
studes support such an assumpton, ncudng one that has shown that promnent
hot spots throughout the word seem not to have moved durng the past ten
mon years.
Beyond actng as frames of reference, hot spots apparenty nfuence the
geophysca processes that prope the pates across the gobe. When a contnenta
pate comes to rest over a hot spot, matera weng up from deeper ayers forms
a broad dome that, as t grows, deveops deep fssures. In some nstances, the
contnenta pate may rupture entrey aong some of the fssures so that the hot
spot ntates the formaton of a new ocean. Thus, |ust as earer theores have
expaned the mobty of the contnenta pates, so hot-spot actvty may suggest
a theory to expan ther mutabty.
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
.25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) describe the way in which hot spots influence the e$tinction of 'olcanoes
(B) describe and e$plain the formation of the oceans and continents
(C) e$plain how to estimate the age of la'a flows from e$tinct 'olcanoes
() describe hot spots and e$plain how they appear to influence and record the
motion of plates
(#) describe the formation and orientation of island chains in the @acific 8cean
21. According to the passage/ hot spots differ from most 'olcanoes in that hot spots
(A) can only be found near islands
(B) are acti'e whereas all other 'olcanoes are e$tinct
(C) are situated closer to the earth4s surface
() can be found along the edges of the plates
(#) ha'e greater amounts of alkali metals in their la'as
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that e'idence for the apparent course of the
@acific plate has been pro'ided by the
(A) contours of the continents
(B) dimensions of ocean hot spots
(C) concurrent mo'ement of two hot spots
() pattern of fissures in the ocean floor
(#) configurations of se'eral mid(ocean island chains
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the spreading out of la'as of different
ages at hot spots indicates that a
(A) hot spot is acti'e
(B) continental plate has mo'ed
(C) continental rupture is imminent
() hot spot had been mo'ing 'ery rapidly
(#) 'olcano contains large concentrations of alkali metals
20. The passage suggests which of the following about the )awaiian 3slands/ the
Austral =idge/ and the Tuamotu =idge%
(A) The three chains of islands are mo'ing eastward.
(B) All the islands in the three chains ha'e stopped mo'ing.
(C) The three island chains are a result of the same plate mo'ement.
() The )awaiian 3slands are receding from the other two island chains at a
relati'ely rapid rate.
(#) The Austral =idge and the Tuamotu =idge chains ha'e mo'ed closer together
whereas the )awaiian 3slands ha'e remained stationary.
21. &hich of the following/ if true/ would best support the author4s statement that
GRE .21
hot(spot acti'ity may e$plain the mutability of continental plates%
(A) )ot spots mo'e more rapidly than the continental and oceanic plates.
(B) )ot spots are reliable indicators of the age of continental plates.
(C) )ot spots are regions of 'olcanic acti'ity found only in the interiors of the
continental plates.
() The alignment of hot spots in the @acific 8cean parallels the alignment of
@acific 8cean islands.
(#) The coastlines of Africa and ;outh America suggest that they may once ha'e
constituted a single continent that ruptured along a line of hot spots.
22. The author4s argument that hot spots can be used to reconstruct the mo'ement of
continental plates is weakened by the fact that
(A) hot spots are ne'er found at the boundaries of plates
(B) only e$tinct 'olcanoes remain after a plate mo'es o'er a hot spot
(C) la'a flow patterns for all hot spots ha'e not been shown to be the same
() the immobility or near immobility of hot spots has not been conclusi'ely
pro'en
(#) the changing configurations of islands make pinpointing the locations of hot
spots difficult
2-. The author4s style can best be described as
(A) dramatic
(B) archaic
(C) esoteric
() ob<ecti'e
(#) humanistic
SECTION B
Athough scentsts observe that an organsms behavor fas nto rhythmc
patterns, they dsagree about how these patterns are affected when the organsm
s transported to a new envronment. One expermenter, Brown, brought oysters
from Connectcut waters to Inos waters. She noted that the oysters ntay
opened ther shes wdest when t was hgh tde n Connectcut, but that after
fourteen days ther rhythms had adapted to the tde schedue n Inos. Athough
she coud not post an unequvoca causa reatonshp between behavor and
envronmenta change, Brown concuded that a change n tde schedue s one of
severa possbe exogenous nfuences (those outsde the organsm) on the
oysters rhythms. Another expermenter, Hamner, however, dscovered that
hamsters from Caforna mantan ther orgna rhythms even at the South Poe.
He concuded that endogenous nfuences (those nsde the organsm) seem to
affect an organsms rhythmc behavor.
.22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1-. All of the following could be considered e$amples of e$ogenous influences on an
organism #DC#@T the influence of the
(A) le'el of a hormone on a field mouse4s readiness for mating
(B) temperature of a region on a bear4s hibernation
(C) salt le'el of a ri'er on a fish4s migration
() humidity of an area on a cat4s shedding of its fur
(#) pro$imity of an owl on a li!ard4s searching for food
16. &hich of the following statements best describes the conclusion drawn by Brown
(lines 10(1-)
(A) A change in tide schedule is the primary influence on an oyster4s rhythms.
(B) A change in tide schedule may be an important e$ogenous influence on an
oyster4s rhythms.
(C) #$ogenous influences/ such as a change in tide schedule/ seldom affect an
oyster4s rhythms.
() #ndogenous influences ha'e no effect on an oyster4s rhythms.
(#) #ndogenous influences are the only influences on an oyster4s rhythms.
1,. The passage suggests that Brown4s study was similar to )amner4s in which of the
following ways%
3. Both e$perimenters disco'ered that a new en'ironment had a significant
effect on an organism4s beha'ior rhythms.
33. Both e$perimenters obser'ed an organism4s beha'ioral rhythms after the
organism had been transported to a new en'ironment.
333. Both e$perimenters knew an organism4s rhythmic patterns in its original
en'ironment.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most weaken Brown4s conclusion%
(A) The oyster gradually closed their shells after high tide in 3llinois had passed.
(B) The oysters4 beha'ioral rhythms maintained their adaptation to the tide
schedule in 3llinois throughout thirty days of obser'ation.
(C) ;i$teen days after they were mo'ed to 3llinois/ the oysters opened their shells
widest when it was high tide in Connecticut.
() A scientist who brought ?aryland oysters to ?aine found that the oysters
opened their shells widest when it was high tide in ?aine.
(#) 3n an e$periment similar to Brown4s/ a scientist was able to establish a clear
GRE .2.
causal relationship between en'ironmental change and beha'ioral rhythms.
Pcture-takng s a technque both for annexng the ob|ectve word and for
expressng the snguar sef. Photographs depct ob|ectve reates that aready
exst, though ony the camera can dscose them. And they depct an ndvdua
photographers temperament, dscoverng tsef through the cameras croppng of
reaty. That s, photography has two antthetca deas: n the frst, photography s
about the word and the photographer s a mere observe who counts for tte; but
n the second, photography s the nstrument of ntrepd, questng sub|ectvty and
the photographer s a.
These confctng deas arse from a fundamenta uneasness on the part of
both photographers and vewers of photographs toward the aggressve
component n "takng" a pcture. Accordngy, the dea of a photographer as
observer s attractve because t mpcty denes that pcture-takng s an
aggressve act. The ssue, of course, s not so cear-cut. What photographers do
cannot be characterzed as smpy predatory or as smpy, and essentay,
benevoent. As a consequence, one dea of pcture-takng or the other s aways
beng redscovered and champoned.
An mportant resut of the coexstence of these two deas s a recurrent
ambvaence toward photographys means. Whatever the cams that photography
mght make to be a form of persona expresson on a par wth pantng, ts
orgnaty s nextrcaby nked to the powers of a machne. The steady growth of
these powers has made possbe the extraordnary nformatveness and
magnatve forma beauty of many photographs, ke Harod Edgertons hgh-
speed photographs of a buet httng ts target or of the swrs and eddes of a
tenns stroke. But as cameras become more sophstcated, more automated, some
photographers are tempted to dsarm themseves or to suggest that they are not
reay armed, preferrng to submt themseves to the mts mposed by premodern
camera technoogy because a cruder, ess hgh-powered machne s thought to
gve more nterestng or emotve resuts, to eave more room for creatve
accdent. For exampe, t has been vrtuay a pont of honor for many
photographers, ncudng Waker Evans and Carter-Bresson, to refuse to use
modern equpment. These photographers have come to doubt the vaue of the
camera as an nstrument of "fast seeng." Carter-Bresson, n fact, cams that the
modern camera may see too fast.
Ths ambvaence toward photographc means determnes trends n taste. The
cut of the future (of faster and faster seeng) aternates over tme wth the wsh to
return to a purer past-when mages had a handmade quaty. Ths nostaga for
some prstne state of the photographc enterprse s currenty wdespread and
underes the present-day enthusasm for daguerreotypes and the wok of
forgotten nneteenth-century provnca photographers. Photographers and
vewers of photographs, t seems, need perodcay to resst ther own
knowngness.
.20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. According to the passage/ interest among photographers in each of photography4s
two ideals can be described as
(A) rapidly changing
(B) cyclically recurring
(C) steadily growing
() unimportant to the 'iewers of photographs
(#) unrelated to changes in technology
22. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) establishing new technical standards for contemporary photography
(B) analy!ing the influence of photographic ideals on picture(taking
(C) tracing the de'elopment of camera technology in the twentieth century
() describing how photographers4 indi'idual temperaments are reflected in their
work
(#) e$plaining how the technical limitations imposed by certain photographers on
themsel'es affect their work
2.. The passage states all of the following about photographs #DC#@TE
(A) They can display a cropped reality.
(B) The can con'ey information.
(C) They can depict the photographer4s temperament.
() They can possess great formal beauty.
(#) They can change the 'iewer4s sensibilities.
20. The author mentions the work of )arold #dgerton in order to pro'ide an e$ample
of
(A) how a controlled ambi'alence toward photography4s means can produce
outstanding pictures
(B) how the content of photographs has changed from the nineteenth century to
the twentieth
(C) the popularity of high(speed photography in the twentieth century
() the relationship between photographic originality and technology
(#) the primacy of formal beauty o'er emotional content
21. The passage suggests that photographers such as &alker #'ans prefer old(
fashioned techni"ues and e"uipment because these photographers
(A) admire instruments of fast seeing
(B) need to feel armed by technology
(C) stri'e for intense formal beauty in their photographs
() like the discipline that comes from self(imposed limitations
(#) dislike the dependence of photographic effecti'eness on the powers of a
GRE .21
machine
22. According to the passage/ the two antithetical ideals of photography differ
primarily in the
(A) 'alue that each places on the beauty of the finished product
(B) emphasis that each places on the emotional impact of the finished product
(C) degree of technical knowledge that each re"uires of the photographer
() e$tent of the power that each re"uires of the photographer4s e"uipment
(#) way in which each defines the role of the photographer
2-. &hich of the following statements would be most likely to begin the paragraph
immediately following the passage%
(A) @hotographers/ as a result of their heightened awareness of time/ are
constantly trying to capture e'ents and actions that are fleeting.
(B) Thus the cult of the future/ the worship of machines and speed/ is firmly
established in spite of efforts to the contrary by some photographers.
(C) The re<ection of technical knowledge/ howe'er/ can ne'er be complete and
photography cannot for any length of time pretend that it has no weapons.
() The point of honor in'ol'ed in re<ecting comple$ e"uipment is/ howe'er/ of
no significance to the 'iewer of a photograph.
(#) Conse"uently the impulse to return to the past through images that suggest a
handwrought "uality is nothing more that a passing fad.
No. 2-3
SECTION A
It s we known that boogca changes at the moecuar eve have
morphogenetc consequences, consequences affectng the formaton and
dfferentaton of tssues and organs. It s superfuous to pont out that gene
mutatons and dsturbances of the bo-synthetc processes n the embryo may
resut n abnormates n the morphoogy (structure) of an organsm. However,
whereas much s known about causes and consequences at the moecuar eve,
and n spte of an enormous accumuaton of chemca and morphoogca data on
embryos of varous knds, our understandng of how genes contro morphogeness
s st far from compete. Perhaps one reason for ths s that moecuar boogsts
and morphoogsts speak dfferent anguages. Whereas the former speak about
messenger-RNA and conformatona changes of proten moecues, the atter
speak of ectoderms, hypobasts, and neura crests.
One souton to ths predcament s to try to fnd some phenomena reevant to
morphogeness whch both the moecuar boogst and the morphoogst can
understand and dscuss. As morphogeness must be bascay the resut of
.22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
changes n behavor of the ndvdua ces, t seems ogca to ask morphoogsts
to descrbe the morphogenetc events observed n terms of changes n ceuar
contact, changes n the rate of proferaton of ces, or smar phenomena. Once
ths s done, t may be approprate to ask questons about the moecuar
background for these changes. One may, for nstance, ask whether varatons n
ce contact refect ateratons n the popuatons of moecues at the ce surface,
or one may nqure about the moecuar bass for the ncreased ce mobty
nvoved n ce dsperson.
Studes of ths knd have been carred out wth ces reeased from tssues n
varous ways and then aowed to revea ther behavor after beng spread out nto
a thn ayer. In many cases, such ces show the abty to reaggregate, after whch
dfferent ce types may sort themseves out nto dfferent ayers and even take
part n st more ntrcate morphogenetc events. But n most cases, the behavor
of ces n the ntact embryo s dffcut to study because of the thckness and
opacty of the ce masses. The sea urchn embryo, however, has the advantage
that t s so transparent that each ce can be easy observed throughout
deveopment. Thus, by recordng the deveopment of a sea urchn embryo wth
tme-apse photography, the research scentst mght dscover prevousy unknown
features of ceuar behavor. Perhaps the study of the sea urchn n ths manner
can provde a medum by whch the moecuar boogst and the morphoogst can
begn communcatng wth each other more effectvey about the way n whch
genes contro morphogeness.
1-. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) outline a procedure and discuss possible applications
(B) e'aluate an e$periment in terms of its applicability to medical research
(C) propose a method for curing specific genetic disorders
() e$plain a problem and suggest a solution for it
(#) re'eal the shortcomings of se'eral attitudes toward genetic research
16. The author states that research into the genetic control of morphogenesis has been
impeded by
(A) an incomplete understanding of biomolecular reactions that are highly
comple$
(B) a lack of communication between scientists whose work could be
complementary
(C) a reluctance on the part of morphologists to share data with molecular
biologists
() a lack of research in the area of morphology
(#) the una'ailability of suitable research e"uipment
1,. The ma<or ob<ecti'e of the author4s proposal is to
(A) de'ise a techni"ue for pro'ing that abnormalities in morphology result from
GRE .2-
gene mutations
(B) impro'e the procedures for organi!ing chemical and morphological data
(C) increase the accuracy of measurements of cell populations and cell mobility
() reduce the margin of error in the study of conformational changes of protein
molecules
(#) pro'ide a plan for increasing knowledge about the influence of genes on
morphogenesis
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some cells that ha'e been isolated from an
organism ha'e the ability to
(A) control morphogenesis
(B) reform to make higher organisms
(C) reorgani!e to form clusters of cells
() regulate the transmission of light through the cell wall
(#) regulate the rate of tissue formation
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the study of the effects of genes on
morphogenesis is best accomplished by obser'ing
(A) intact de'eloping embryos
(B) adult sea urchins
(C) isolated li'ing cells
() groups of genetically mutated cells
(#) cells from the same kink of tissue
22. According to the passage/ it is difficult to study cells in most intact embryos
because
(A) morphogenetic e'ents cannot be isolated
(B) embryos die "uickly
(C) embryos are difficult to obtain
() indi'idual cells reaggregate too "uickly
(#) indi'idual cells are difficult to see
2.. &hich of the following se"uences best describes the author4s suggestion for
future research on morphogenesis%
(A) Accumulation of data/ simplification of language/ e$planation of
morphogenesis
(B) ispersion of cells/ e'aluation of cell acti'ity/ de'elopment of an e$planatory
hypothesis
(C) Classification of cell types/ separation of cell/ obser'ation of cell acti'ity
() 8bser'ation of cell de'elopment/ description of cell beha'ior/ e$planation at
the molecular le'el
.26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) ifferentiation of cell types/ description of cell structure/ analysis of
molecular components
20. The tone of the author4s discussion of the difference in the language used by
morphologists and that used by molecular biologists is one of
(A) indifference
(B) neutrality
(C) derision
() approbation
(#) indignation
The back experence, one mght automatcay assume, s known to every
Back author. Henry |ames was ponderng a smar assumpton when he sad: "You
were to suffer your fate. That was not necessary to know t." Ths dsparty
between an experence and knowedge of that experence s the ongest brdge an
artst must cross. Don L. Lee, n hs pcture of the Back poet, "studyng hs own
poetry and the poetry of other Back poets," touches on the cruca pont. In order
to transform hs own sufferngs-or |oys-as a Back person nto usabe knowedge
for hs readers, the author must frst order hs experences n hs mnd. Ony then
can he create feengy and coherenty the combnaton of fact and meanng that
Back audences requre for the reexporaton of ther ves. A cutura communty
of Back authors studyng one anothers best works systematcay woud
represent a dynamc nterchange of the sprt-correctve and nstructve and
ncreasngy beautfu n ts recorded expresson.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers poetry to be which of
the following%
(A) A means of di'ersion in which suffering is transformed into <oy
(B) An art form that sometimes stifles creati'e energy
(C) A bridge between the mundane and the unreal
() A medium for con'eying important information
(#) An area where beauty must be sacrificed for accuracy
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be K#A;T likely to
appro'e of which of the following%
(A) Courses that promote cultural awareness through the study of contemporary
art
(B) The de'elopment of creati'e writing courses that encourage mutual criticism
of student work
(C) Browing interest in e$temporaneous writing that records e$periences as they
occur
() A shift in interest from abstract philosophical poetry to concrete
autobiographical poetry
GRE .2,
(#) &orkshops and newsletters designed to promote dialogues between poets
2-. The author refers to )enry Aames primarily in order to
(A) support his own perception of the *longest bridge+ (lines 2(-)
(B) illustrate a coherent *combination of fact and meaning+ (lines 10(11)
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of *dynamic interchange of the spirit+ (line 1,)
() establish the per'asi'eness of lack of self(knowledge
(#) contrast Aames4s ideas about poetry with those of on K. Kee
SECTION B
My ob|ectve s to anayze certan forms of knowedge, not n terms of
represson or aw, but n terms of power. But the word power s apt to ead to
msunderstandngs about the nature, form, and unty of power. By power, I do not
mean a group of nsttutons and mechansms that ensure the subservence of the
ctzenry. I do not mean, ether, a mode of sub|ugaton that, n contrast to
voence, has the form of the rue. Fnay, I do not have n mnd a genera system
of domnaton exerted by one group over another, a system whose effects,
through successve dervatons, pervade the entre soca body. The soveregnty of
the state, the form of aw, or the overa unty of a domnaton are ony the
termna forms power takes.
It seems to me that power must be understood as the mutpcty of force
reatons that are mmanent n the soca sphere; as the process that, through
ceaseess strugge and confrontaton, transforms, strengthens, or reverses them;
as the support that these force reatons fnd n one another, or on the contrary,
the ds|unctons and contradctons that soate them from one another; and asty,
as the strateges n whch they take effect, whose genera desgn or nsttutona
crystazaton s emboded n the state apparatus, n the formuaton of the aw, n
the varous soca hegemones.
Thus, the vewpont that permts one to understand the exercse of power,
even n ts more "perphera" effects, and that aso makes t possbe to use ts
mechansms as a structura framework for anayzng the soca order, must not be
sought n a unque source of soveregnty from whch secondary and descendent
forms of power emanate but n the movng substrate of force reatons that, by
vrtue of ther nequaty, constanty engender oca and unstabe states of power.
If power seems omnpresent, t s not because t has the prvege of consodatng
everythng under ts nvncbe unty, but because t s produced from one moment
to the next, at every pont, or rather n every reaton from one pont to another.
Power s everywhere, not because t embraces everythng, but because t comes
from everywhere. And f power at tmes seems to be permanent, repettous, nert,
and sef-reproducng, t s smpy because the overa effect that emerges from a
these mobtes s a concatenaton that rests on each of them and seeks n turn to
arrest ther movement. One needs to be nomnastc, no doubt: power s not an
..5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
nsttuton, and not a structure; nether s t a certan strength we are endowed
wth; t s the name that one attrbutes to a compex strategc stuaton n a
partcuar socety.
1-. The author4s primary purpose in defining power is to
(A) counteract self(ser'ing and confusing uses of the term
(B) establish a compromise among those who ha'e defined the term in different
ways
(C) increase comprehension of the term by pro'iding concrete e$amples
() demonstrate how the meaning of the term has e'ol'ed
(#) a'oid possible misinterpretations resulting from the more common uses of the
term
16. According to the passage/ which of the following best describes the relationship
between law and power%
(A) Kaw is the protector of power.
(B) Kaw is the source of power.
(C) Kaw sets bounds to power.
() Kaw is a product of power.
(#) Kaw is a stabili!er of power.
1,. &hich of the following methods is 98T used e$tensi'ely by the author in
describing his own conception of power%
(A) =estatement of central ideas
(B) @ro'ision of concrete e$amples
(C) Analysis and classification
() Comparison and contrast
(#) ;tatement of cause and effect
25. &ith which of the following statement would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) @ower tends to corruptI absolute power corrupts absolutely.
(B) The highest proof of 'irtue is to possess boundless power without abusing it.
(C) To lo'e knowledge is to lo'e power.
() 3t is from the people and their deeds that power springs.
(#) The health of the people as a state is the foundation on which all their power
depends.
21. The author4s attitude toward the 'arious kinds of compulsion employed by social
institutions is best described as
(A) concerned and sympathetic
(B) scientific and detached
GRE ..1
(C) suspicious and cautious
() reproachful and disturbed
(#) meditati'e and wistful
22. According to the passage/ states of power are transient because of the
(A) differing natures and directions of the forces that create them
(B) rigid structural framework in which they operate
(C) uni"ue source from which they emanate
() per'asi'e nature and comple$ity of the mechanisms by which they operate
(#) concatenation that seeks to arrest their mo'ement
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es the conflict among
social forces to be
(A) essentially the same from one society to another e'en though its outward
manifestation may seem different
(B) usually the result of misunderstandings that impede social progress
(C) an ine'itable feature of the social order of any state
() wrongly blamed for disrupting the stability of society
(#) best moderated in states that possess a strong central go'ernment
The hypothess of an expandng Earth has never attracted notabe support,
and f t were not for the hstorca exampe of contnenta drft, such ndfference
mght be a egtmate response to an apparenty mprobabe concept. It shoud be
remembered, however, that drft too was once regarded as usory, but the dea
was kept ave unt evdence from physcsts compeed geoogsts to renterpret
ther data.
Of course, t woud be as dangerous to overreact to hstory by concudng that
the ma|orty must now be wrong about expanson as t woud be to reenact the
response that greeted the suggeston that the contnents had drfted. The cases
are not precsey anaogous. There were serous probems wth the pre-drft word
vew that a drft theory coud hep to resove, whereas Earth expanson appears to
offer no comparabe advantages. If, however, physcsts coud show that the
Earths gravtatona force has decreased wth tme, expanson woud have to be
reconsdered and accommodated.
20. The passage indicates that one reason why the e$pansion hypothesis has attracted
little support is that it will not
(A) o'ercome deficiencies in current geologic hypotheses
(B) clarify theories concerning the #arth4s gra'itational forces
(C) complement the theory of continental drift
() accommodate rele'ant theories from the field of physics
(#) withstand criticism from scientists outside the field of geology
..2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. The final acceptance of a drift theory could best be used to support the argument
that
(A) physicists are reluctant to communicate with other scientists
(B) improbable hypotheses usually turn out to be 'alid
(C) there should be cooperation between different fields of science
() there is a need for go'ernmental control of scientific research
(#) scientific theories are often pro'ed by accident
22. 3n de'eloping his argument/ the author warns against
(A) relying on incomplete measurements
(B) introducing irrele'ant information
(C) re<ecting corroborati'e e'idence
() accepting uninformed opinions
(#) making unwarranted comparisons
2-. 3t can be deduced from the passage that the gra'itational force at a point on the
#arth4s surface is
(A) representati'e of the geologic age of the #arth
(B) analogous to the mo'ement of land masses
(C) similar to optical phenomena such as mirages
() proportional to the si!e of the #arth
(#) dependent on the speed of the #arth4s rotation
No. 3-1
SECTION A
Notabe as mportant nneteenth-century noves by women, Mary Sheeys
Frankenstein and Emy Brontes ,uthering %eights treat women very dfferenty.
Sheey produced a "mascune" text n whch the fates of subordnate femae
characters seem entrey dependent on the actons of mae heroes or ant-heroes.
Bronte produced a more reastc narratve, portrayng a word where men batte
for the favors of apparenty hgh-sprted, ndependent women. Nevertheess,
these two noves are ake n severa cruca ways. Many readers are convnced
that the compeng mysteres of each pot concea eaborate structures of auson
and ferce, though shadowy, mora ambtons that seem to ndcate metaphysca
ntentons, though efforts by crtcs to artcuate these ntentons have generated
much controversy. Both novests use a storyteng method that emphaszes ronc
ds|unctons between dfferent perspectves on the same events as we as ronc
tensons that nhere n the reatonshp between surface drama and conceaed
authora ntenton, a method I ca an evdentary narratve technque.
GRE ...
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) defend a contro'ersial interpretation of two no'els
(B) e$plain the source of widely recogni!ed responses to two no'els
(C) delineate broad differences between two no'els
() compare and contrast two no'els
(#) critici!e and e'aluate two no'els
16. According the passage/ Frankenstein differs from Wuthering &eights in its
(A) use of multiple narrators
(B) method of disguising the author4s real purposes
(C) portrayal of men as determiners of the no'el4s action
() creation of a realistic story
(#) contro'ersial effect on readers
1,. &hich of the following narrati'e strategies best e$emplifies the *e'identiary
narrati'e techni"ue+ mentioned in line 20%
(A) Telling a story in such a way that the author4s real intentions are discernible
only through interpretations of allusions to a world outside that of the story
(B) Telling a story in such a way that the reader is aware as e'ents unfold of the
author4s underlying purposes and the ways these purposes conflict with the
drama of the plot
(C) Telling a story in a way that both directs attention to the incongruities among
the points of 'iew of se'eral characters and hints that the plot has a
significance other than that suggested by its mere e'ents
() Telling a story as a mystery in which the reader must deduce/ from the
conflicting e'idence presented by se'eral narrators/ the moral and
philosophical significance of character and e'ent
(#) Telling a story from the author4s point of 'iew in a way that implies both the
author4s and the reader4s ironic distance from the dramatic unfolding of
e'ents
25. According to the passage/ the plots of Wuthering &eights and Frankenstein are
notable for their elements of
(A) drama and secrecy
(B) heroism and tension
(C) realism and ambition
() mystery and irony
(#) morality and metaphysics
Cmatc condtons are decatey ad|usted to the composton of the Earths
atmosphere. If there were a change n the atmosphere-for exampe, n the
reatve proportons of atmospherc gases-the cmate woud probaby change
..0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
aso. A sght ncrease n water vapor, for nstance, woud ncrease the heat-
retanng capacty of the atmosphere and woud ead to a rse n goba
temperatures. In contrast, a arge ncrease n water vapor woud ncrease the
thckness and extent of the coud ayer, reducng the amount of soar energy
reachng the Earths surface.
The eve of carbon doxde, CO
2
, n the atmosphere has an mportant effect on
cmatc change. Most of the Earths ncomng energy s short-waveength
radaton, whch tends to pass through atmospherc CO
2
easy. The Earth,
however, reradates much of the receved energy as ong-waveength radaton,
whch CO
2
absorbs and then remts toward the Earth. Ths phenomenon, known as
the greenhouse effect, can resut n an ncrease n the surface temperature of a
panet. An extreme exampe of the effect s shown by Venus, a panet covered by
heavy couds composed mosty of CO
2
, whose surface temperatures have been
measured at 430. If the CO
2
content of the atmosphere s reduced, the
temperature fas. Accordng to one respectabe theory, f the atmospherc CO
2

concentraton were haved, the Earth woud become competey covered wth ce.
Another equay respectabe theory, however, states that a havng of the CO
2

concentraton woud ead ony to a reducton n goba temperatures of 3.
If, because of an ncrease n forest fres or vocanc actvty, the CO
2
content of
the atmosphere ncreased, a warmer cmate woud be produced. Pant growth,
whch rees on both the warmth and the avaabty of CO
2
woud probaby
ncrease. As a consequence, pants woud use more and more CO
2
. Eventuay CO
2
eves woud dmnsh and the cmate, n turn, woud become cooer. Wth reduced
temperatures many pants woud de; CO
2
woud thereby be returned to the
atmosphere and graduay the temperature woud rse agan. Thus, f ths process
occurred, there mght be a ong-term oscaton n the amount of CO
2
present n
the atmosphere, wth reguar temperature ncreases and decreases of a set
magntude.
Some cmatoogsts argue that the burnng of foss fues has rased the eve
of CO
2
n the atmosphere and has caused a goba temperature ncrease of at
east 1. But a supposed goba temperature rse of 1 may n reaty be ony
severa regona temperature ncreases, restrcted to areas where there are many
meteoroogca statons and caused smpy by shfts n the pattern of atmospherc
crcuaton. Other areas, for exampe the Southern Hemsphere oceanc zone, may
be experencng an equvaent temperature decrease that s unrecognzed
because of the shortage of meteoroogca recordng statons.
21. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hy are pro<ections of the effects of changes in water 'apor le'els on the
climate so inaccurate%
(B) &hat are the steps in the process that takes place as C8
2
absorbs long(
wa'elength radiation%
GRE ..1
(C) )ow might our understanding of the greenhouse effect be impro'ed if the
burning of fossil fuels were decreased%
() &hat might cause a series of regular increases and decreases in the amount of
C8
2
in the atmosphere%
(#) &hy are there fewer meteorological recording stations in the ;outhern
)emisphere oceanic !one than elsewhere%
22. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining the effects that the burning of fossil fuels might ha'e on climate
(B) illustrating the effects of C8
2
on atmospheric radiation
(C) discussing effects that changes in the C8
2
le'el in the atmosphere might ha'e
on climate
() challenging hypotheses about the effects of water 'apor and C8
2
on climate
(#) refuting hypotheses by climatologists about the causes of global temperature
fluctuations
2.. The passage suggests that a large decrease in the amount of C8
2
in the
atmosphere would result in
(A) at least a slight decrease in global temperatures
(B) at the most a slight increase in short(wa'elength radiation reaching the #arth
(C) a slight long(term increase in global temperatures
() a large long(term increase in the amount of 'olcanic acti'ity
(#) a slight short(term increase in atmosphere water 'apor content
20. The author refers to Cenus primarily in order to
(A) show the inherent weakness of the greenhouse effect theory
(B) show that the greenhouse effect works on other planets but not on #arth
(C) show the e$tent to which #arth4s atmosphere differs from that of Cenus
() support the contention that as water 'apor increase/ the amount of C8
2

increases
(#) support the argument that the C8
2
le'el in the atmosphere has a significant
effect on climate
21. The passage suggests that if there were a slight global warming at the present
time/ it would be
(A) easy to measure the e$act increase in temperature because of the abundance
of temperature recording stations throughout the world
(B) difficult to measure the increase of C8
2
in the atmosphere because of local
'ariations in amounts
(C) easy to demonstrate the effects of the warming on the water 'apor in the
atmosphere
..2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() difficult to pro'e that the warming was caused by the burning of fossil fuels
(#) easy to pro'e that the warming was caused by an increase of cloud co'er
22. The discussion of climate in the passage suggests which of the following
conclusion%
3. Climate is not perfectly stable/ and slight regional temperature 'ariations can
be considered a normal feature of the en'ironment.
33. &e are unable at present to measure global temperature changes precisely.
333. The most important cause of regional climatic fluctuations is the change in
C8
2
le'els in the atmosphere.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. All of the following can be found in the author4s discussion of climate #DC#@T
(A) a statement about the effects of increased 'olcanic acti'ity on the #arth4s
temperatures
(B) an indication of the effect of an increase in water 'apor in the atmosphere
(C) a contrast between two theories about the effects of a lowering of C8
2
le'els
in the atmosphere
() a generali!ation about the efficiency of meteorological recording stations
(#) a hypothesis about the relationship between atmospheric gases and changes in
climate
SECTION B
The Food and Drug Admnstraton has recenty proposed severe restrctons
on the use of antbotcs to promote the heath and growth of meat anmas.
Medcatons added to feeds k many mcroorgansms but aso encourage the
appearance of bactera strans that are resstant to ant-nfectve drugs. Aready,
for exampe, pencn and the tetracycnes are not as effectve therapeutcay as
they once were. The drug resstance s chefy conferred by tny crcets of genes,
caed pasmds, that can be exchanged between dfferent strans and even
dfferent speces of bactera. Pasmds are aso one of the two knds of vehces
(the other beng vruses) that moecuar boogsts depend on when performng
gene transpant experments. Even present gudenes forbd the aboratory use of
pasmds bearng genes for resstance to antbotcs. Yet, whe congressona
debate rages over whether or not to toughen these restrctons on scentsts n
ther aboratores, tte congressona attenton has been focused on an -advsed
agrcutura practce that produces known deeterous effects.
GRE ..-
1-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) disco'ering methods of eliminating harmful microorganisms without
subse"uently generating drug(resistant bacteria
(B) e$plaining reasons for congressional inaction on the regulation of gene
transplant e$periments
(C) describing a problematic agricultural practice and its serious genetic
conse"uences
() 'erifying the therapeutic ineffecti'eness of anti(infecti'e drugs
(#) e'aluating recently proposed restrictions intended to promote the growth of
meat animals
16. According to the passage/ the e$change of plasmids between different bacteria
can results in which of the following%
(A) ?icroorganisms resistant to drugs
(B) Therapeutically useful circlets of genes
(C) Anti(infecti'e drugs like penicillin
() Ciruses for use by molecular biologists
(#) Cehicles for performing gene transplant e$periments
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that those in fa'or of
stiffening the restrictions on gene transplant research should logically also
(A) encourage e$periments with any plasmids e$cept those bearing genes for
antibiotic resistance
(B) "uestion the addition of anti(infecti'e drugs to li'estock feeds
(C) resist the use of penicillin and tetracyclines to kill microorganisms
() agree to the de'elopment of meatier li'estock through the use of antibiotics
(#) fa'or congressional debate and discussion of all science and health issues
25. The author4s attitude toward the de'elopment of bacterial strains that render
antibiotic drugs ineffecti'e can best be described as
(A) indifferent
(B) perple$ed
(C) pretentious
() insincere
(#) apprehensi'e
Durng adoescence, the deveopment of potca deoogy becomes apparent
n the ndvdua; deoogy here s defned as the presence of roughy consstent
atttudes, more or ess organzed n reference to a more encompassng, though
perhaps tact, set of genera prncpes. As such, potca deoogy s dm or absent
at the begnnng of adoescence. Its acquston by the adoescent, n even the
most modest sense, requres the acquston of reatvey sophstcated cogntve
..6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
sks: the abty to manage abstractness, to synthesze and generaze, to
magne the future. These are accompaned by a steady advance n the abty to
understand prncpes.
The chds rapd acquston of potca knowedge aso promotes the growth
of potca deoogy durng adoescence. By knowedge I mean more than the
dreary "facts," such as the composton of county government that the chd s
exposed to n the conventona nnth-grade cvcs course. Nor do I mean ony
nformaton on current potca reates. These are facets of knowedge, but they
are ess crtca than the adoescents absorpton, often unwttng, of a feeng for
those many unspoken assumptons about the potca system that comprse the
common ground of understandng-for exampe, what the state can appropratey
demand of ts ctzens, and vce versa, or the proper reatonshp of government to
subsdary soca nsttutons, such as the schoos and churches. Thus potca
knowedge s the awareness of soca assumptons and reatonshps as we as of
ob|ectve facts. Much of the navet that characterzes the younger adoescents
grasp of potcs stems not from an gnorance of "facts" but from conventons of
the system, of what s and s not customary done, and of how and why t s or s
not done.
Yet I do not want to overemphasze the sgnfcance of ncreased potca
knowedge n formng adoescent deoogy. Over the years I have become
progressvey dsenchanted about the centraty of such knowedge and have
come to beeve that much current work n potca socazaton, by reyng too
heavy on ts apparent acquston, has been msed about the tempo of potca
understandng n adoescence. |ust as young chdren can count numbers n seres
wthout graspng the prncpe of ordnaton, young adoescents may have n ther
heads many random bts of potca nformaton wthout a secure understandng
of those concepts that woud gve order and meanng to the nformaton.
Lke magpes, chdrens mnds pck up bts and peces of data. If you
encourage them, they w drop these at your feet-Repubcans and Democrats,
the trpartte dvson of the federa system, perhaps even the capta of
Massachusetts. But unt the adoescent has grasped the ntegumenta functon
that concepts and prncpes provde, the data reman fragmented, random,
dsordered.
21. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to
(A) clarify the kinds of understanding an adolescent must ha'e in order to
de'elop a political ideology
(B) dispute the theory that a political ideology can be ac"uired during
adolescence
(C) e$plain why adolescents are generally uninterested in political arguments
() suggest 'arious means of encouraging adolescents to de'elop personal
political ideologies
GRE ..,
(#) e$plain why an adolescent4s political ideology usually appears more
sophisticated than it actually is
22. According to the author/ which of the following contributes to the de'elopment of
political ideology during adolescence%
(A) Conscious recognition by the adolescent of his or her own nai'etP
(B) Thorough comprehension of the concept of ordination
(C) #'aluation by the adolescent of the general principles encompassing his or
her specific political ideas
() 3ntuiti'e understanding of relationships among 'arious components of society
(#) =e<ection of abstract reasoning in fa'or of in'ol'ement with pragmatic
situations
2.. The author uses the term *common ground of understanding+ (line 2-) to refer to
(A) familiar legislation regarding political acti'ity
(B) the e$periences that all adolescents share
(C) a society4s general sense of its own political acti'ity
() a society4s willingness to resol'e political tensions
(#) the assumption that the state controls social institutions
20. The passage suggests that/ during early adolescence/ a child would find which of
the following most difficult to understand%
(A) A book chronicling the ways in which the presidential inauguration ceremony
has changed o'er the years
(B) An essay in which an incident in British history is used to e$plain the system
of monarchic succession
(C) A summary of the respecti'e responsibilities of the legislati'e/ e$ecuti'e/ and
<udicial branches of go'ernment
() A debate in which the participants argue/ respecti'ely/ that the federal
go'ernment should or should not support pri'ate schools
(#) An article detailing the specific religious groups that founded American
colonies and the guiding principles of each one
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements about schools%
(A) They should present political information according to carefully planned/
schematic arrangements.
(B) They themsel'es constitute part of a general sociopolitical system that
adolescents are learning to understand.
(C) 3f they were to introduce political sub<ect matter in the primary grades/
students would understand current political realities at an earlier age.
() They are ineffectual to the degree that they disregard adolescents4 political
.05 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
nai'etP.
(#) Because they are subsidiary to go'ernment their contribution to the political
understanding of adolescent must be limited.
22. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s e'aluation of the
accumulation of political knowledge by adolescents%
(A) 3t is un"uestionably necessary/ but its significance can easily be
o'erestimated.
(B) 3t is important/ but not as important as is the ability to appear knowledgeable.
(C) 3t delays the necessity of considering underlying principles.
() 3t is primarily rele'ant to an understanding of limited/ local concerns/ such as
county politics.
(#) 3t is primarily dependent on information gleaned from high school courses
such as ci'ics.
2-. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of the author4s
discussion of the role of political knowledge in the formation of political ideology
during adolescence%
(A) )e acknowledges its importance/ but then modifies his initial assertion of that
importance.
(B) )e consistently resists the idea that it is important/ using a series of e$amples
to support his stand.
(C) )e wa'ers in e'aluating it and finally uses analogies to e$plain why he is
indecisi'e.
() )e begins by "uestioning con'entional ideas about its importance/ but finally
concedes that they are correct.
(#) )e carefully refrains from making an initial <udgment about it/ but later
confirms its critical role.
No. 3-2
SECTION A
The makng of cassfcatons by terary hstorans can be a somewhat rsky
enterprse. When Back poets are dscussed separatey as a group, for nstance,
the extent to whch ther work refects the deveopment of poetry n genera
shoud not be forgotten, or a dstorton of terary hstory may resut. Ths cauton
s partcuary reevant n an assessment of the dfferences between Back poets at
the turn of the century (1900-1909) and those of the generaton of the 1920s.
These dfferences ncude the boder and more forthrght speech of the ater
generaton and ts technca nventveness. It shoud be remembered, though, that
comparabe dfferences aso exsted for smar generatons of Whte poets.
GRE .01
When poets of the 1910s and 1920s are consdered together, however, the
dstnctons that terary hstorans mght make between "conservatve" and
"expermenta" woud be of tte sgnfcance n a dscusson of Back poets,
athough these reman hepfu cassfcatons for Whte poets of these decades.
Certany dfferences can be noted between "conservatve" Back poets such as
Counter Cuen and Caude McKay and "expermenta" ones such as |ean Toomer
and Langston Hughes. But Back poets were not battng over od or new styes;
rather, one accompshed Back poet was ready to wecome another, whatever hs
or her stye, for what mattered was raca prde.
However, n the 1920s Back poets dd debate whether they shoud dea wth
specfcay raca sub|ects. They asked whether they shoud ony wrte about Back
experence for a Back audence or whether such demands were restrctve. It may
be sad, though, that vrtuay a these poets wrote ther best poems when they
spoke out of raca feeng, race beng, as |ames Wedon |ohnson rghty put t,
"perforce the thng the Negro poet knows best."
At the turn of the century, by contrast, most Back poets generay wrote n
the conventona manner of the age and expressed nobe, f vague, emotons n
ther poetry. These poets were not unusuay gfted, though Roscoe |amson and G.
M. McCeen may be mentoned as exceptons. They chose not to wrte n daect,
whch, as Sterng Brown has suggested, "meant a re|ecton of stereotypes of
Negro fe," and they refused to wrte ony about raca sub|ects. Ths refusa had
both a postve and a negatve consequence. As Brown observes, "Vauaby
nsstng that Negro poets shoud not be confned to ssues of race, these poets
commtted |an| error. they refused to ook nto ther hearts and wrte." These are
mportant nsghts, but one must stress that ths refusa to ook wthn was aso
typca of most Whte poets of the Unted States at the tme. They, too, often
turned from ther own experence and consequenty produced not very
memorabe poems about vague topcs, such as the peace of nature.
1-. According to the passage/ most turn(of(the(century Black poets generally did
which of the following%
(A) &rote in ways that did not challenge accepted literary practice.
(B) escribed scenes from their own li'es.
(C) Aroused patriotic feelings by e$pressing de'otion to the land.
() #$pressed comple$ feelings in the words of ordinary people.
(#) 3nterpreted the frustrations of Blacks to an audience of &hites.
16. According to the passage/ an issue facing Black poets in the 1,254s was whether
they should
(A) seek a consensus on new techni"ues of poetry
(B) write e$clusi'ely about and for Blacks
(C) withdraw their support from a repressi'e society
.02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() turn away from social "uestions to recollect the tran"uility of nature
(#) identify themsel'es with an international mo'ement of Black writers
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that classifying a poet as either conser'ati'e
or e$perimental would be of *little significance+ (line 21) when discussing Black
poets of the 1,154s and the 1,254s because
(A) these poets wrote in 'ery similar styles
(B) these poets all wrote about nature in the same way
(C) these poets were fundamentally united by a sense of racial achie'ement
despite differences in poetic style
() such a method of classification would fail to take account of the influence of
general poetic practice
(#) such a method of classification would be rele'ant only in a discussion of
poets separated in time by more than three decades
25. The author "uotes ;terling Brown in lines 1.(12 in order to
(A) present an interpretation of some black poets that contradicts the author4s
own assertion about their acceptance of 'arious poetic styles
(B) introduce a distinction between Black poets who used dialect and &hite poets
who did not
(C) dispro'e Aames &eldon Aohnson4s claim that race is what *the 9egro poet
knows best+
() suggest what were the effects of some Black poets4 decision not to write only
about racial sub<ects
(#) pro'e that Black poets at the turn of the century wrote less con'entionally
than did their &hite counterparts
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author finds the work of the ma<ority
of the Black poets at the turn of the century to be
(A) une$citing
(B) calming
(C) confusing
() delightful
(#) inspiring
22. The author would be most likely to agree that poets tend to produce better poems
when they
(A) e$press a lo'e of nature
(B) declaim noble emotions
(C) a'oid technical "uestions about style
() emulate the best work of their predecessors
GRE .0.
(#) write from personal e$perience
2.. &hich of the following best describes the attitude of the author toward
classification as a techni"ue in literary history%
(A) #nthusiastic
(B) 3ndifferent
(C) &ary
() erisi'e
(#) efensi'e
The prmary method prevousy used by paeontoogsts to estmate cmatc
changes that occurred durng Pestocene gaca cyces was the determnaton of
18
O/
16
O ratos n cacareous fosss. However, because ths rato s nfuenced by a
number of factors, the absoute magntude of the temperature dfference between
Pestocene gaca and ntergaca cyces coud not be unequvocay ascertaned.
For exampe, both temperature fuctuatons and sotopc changes n seawater
affect the
18
O/
16
O rato. And, snce both factors nfuence the rato n the same
drecton, the contrbuton of each to the
18
O/
16
O cannot be determned.
Fortunatey, recent studes ndcate that the racemzaton reacton of amno
acds can be used to determne more accuratey temperatures that occurred
durng Pestocene gaca cyces. Ony L-amno acds are usuay found n the
protens of vng organsms, but over ong perods of geoogca tme these acds
undergo racemzaton, producng D-amno acds, whch are not found n protens.
Ths reacton depends on both tme and temperature; thus, f one varabe s
known, the reacton can be used to cacuate the other.
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that determination of the temperatures
mentioned in line 1- through
16
8J
12
8 ratios and determination through
racemi!ation reactions both re"uire which of the following%
(A) Calcium deposits known to be from @leistocene seas
(B) @roteins containing both K(amino acids and (amino acids
(C) Blacial debris from both before and after the @leistocene period
() >ossil material from organisms li'ing during the @leistocene period
(#) @roteins containing both amino acids and
16
8
21. The passage suggests that the
16
8J
12
8 ratio could be used more successfully as a
means of measurement if scientists were able to
(A) determine the
16
8J
12
8 ratio in li'ing animals as well as in fossil remains
(B) locate a greater number of calcareous fossils from the @leistocene glacial and
interglacial cycles
(C) locate the factors other than temperature fluctuations and isotopic changes in
seawater that affect the
16
8J
12
8 ratio
() arri'e at more e$act determinations of which amino acids are found in the
.00 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
proteins of li'ing organisms
(#) isolate the relati'e effects of temperature fluctuations and isotopic changes in
seawater on
16
8J
12
8 ratios
22. The information in the passage can be used to answer which of the following
"uestions%
3. o temperature 'ariations and isotopic changes in seawater cause the
16
8J
12
8
ratio to shift in the same direction%
33. &hat are the methods used to determine the
16
8J
12
8 ratio%
333. 3s the study of racemi!ation reactions useful in estimating climatic changes
that occurred during @leistocene glacial cycles if only one of the two
important 'ariables is known%
(A) 3 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. According to the passage/ before the recent e$periments described in the passage
were completed/ scientists could
(A) determine temperatures only for @leistocene seas
(B) determine temperatures that occurred during @leistocene glacial cycles only
by e$amining fossil remains
(C) measure changes in temperatures that occurred during @leistocene glacial
cycles with only "uestionable accuracy
() only partially identify factors tending to lower @leistocene temperatures
(#) accurately determine temperatures only for land masses affected by glaciation
SECTION B
Chmps and chdren, gus and Greeks-the ethoogsts go ther merry way,
comparng bts of human cutura behavor wth bts of genetcay programmed
anma behavor. True, humans are anmas; they share certan anatomca
features wth other anmas, and some tems of human behavor may seem
anaogous to the behavor of other anmas. But such anaoges can serousy
msead f we fa to ook at the context of a partcuar tem of behavor. Thus one
ethoogst compares the presentaton of a twg by a cormorant wth gft-gvng n
humans. Yet the cormorants twg-presentaton smpy nhbts attack and s
comparabe to other appeasement rtuas found n many speces. Human gft-
gvng dffers n form and purpose not ony from cuture to cuture, but wthn the
same cuture n varous soca contexts. Everythng sgnfcant about t derves
from ts soca context. Thus, ethoogsts can accompsh tte-beyond remndng
GRE .01
us that we are anmas-unt they study humans as cutura bengs.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) demonstrating the usefulness of ethology in disco'ering the beha'ioral limits
within which humans operate
(B) ob<ecting to the degradation of humanity implicit in the ethologists e"uation
of humans and animals
(C) pointing out the dangers inherent in comparing highly dissimilar species/ such
as humans and cormorants/ rather than similar ones/ such as humans and
apes
() refuting the idea that the appeasement rituals in human cultural beha'ior can
be profitably sub<ected to ethological analysis
(#) arguing that the ethologists4 assumption that human beha'ior can be
straightforwardly compared with animal beha'ior is in'alid
16. The author belie'es that gift(gi'ing in humans
(A) is instincti'e beha'ior
(B) is analogous to appeasement rituals in other animals
(C) is not an appropriate sub<ect of study for ethologists
() must be considered within its social conte$t to be properly understood
(#) may be a cultural remnant of beha'ior originally designed to inhibit attack
1,. The author4s attitude toward contemporary ethologists can best be described as
(A) pu!!led
(B) conciliatory
(C) defensi'e
() amused
(#) disparaging
25. &hich of the following statements from a report on a cross(cultural study of gift(
gi'ing would/ if true/ most strongly support the author4s assertions concerning
human gift(gi'ing%
(A) 3n e'ery culture studied/ it was found that some forms of gift(gi'ing are acts
of aggression that place the recei'er under obligation to the gi'er.
(B) ?ost go'ernmental ta$ation systems differentiate between gifts of property
gi'en to children during a parent4s lifetime/ and a child4s inheritance of the
same property from a parent dying without a will.
(C) ;ome gift(gi'ing customs ha'e analogous forms in nearly e'ery culture/ as in
the almost uni'ersal custom of welcoming strangers with gifts of food.
() 3n 9orth America/ generally speaking/ money is an acceptable holiday gift to
one4s letter carrier or garbage collector/ but is often considered an insult if
gi'en to one4s employer/ friends/ or relati'es.
.02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) ;ome gifts/ being conciliatory in nature/ indicate by their costliness the degree
of hostility they must appease in the recipient.
Few areas of neurobehavora research seemed more promsng n the eary
sxtes than that nvestgatng the reatonshp between proten synthess and
earnng. The conceptua framework for ths research was derved drecty from
moecuar boogy, whch had shown that genetc nformaton s stored n nucec
acds and expressed n protens. Why not acqured nformaton as we?
The frst step toward estabshng a connecton between proten synthess and
earnng seemed to be bock memory (cause amnesa) by nterruptng the
producton of proten. We were fortunate n fndng a nonetha dosage of
puromycn that coud, t frst appeared, thoroughy nhbt bran proten synthess
as we as reaby produce amnesa.
Before the actua connecton between proten synthess and earnng coud be
estabshed, however, we began to have doubts about whether nhbton of
proten synthess was n fact the method by whch puromycn produced amnesa.
Frst, other drugs, gutarmdes-themseves potent proten-synthess nhbtors-
ether faed to cause amnesa n some stuatons where t coud easy be nduced
by puromycn or produced an amnesa wth a dfferent tme course from that of
puromycn. Second, puromycn was found to nhbt proten synthess by breakng
certan amno-acd chans, and the resutng fragments were suspected of beng
the actua cause of amnesa n some cases. Thrd, puromycn was reported to
cause abnormates n the bran, ncudng sezures. Thus, not ony were
decreased proten synthess and amnesa dssocated, but aternatve mechansms
for the amnestc acton of puromycn were ready suggested.
So, puromycn turned out to be a dsappontment. It came to be regarded as a
poor agent for amnesa studes, athough, of course, t was poor ony n the
context of our orgna paradgm of proten-synthess nhbton. In our frustraton,
our nta response was smpy to change drugs rather than our conceptua
orentaton. After many such dsappontments, however, t now appears unkey
that we w make a frm connecton between proten synthess and earnng
merey by pursung the approaches of the past. Our experence wth drugs has
shown that a the amnestc agents often nterfere wth memory n ways that
seem unreated to ther nhbton of proten synthess. More mportanty, the
noton that the nterrupton or ntensfcaton of proten producton n the bran can
be reated n cause-and-effect fashon to earnng now seems smpstc and
unproductve. Remove the battery from a car and the car w not go. Drve the car
a ong dstance at hgh speed and the battery w become more hghy charged.
Nether of these facts proves that the battery powers the car; ony a knowedge of
the overa automotve system w revea ts mechansm of the ocomoton and
the roe of the battery wthn that system.
21. This passage was most likely e$cerpted from
(A) a diary kept by a practicing neurobeha'ioral researcher
GRE .0-
(B) a newspaper article on recent ad'ances in the biochemistry of learning
(C) a technical article on e$perimental techni"ues in the field of molecular
biology
() an article summari!ing a series of scientific in'estigations in neurobeha'ioral
research
(#) a book re'iew in a leading <ournal de'oted to genetic research
22. The primary purpose of the passage is to show that e$tensi'e e$perimentation has
(A) demonstrated the importance of amino(acid fragmentation in the induction of
amnesia
(B) cast doubt on the 'alue of puromycin in the neurobeha'ioral in'estigation of
learning
(C) re'ealed the importance of amnesia in the neurobeha'ioral study of learning
() not yet demonstrated the applicability of molecular biology to
neurobeha'ioral research
(#) not supported the hypothesis that learning is directly dependent on protein
synthesis
2.. According to the passage/ neurobeha'iorists initially based their belief that
protein synthesis was related to learning on which of the following%
(A) Traditional theories about learning
(B) 9ew techni"ues in protein synthesis
(C) @re'ious disco'eries in molecular biology
() ;pecific research into learning and amnesia
(#) )istoric e$periments on the effects of puromycin
20. The passage mentions all of the following as effects of puromycin #DC#@TE
(A) brain sei!ures
(B) memory loss
(C) inhibition of protein synthesis
() destruction of genetic information
(#) fragmentation of amino(acid chains
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ after puromycin was percei'ed to be a
disappointment/ researchers did which of the following%
(A) They ceased to e$periment with puromycin and shifted to other promising
protein(synthesis inhibitors.
(B) They ceased to e$periment with puromycin/ and ree$amined through
e$periments the relationship between genetic information and ac"uired
information.
(C) The continued to e$periment with puromycin/ but applied their results to
.06 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
other facets of memory research.
() They continued to e$periment with puromycin/ but also tried other protein(
synthesis inhibitors.
(#) They continued to e$periment with puromycin until a new neuroanatomical
framework was de'eloped.
22. 3n the e$ample of the car (lines 16(21)/ the battery is meant to represent which of
the following elements in the neurobeha'ioral research program%
(A) @uromycin
(B) Amnesia
(C) Blutarimides
() @rotein synthesis
(#) Ac"uired information
2-. &hich of the following statements could be most likely to come after the last
sentence of the passage%
(A) The failures of the past/ howe'er/ must not impede further research into the
amnestic action of protein(synthesis inhibitors.
(B) 3t is a legacy of this research/ therefore/ that molecular biology4s genetic
models ha'e led to disagreements among neurobeha'iorists.
(C) The ambi'alent status of current research/ howe'er/ should not deter
neurobeha'iorists from e$ploring the deeper connections between protein
production and learning.
() 3t is important in the future/ therefore/ for beha'ioral biochemists to
emphasi!e more strongly the place of their specific findings within the
o'erall protein(synthesis model of learning.
(#) 3t is important in the future/ therefore/ for beha'ioral biochemists to focus on
the se'eral components of the total learning system.
No. 3-3
SECTION A
Athough pathogenc organsms constanty aght on the skn, they fnd t a
very unfavorabe envronment and, n the absence of n|ury, have great dffcuty
coonzng t. Ths "sef-sterzng" capacty of the skn resuts from the tendency
of a we-deveoped ecosystems toward homeostass, or the mantenance of the
status quo.
Speces that typcay ve n so, water, and esewhere rarey mutpy on the
skn. Undamaged skn s aso unfavorabe to most human pathogens. The skn s
too acd and too ard for some speces. The constant sheddng of the surface skn
ayers further hnders the estabshment of nvaders. The most nterestng defense
GRE .0,
mechansm, however, resuts from the metaboc actvtes of the resdent fora.
Unsaturated fatty acds, an mportant component of the pds n sebum coected
from the skn surface, nhbt the growth of severa bactera and funga cutaneous
pathogens. These acds are a metaboc product of certan gram-postve members
of the cutaneous communty, whch break down the more compex pds n freshy
secreted sebum.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) offer an analysis of metabolic processes
(B) detail the ways in which bacteria and fungi can be inhibited
(C) describe mechanisms by which the skin protects itself against pathogens
() analy!e the methods whereby biological systems maintain the status "uo
(#) pro'ide a specific e$ample of the skin4s basic defenses against pathogens
16. The *resident flora+ mentioned in line 12 refer to
(A) *:nsaturated fatty acids+ (line 1-)
(B) *sebum collected from the skin surface+ (lines 16(1,)
(C) *bacterial and fungal cutaneous pathogens+ (lines 1,(25)
() *certain gram(positi'e members of the cutaneous community+ (lines 21(22)
(#) *more comple$ lipids+ (lines 2.)
1,. Among the natural defenses of the skin against pathogenic organisms are all of
the following #DC#@T the
(A) dryness of the skin
(B) acidity of the skin
(C) tendency of the pathogens toward homeostasis
() shedding of surface layers of the skin
(#) metabolic breakdown of lipids
25. The author presents her material in which of the following ways%
(A) ;tating a problem and then supplying a solution
(B) @resenting a phenomenon and then analy!ing reason for it
(C) @ro'iding information and then drawing a conclusion from it
() ?aking a general statement and then arguing by analogy
(#) ?aking an inference and then de'eloping it by illustration
"Masterpeces are dumb," wrote Faubert, "They have a tranqu aspect ke
the very products of nature, ke arge anmas and mountans." He mght have
been thnkng of ,ar and Peace& that vast, sent work, unfathomabe and smpe,
provokng endess questons through the ma|esty of ts beng. Tostos smpcty s
"overpowerng," says the crtc Bayey, "dsconcertng," because t comes from
"hs casua assumpton that the word s as he sees t." Lke other nneteenth-
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century Russan wrters he s "mpressve" because he "means what he says," but
he stands apart from a others and from most Western wrters n hs dentty wth
fe, whch s so compete as to make us forget he s an artst. He s the center of
hs work, but hs egocentrcty s of a speca knd. Goethe, for exampe, says
Bayey, "cared for nothng but hmsef. Tosto was nothng but hmsef."
For a hs vared modes of wrtng and the mutpcty of characters n hs
fcton, Tosto and hs work are of a pece. The famous "converson" of hs mdde
years, movngy recounted n hs Confession& was a cumnaton of hs eary
sprtua fe, not a departure from t. The apparenty fundamenta changes that
ed from epc narratve to dogmatc parabe, from a |oyous, buoyant atttude
toward fe to pessmsm and cyncsm, from ,ar and Peace to The 0reut1er
onata& came from the same restess, mpressonabe depths of an ndependent
sprt yearnng to get at the truth of ts experence. "Truth s my hero," wrote
Tosto n hs youth, reportng the fghtng n Sebastopo. Truth remaned hs hero-
hs own, not others, truth. Others were awed by Napoeon, beeved that a snge
man coud change the destnes of natons, adhered to meanngess rtuas,
formed ther tastes on estabshed canons of art. Tosto reversed a
preconceptons; and n every reversa he overthrew the "system," the "machne,"
the externay ordaned beef, the conventona behavor n favor of unsystematc,
mpusve fe, of nward motvaton and the soutons of ndependent thought.
In hs work the artfca and the genune are aways exhbted n dramatc
opposton: the supposedy great Napoeon and the truy great, unregarded tte
Captan Tushn, or Nchoas Rostovs actua experence n batte and hs ater
account of t. The smpe s aways ptted aganst the eaborate, knowedge ganed
from observaton aganst assertons of borrowed faths. Tostos magca smpcty
s a product of these tensons; hs work s a record of the questons he put to
hmsef and of the answers he found n hs search. The greatest characters of hs
fcton exempfy ths search, and ther happness depends on the measure of ther
answers. Tosto wanted happness, but ony hard-won happness, that emotona
fufment and nteectua carty whch coud come ony as the prze of a-
consumng effort. He scorned esser satsfactons.
21. &hich of the following best characteri!es the author4s attitude toward Tolstoi%
(A) ;he deprecates the cynicism of his later works.
(B) ;he finds his theatricality artificial.
(C) ;he admires his wholehearted sincerity.
() ;he thinks his inconsistency disturbing.
(#) ;he respects his de'otion to orthodo$y.
22. &hich of the following best paraphrases >laubert4s statement "uoted in lines 1(0%
(A) ?asterpiece seem ordinary and unremarkable from the perspecti'e of a later
age.
(B) Breat works of art do not e$plain themsel'es to us any more than natural
GRE .11
ob<ects do.
(C) 3mportant works of art take their place in the pageant of history because of
their uni"ueness.
() The most important aspects of good art are the orderliness and tran"uility it
reflects.
(#) ?asterpieces which are of enduring 'alue represent the forces of nature.
2.. The author "uotes from Bayley (line 6(25) to show that
(A) although Tolstoi obser'es and interprets life/ he maintains no self(conscious
distance from his e$perience
(B) the realism of Tolstoi4s work gi'es the illusion that his no'els are reports of
actual e'ents
(C) unfortunately/ Tolstoi is unaware of his own limitation/ though he is sincere in
his attempt to describe e$perience
() although Tolstoi works casually and makes unwarranted assumption/ his work
has an ine$plicable appearance of truth
(#) Tolstoi4s personal perspecti'e makes his work almost unintelligible to the
ma<ority of his readers
20. The author states that Tolstoi4s con'ersion represented
(A) a radical renunciation of the world
(B) the re<ection of a'ant(garde ideas
(C) the natural outcome of his earlier beliefs
() the acceptance of religion he had earlier re<ected
(#) a fundamental change in his writing style
21. According to the passage/ Tolstoi4s response to the accepted intellectual and
artistic 'alues of his times was to
(A) select the most 'alid from among them
(B) combine opposing 'iewpoints into a new doctrine
(C) re<ect the claims of religion in order to ser'e his art
() sub'ert them in order to defend a new political 'iewpoint
(#) upset them in order to be faithful to his e$perience
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of War and
Peace%
(A) 3t belongs to an early period of Tolstoi4s work.
(B) 3t incorporates a polemic against the disorderliness of =ussian life.
(C) 3t has a simple structural outline.
() 3t is a work that reflects an ironic 'iew of life.
(#) 3t conforms to the standard of aesthetic refinement fa'ored by Tolstoi4s
.12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
contemporaries.
2-. According to the passage/ the e$planation of Tolstoi4s *magical simplicity+ (line
11) lies partly in his
(A) remarkable power of obser'ation and his facility in e$act description
(B) persistent disregard for con'entional restraints together with his great energy
(C) unusual ability to reduce the description of comple$ situations to a few words
() abiding hatred of religious doctrine and preference for new scientism
(#) continuing attempt to represent the natural in opposition to the pretentious
SECTION B
The stratospherc ozone ayer s not a competey unform stratum, nor does t
occur at the same attude around the gobe. It es cosest to the Earth over the
poes and rses to maxmum attude over the equator. In the stratosphere, ozone
s contnuousy beng made and destroyed by natura processes. Durng the day
the Sun breaks down some of the oxygen moecues to snge oxygen atoms, and
these reactng wth the oxygen moecues that have not been dssocated, form
ozone. However, the sunght aso breaks down ozone by convertng some of t
back to norma oxygen. In addton naturay occurrng ntrogen oxdes enter nto
the cyce and speed the breakdown reactons. The amount of ozone present at
any one tme s the baance between the processes that create t and those that
destroy t.
Snce the spttng of the oxygen moecues depends drecty upon the
ntensty of soar radaton, the greatest rate of ozone producton occurs over the
tropcs. However ozone s aso destroyed most rapdy there, and wnd crcuaton
patterns carry the ozone-enrched upper ayers of the atmosphere away from the
equator. It turns out that the argest tota ozone amounts are found at hgh
attudes. On a typca day the amount of ozone over Mnnesota, for exampe, s
30 percent greater than the amount over Texas, 900 mes farther south. The
densty and attude of the ozone ayer aso change wth the seasons, the weather,
and the amount of soar actvty. Nevertheess, at any one pace above the Earths
surface, the ong-term averages mantaned by natura processes are beeved to
be reasonaby constant.
The amount of ozone near the Earth s ony a sma percent of the amount n
the stratosphere, and exchange of moecues between the ozone ayer and the ar
at ground eve s thought to be reatvey sma. Furthermore, the ozone moecue
s so unstabe that ony a tny fracton of ground-eve ozone coud survve the
ong trp to the stratosphere, so the ozone ayer w not be repenshed to any
sgnfcant degree by the ncreasng concentratons of ozone that have been
detected n recent years near the earths surface. The ong-term averages of
ozone both near ground eve and n the stratosphere are reguated by contnuous
processes that are constanty destroyng and creatng t n each of these paces.
GRE .1.
Ths s why scentsts are so concerned about human bengs n|ecton nto the
stratosphere of chemcas ke ntrogen oxdes, whch are cataysts that factate
the breakdown of ozone. If the ozone ayer s depeted sgnfcanty, more
utravoet radaton woud penetrate to the Earths surface and damage many
vng organsms.
1-. The passage suggests that factors contributing to the 'ariation in the amount of
o!one abo'e different areas of the #arth4s surface include which of the following%
3. ;ome of the o!one found at higher latitudes was produced elsewhere.
33. There is usually a smaller amount of naturally occurring nitrogen o$ide o'er
high latitudes.
333. The rate of o!one production o'er the poles is less than that o'er the tropics.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
16. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) 9aturally occurring nitrogen o$ides/ as well as those introduced by humans/
threaten to deplete the layer of o!one in the stratosphere.
(B) A delicate but reasonably constant balance e$ists between the natural
processes that produce and those that destroy o!one in the stratosphere.
(C) There is little hope that the increased concentrations of ground(le'el o!one
obser'ed in recent years can offset any future depletion of stratospheric
o!one.
() ?eteorologically induced changes in the concentration of o!one in the
stratosphere tend to cancel themsel'es out o'er a period of time.
(#) ;olar radiation not only produces and destroys !one but also poses a ha!ard to
human life.
1,. The processes that determine the amount of o!one in a gi'en portion of the
stratosphere most resemble which of the following%
(A) Automobile emissions and seasonal fog that create a layer of smog o'er a city
(B) @lanting and har'esting acti'ities that produce a crop whose si!e is always
about the same
(C) &ithdrawals and deposits made in a bank account whose a'erage balance
remains about the same
() Assets and liabilities that determine the net worth of a corporation
(#) )igh grades and low grades made by a student whose a'erage remains about
the same from term to term
.10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
25. According to the passage/ which of the following has the K#A;T effect on the
amount of o!one at a gi'en location in the upper atmosphere%
(A) Katitude
(B) &eather
(C) ;eason
() Bround(le'el o!one
(#) ;olar acti'ity
21. The author pro'ides information that answers which of the following "uestions%
3. &hat is the a'erage thickness of the stratospheric o!one layer%
33. &hy does increased e$posure to ultra'iolet radiation damage many li'ing
organisms%
333. &hat is the role of o$ygen in the production of stratospheric !one%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33
(#) 33 and 333
22. 3n e$plaining what determines the amount of o!one in the stratosphere/ the author
describes natural processes that form
(A) an interacti'e relationship
(B) a reducti'e system
(C) a linear progression
() a set of randomly occurring phenomena
(#) a set of sporadically recurring e'ents
Feengs of hopeessness among medeva workers trapped n the poverty
cyce graduay essened as t became possbe for womens abor to suppement a
famys money ncome by more than pennes. By 1300, women spnners coud be
found workng on ther own for weathy sponsors, even after the ntroducton n
Itay and France of prohbton aganst advancng money for suppes to women
spnners. Hstorans have usuay nterpreted ths prohbton smpy as evdence of
womens economc sub|ecton, snce t obged them to turn to usurers; however,
t was aso amost certany a response to a trend toward dfferenta reward for
womens hgher sk. Yarn can be spun rreguary and umpy, but perfecty
smooth yarn s worth more. Workng for merchant entrepreneurs on tme rates,
women had been pad hardy more than chdren; workng as entrepreneurs
themseves and producng good work by the pece, they coud break nto the
ratona system of dfferenta rewards.
2.. The primary purpose of the passage is to
GRE .11
(A) propose and defend a theory about the conse"uences of a certain historical
e'ent
(B) present historical facts and offer a broader interpretation of those facts than
has been offered in the past
(C) describe the socioeconomic effects of a widely held attitude during a
particular historical period
() demonstrate the superiority of using an economic approach to historical
analysis
(#) call attention to the influence of the te$tile industry on society during a
particular historical period
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the system of paying all
workers e"ually on time rates as
(A) unfair and not rational
(B) undesirable but una'oidable
(C) efficient and profitable
() ad'antageous to most women workers
(#) e'idence of a trend toward a more modern wage system
21. The passage implies which of the following about women spinners in medie'al
#urope%
(A) ?ost of them worked independently for wealthy sponsors.
(B) They were not typical of medie'al women entrepreneurs.
(C) ;ome of them were paid for their work after it was done/ according to its
'alue.
() They would ha'e been able to contribute substantial amounts to their families
incomes were it not for the prohibition against ad'ancing money to them.
(#) They were ine'itably disad'antaged in the marketplace because they were
obliged to obtain money for their supplies from usurers.
22. The passage implies that feelings of hopelessness among medie'al workers
(A) resulted primarily from the lack of a rational system of differential rewards
(B) disappeared completely once medie'al te$tile workers were able to break the
cycle of po'erty
(C) were more pre'alent among female workers than among male workers
() came into being in part because of women4s limited earning capacity
(#) were particularly common among te$tile workers in 3taly and >rance
2-. The author suggests that historians ha'e done which of the following%
(A) >ailed to gi'e ade"uate consideration to the economic contribution of women
during the medie'al period.
.12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) 8'erestimated the degree of hopelessness e$perienced by medie'al workers
trapped in the po'erty cycle.
(C) 3gnored the fact that by 1.55 many women spinners were working
independently rather than for merchant entrepreneurs.
() =egard the economic status of women in 3taly and >rance as representati'e of
women4s status throughout medie'al #urope.
(#) 8'erlooked part of the significance of a prohibition go'erning one aspect of
yarn production in medie'al #urope.
No. 4-1
SECTION A
By the tme the Amercan coonsts took up arms aganst Great Brtan n order
to secure ther ndependence, the nsttuton of Back savery was deepy
entrenched. But the contradcton nherent n ths stuaton was, for many, a
source of constant embarrassment. "It aways appeared a most nqutous scheme
to me," Abga Adams wrote her husband n 1774, "to fght ourseves for what we
are day robbng and punderng from those who have as good a rght to freedom
as we have."
Many Amercans besdes Abga Adams were struck by the nconsstency of
ther stand durng the War of Independence, and they were not averse to makng
moves to emancpate the saves. Ouakers and other regous groups organzed
antsavery socetes, whe numerous ndvduas manumtted ther saves. In fact,
wthn severa years of the end of the War of Independence, most of the Eastern
states had made provsons for the gradua emancpaton of saves.
1-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The &ar of 3ndependence produced among many Black Americans a
heightened consciousness of the ine"uities in American society.
(B) The &ar of 3ndependence strengthened the bonds of sla'ery of many Black
Americans while intensifying their desire to be free.
(C) The &ar of 3ndependence e$posed to many Americans the contradiction of
sla'ery in a country seeking its freedom and resulted in efforts to resol'e
that contradiction.
() The &ar of 3ndependence pro'oked strong criticisms by many Americans of
the institution of sla'ery/ but produced little substanti'e action against it.
(#) The &ar of 3ndependence renewed the efforts of many American groups
toward achie'ing Black emancipation.
16. The passage contains information that would support which of the following
statements about the colonies before the &ar of 3ndependence%
GRE .1-
(A) They contained organi!ed antisla'ery societies.
(B) They allowed indi'iduals to own sla'es.
(C) They prohibited religious groups from political action.
() They were inconsistent in their legal definitions of sla'e status.
(#) They encouraged abolitionist societies to e$pand their influence.
1,. According to the passage/ the &ar of 3ndependence was embarrassing to some
Americans for which of the following reasons%
3. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle for many of the same liberties that Americans were
denying to others.
33. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle for independence from the 'ery nation that had
founded the colonies.
333. 3t in'ol'ed a struggle based on inconsistencies in the participants4
conceptions of freedom.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
25. &hich of the following statements regarding American society in the years
immediately following the &ar of 3ndependence is best supported by the
passage%
(A) The une$pected successes of the antisla'ery societies led to their gradual
demise in the #astern states.
(B) ;ome of the newly independent American states had begun to make progress
toward abolishing sla'ery.
(C) Americans like Abigail Adams became disillusioned with the slow progress of
emancipation and gradually abandoned the cause.
() #mancipated sla'es gradually were accepted in the #astern states as e"ual
members of American society.
(#) The abolition of sla'ery in many #astern states was the result of close
cooperation between religious groups and free Blacks.
The evouton of sex ratos has produced, n most pants and anmas wth
separate sexes, approxmatey equa numbers of maes and femaes. Why shoud
ths be so? Two man knds of answers have been offered. One s couched n terms
of advantage to popuaton. It s argued that the sex rato w evove so as to
maxmze the number of meetngs between ndvduas of the opposte sex. Ths s
essentay a "group seecton" argument. The other, and n my vew correct, type
of answer was frst put forward by Fsher n 1930. Ths "genetc" argument starts
from the assumpton that genes can nfuence the reatve numbers of mae and
.16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
femae offsprng produced by an ndvdua carryng the genes. That sex rato w
be favored whch maxmzes the number of descendants an ndvdua w have
and hence the number of gene copes transmtted. Suppose that the popuaton
conssted mosty of femaes: then an ndvdua who produced sons ony woud
have more grandchdren. In contrast, f the popuaton conssted mosty of maes,
t woud pay to have daughters. If, however, the popuaton conssted of equa
numbers of maes and femaes, sons and daughters woud be equay vauabe.
Thus a one-to-one sex rato s the ony stabe rato; t s an "evoutonary stabe
strategy." Athough Fsher wrote before the mathematca theory of games had
been deveoped, hs theory ncorporates the essenta feature of a game-that the
best strategy to adopt depends on what others are dong.
Snce Fshers tme, t has been reazed that genes can sometmes nfuence
the chromosome or gamete n whch they fnd themseves so that the gamete w
be more key to partcpate n fertzaton. If such a gene occurs on a sex-
determnng (X or Y) chromosome, then hghy aberrant sex ratos can occur. But
more mmedatey reevant to game theory are the sex ratos n certan parastc
wasp speces that have a arge excess of femaes. In these speces, fertzed eggs
deveop nto femaes and unfertzed eggs nto maes. A femae stores sperm and
can determne the sex of each egg she ays by fertzng t or eavng t
unfertzed. By Fshers argument, t shoud st pay a femae to produce equa
numbers of sons and daughters. Hamton, notng that the eggs deveop wthn
ther host-the arva of another nsect-and that the newy emerged adut wasps
mate mmedatey and dsperse, offered a remarkaby cogent anayss. Snce ony
one femae usuay ays eggs n a gven arva, t woud pay her to produce one
mae ony, because ths one mae coud fertze a hs ssters on emergence. Lke
Fsher, Hamton ooked for an evoutonary stabe strategy, but he went a step
further n recogni1ing that he was ookng for a strategy.
21. The author suggests that the work of >isher and )amilton was similar in that both
scientists
(A) conducted their research at appro$imately the same time
(B) sought to manipulate the se$ ratios of some of the animals they studied
(C) sought an e$planation of why certain se$ ratios e$ist and remain stable
() studied game theory/ thereby pro'iding important groundwork for the later
de'elopment of strategy theory
(#) studied reproduction in the same animal species
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers >isher4s work to be
(A) fallacious and unprofessional
(B) definiti'e and thorough
(C) inaccurate but popular/ compared with )amilton4s work
() admirable/ but not as up(to(date as )amilton4s work
GRE .1,
(#) accurate/ but tri'ial compared with )amilton4s work
2.. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following
"uestions about wasps%
3. )ow many eggs does the female wasp usually lay in a single host lar'a%
33. Can some species of wasp determine se$ ratios among their offspring%
333. &hat is the appro$imate se$ ratio among the offspring of parasitic wasps%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
20. 3t can be inferred that the author discusses the genetic theory in greater detail than
the group selection theory primarily because he belie'es that the genetic theory is
more
(A) complicated
(B) accurate
(C) popular
() comprehensi'e
(#) accessible
21. According to the passage/ successful game strategy depends on
(A) the ability to ad<ust one4s beha'ior in light of the beha'ior of others
(B) one4s awareness that there is safety in numbers
(C) the degree of stability one can create in one4s immediate en'ironment
() the accuracy with which one can predict future e'ents
(#) the success one achie'es in conser'ing and storing one4s resources
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the mathematical theory of games has
been
(A) de'eloped by scientists with an interest in genetics
(B) adopted by )amilton in his research
(C) helpful in e$plaining how genes can sometimes influence gametes
() based on animals studies conducted prior to 1,.5
(#) useful in e$plaining some biological phenomena
2-. &hich of the following is 98T true of the species of parasitic wasps discussed in
the passage%
(A) Adult female wasps are capable of storing sperm.
(B) >emale wasps lay their eggs in the lar'ae of other insects.
.25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) The adult female wasp can be fertili!ed by a male that was hatched in the
same lar'a as herself.
() ;o few male wasps are produced that e$tinction is almost certain.
(#) ?ale wasps do not emerge from their hosts until they reach se$ual maturity.
SECTION B
Thomas Hardys mpuses as a wrter, a of whch he nduged n hs noves,
were numerous and dvergent, and they dd not aways work together n harmony.
Hardy was to some degree nterested n exporng hs characters psychooges,
though mpeed ess by curosty than by sympathy. Occasonay he fet the
mpuse to comedy (n a ts detached codness) as we as the mpuse to farce,
but he was more often ncned to see tragedy and record t. He was aso ncned
to terary reasm n the severa senses of that phrase. He wanted to descrbe
ordnary human bengs; he wanted to specuate on ther demmas ratonay (and,
unfortunatey, even schematcay); and he wanted to record precsey the
matera unverse. Fnay, he wanted to be more than a reast. He wanted to
transcend what he consdered to be the banaty of soey recordng thngs exacty
and to express as we hs awareness of the occut and the strange.
In hs noves these varous mpuses were sacrfced to each other nevtaby
and often. Inevtaby, because Hardy dd not care n the way that novests such as
Faubert or |ames cared, and therefore took paths of east resstance. Thus, one
mpuse often surrendered to a fresher one and, unfortunatey, nstead of exactng
a compromse, smpy dsappeared. A desre to throw over reaty a ght that
never was mght gve way abrupty to the desre on the part of what we mght
consder a novest-scentst to record exacty and concretey the structure and
texture of a fower. In ths nstance, the new mpuse was at east an energetc
one, and thus ts ndugence dd not resut n a reaxed stye. But on other
occasons Hardy abandoned a perous, rsky, and hghy energzng mpuse n
favor of what was for hm the fatay reaxng mpuse to cassfy and schematze
abstracty. When a reaxng mpuse was nduged, the stye-that sure ndex of an
authors terary worth-was certan to become verbose. Hardys weakness
derved from hs apparent nabty to contro the comngs and gongs of these
dvergent mpuses and from hs unwngness to cutvate and sustan the
energetc and rsky ones. He submtted to frst one and then another, and the
sprt bew where t sted; hence the unevenness of any one of hs noves. Hs
most controed nove, 2nder the .reenwood Tree& promnenty exhbts two
dfferent but reconcabe mpuses-a desre to be a reast-hstoran and a desre
to be a psychoogst of ove-but the sght nterockngs of pot are not enough to
bnd the two competey together. Thus even ths book spts nto two dstnct
parts.
1-. &hich of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage/ based on its
content%
GRE .21
(A) 'nder the #reen(ood TreeE )ardy4s Ambiguous Triumph
(B) The =eal and the ;trangeE The 9o'elist4s ;hifting =ealms
(C) #nergy )ersus =eposeE The =ole ofE 8rdinary @eople in )ardy4s >iction
() )ardy4s 9o'elistic 3mpulsesE The @roblem of Control
(#) i'ergent 3mpulsesE The 3ssue of :nity in the 9o'el
16. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which of
the following statements about literary realism%
(A) Kiterary realism is most concerned with the e$ploration of the internal li'es
of ordinary human beings.
(B) The term *literary realism+ is susceptible to more than a single definition.
(C) Kiterary realism and an interest in psychology are likely to be at odds in a
no'elist4s work.
() *Kiterary realism+ is the term most often used by critics in describing the
method of )ardy4s no'els.
(#) A propensity toward literary realism is a less interesting no'elistic impulse
than is an interest in the occult and the strange.
1,. The author of the passage considers a writer4s style to be
(A) a reliable means by which to measure the writer4s literary merit
(B) most apparent in those parts of the writer4s work that are not realistic
(C) problematic when the writer attempts to follow perilous or risky impulses
() shaped primarily by the writer4s desire to classify and schemati!e
(#) the most accurate inde$ of the writer4s literary reputation
25. &hich of the following words could best be substituted for *rela$ed+ (line .-)
without substantially changing the author4s meaning%
(A) informal
(B) confined
(C) risky
() wordy
(#) metaphoric
21. The passage supplies information to suggest that its author would be most likely
to agree with which of the following statements about the no'elists >laubert and
Aames%
(A) They indulged more impulses in their no'els than did )ardy in his no'els.
(B) They ha'e elicited a greater degree of fa'orable response from most literary
critics than has )ardy.
(C) 3n the writing of their no'els/ they often took pains to effect a compromise
among their 'arious no'elistic impulses.
.22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() =egarding no'elistic construction/ they cared more about the opinions of
other no'elists than about the opinions of ordinary readers.
(#) They wrote no'els in which the impulse toward realism and the impulse away
from realism were e'ident in e"ual measure.
22. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of lines 2- to
01 of the passage (*ThusRabstractly+)%
(A) The author makes a disappro'ing obser'ation and then presents two cases/
one of which leads to a "ualification of his disappro'al and the other of
which does not.
(B) The author draws a conclusion from a pre'ious statement/ e$plains his
conclusion in detail/ and then gi'es a series of e$amples that ha'e the effect
of resol'ing an inconsistency.
(C) The author concedes a point and then makes a counterargument/ using an
e$tended comparison and contrast that "ualifies his original concession.
() The author makes a <udgment/ points out an e$ception to his <udgment/ and
then contradicts his original assertion.
(#) The author summari!es and e$plains an argument and then ad'ances a brief
history of opposing arguments.
2.. &hich of the following statements about the use of comedy in )ardy4s no'els is
best supported by the passage%
(A) )ardy4s use of comedy in his no'els tended to weaken his literary style.
(B) )ardy4s use of comedy in his no'els was inspired by his natural sympathy.
(C) Comedy appeared less fre"uently in )ardy4s no'els than did tragedy.
() Comedy played an important role in )ardy4s no'els though that comedy was
usually in the form of farce.
(#) Comedy played a secondary role in )ardy4s more controlled no'els only.
20. The author implies which of the following about 'nder the #reen(ood Tree in
relation to )ardy4s other no'els%
(A) 3t is )ardy4s most thorough in'estigation of the psychology of lo'e.
(B) Although it is his most controlled no'el/ it does not e$hibit any harsh or risky
impulses.
(C) 3t/ more than his other no'els/ re'eals )ardy as a realist interested in the
history of ordinary human beings.
() 3n it )ardy4s no'elistic impulses are managed somewhat better than in his
other no'els.
(#) 3ts plot/ like the plots of all of )ardy4s other no'els/ splits into two distinct
parts.
Upwards of a bon stars n our gaaxy have burnt up ther nterna energy
sources, and so can no onger produce the heat a star needs to oppose the nward
GRE .2.
force of gravty. These stars, of more than a few soar masses, evove, n genera,
much more rapdy than does a star ke the Sun. Moreover, t s |ust these more
massve stars whose coapse does not hat at ntermedate stages (that s, as
whte dwarfs or neutron stars). Instead, the coapse contnues unt a snguarty
(an nfntey dense concentraton of matter) s reached.
It woud be wonderfu to observe a snguarty and obtan drect evdence of
the undoubtedy bzarre phenomena that occur near one. Unfortunatey n most
cases a dstant observer cannot see the snguarty; outgong ght rays are
dragged back by gravty so forcefuy that even f they coud start out wthn a few
kometers of the snguarty, they woud end up n the snguarty tsef.
21. The author4s primary purpose in the passage is to
(A) describe the formation and nature of singularities
(B) e$plain why large numbers of stars become singularities
(C) compare the characteristics of singularities with those of stars
() e$plain what happens during the stages of a singularity4s formation
(#) imply that singularities could be more easily studied if obser'ers could get
closer to them
22. The passage suggests which of the following about the ;un%
3. The ;un could e'ol'e to a stage of collapse that is less dense than a
singularity.
33. 3n the ;un/ the inward force of gra'ity is balanced by the generation of heat.
333. The ;un emits more obser'able light than does a white dwarf or a neutron
star.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. &hich of the following sentences would most probably follow the last sentence
of the passage%
(A) Thus/ a physicist interested in studying phenomena near singularities would
necessarily hope to find a singularity with a measurable gra'itational field.
(B) Accordingly/ physicists to date ha'e been unable to obser'e directly any
singularity.
(C) 3t is specifically this startling phenomenon that has allowed us to codify the
scant information currently a'ailable about singularities.
() ?oreo'er/ the e$istence of this e$traordinary phenomenon is implied in the
e$tensi'e reports of se'eral physicists.
.20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) Although unanticipated/ phenomena such as these are consistent with the
structure of a singularity.
No. 4-2
SECTION A
The evouton of ntegence among eary arge mammas of the grassands
was due n great measure to the nteracton between two ecoogcay
synchronzed groups of these anmas, the huntng carnvores and the herbvores
that they hunted. The nteracton resutng from the dfferences between predator
and prey ed to a genera mprovement n bran functons; however, certan
components of ntegence were mproved far more than others.
The knd of ntegence favored by the nterpay of ncreasngy smarter
catchers and ncreasngy keener escapers s defned by attenton-that aspect of
mnd carryng conscousness forward from one moment to the next. It ranges from
a passve, free-foatng awareness to a hghy focused, actve fxaton. The range
through these states s medated by the arousa system, a network of tracts
convergng from sensory systems to ntegratng centers n the bran stem. From
the more reaxed to the more vgorous eves, senstvty to novety s ncreased.
The organsm s more awake, more vgant; ths ncreased vgance resuts n the
apprehenson of ever more subte sgnas as the organsm becomes more
senstve to ts surroundngs. The processes of arousa and concentraton gve
attenton ts drecton. Arousa s at frst genera, wth a foodng of mpuses n the
bran stem; then graduay the actvaton s channeed. Thus begns concentraton,
the hodng of consstent mages. One meanng of ntegence s the way n whch
these mages and other aerty searched nformaton are used n the context of
prevous experence. Conscousness nks past attenton to the present and
permts the ntegraton of detas wth perceved ends and purposes.
The eements of ntegence and conscousness come together marveousy to
produce dfferent styes n predator and prey. Herbvores and carnvores deveop
dfferent knds of attenton reated to escapng or chasng. Athough n both knds
of anma, arousa stmuates the producton of adrenane and norepnephrne by
the adrena gands, the effect n herbvores s prmary fear, whereas n carnvores
the effect s prmary aggresson. For both, arousa attunes the anma to what s
ahead. Perhaps t does not experence forethought as we know t, but the anma
does experence somethng ke t. The predator s searchngy aggressve,
nnerdrected, tuned by the nervous system and the adrena hormones, but aware
n a sense coser to human conscousness than, say, a hungry zards nstnctve
snap at a passng beete. Usng past events as a framework, the arge mamma
predator s workng out a reatonshp between movement and food, senstve to
possbtes n cod tras and dstant sounds-and yesterdays unforgotten
essons. The herbvore prey s of a dfferent mnd. Its mood of warness rather
GRE .21
than searchng and ts atttude of genera expectancy nstead of antcpatng are
sk-thn ves of tranquty over an exposve endocrne system.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) dispro'ing the 'iew that herbi'ores are less intelligent than carni'ores
(B) describing a relationship between animals4 intelligence and their ecological
roles
(C) establishing a direct link between early large mammals and their modern
counterparts
() analy!ing the ecological basis for the dominance of some carni'ores o'er
other carni'ores
(#) demonstrating the importance of hormones in mental acti'ity
16. The author refers to a hungry li!ard (line 11) primarily in order to
(A) demonstrate the similarity between the hunting methods of mammals and
those of nonmammals
(B) broaden the application of his argument by including an insecti'ore as an
e$ample
(C) make a distinction between higher and lower le'els of consciousness
() pro'ide an additional illustration of the brutality characteristic of predators
(#) offer an ob<ection to suggestions that all animals lack consciousness
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in animals less intelligent than the
mammals discussed in the passage
(A) past e$perience is less helpful in ensuring sur'i'al
(B) attention is more highly focused
(C) muscular coordination is less highly de'eloped
() there is less need for competition among species
(#) en'ironment is more important in establishing the proper ratio of prey to
predator
25. The sensiti'ity described in lines 12(21 is most clearly an e$ample of
(A) *free(floating awareness+ (lines 12(1-)
(B) *flooding of impulses in the brain stem+ (lines 2,(.5)
(C) *the holding of consistent images+ (lines .1(.2)
() *integration of details with percei'ed ends and purposes+ (lines .-(.6)
(#) *silk(thin 'eils of tran"uility+ (line 20)
21. The author4s attitude toward the mammals discussed in the passage is best
described as
(A) superior and condescending
(B) lighthearted and <ocular
.22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) apologetic and conciliatory
() wistful and tender
(#) respectful and admiring
22. The author pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
3. &hy is an aroused herbi'ore usually fearful%
33. &hat are some of the degrees of attention in large mammals%
333. &hat occurs when the stimulus that causes arousal of a mammal is
remo'ed%
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
2.. According to the passage/ impro'ement in brain function among early large
mammals resulted primarily from which of the following%
(A) 3nterplay of predator and prey
(B) @ersistence of free(floating awareness in animals of the grasslands
(C) Bradual dominance of warm(blooded mammals o'er cold(blooded reptiles
() 3nteraction of early large mammals with less intelligent species
(#) 3mpro'ement of the capacity for memory among herbi'ores and carni'ores
20. According to the passage/ as the process of arousal in an organism continues/ all
of the following may occur #DC#@TE
(A) the production of adrenaline
(B) the production of norepinephrine
(C) a heightening of sensiti'ity to stimuli
() an increase in selecti'ity with respect to stimuli
(#) an e$pansion of the range of states mediated by the brain stem
Tocqueve, apparenty, was wrong. |acksonan Amerca was not a fud,
egataran socety where ndvdua weath and poverty were ephemera
condtons. At east so argues E. Pessen n hs conocastc study of the very rch n
the Unted States between 1825 and 1850.
Pessen does present a quantty of exampes, together wth some refreshngy
ntegbe statstcs, to estabsh the exstence of an nordnatey weathy cass.
Though actve n commerce or the professons, most of the weathy were not sef-
made, but had nherted famy fortunes. In no sense mercura, these great
fortunes survved the fnanca pancs that destroyed esser ones. Indeed, n
severa ctes the weathest one percent constanty ncreased ts share unt by
GRE .2-
1850 t owned haf of the communtys weath. Athough these observatons are
true, Pessen overestmates ther mportance by concudng from them that the
undoubted progress toward nequaty n the ate eghteenth century contnued n
the |acksonan perod and that the Unted States was a cass-rdden, putocratc
socety even before ndustrazaton.
21. According to the passage/ @essen indicates that all of the following were true of
the 'ery wealthy in the :nited ;tates between 1621 and 1615 #DC#@TE
(A) They formed a distinct upper class.
(B) ?any of them were able to increase their holdings.
(C) ;ome of them worked as professionals or in business.
() ?ost of them accumulated their own fortunes.
(#) ?any of them retained their wealth in spite of financial uphea'als.
22. The author4s attitude toward @essen4s presentation of statistics can be best
described as
(A) disappro'ing
(B) shocked
(C) suspicious
() amused
(#) laudatory
2-. &hich of the following best states the author4s main point%
(A) @essen4s study has o'erturned the pre'iously established 'iew of the social
and economic structure of early nineteenth(century America.
(B) Toc"ue'ille4s analysis of the :nited ;tates in the Aacksonian era remains the
definiti'e account of this period.
(C) @essen4s study is 'aluable primarily because it shows the continuity of the
social system in the :nited ;tates throughout the nineteenth century.
() The social patterns and political power of the e$tremely wealthy in the :nited
;tates between 1621 and 1615 are well documented.
(#) @essen challenges a 'iew of the social and economic system in the :nited
;tates from 1621 to 1615/ but he draws conclusions that are incorrect.
SECTION B
"I want to crtcze the soca system, and to show t at work, at ts most
ntense." Vrgna Woofs provocatve statement about her ntentons n wrtng
(rs. -alloway has reguary been gnored by the crtcs, snce t hghghts an
aspect of her terary nterests very dfferent from the tradtona pcture of the
"poetc" novest concerned wth examnng states of revere and vson and wth
foowng the ntrcate pathways of ndvdua conscousness. But Vrgna Woof
.26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
was a reastc as we as a poetc novest, a satrst and soca crtc as we as a
vsonary: terary crtcs cavaer dsmssa of Woofs soca vson w not
wthstand scrutny.
In her noves, Woof s deepy engaged by the questons of how ndvduas are
shaped (or deformed) by ther soca envronments, how hstorca forces mpnge
on peopes ves, how cass, weath, and gender hep to determne peopes fates.
Most of her noves are rooted n a reastcay rendered soca settng and n a
precse hstorca tme.
Woofs focus on socety has not been generay recognzed because of her
ntense antpathy to propaganda n art. The pctures of reformers n her noves are
usuay satrc or sharpy crtca. Even when Woof s fundamentay sympathetc
to ther causes, she portrays peope anxous to reform ther socety and possessed
of a message or program as arrogant or dshonest, unaware of how ther potca
deas serve ther own psychoogca needs. (Her ,riters -iary notes: "the ony
honest peope are the artsts," whereas "these soca reformers and
phanthropsts.harbor.dscredtabe desres under the dsguse of ovng ther
knd.") Woof detested what she caed "preachng" n fcton, too, and crtczed
novest D. H. Lawrence (among others) for workng by ths method.
Woofs own soca crtcsm s expressed n the anguage of observaton rather
than n drect commentary, snce for her, fcton s a contempatve, not an actve
art. She descrbes phenomena and provdes materas for a |udgment about
socety and soca ssues; t s the readers work to put the observatons together
and understand the coherent pont of vew behnd them. As a morast, Woof
works by ndrecton, subty undermnng offcay accepted mores, mockng,
suggestng, cang nto queston, rather than assertng, advocatng, bearng
wtness: hers s the satrsts art.
Woofs terary modes were acute soca observers ke Chekhov and Chaucer.
As she put t n The Common *eader& "It s safe to say that not a snge aw has
been framed or one stone set upon another because of anythng Chaucer sad or
wrote; and yet, as we read hm, we are absorbng moraty at every pore." Lke
Chaucer, Woof chose to understand as we as to |udge, to know her socety root
and branch-a decson cruca n order to produce art rather than poemc.
1-. &hich of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage%
(A) @oetry and ;atire as 3nfluences on the 9o'els of Cirginia &oolf
(B) Cirginia &oolfE Critic and Commentator on the Twentieth(Century 9o'el
(C) Trends in Contemporary =eform ?o'ements as a Mey to :nderstanding
Cirginia &oolf4s 9o'els
() ;ociety as Allegory for the 3ndi'idual in the 9o'els of Cirginia &oolf
(#) Cirginia &oolf4s 9o'elsE Critical =eflections on the 3ndi'idual and on ;ociety
16. 3n the first paragraph of the passage/ the author4s attitude toward the literary
critics mentioned can best be described as
GRE .2,
(A) disparaging
(B) ironic
(C) facetious
() skeptical but resigned
(#) disappointed but hopeful
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &oolf chose Chaucer as a literary model
because she belie'ed that
(A) Chaucer was the first #nglish author to focus on society as a whole as well as
on indi'idual characters
(B) Chaucer was an honest and forthright author/ whereas no'elists like / )/
Kawrence did not sincerely wish to change society
(C) Chaucer was more concerned with understanding his society than with calling
its accepted mores into "uestion
() Chaucer4s writing was greatly/ if subtly/ effecti'e in influencing the moral
attitudes of his readers
(#) her own no'els would be more widely read if/ like Chaucer/ she did not
o'ertly and 'ehemently critici!e contemporary society
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the most probable reason &oolf
realistically described the social setting in the ma<ority of her no'els was that she
(A) was aware that contemporary literary critics considered the no'el to be the
most realistic of literary genres
(B) was interested in the effect of a person4s social milieu on his or her character
and actions
(C) needed to be as attenti'e to detail as possible in her no'els in order to support
the arguments she ad'anced in them
() wanted to show that a painstaking fidelity in the representation of reality did
not in any way hamper the artist
(#) wished to pre'ent critics from charging that her no'els were written in an
ambiguous and ine$act style
21. &hich of the following phrases best e$presses the sense of the word
*contemplati'e+ as it is used in lines 0.(00 of the passage%
(A) Bradually elucidating the rational structures underlying accepted mores
(B) =eflecting on issues in society without pre<udice or emotional commitment
(C) A'oiding the aggressi'e assertion of the author4s perspecti'e to the e$clusion
of the reader4s <udgment
() Con'eying a broad 'iew of society as a whole rather than focusing on an
isolated indi'idual consciousness
(#) Appreciating the world as the artist sees it rather than <udging it in moral
.-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
terms
22. The author implies that a ma<or element of the satirist4s art is the satirist4s
(A) consistent adherence to a position of lofty disdain when 'iewing the foibles
of humanity
(B) insistence on the helplessness of indi'iduals against the social forces that seek
to determine an indi'idual4s fate
(C) cynical disbelief that 'isionaries can either enlighten or impro'e their
societies
() fundamental assumption that some ambiguity must remain in a work of art in
order for it to reflect society and social mores accurately
(#) refusal to indulge in polemic when presenting social mores to readers for their
scrutiny
2.. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following
"uestions%
(A) )a'e literary critics ignored the social criticism inherent in the works of
Chekho' and Chaucer%
(B) oes the author belie'e that &oolf is solely an introspecti'e and 'isionary
no'elist%
(C) &hat are the social causes with which &oolf shows herself to be sympathetic
in her writings%
() &as . ). Kawrence as concerned as &oolf was with creating realistic
settings for his no'els%
(#) oes &oolf attribute more power to social en'ironment or to historical forces
as shapers of a person4s life%
It s a popuar msconcepton that nucear fuson power s free of radoactvty;
n fact, the deuterum-trtum reacton that nucear scentsts are currenty
exporng wth such zea produces both apha partces and neutrons. (The
neutrons are used to produce trtum from a thum banket surroundng the
reactor.) Another common msconcepton s that nucear fuson power s a vrtuay
unmted source of energy because of the enormous quantty of deuterum n the
sea. Actuay, ts mts are set by the amount of avaabe thum, whch s about
as pentfu as uranum n the Earths crust. Research shoud certany contnue on
controed nucear fuson, but no energy program shoud be premsed on ts
exstence unt t has proven practca. For the mmedate future, we must
contnue to use hydroeectrc power, nucear fsson, and foss fues to meet our
energy needs. The energy sources aready n ma|or use are n ma|or use for good
reason.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) critici!e scientists who belie'e that the deuterium(tritium fusion reaction can
be made feasible as an energy source
GRE .-1
(B) admonish scientists who ha'e failed to correctly calculate the amount of
lithium a'ailable for use in nuclear fusion reactors
(C) defend the continued short(term use of fossil fuels as a ma<or energy source
() caution against uncritical embrace of nuclear fusion power as a ma<or energy
source
(#) correct the misconception that nuclear fusion power is entirely free of
radioacti'ity
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about the current state of public awareness concerning nuclear fusion power%
(A) The public has been deliberately misinformed about the ad'antages and
disad'antages of nuclear fusion power.
(B) The public is unaware of the principal ad'antage of nuclear fusion o'er
nuclear fission as an energy source.
(C) The public4s awareness of the scientific facts concerning nuclear fusion
power is somewhat distorted and incomplete.
() The public is not interested in increasing its awareness of the ad'antages and
disad'antages of nuclear fusion power.
(#) The public is aware of the disad'antages of nuclear fusion power but not of
its ad'antages.
22. The passage pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat is likely to be the principal source of deuterium for nuclear fusion
power%
(B) )ow much incidental radiation is produced in the deuterium tritium fusion
reaction%
(C) &hy are scientists e$ploring the deuterium(tritium fusion reaction with such
!eal%
() &hy must the tritium for nuclear fusion be synthesi!ed from lithium%
(#) &hy does the deuterium(tritium reaction yield both alpha particles and
neutrons%
2-. &hich of the following statements concerning nuclear scientists is most directly
suggested in the passage%
(A) 9uclear scientists are not themsel'es aware of all of the facts surrounding the
deuterium(tritium fusion reaction.
(B) 9uclear scientists e$ploring the deuterium(tritium reaction ha'e o'erlooked
key facts in their eagerness to pro'e nuclear fusion practical.
(C) 9uclear scientists may ha'e o'erestimated the amount of lithium actually
a'ailable in the #arth4s crust.
() 9uclear scientists ha'e not been entirely dispassionate in their in'estigation
.-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
of the deuterium(tritium reaction.
(#) 9uclear scientists ha'e insufficiently in'estigated the lithium(to(tritium
reaction in nuclear fusion.
No. 4-3
SECTION A
Great comc art s never otherwordy, t does not seek to mystfy us, and t
does not deny ambguty by brandng as ev whatever dffers from good. Great
comc artsts assume that truth may bear a ghts, and thus they seek to
accentuate contradctons n soca acton, not goss over or transcend them by
appeas to extrasoca symbos of dvne ends, cosmc purpose, or aws of nature.
The moment of transcendence n great comc art s a soca moment, born out of
the convcton that we are human, even though we try to be gods. The comc
communty to whch artsts address themseves s a communty of reasonng,
ovng, |oyfu, compassonate bengs, who are wng to assume the human rsks
of actng ratonay. Wthout nvokng gods or demons, great comc art arouses
courage n reason, courage whch grows out of trust n what human bengs can do
as humans.
1-. The passage suggests that great comic art can be characteri!ed as optimistic about
the ability of humans to
(A) rid themsel'es of pride
(B) transcend the human condition
(C) differentiate clearly between good and e'il
() a'oid social conflicts
(#) act rationally
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author admires great comic artists
primarily for their
(A) ability to understand the fre"uently subtle differences between good and e'il
(B) ability to reconcile the contradictions in human beha'ior
(C) ability to distinguish between rational and irrational beha'ior
() insistence on confronting the truth about the human condition
(#) insistence on condemning human faults and weaknesses
1,. &hich of the following is the most accurate description of the organi!ation of the
passage%
(A) A se"uence of obser'ations leading to a prediction
(B) A list of inferences drawn from facts stated at the beginning of the passage
(C) A series of assertions related to one general sub<ect
GRE .-.
() A statement of the ma<or idea/ followed by specific e$amples
(#) A succession of ideas mo'ing from specific to general
It has ong been known that the rate of oxdatve metabosm (the process that
uses oxygen to convert food nto energy) n any anma has a profound effect on
ts vng patterns. The hgh metaboc rate of sma anmas, for exampe, gves
them sustaned power and actvty per unt of weght, but at the cost of requrng
constant consumpton of food and water. Very arge anmas, wth ther reatvey
ow metaboc rates, can survve we on a sporadc food suppy, but can generate
tte metaboc energy per gram of body weght. If ony oxdatve metaboc rate s
consdered, therefore, one mght assume that smaer, more actve, anmas coud
prey on arger ones, at east f they attacked n groups. Perhaps they coud f t
were not for anaerobc gycoyss, the great equazer.
Anaerobc gycoyss s a process n whch energy s produced, wthout oxygen,
through the breakdown of musce gycogen nto actc acd and adenosne
trphosphate (ATP), the energy provder. The amount of energy that can be
produced anaerobcay s a functon of the amount of gycogen present-n a
vertebrates about 0.5 percent of ther musces wet weght. Thus the anaerobc
energy reserves of a vertebrate are proportona to the sze of the anma. If, for
exampe, some predators had attacked a 100-ton dnosaur, normay torpd, the
dnosaur woud have been abe to generate amost nstantaneousy, va anaerobc
gycoyss, the energy of 3,000 humans at maxmum oxdatve metaboc energy
producton. Ths expans how many arge speces have managed to compete wth
ther more actve neghbors: the compensaton for a ow oxdatve metaboc rate
s gycoyss.
There are mtatons, however, to ths compensaton. The gycogen reserves
of any anma are good, at most, for ony about two mnutes at maxmum effort,
after whch ony the norma oxdatve metaboc source of energy remans. Wth
the concuson of a burst of actvty, the actc acd eve s hgh n the body fuds,
eavng the arge anma vunerabe to attack unt the acd s reconverted, va
oxdatve metabosm, by the ver nto gucose, whch s then sent (n part) back
to the musces for gycogen resynthess. Durng ths process the enormous energy
debt that the anma has run up through anaerobc gycoyss must be repad, a
debt that s proportonay much greater for the arger vertebrates than for the
smaer ones. Whereas the tny shrew can repace n mnutes the gycogen used
for maxmum effort, for exampe, the ggantc dnosaur woud have requred more
than three weeks. It mght seem that ths ntermnaby ong recovery tme n a
arge vertebrate woud prove a grave dsadvantage for survva. Fortunatey,
musce gycogen s used ony when needed and even then ony n whatever
quantty s necessary. Ony n tmes of panc or durng morta combat woud the
entre reserves be consumed.
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute a misconception about anaerobic glycolysis
.-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) introduce a new hypothesis about anaerobic glycolysis
(C) describe the limitations of anaerobic glycolysis
() analy!e the chemistry of anaerobic glycolysis and its similarity to o$idati'e
metabolism
(#) e$plain anaerobic glycolysis and its effects on animal sur'i'al
21. According to the author/ glycogen is crucial to the process of anaerobic glycolysis
because glycogen
(A) increases the organism4s need for AT@
(B) reduces the amount of AT@ in the tissues
(C) is an inhibitor of the o$idati'e metabolic production of AT@
() ensures that the synthesis of AT@ will occur speedily
(#) is the material from which AT@ is deri'ed
22. According to the author/ a ma<or limitation of anaerobic glycolysis is that it can
(A) produce in large animals more lactic acid than the li'er can safely recon'ert
(B) necessitate a dangerously long reco'ery period in large animals
(C) produce energy more slowly than it can be used by large animals
() consume all of the a'ailable glycogen regardless of need
(#) reduce significantly the rate at which energy is produced by o$idati'e
metabolism
2.. The passage suggests that the total anaerobic energy reser'es of a 'ertebrate are
proportional to the 'ertebrate4s si!e because
(A) larger 'ertebrates conser'e more energy than smaller 'ertebrates
(B) larger 'ertebrates use less o$ygen per unit weight than smaller 'ertebrates
(C) the ability of a 'ertebrate to consume food is a function of its si!e
() the amount of muscle tissue in a 'ertebrate is directly related to its si!e
(#) the si!e of a 'ertebrate is proportional to the "uantity of energy it can utili!e
20. The author suggests that/ on the basis of energy production/ a 155(ton dinosaur
would ha'e been markedly 'ulnerable to which of the following%
3. =epeated attacks by a single smaller/ more acti'e ad'ersary
33. ;ustained attack by numerous smaller/ more acti'e ad'ersaries
333. An attack by an indi'idual ad'ersary of similar si!e
(A) 33 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
GRE .-1
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the time re"uired to replenish muscle
glycogen following anaerobic glycolysis is determined by which of the following
factors%
3. =ate of o$idati'e metabolism
33. Nuantity of lactic acid in the body fluids
333. @ercentage of glucose that is returned to the muscles
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. The author is most probably addressing which of the following audiences%
(A) College students in an introductory course on animal physiology
(B) )istorians of science in'estigating the disco'ery of anaerobic glycolysis
(C) Braduate students with speciali!ed training in comparati'e anatomy
() Loologists interested in prehistoric animals
(#) Biochemists doing research on o$idati'e metabolism
2-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The disad'antage of a low o$idati'e metabolic rate in large animals can be
offset by their ability to con'ert substantial amounts of glycogen into energy.
(B) The most significant problem facing animals that ha'e used anaerobic
glycolysis for energy is the resynthesis of its by(product/ glucose/ into
glycogen.
(C) The benefits to animals of anaerobic glycolysis are offset by the profound
costs that must be paid.
() The ma<or factor ensuring that a large animal will triumph o'er a smaller
animal is the large animal4s ability to produce energy 'ia anaerobic
glycolysis.
(#) The great differences that e$ist in metabolic rates between species of small
animals and species of large animals can ha'e important effects on the
patterns of their acti'ities.
SECTION B
The dark regons n the starry nght sky are not pockets n the unverse that
are devod of stars as had ong been thought. Rather, they are dark because of
nterstear dust that hdes the stars behnd t. Athough ts vsua effect s so
pronounced, dust s ony a mnor consttuent of the matera, extremey ow n
densty, that es between the stars. Dust accounts for about one percent of the
.-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
tota mass of nterstear matter. The rest s hydrogen and heum gas, wth sma
amounts of other eements. The nterstear matera, rather ke terrestra couds,
comes n a shapes and szes. The average densty of nterstear matera n the
vcnty of our Sun s 1,000 to 10,000 tmes ess than the best terrestra
aboratory vacuum. It s ony because of the enormous nterstear dstances that
so tte matera per unt of voume becomes so sgnfcant. Optca astronomy s
most drecty affected, for athough nterstear gas s perfecty transparent, the
dust s not.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a direct perceptual
conse"uence of interstellar dust%
(A) ;ome stars are rendered in'isible to obser'ers on #arth.
(B) ?any 'isible stars are made to seem brighter than they really are.
(C) The presence of hydrogen and helium gas is re'ealed.
() The night sky appears dusty at all times to obser'ers on #arth.
(#) The dust is conspicuously 'isible against a background of bright stars.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the density of interstellar material is
(A) higher where distances between the stars are shorter
(B) e"ual to that of interstellar dust
(C) unusually low in the 'icinity of our ;un
() independent of the incidence of gaseous components
(#) not homogeneous throughout interstellar space
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that it is because space is so 'ast that
(A) little of the interstellar material in it seems substantial
(B) normal units of 'olume seem futile for measurements of density
(C) stars can be far enough from #arth to be obscured e'en by 'ery sparsely
distributed matter
() interstellar gases can/ for all practical purposes/ be regarded as transparent
(#) optical astronomy would be of little use e'en if no interstellar dust e$isted
In hs 1976 study of savery n the Unted States, Herbert Gutman, ke Foge,
Engerman, and Genovese, has rghty stressed the saves achevements. But
unke these hstorans, Gutman gves pantaton owners tte credt for these
achevements. Rather, Gutman argues that one must ook to the Back famy and
the saves extended knshp system to understand how cruca achevements,
such as the mantenance of a cutura hertage and the deveopment of a
communa conscousness, were possbe. Hs fndngs compe attenton.
Gutman recreates the famy and extended knshp structure many through
an ngenous use of what any hstoran shoud draw upon, quantfabe data,
derved n ths case mosty from pantaton brth regsters. He aso uses accounts
of ex-saves to probe the human reaty behnd hs statstcs. These sources
GRE .--
ndcate that the two-parent househod predomnated n save quarters |ust as t
dd among freed saves after emancpaton. Athough Gutman admts that forced
separaton by sae was frequent, he shows that the saves preference, reveaed
most ceary on pantatons where sae was nfrequent, was very much for stabe
monogamy. In ess concusve fashon Foge, Engerman, and Genovese had
aready ndcated the predomnance of two-parent househods; however, ony
Gutman emphaszes the preference for stabe monogamy and ponts out what
stabe monogamy meant for the saves cutura hertage. Gutman argues
convncngy that the stabty of the Back famy encouraged the transmsson of
-and so was cruca n sustanng-the Back hertage of fokore, musc, and
regous expresson from one generaton to another, a hertage that saves were
contnuay fashonng out of ther Afrcan and Amercan experences.
Gutmans examnaton of other facets of knshp aso produces mportant
fndngs. Gutman dscovers that cousns rarey marred, an exogamous tendency
that contrasted sharpy wth the endogamy practced by the pantaton owners.
Ths preference for exogamy, Gutman suggests, may have derved from West
Afrcan rues governng marrage, whch, though they dffered from one trba
group to another, a nvoved some knd of prohbton aganst unons wth cose
kn. Ths taboo aganst cousns marryng s mportant, argues Gutman, because t
s one of many ndcatons of a strong awareness among saves of an extended
knshp network. The fact that dstanty reated kn woud care for chdren
separated from ther fames aso suggests ths awareness. When bood
reatonshps were few, as n newy created pantatons n the Southwest, "fctve"
knshp arrangements took ther pace unt a new pattern of consangunty
deveoped. Gutman presents convncng evdence that ths extended knshp
structure-whch he beeves deveoped by the md-to-ate eghteenth century-
provded the foundatons for the strong communa conscousness that exsted
among saves.
In sum, Gutmans study s sgnfcant because t offers a cosey reasoned and
orgna expanaton of some of the saves achevements, one that correcty
emphaszes the resources that saves themseves possessed.
25. According to the passage/ >ogel/ #ngerman/ Beno'ese/ and Butman ha'e all
done which of the following%
3. iscounted the influence of plantation owners on sla'es4 achie'ements.
33. #mphasi!ed the achie'ements of sla'es.
333. @ointed out the pre'alence of the two(parent household among sla'es.
3C. ;howed the connection between stable monogamy and sla'es4 cultural
heritage.
(A) 3 and 33 only
(B) 3 and 3C only
(C) 33 and 333 only
.-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() 3/ 333/ and 3C only
(#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only
21. &ith which of the following statements regarding the resources that historians
ought to use would the author of the passage be most likely to agree%
(A) )istorians ought to make use of written rather than oral accounts.
(B) )istorians should rely primarily on birth registers.
(C) )istorians should rely e$clusi'ely on data that can be "uantified.
() )istorians ought to make use of data that can be "uantified.
(#) )istorians ought to draw on earlier historical research but they should do so in
order to refute it.
22. &hich of the following statements about the formation of the Black heritage of
folklore/ music/ and religious e$pression is best supported by the information
presented in the passage%
(A) The heritage was formed primarily out of the e$periences of those sla'es who
attempted to preser'e the stability of their families.
(B) The heritage was not formed out of the e$periences of those sla'es who
married their cousins.
(C) The heritage was formed more out of the African than out of the American
e$periences of sla'es.
() The heritage was not formed out of the e$periences of only a single
generation of sla'es.
(#) The heritage was formed primarily out of sla'es4 e$periences of
interdependence on newly created plantations in the ;outhwest.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ of the following/ the most probable
reason why a historian of sla'ery might be interested in studying the type of
plantations mentioned in line 21 is that this type would
(A) gi'e the historian access to the most complete plantation birth registers
(B) permit the historian to obser'e the kinship patterns that had been most
popular among &est African tribes
(C) pro'ide the historian with e'idence concerning the preference of freed sla'es
for stable monogamy
() furnish the historian with the opportunity to disco'er the kind of marital
commitment that sla'es themsel'es chose to ha'e
(#) allow the historian to e$amine the influence of sla'es4 preferences on the
actions of plantation owners
20. According to the passage/ all of the following are true of the &est African rules
go'erning marriage mentioned in lines 02(15 #DC#@TE
(A) The rules were deri'ed from rules go'erning ficti'e kinship arrangements.
GRE .-,
(B) The rules forbade marriages between close kin.
(C) The rules are mentioned in )erbert Butman4s study.
() The rules were not uniform in all respects from one &est African tribe to
another.
(#) The rules ha'e been considered to be a possible source of sla'es4 marriage
preferences.
21. &hich of the following statements concerning the marriage practices of
plantation owners during the period of Black sla'ery in the :nited ;tates can
most logically be inferred from the information in the passage%
(A) These practices began to alter sometime around the mid(eighteenth century.
(B) These practices 'aried markedly from one region of the country to another.
(C) @lantation owners usually based their choice of marriage partners on
economic considerations.
() @lantation owners often married earlier than sla'es.
(#) @lantation owners often married their cousins.
22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) The author compares and contrasts the work of se'eral historians and then
discusses areas for possible new research.
(B) The author presents his thesis/ draws on the work of se'eral historians for
e'idence to support his thesis/ and concludes by reiterating his thesis.
(C) The author describes some features of a historical study and then uses those
features to put forth his own argument.
() The author summari!es a historical study/ e$amines two main arguments
from the study/ and then shows how the arguments are potentially in conflict
with one another.
(#) The author presents the general argument of a historical study/ describes the
study in more detail/ and concludes with a brief <udgments of the study4s
'alue.
2-. &hich of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage/ based on its
content%
(A) The 3nfluence of )erbert Butman on )istorians of ;la'ery in the :nited
;tates
(B) Butman4s #$planation of )ow ;la'es Could ?aintain a Cultural )eritage and
e'elop a Communal Consciousness
(C) ;la'ery in the :nited ;tatesE 9ew Contro'ersy About an 8ld ;ub<ect
() The Black )eritage of >olklore/ ?usic/ and =eligious #$pressionE 3ts
Browing 3nfluence
(#) The Black >amily and #$tended Minship ;tructureE )ow They &ere
.65 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3mportant for the >reed ;la'e
No. 5-1
SECTION A
A Marxst socoogst has argued that racsm stems from the cass strugge
that s unque to the captast system-that raca pre|udce s generated by
captasts as a means of controng workers. Hs thess works reatvey we when
apped to dscrmnaton aganst Backs n the Unted States, but hs defnton of
raca pre|udce as "racay-based negatve pre|udgments aganst a group
generay accepted as a race n any gven regon of ethnc competton," can be
nterpreted as aso ncudng hostty toward such ethnc groups as the Chnese n
Caforna and the |ews n medeva Europe. However, snce pre|udce aganst
these atter peopes was not nspred by captasts, he has to reason that such
antagonsms were not reay based on race. He dsposes thusy (abet
unconvncngy) of both the ntoerance faced by |ews before the rse of captasm
and the eary twenteth-century dscrmnaton aganst Orenta peope n
Caforna, whch, nconvenenty, was nstgated by workers.
1-. The passage supplies information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat accounts for the pre<udice against the Aews in medie'al #urope%
(B) &hat conditions caused the discrimination against 8riental people in
California in the early twentieth century%
(C) &hich groups are not in ethnic competition with each other in the :nited
;tates%
() &hat e$planation did the ?ar$ist sociologist gi'e for the e$istence of racial
pre<udice%
(#) &hat e'idence did the ?ar$ist sociologist pro'ide to support his thesis%
16. The author considers the ?ar$ist sociologist4s thesis about the origins of racial
pre<udice to be
(A) unoriginal
(B) unpersuasi'e
(C) offensi'e
() obscure
(#) speculati'e
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the ?ar$ist sociologist would argue that
in a noncapitalist society racial pre<udice would be
(A) per'asi'e
GRE .61
(B) tolerated
(C) ignored
() forbidden
(#) none$istent
25. According to the passage/ the ?ar$ist sociologist4s chain of reasoning re"uired
him to assert that pre<udice toward 8riental people in California was
(A) directed primarily against the Chinese
(B) similar in origin to pre<udice against the Aews
(C) understood by 8riental people as ethnic competition
() pro'oked by workers
(#) nonracial in character
By 1950, the resuts of attempts to reate bran processes to menta
experence appeared rather dscouragng. Such varatons n sze, shape,
chemstry, conducton speed, exctaton threshod, and the ke as had been
demonstrated n nerve ces remaned neggbe n sgnfcance for any possbe
correaton wth the manfod dmensons of menta experence.
Near the turn of the century, t had been suggested by Herng that dfferent
modes of sensaton, such as pan, taste, and coor, mght be correated wth the
dscharge of specfc knds of nervous energy. However, subsequenty deveoped
methods of recordng and anayzng nerve potentas faed to revea any such
quatatve dversty. It was possbe to demonstrate by other methods refned
structura dfferences among neuron types; however, proof was ackng that the
quaty of the mpuse or ts condton was nfuenced by these dfferences, whch
seemed nstead to nfuence the deveopmenta patternng of the neura crcuts.
Athough quatatve varance among nerve energes was never rgdy dsproved,
the doctrne was generay abandoned n favor of the opposng vew, namey, that
nerve mpuses are essentay homogeneous n quaty and are transmtted as
"common currency" throughout the nervous system. Accordng to ths theory, t s
not the quaty of the sensory nerve mpuses that determnes the dverse
conscous sensatons they produce, but rather the dfferent areas of the bran nto
whch they dscharge, and there s some evdence for ths vew. In one
experment, when an eectrc stmuus was apped to a gven sensory fed of the
cerebra cortex of a conscous human sub|ect, t produced a sensaton of the
approprate modaty for that partcuar ocus, that s, a vsua sensaton from the
vsua cortex, an audtory sensaton from the audtory cortex, and so on. Other
experments reveaed sght varatons n the sze, number, arrangement, and
nterconnecton of the nerve ces, but as far as psychoneura correatons were
concerned, the obvous smartes of these sensory feds to each other seemed
much more remarkabe than any of the mnute dfferences.
However, cortca ocus, n tsef, turned out to have tte expanatory vaue.
Studes showed that sensatons as dverse as those of red, back, green, and
.62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
whte, or touch, cod, warmth, movement, pan, posture, and pressure apparenty
may arse through actvaton of the same cortca areas. What seemed to reman
was some knd of dfferenta patternng effects n the bran exctaton: t s the
dfference n the centra dstrbuton of mpuses that counts. In short, bran theory
suggested a correaton between menta experence and the actvty of reatvey
homogeneous nerve-ce unts conductng essentay homogeneous mpuses
through homogeneous cerebra tssue. To match the mutpe dmensons of
menta experence psychoogsts coud ony pont to a mtess varaton n the
spatotempora patternng of nerve mpuses.
21. The author suggests that/ by 1,15/ attempts to correlate mental e$perience with
brain processes would probably ha'e been 'iewed with
(A) indignation
(B) impatience
(C) pessimism
() indifference
(#) defiance
22. The author mentions *common currency+ in line 22 primarily in order to
emphasi!e the
(A) lack of differentiation among ner'e impulses in human beings
(B) similarity of the sensations that all human beings e$perience
(C) similarities in the 'iews of scientists who ha'e studied the human ner'ous
system
() continuous passage of ner'e impulses through the ner'ous system
(#) recurrent "uestioning by scientists of an accepted e$planation about the
ner'ous system
2.. The description in lines .2(.6 of an e$periment in which electric stimuli were
applied to different sensory fields of the cerebral corte$ tends to support the
theory that
(A) the simple presence of different cortical areas cannot account for the di'ersity
of mental e$perience
(B) 'ariation in spatiotemporal patterning of ner'e impulses correlates with
'ariation in sub<ecti'e e$perience
(C) ner'e impulses are essentially homogeneous and are relati'ely unaffected as
they tra'el through the ner'ous system
() the mental e$periences produced by sensory ner'e impulses are determined
by the cortical area acti'ated
(#) 'ariation in neuron types affects the "uality of ner'e impulses
20. According to the passage/ some e'idence e$ists that the area of the corte$
acti'ated by a sensory stimulus determines which of the following%
GRE .6.
3. The nature of the ner'e impulse
33. The modality of the sensory e$perience
333. Nualitati'e differences within a modality
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
21. The passage can most accurately be described as a discussion concerning
historical 'iews of the
(A) anatomy of the brain
(B) manner in which ner'e impulses are conducted
(C) significance of different cortical areas in mental e$perience
() mechanics of sense perception
(#) physiological correlates of mental e$perience
22. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s opinion of the suggestion
that different areas of the brain determine perceptions produced by sensory ner'e
impulses%
(A) 3t is a plausible e$planation/ but it has not been completely pro'ed.
(B) 3t is the best e$planation of brain processes currently a'ailable.
(C) 3t is dispro'ed by the fact that the 'arious areas of the brain are
physiologically 'ery similar.
() There is some e'idence to support it/ but it fails to e$plain the di'ersity of
mental e$perience.
(#) There is e$perimental e'idence that confirms its correctness.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following e$hibit the
K#A;T "ualitati'e 'ariation%
(A) 9er'e cells
(B) 9er'e impulses
(C) Cortical areas
() ;patial patterns of ner'e impulses
(#) Temporal patterns of ner'e impulses
SECTION B
The transfer of heat and water vapor from the ocean to the ar above t
depends on a dsequbrum at the nterface of the water and the ar. Wthn about
a mmeter of the water, ar temperature s cose to that of the surface water,
.60 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
and the ar s neary saturated wth water vapor. But the dfferences, however
sma, are cruca, and the dsequbrum s mantaned by ar near the surface
mxng wth ar hgher up, whch s typcay apprecaby cooer and ower n water-
vapor content. The ar s mxed by means of turbuence that depends on the wnd
for ts energy. As wnd speed ncreases, so does turbuence, and thus the rate of
heat and mosture transfer. Detaed understandng of ths phenomenon awats
further study. An nteractng-and compcatng-phenomenon s wnd-to-water
transfer of momentum that occurs when waves are formed. When the wnd makes
waves, t transfers mportant amounts of energy-energy that s therefore not
avaabe to provde turbuence.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) resol'e a contro'ersy
(B) describe a phenomenon
(C) outline a theory
() confirm research findings
(#) classify 'arious obser'ations
16. According to the passage/ wind o'er the ocean generally does which of the
following%
3. Causes relati'ely cool/ dry air to come into pro$imity with the ocean surface.
33. ?aintains a steady rate of heat and moisture transfer between the ocean and
the air.
333. Causes fre"uent changes in the temperature of the water at the ocean4s
surface.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author regards current knowledge
about heat and moisture transfer from the ocean to air as
(A) re'olutionary
(B) inconse"uential
(C) outdated
() deri'ati'e
(#) incomplete
25. The passage suggests that if on a certain day the wind were to decrease until there
was no wind at all which of the following would occur%
(A) The air closest to the ocean surface would become saturated with water 'apor.
GRE .61
(B) The air closest to the ocean surface would be warmer than the water.
(C) The amount of moisture in the air closest to the ocean surface would
decrease.
() The rate of heat and moisture transfer would increase.
(#) The air closest to the ocean would be at the same temperature as air higher up.
Extraordnary creatve actvty has been characterzed as revoutonary, fyng
n the face of what s estabshed and producng not what s acceptabe but what
w become accepted. Accordng to ths formuaton, hghy creatve actvty
transcends the mts of an exstng form and estabshes a new prncpe of
organzaton. However, the dea that extraordnary creatvty transcends
estabshed mts s mseadng when t s apped to the arts, even though t may
be vad for the scences. Dfferences between hghy creatve art and hghy
creatve scence arse n part from a dfference n ther goas. For the scences, a
new theory s the goa and end resut of the creatve act. Innovatve scence
produces new propostons n terms of whch dverse phenomena can be reated to
one another n more coherent ways. Such phenomena as a brant damond or a
nestng brd are reegated to the roe of data, servng as the means for formuatng
or testng a new theory. The goa of hghy creatve art s very dfferent: the
phenomenon tsef becomes the drect product of the creatve act. Shakespeares
%amlet s not a tract about the behavor of ndecsve prnces or the uses of
potca power; nor s Pcassos pantng .uernica prmary a propostona
statement about the Spansh Cv War or the evs of fascsm. What hghy
creatve artstc actvty produces s not a new generazaton that transcends
estabshed mts, but rather an aesthetc partcuar. Aesthetc partcuars
produced by the hghy creatve artst extend or expot, n an nnovatve way, the
mts of an exstng form, rather than transcend that form.
Ths s not to deny that a hghy creatve artst sometmes estabshes a new
prncpe of organzaton n the hstory of an artstc fed; the composer
Monteverd, who created musc of the hghest aesthetc vaue, comes to mnd.
More generay, however, whether or not a composton estabshes a new
prncpe n the hstory of musc has tte bearng on ts aesthetc worth. Because
they embody a new prncpe of organzaton, some musca works, such as the
operas of the Forentne Camerata, are of sgna hstorca mportance, but few
steners or muscoogsts woud ncude these among the great works of musc.
On the other hand, Mozarts The (arriage of Figaro s surey among the
masterpeces of musc even though ts modest nnovatons are confned to
extendng exstng means. It has been sad of Beethoven that he topped the rues
and freed musc from the stfng confnes of conventon. But a cose study of hs
compostons reveas that Beethoven overturned no fundamenta rues. Rather, he
was an ncomparabe strategst who expoted mts-the rues, forms, and
conventons that he nherted from predecessors such as Haydn and Mozart,
Hande and Bach-n strkngy orgna ways.
.62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. The author considers a new theory that coherently relates di'erse phenomena to
one another to be the
(A) basis for reaffirming a well(established scientific formulation
(B) byproduct of an aesthetic e$perience
(C) tool used by a scientist to disco'er a new particular
() synthesis underlying a great work of art
(#) result of highly creati'e scientific acti'ity
22. The author implies that Beetho'en4s music was strikingly original because
Beetho'en
(A) stro'e to outdo his predecessors by becoming the first composer to e$ploit
limits
(B) fundamentally changed the musical forms of his predecessors by adopting a
richly in'enti'e strategy
(C) embellished and interwo'e the melodies of se'eral of the great composers
who preceded him
() manipulated the established con'entions of musical composition in a highly
inno'ati'e fashion
(#) attempted to create the illusion of ha'ing transcended the musical forms of his
predecessors
2.. The passage states that the operas of the >lorentine Camerata are
(A) un<ustifiably ignored by musicologists
(B) not generally considered to be of high aesthetic 'alue e'en though they are
important in the history of music
(C) among those works in which popular historical themes were portrayed in a
musical production
() often inappropriately cited as e$amples of musical works in which a new
principle of organi!ation was introduced
(#) minor e$ceptions to the well(established generali!ation that the aesthetic
worth of a composition determines its importance in the history of music
20. The passage supplies information for answering all of the following "uestions
#DC#@TE
(A) )as unusual creati'e acti'ity been characteri!ed as re'olutionary%
(B) id Beetho'en work within a musical tradition that also included )andel and
Bach%
(C) 3s ?o!art4s The *arriage o+ Figaro an e$ample of a creati'e work that
transcended limits%
() &ho besides ?onte'erdi wrote music that the author would consider to
embody new principles of organi!ation and to be of high aesthetic 'alue%
GRE .6-
(#) oes anyone claim that the goal of e$traordinary creati'e acti'ity in the arts
differs from that of e$traordinary creati'e acti'ity in the sciences%
21. The author regards the idea that all highly creati'e artistic acti'ity transcends
limits with
(A) deep skepticism
(B) strong indignation
(C) marked indifference
() moderate amusement
(#) sharp derision
22. The author implies that an inno'ati'e scientific contribution is one that
(A) is cited with high fre"uency in the publications of other scientists
(B) is accepted immediately by the scientific community
(C) does not relegate particulars to the role of data
() presents the disco'ery of a new scientific fact
(#) introduces a new 'alid generali!ation
2-. &hich of the following statements would most logically concluded the last
paragraph of the passage%
(A) :nlike Beetho'en/ howe'er/ e'en the greatest of modern composers/ such as
;tra'insky/ did not transcend e$isting musical forms.
(B) 3n similar fashion/ e$isting musical forms were e'en further e$ploited by the
ne$t generation of great #uropean composers.
(C) Thus/ many of the great composers displayed the same combination of talents
e$hibited by ?onte'erdi.
() By contrast/ the 'iew that creati'ity in the arts e$ploits but does not transcend
limits is supported in the field of literature.
(#) Actually/ Beetho'en4s most original works were largely unappreciated at the
time that they were first performed.
No. 5-2
SECTION A
Vsua recognton nvoves storng and retrevng memores. Neura actvty,
trggered by the eye, forms an mage n the brans memory system that
consttutes an nterna representaton of the vewed ob|ect. When an ob|ect s
encountered agan, t s matched wth ts nterna representaton and thereby
recognzed. Controversy surrounds the queston of whether recognton s a
parae, one-step process or a sera, step-by-step one. Psychoogsts of the
Gestat schoo mantan that ob|ects are recognzed as whoes n a parae
.66 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
procedure: the nterna representaton s matched wth the retna mage n a
snge operaton. Other psychoogsts have proposed that nterna representaton
features are matched seray wth an ob|ects features. Athough some
experments show that, as an ob|ect becomes famar, ts nterna representaton
becomes more hostc and the recognton process correspondngy more parae,
the weght of evdence seems to support the sera hypothess, at east for ob|ects
that are not notaby smpe and famar.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining how the brain recei'es images
(B) synthesi!ing hypotheses of 'isual recognition
(C) e$amining the e'idence supporting the serial recognition hypothesis
() discussing 'isual recognition and some hypotheses proposed to e$plain it
(#) reporting on recent e$periments dealing with memory systems and their
relationship to neural acti'ity
16. According to the passage/ Bestalt psychologists make which of the following
suppositions about 'isual recognition%
3. A retinal image is in e$actly the same forms as its internal representation.
33. An ob<ect is recogni!ed as a whole without any need for analysis into
component parts.
333. The matching of an ob<ect with its internal representation occurs in only one
step.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the matching process in 'isual recognition
is
(A) not a neural acti'ity
(B) not possible when an ob<ect is 'iewed for the 'ery first time
(C) not possible if a feature of a familiar ob<ect is changed in some way
() only possible when a retinal image is recei'ed in the brain as a unitary whole
(#) now fully understood as a combination of the serial and parallel processes
25. 3t terms of its tone and form/ the passage can best be characteri!ed as
(A) a biased e$position
(B) a speculati'e study
(C) a dispassionate presentation
GRE .6,
() an indignant denial
(#) a dogmatic e$planation
In arge part as a consequence of the femnst movement, hstorans have
focused a great dea of attenton n recent years on determnng more accuratey
the status of women n varous perods. Athough much has been accompshed
for the modern perod, premodern cutures have proved more dffcut: sources are
restrcted n number, fragmentary, dffcut to nterpret, and often contradctory.
Thus t s not partcuary surprsng that some earer schoarshp concernng such
cutures has so far gone unchaenged. An exampe s |ohann Bachofens 1861
treatse on Amazons, women-rued socetes of questonabe exstence
contemporary wth ancent Greece.
Startng from the premse that mythoogy and egend preserve at east a
nuceus of hstorca fact, Bachofen argued that women were domnant n many
ancent socetes. Hs work was based on a comprehensve survey of references n
the ancent sources to Amazonan and other socetes wth matrnea customs-
socetes n whch descent and property rghts are traced through the femae ne.
Some support for hs theory can be found n evdence such as that drawn from
Herodotus, the Greek "hstoran" of the ffth century B. C., who speaks of an
Amazonan socety, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought n
wars. A woman n ths socety was not aowed to marry unt she had ked a
person n batte.
Nonetheess, ths assumpton that the frst recorders of ancent myths have
preserved facts s probematc. If one begns by examnng why ancents refer to
Amazons, t becomes cear that ancent Greek descrptons of such socetes were
meant not so much to represent observed hstorca fact-rea Amazonan
socetes-but rather to offer "mora essons" on the supposed outcome of
womens rue n ther own socety. The Amazons were often characterzed, for
exampe, as the equvaents of gants and centaurs, enemes to be san by Greek
heroes. Ther customs were presented not as those of a respectabe socety, but
as the very anttheses of ordnary Greek practces.
Thus, I woud argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for ther mae
Greek recorders was ddactc, to teach both mae and femae Greeks that a-
femae groups, formed by wthdrawa from tradtona socety, are destructve and
dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used as arguments for the mae-
domnated status quo, n whch groups composed excusvey of ether sex were
not permtted to segregate themseves permanenty from socety. Bachofen was
thus msed n hs reance on myths for nformaton about the status of women.
The sources that w probaby te contemporary hstorans most about women n
the ancent word are such soca documents as gravestones, ws, and marrage
contracts. Studes of such documents have aready begun to show how mstaken
we are when we try to derve our pcture of the ancent word excusvey from
terary sources, especay myths.
.,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) compare competing new approaches to understanding the role of women in
ancient societies
(B) in'estigate the ramifications of Bachofen4s theory about the dominance of
women in ancient societies
(C) e$plain the burgeoning interest among historians in determining the actual
status of women in 'arious societies
() analy!e the nature of Ama!onian society and unco'er similarities between it
and the Breek world
(#) critici!e the 'alue of ancient myths in determining the status of women in
ancient societies
22. All of the following are stated by the author as problems connected with the
sources for knowledge of premodern cultures #DC#@TE
(A) partial completeness
(B) restricted accessibility
(C) difficulty of interpretation
() limited "uantity
(#) tendency toward contradiction
2.. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the myths
recorded by the ancient Breeks%
3. They sometimes included portrayals of women holding positions of power.
33. They sometimes contained elaborate e$planations of inheritance customs.
333. They comprise almost all of the material a'ailable to historians about ancient
Breece.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
20. &hich of the following is presented in the passage as e'idence supporting the
author4s 'iew of the ancient Breeks4 descriptions of the Ama!ons%
(A) The re"uirement that ;auromatae women kill in battle before marrying
(B) The failure of historians to 'erify that women were e'er go'ernors of ancient
societies
(C) The classing of Ama!ons with giants and centaurs
() The well(established unreliability of )erodotus as a source of information
about ancient societies
(#) The recent disco'ery of ancient societies with matrilineal customs
GRE .,1
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the probable reactions of many males in
ancient Breece to the idea of a society ruled by women could best characteri!ed
as
(A) confused and dismayed
(B) wary and hostile
(C) cynical and disinterested
() curious but fearful
(#) e$cited but an$ious
22. The author suggests that the main reason for the persisting influence of
Bachofen4s work is that
(A) feminists ha'e shown little interest in ancient societies
(B) Bachofen4s knowledge of Ama!onian culture is unparalleled
(C) reliable information about the ancient world is difficult to ac"uire
() ancient societies show the best e'idence of women in positions of power
(#) historians ha'e been primarily interested in the modern period
2-. The author4s attitude toward Bachofen4s treatise is best described as one of
(A) "ualified appro'al
(B) profound ambi'alence
(C) studied neutrality
() pointed disagreement
(#) unmitigated hostility
SECTION B
Intay the Vnaver theory that Maorys eght romances, once thought to be
fundamentay unfed, were n fact eght ndependent works produced both a
sense of reef and an unpeasant shock. Vnavers theory comfortaby expaned
away the apparent contradctons of chronoogy and made each romance
ndependenty satsfyng. It was, however, dsagreeabe to fnd that what had
been thought of as one book was now eght books. Part of ths response was the
natura reacton to the dsturbance of set deas. Nevertheess, even now, after
engthy consderaton of the theorys refned but egtmate observatons, one
cannot avod the concuson that the eght romances are ony one work. It s not
qute a matter of dsagreeng wth the theory of ndependence, but of re|ectng ts
mpcatons: that the romances may be taken n any or no partcuar order, that
they have no cumuatve effect, and that they are as separate as the works of a
modern novest.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the 'alidity of a hypothesis
.,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) summari!e a system of general principles
(C) propose guidelines for future argument
() stipulate conditions for acceptance of an interpretation
(#) deny accusations about an apparent contradiction
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about ?alory4s works%
3. There are meaningful links between and among the romances.
33. The subtleties of the romances are obscured when they are taken as one
work.
333. Any contradictions in chronology among the romances are less important
than their o'erall unity.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. The author of the passage concedes which of the following about the Cina'er
theory%
(A) 3t gi'es a clearer understanding of the unity of ?alory4s romances.
(B) 3t demonstrates the irrationality of considering ?alory4s romances to be
unified.
(C) 3t establishes acceptable links between ?alory4s romances and modern
no'els.
() 3t unifies earlier and later theories concerning the chronology of ?alory4s
romances.
(#) 3t makes 'alid and subtle comments about ?alory4s romances.
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in e'aluating the Cina'er theory/ some
critics were
(A) fre"uently misled by the inconsistencies in ?alory4s work
(B) initially biased by pre'ious interpretations of ?alory4s work
(C) conceptually displeased by the general interpretation that Cina'er re<ected
() generally in agreement with Cina'er4s comparisons between ?alory and
modern no'elists
(#) originally skeptical about Cina'er4s early conclusions with respect to modern
no'els
We can dstngush three dfferent reams of matter, three eves on the
quantum adder. The frst s the atomc ream, whch ncudes the word of atoms,
ther nteractons, and the structures that are formed by them, such as moecues,
GRE .,.
quds and sods, and gases and pasmas. Ths ream ncudes a the phenomena
of atomc physcs, chemstry, and, n a certan sense, boogy. The energy
exchanges takng pace n ths ream are of a reatvey ow order. If these
exchanges are beow one eectron vot, such as n the cosons between
moecues of the ar n a room, then atoms and moecues can be regarded as
eementary partces. That s, they have "condtona eementarty" because they
keep ther dentty and do not change n any cosons or n other processes at
these ow energy exchanges. If one goes to hgher energy exchanges, say 10
4
eectron vots, then atoms and moecues w decompose nto nuce and
eectrons; at ths eve, the atter partces must be consdered as eementary. We
fnd exampes of structures and processes of ths frst rung of the quantum adder
on Earth, on panets, and on the surfaces of stars.
The next rung s the nucear ream. Here the energy exchanges are much
hgher, on the order of mons of eectron vots. As ong as we are deang wth
phenomena n the atomc ream, such amounts of energy are unavaabe, and
most nuce are nert: they do not change. However, f one appes energes of
mons of eectron vots, nucear reactons, fsson and fuson, and the processes
of radoactvty occur; our eementary partces then are protons, neutrons, and
eectrons. In addton, nucear processes produce neutrnos, partces that have no
detectabe mass or charge. In the unverse, energes at ths eve are avaabe n
the centers of stars and n star exposons. Indeed, the energy radated by the
stars s produced by nucear reactons. The natura radoactvty we fnd on Earth
s the ong-ved remnant of the tme when now-earthy matter was expeed nto
space by a ma|or stear exposon.
The thrd rung of the quantum adder s the subnucear ream. Here we are
deang wth energy exchanges of many bons of eectron vots. We encounter
excted nuceons, new types of partces such as mesons, heavy eectrons, quarks,
and guons, and aso antmatter n arge quanttes. The guons are the quanta, or
smaest unts, of the force (the strong force) that keeps the quarks together. As
ong as we are deang wth the atomc or nucear ream, these new types of
partces do not occur and the nuceons reman nert. But at subnucear energy
eves, the nuceons and mesons appear to be composed of quarks, so that the
quarks and guons fgure as eementary partces.
21. The primary topic of the passage is which of the following%
(A) The interaction of the realms on the "uantum ladder
(B) Atomic structures found on #arth/ on other planets/ and on the surfaces of
stars
(C) Ke'els of energy that are released in nuclear reactions on #arth and in stars
() @articles and processes found in the atomic/ nuclear/ and subnuclear realms
(#) 9ew types of particles occurring in the atomic realm
22. According to the passage/ radioacti'ity that occurs naturally on #arth is the result
.,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
of
(A) the production of particles that ha'e no detectable mass or electric charge
(B) high energy e$changes on the nuclear le'el that occurred in an ancient
e$plosion in a star
(C) processes that occur in the center of the ;un/ which emits radiation to the
#arth
() phenomena in the atomic realm that cause atoms and molecules to decompose
into nuclei and electrons
(#) high('oltage discharges of electricity that took place in the atmosphere of the
#arth shortly after the #arth was formed
2.. The author organi!es the passage by
(A) making distinctions between two groups of particles/ those that are
elementary and those that are composite
(B) e$plaining three methods of transferring energy to atoms and to the smaller
particles that constitute atoms
(C) describing se'eral le'els of processes/ increasing in energy/ and
corresponding sets of particles/ generally decreasing in si!e
() putting forth an argument concerning energy le'els and then conceding that
se'eral "ualifications of that argument are necessary
(#) making se'eral successi'e refinements of a definition of elementarity on the
basis of se'eral groups of e$perimental results
20. According to the passage/ which of the following can be found in the atomic
realm%
(A) ?ore than one le'el of energy e$change
(B) #$actly one elementary particle
(C) #$actly three kinds of atomic structures
() Three le'els on the "uantum ladder
(#) 9o particles smaller than atoms
21. According to the author/ gluons are not
(A) considered to be detectable
(B) produced in nuclear reactions
(C) encountered in subnuclear energy e$changes
() related to the strong force
(#) found to be conditionally elementary
22. At a higher energy le'el than the subnuclear le'el described/ if such a higher le'el
e$ists/ it can be e$pected on the basis of the information in the passage that there
would probably be
GRE .,1
(A) e$cited nucleons
(B) elementary mesons
(C) a kind of particle without detectable mass or charge
() e$changes of energy on the order of millions of electron 'olts
(#) another set of elementary particles
2-. The passage speaks of particles as ha'ing conditional elementarity if they
(A) remain unchanged at gi'en le'el of energy e$change
(B) cannot be decomposed into smaller constituents
(C) are mathematically simpler than some other set of particles
() release energy at a low le'el in collisions
(#) belong to the nuclear le'el on the "uantum ladder
No. 5-3
SECTION A
The beef that art orgnates n ntutve rather than ratona facutes was
worked out hstorcay and phosophcay n the somewhat wearsome voumes
of Benedetto Croce, who s usuay consdered the orgnator of a new aesthetc.
Croce was, n fact, expressng a very od dea. Long before the Romantcs stressed
ntuton and sef-expresson, the frenzy of nspraton was regarded as
fundamenta to art, but phosophers had aways assumed t must be controed by
aw and by the nteectua power of puttng thngs nto harmonous order. Ths
genera phosophc concept of art was supported by technca necesstes. It was
necessary to master certan aws and to use nteect n order to bud Gothc
cathedras, or set up the staned gass wndows of Chartres. When ths bracng
eement of craftsmanshp ceased to domnate artsts outook, new technca
eements had to be adopted to mantan the nteectua eement n art. Such were
near perspectve and anatomy.
1-. The passage suggests that which of the following would most likely ha'e
occurred if linear perspecti'e and anatomy had not come to influence artistic
endea'or%
(A) The craftsmanship that shaped Bothic architecture would ha'e continued to
dominate artists4 outlooks.
(B) ;ome other technical elements would ha'e been adopted to discipline artistic
inspiration.
(C) 3ntellectual control o'er artistic inspiration would not ha'e influenced
painting as it did architecture.
() The role of intuiti'e inspiration would not ha'e remained fundamental to
theories of artistic creation.
.,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) The assumptions of aesthetic philosophers before Croce would ha'e been
in'alidated.
16. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following
"uestions%
(A) oes =omantic art e$hibit the triumph of intuition o'er intellect%
(B) id an emphasis on linear perspecti'e and anatomy dominate =omantic art%
(C) Are the intellectual and intuiti'e faculties harmoniously balanced in post(
=omantic art%
() Are the effects of the rational control of artistic inspiration e'ident in the
great works of pre(=omantic eras%
(#) &as the artistic craftsmanship displayed in Bothic cathedrals also an element
in paintings of this period%
1,. The passage implies that which of the following was a traditional assumption of
aesthetic philosophers%
(A) 3ntellectual elements in art e$ert a necessary control o'er artistic inspiration.
(B) Architecture has ne'er again reached the artistic greatness of the Bothic
cathedrals.
(C) Aesthetic philosophy is determined by the technical necessities of art.
() Artistic craftsmanship is more important in architectural art than in pictorial
art.
(#) @aintings lacked the intellectual element before the in'ention of linear
perspecti'e and anatomy.
25. The author mentions *linear perspecti'e and anatomy+ in the last sentence in
order to do which of the following%
(A) #$pand his argument to include painting as well as architecture
(B) 3ndicate his disagreement with Croce4s theory of the origins of art
(C) ;upport his point that rational order of some kind has often seemed to
discipline artistic inspiration
() #$plain the rational elements in Bothic painting that corresponded to
craftsmanship in Bothic architecture
(#) ;how the increasing sophistication of artists after the Bothic period
(The passage beow s drawn from an artce pubshed n 1962.)
Computer programmers often remark that computng machnes, wth a
perfect ack of dscrmnaton, w do any foosh thng they are tod to do. The
reason for ths es, of course, n the narrow fxaton of the computng machnes
"ntegence" on the detas of ts own perceptons-ts nabty to be guded by
any arge context. In a psychoogca descrpton of the computer ntegence,
three reated ad|ectves come to mnd: snge-mnded, tera-mnded, and
smpemnded. Recognzng ths, we shoud at the same tme recognze that ths
GRE .,-
snge-mndedness, tera-mndedness, and smpemndedness aso characterzes
theoretca mathematcs, though to a esser extent.
Snce scence tres to dea wth reaty, even the most precse scences
normay work wth more or ess mperfecty understood approxmatons toward
whch scentsts must mantan an approprate skeptcsm. Thus, for nstance, t
may come as a shock to mathematcans to earn that the Schrodnger equaton
for the hydrogen atom s not a teray correct descrpton of ths atom, but ony
an approxmaton to a somewhat more correct equaton takng account of spn,
magnetc dpoe, and reatvstc effects; and that ths corrected equaton s tsef
ony an mperfect approxmaton to an nfnte set of quantum fed-theoretca
equatons. Physcsts, ookng at the orgna Schrodnger equaton, earn to sense
n t the presence of many nvsbe terms n addton to the dfferenta terms
vsbe, and ths sense nspres an entrey approprate dsregard for the purey
technca features of the equaton. Ths very heathy skeptcsm s foregn to the
mathematca approach.
Mathematcs must dea wth we-defned stuatons. Thus, mathematcans
depend on an nteectua effort outsde of mathematcs for the cruca
specfcaton of the approxmaton that mathematcs s to take teray. Gve
mathematcans a stuaton that s the east bt -defned, and they w make t
we-defned, perhaps appropratey, but perhaps nappropratey. In some cases,
the mathematcans tera-mndedness may have unfortunate consequences. The
mathematcans turn the scentsts theoretca assumptons, that s, ther
convenent ponts of anaytca emphass, nto axoms, and then take these axoms
teray. Ths brngs the danger that they may aso persuade the scentsts to take
these axoms teray. The queston, centra to the scentfc nvestgaton but
ntensey dsturbng n the mathematca context-what happens f the axoms are
reaxed?-s thereby gnored.
The physcst rghty dreads precse argument, snce an argument that s
convncng ony f t s precse oses a ts force f the assumptons on whch t s
based are sghty changed, whereas an argument that s convncng though
mprecse may we be stabe under sma perturbatons of ts underyng
assumptons.
21. The author discusses computing machines in the first paragraph primarily in order
to do which of the following%
(A) 3ndicate the dangers inherent in relying to a great e$tent on machines
(B) 3llustrate his 'iews about the approach of mathematicians to problem sol'ing
(C) Compare the work of mathematicians with that of computer programmers
() @ro'ide one definition of intelligence
(#) #mphasi!e the importance of computers in modern technological society
22. According to the passage/ scientists are skeptical toward their e"uations because
scientists
.,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) work to e$plain real/ rather than theoretical or simplified/ situations
(B) know that well(defined problems are often the most difficult to sol'e
(C) are unable to e$press their data in terms of multiple 'ariables
() are unwilling to rela$ the a$ioms they ha'e de'eloped
(#) are unable to accept mathematical e$planations of natural phenomena
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists make which of the following
assumptions about scientific arguments%
(A) The literal truth of the arguments can be made clear only in a mathematical
conte$t.
(B) The arguments necessarily ignore the central "uestion of scientific
in'estigation.
(C) The arguments probably will be con'incing only to other scientists.
() The conclusions of the arguments do not necessarily follow from their
premises.
(#) The premises on which the arguments are based may change.
20. According to the passage/ mathematicians present a danger to scientists for which
of the following reasons%
(A) ?athematicians may pro'ide theories that are incompatible with those
already de'eloped by scientists.
(B) ?athematicians may define situation in a way that is incomprehensible to
scientists.
(C) ?athematicians may con'ince scientists that theoretical assumptions are
facts.
() ;cientists may come to belie'e that a$iomatic statements are untrue.
(#) ;cientists may begin to pro'ide arguments that are con'incing but imprecise.
21. The author suggests that the approach of physicists to sol'ing scientific problems
is which of the following%
(A) @ractical for scientific purposes
(B) etrimental to scientific progress
(C) :nimportant in most situations
() #$pedient/ but of little long(term 'alue
(#) #ffecti'e/ but rarely recogni!ed as such
22. The author suggests that a mathematician asked to sol'e a problem in an ill(
defined situation would first attempt to do which of the following%
(A) 3dentify an analogous situation
(B) ;implify and define the situation
(C) Cary the underlying assumptions of a description of the situation
GRE .,,
() etermine what use would be made of the solution pro'ided
(#) #'aluate the theoretical assumptions that might e$plain the situation
2-. The author implies that scientists de'elop a healthy skepticism because they are
aware that
(A) mathematicians are better able to sol'e problems than are scientists
(B) changes in a$iomatic propositions will ine'itably undermine scientific
arguments
(C) well(defined situations are necessary for the design of reliable e$periments
() mathematical solutions can rarely be applied to real problems
(#) some factors in most situations must remain unknown
SECTION B
In eghteenth-century France and Engand, reformers raed around egataran
deas, but few reformers advocated hgher educaton for women. Athough the
pubc decred womens ack of educaton, t dd not encourage earnng for ts own
sake for women. In spte of the genera pre|udce aganst earned women, there
was one pace where women coud exhbt ther erudton: the terary saon. Many
wrters have defned the womans roe n the saon as that of an ntegent
hostess, but the saon had more than a soca functon for women. It was an
nforma unversty, too, where women exchanged deas wth educated persons,
read ther own works and heard those of others, and receved and gave crtcsm.
In the 1750s, when saons were frmy estabshed n France, some Engsh
women, who caed themseves "Buestockng," foowed the exampe of the
salonnieres (French saon hostesses) and formed ther own saons. Most
Buestockngs dd not wsh to mrror the salonnieres; they smpy desred to adapt
a proven formua to ther own purpose-the eevaton of womens status through
mora and nteectua tranng. Dfferences n soca orentaton and background
can account perhaps for dfferences n the nature of French and Engsh saons.
The French saon ncorporated arstocratc atttudes that exated courty peasure
and emphaszed artstc accompshments. The Engsh Buestockngs, orgnatng
from a more modest background, emphaszed earnng and work over peasure.
Accustomed to the regmented fe of court crces, salonnieres tended toward
formaty n ther saons. The Engsh women, though somewhat purtanca, were
more casua n ther approach.
At frst, the Buestockngs dd mtate the salonnieres by ncudng men n ther
crces. However, as they ganed coheson, the Buestockngs came to regard
themseves as a womens group and to possess a sense of femae sodarty
ackng n the salonnieres, who remaned soated from one another by the
prmacy each hed n her own saon. In an atmosphere of mutua support, the
Buestockngs went beyond the saon experence. They traveed, studed, worked,
wrote for pubcaton, and by ther actvtes chaenged the stereotype of the
055 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
passve woman. Athough the salonnieres were aware of sexua nequaty, the
narrow boundares of ther word kept ther nteectua pursuts wthn
conventona mts. Many salonnieres, n fact, camoufaged ther nontradtona
actvtes behnd the roe of hostess and deferred to men n pubc.
Though the Buestockngs were trabazers when compared wth the
salonnieres, they were not femnsts. They were too tradtona, too hemmed n by
ther generaton to demand soca and potca rghts. Nonetheess, n ther desre
for educaton, ther wngness to go beyond the confnes of the saon n pursung
ther nterests, and ther champonng of unty among women, the Buestockngs
began the process of questonng womens roe n socety.
1-. &hich of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The establishment of literary salons was a response to reformers4 demands for
social rights for women.
(B) Kiterary salons were originally intended to be a meeting ground for
intellectuals of both se$es/ but e'entually became social gatherings with
little educational 'alue.
(C) 3n #ngland/ as in >rance/ the general pre<udice against higher education for
women limited women4s function in literary salons to a primarily social one.
() The literary salons pro'ided a sounding board for >rench and #nglish women
who called for access to all the educational institutions in their societies on
an e"ual basis with men.
(#) >or women/ who did not ha'e access to higher education as men did/ literary
salons pro'ided an alternate route to learning and a challenge to some of
society4s basic assumptions about women.
16. According to the passage/ a significant distinction between the salonnieres and
Bluestockings was in the way each group regarded which of the following%
(A) The 'alue of ac"uiring knowledge
(B) The role of pleasure in the acti'ities of the literary salon
(C) The desirability of a complete break with societal traditions
() The inclusion of women of different backgrounds in the salons
(#) The attainment of full social and political e"uality with men
1,. The author refers to differences in social background between salonnieres and
Bluestockings in order to do which of the following%
(A) Critici!e the 'iew that their choices of acti'ities were significantly influenced
by male salon members
(B) iscuss the reasons why literary salons in >rance were established before
those in #ngland
(C) Nuestion the importance of the Bluestockings in shaping public attitudes
toward educated women
GRE 051
() =efute the argument that the >rench salons had little influence o'er the
direction the #nglish salons took
(#) #$plain the differences in atmosphere and style in their salons
25. &hich of the following statements is most compatible with the principles of the
salonnieres as described in the passage%
(A) &omen should aspire to be not only educated but independent as well.
(B) The duty of the educated women is to pro'ide an acti'e political model for
less educated women.
(C) e'otion to pleasure and art is <ustified in itself.
() ;ubstance/ rather than form/ is the most important consideration in holding a
literary salon.
(#) ?en should be e$cluded from groups of women4s rights supporters.
21. The passage suggests that the Bluestockings might ha'e had a more significant
impact on society if it had not been for which of the following%
(A) Competiti'eness among their salons
(B) Their emphasis on indi'idualism
(C) The limited scope of their acti'ities
() Their acceptance of the >rench salon as a model for their own salons
(#) Their unwillingness to defy aggressi'ely the con'entions of their age
22. &hich of the following could best be considered a twentieth(century counterpart
of an eighteenth century literary salon as it is described in the passage%
(A) A social sorority
(B) A community center
(C) A lecture course on art
() A humanities study group
(#) An association of moral reformers
2.. To an assertion that Bluestockings were feminists/ the author would most
probably respond with which of the following%
(A) Admitted uncertainty
(B) Nualified disagreement
(C) :n"uestioning appro'al
() Complete indifference
(#) ;trong disparagement
20. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage%
(A) #ighteenth(Century #galitarianism
(B) >eminists of the #ighteenth Century
052 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) #ighteenth(Century @recursors of >eminism
() 3ntellectual Kife in the #ighteenth Century
(#) >emale #ducation =eform in the #ighteenth Century
When the same parameters and quanttatve theory are used to anayze both
termte coones and troops of rhesus macaques, we w have a unfed scence of
socoboogy. Can ths ever reay happen? As my own studes have advanced, I
have been ncreasngy mpressed wth the functona smartes between nsect
and vertebrate socetes and ess so wth the structura dfferences that seem, at
frst gance, to consttute such an mmense guf between them. Consder for a
moment termtes and macaques. Both form cooperatve groups that occupy
terrtores. In both knds of socety there s a we-marked dvson of abor.
Members of both groups communcate to each other hunger, aarm, hostty,
caste status or rank, and reproductve status. From the specasts pont of vew,
ths comparson may at frst seem face-or worse. But t s out of such deberate
oversmpfcaton that the begnnngs of a genera theory are made.
21. &hich of the following best summari!es the author4s main point%
(A) 8'ersimplified comparisons of animal societies could diminish the likelihood
of de'eloping a unified science of sociobiology.
(B) :nderstanding the ways in which animals as different as termites and rhesus
maca"ues resemble each other re"uires train in both biology and sociology.
(C) ?ost animals organi!e themsel'es into societies that e$hibit patterns of group
beha'ior similar to those of human societies.
() Animals as different as termites and rhesus maca"ues follow certain similar
and predictable patterns of beha'ior.
(#) A study of the similarities between insect and 'ertebrate societies could
pro'ide the basis for a unified science of sociobiology.
22. The author4s attitude toward the possibility of a unified theory in sociobiology is
best described as which of the following%
(A) Buarded optimism
(B) :n"ualified enthusiasm
(C) 8b<ecti'e indifference
() =esignation
(#) issatisfaction
2-. 3n discussing insect and 'ertebrate societies/ the author suggests which of the
following%
(A) A distinguishing characteristic of most insect and 'ertebrate societies is a
well(marked di'ision of labor.
(B) The caste structure of insect societies is similar to that of 'ertebrate societies.
(C) ?ost insect and 'ertebrate societies form cooperati'e groups in order to
GRE 05.
occupy territory.
() The means of communication among members of insect societies is similar to
that among members of 'ertebrate societies.
(#) There are significant structural differences between insect and 'ertebrate
societies.
No. 6-1
SECTION A
A mysterous phenomenon s the abty of over-water mgrants to trave on
course. Brds, bees, and other speces can keep track of tme wthout any sensory
cues from the outsde word, and such "boogca cocks" ceary contrbute to
ther "compass sense." For exampe, they can use the poston of the Sun or stars,
aong wth the tme of day, to fnd north. But compass sense aone cannot expan
how brds navgate the ocean: after a fock traveng east s bown far south by a
storm, t w assume the proper northeastery course to compensate. Perhaps,
some scentsts thought, mgrants determne ther geographc poston on Earth by
ceesta navgaton, amost as human navgators use stars and panets, but ths
woud demand of the anmas a fantastc map sense. Researchers now know that
some speces have a magnetc sense, whch mght aow mgrants to determne
ther geographc ocaton by detectng varatons n the strength of the Earths
magnetc fed.
1-. The main idea of the passage is that
(A) migration o'er land re"uires a simpler e$planation than migration o'er water
does
(B) the means by which animals migrate o'er water are comple$ and only partly
understood
(C) the ability of migrant animals to keep track of time is related to their magnetic
sense
() knowledge of geographic location is essential to migrants with little or no
compass sense
(#) e$planations of how animals migrate tend to replace/ rather than build on/ one
another
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the flock of birds described in lines 6(
12 were na'igating by compass sense alone/ they would/ after the storm/ fly
(A) east
(B) north
(C) northwest
() south
050 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) southeast
1,. 3n maintaining that migrating animals would need *a fantastic map sense+ (line
1-) to determine their geographic position by celestial na'igation/ the author
intends to e$press
(A) admiration for the ability of the migrants
(B) skepticism about celestial na'igation as an e$planation
(C) certainly that the phenomenon of migration will remain mysterious
() interest in a new method of accounting for o'er(water migration
(#) surprise that animals apparently na'igate in much the same way that human
beings do
25. 8f the following descriptions of migrating animals/ which most strongly suggests
that the animals are depending on magnetic cues to orient themsel'es%
(A) @igeons can properly read<ust their course e'en when flying long distances
through e$ceedingly dense fogs.
(B) Bison are able to reach their destination by passing through a landscape that
has been partially altered by a recent fire.
(C) #lephants are able to find grounds that some members of the herd ha'e ne'er
seen before.
() ;wallows are able to return to a gi'en spot at the same time e'ery year.
(#) ?onarch butterflies coming from different parts of 9orth America are able to
arri'e at the same location each winter.
Roger Rosenbatts book Black Fiction, n attemptng to appy terary rather
than socopotca crtera to ts sub|ect, successfuy aters the approach taken by
most prevous studes. As Rosenbatt notes, crtcsm of Back wrtng has often
served as a pretext for expoundng on Back hstory. Addson Gayes recent work,
for exampe, |udges the vaue of Back fcton by overty potca standards, ratng
each work accordng to the notons of Back dentty whch t propounds.
Athough fcton assuredy sprngs from potca crcumstances, ts authors
react to those crcumstances n ways other than deoogca, and takng about
noves and stores prmary as nstruments of deoogy crcumvents much of the
fctona enterprse. Rosenbatts terary anayss dscoses affntes and
connectons among works of Back fcton whch soey potca studes have
overooked or gnored.
Wrtng acceptabe crtcsm of Back fcton, however, presupposes gvng
satsfactory answers to a number of questons. Frst of a, s there a suffcent
reason, other than the raca dentty of the authors, to group together works by
Back authors? Second, how does Back fcton make tsef dstnct from other
modern fcton wth whch t s argey contemporaneous? Rosenbatt shows that
Back fcton consttutes a dstnct body of wrtng that has an dentfabe,
coherent terary tradton. Lookng at noves wrtten by Backs over the ast eghty
GRE 051
years, he dscovers recurrng concerns and desgns ndependent of chronoogy.
These structures are thematc, and they sprng, not surprsngy, from the centra
fact that the Back characters n these noves exst n a predomnanty Whte
cuture, whether they try to conform to that cuture of rebe aganst t.
Black Fiction does eave some aesthetc questons open. Rosenbatts
thematc anayss permts consderabe ob|ectvty; he even expcty states that t
s not hs ntenton to |udge the mert of the varous works-yet hs reuctance
seems mspaced, especay snce an attempt to apprase mght have ed to
nterestng resuts. For nstance, some of the noves appear to be structuray
dffuse. Is ths a defect, or are the authors workng out of, or tryng to forge, a
dfferent knd of aesthetc? In addton, the stye of some Back noves, ke |ean
Toomers Cane, verges on expressonsm or surreasm; does ths technque
provde a counterpont to the prevaent theme that portrays the fate aganst
whch Back heroes are ptted, a theme usuay conveyed by more naturastc
modes of expresson?
In spte of such omssons, what Rosenbatt does ncude n hs dscusson
makes for an astute and worthwhe study. Black Fiction surveys a wde varety of
noves, brngng to our attenton n the process some fascnatng and tte-known
works ke |ames Wedon |ohnsons "uto$iogra#hy of an E3-Colored (an. Its
argument s tghty constructed, and ts forthrght, ucd stye exempfes
eveheaded and penetratng crtcsm.
21. The author of the passage ob<ects to criticism of Black fiction like that by
Addison Bayle because it
(A) emphasi!es purely literary aspects of such fiction
(B) misinterprets the ideological content of such fiction
(C) misunderstands the notions of Black identity contained in such fiction
() substitutes political for literary criteria in e'aluating such fiction
(#) ignores the interplay between Black history and Black identity displayed in
such fiction
22. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) e'aluating the soundness of a work of criticism
(B) comparing 'arious critical approaches to a sub<ect
(C) discussing the limitations of a particular kind of criticism
() summari!ing the ma<or points made in a work of criticism
(#) e$plaining the theoretical background of a certain kind of criticism
2.. The author of the passage belie'es that %lack Fiction would ha'e been impro'ed
had =osenblatt
(A) e'aluated more carefully the ideological and historical aspects of Black
fiction
052 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) attempted to be more ob<ecti'e in his approach to no'els and stories by Black
authors
(C) e$plored in greater detail the recurrent thematic concerns of Black fiction
throughout its history
() established a basis for placing Black fiction within its own uni"ue literary
tradition
(#) assessed the relati'e literary merit of the no'els he analy!es thematically
20. The author4s discussion of %lack Fiction can be best described as
(A) pedantic and contentious
(B) critical but admiring
(C) ironic and deprecating
() argumentati'e but unfocused
(#) stilted and insincere
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would be K#A;T likely to
appro'e of which of the following%
(A) An analysis of the influence of political e'ents on the personal ideology of
Black writes
(B) A critical study that applies sociopolitical criteria to autobiographies by Black
authors
(C) A literary study of Black poetry that appraises the merits of poems according
to the political acceptability of their themes
() An e$amination of the growth of a distinct Black literary tradition within the
conte$t of Black history
(#) A literary study that attempts to isolate aesthetic "ualities uni"ue to Black
fiction
22. The author of the passage uses all of the following in the discussion of
=osenblatt4s book #DC#@T
(A) rhetorical "uestions
(B) specific e$amples
(C) comparison and contrast
() definition of terms
(#) personal opinion
2-. The author of the passage refers to Aames &eldon Aohnson4s Autobiography o+ an
E,-Colored *an most probably in order to
(A) point out affinities between =osenblatt4s method of thematic analysis and
earlier criticism
(B) clarify the point about e$pressionistic style made earlier in the passage
GRE 05-
(C) "ualify the assessment of =osenblatt4s book made in the first paragraph of the
passage
() illustrate the affinities among Black no'els disclosed by =osenblatt4s literary
analysis
(#) gi'e a specific e$ample of one of the accomplishments of =osenblatt4s work
SECTION B
The moecues of carbon doxde n the Earths atmosphere affect the heat
baance of the Earth by actng as a one-way screen. Athough these moecues
aow radaton at vsbe waveengths, where most of the energy of sunght s
concentrated, to pass through, they absorb some of the onger-waveength,
nfrared emssons radated from the Earths surface, radaton that woud
otherwse be transmtted back nto space. For the Earth to mantan a constant
average temperature, such emssons from the panet must baance ncomng
soar radaton. If there were no carbon doxde n the atmosphere, heat woud
escape from the Earth much more easy. The surface temperature woud be so
much ower that the oceans mght be a sod mass of ce.
Today, however, the potenta probem s too much carbon doxde. The
burnng of foss fues and the cearng of forests have ncreased atmospherc
carbon doxde by about 15 percent n the ast hundred years, and we contnue to
add carbon doxde to the atmosphere. Coud the ncrease n carbon doxde cause
a goba rse n average temperature, and coud such a rse have serous
consequences for human socety? Mathematca modes that aow us to cacuate
the rse n temperature as a functon of the ncrease ndcate that the answer s
probaby yes.
Under present condtons a temperature of-18 can be observed at an
attude of 5 to 6 kometers above the Earth. Beow ths attude (caed the
radatng eve), the temperature ncreases by about 6 per kometer
approachng the Earths surface, where the average temperature s about 15.
An ncrease n the amount of carbon doxde means that there are more moecues
of carbon doxde to absorb nfrared radaton. As the capacty of the atmosphere
to absorb nfrared radaton ncreases, the radatng eve and the temperature of
the surface must rse.
One mathematca mode predcts that doubng the atmospherc carbon
doxde woud rase the goba mean surface temperature by 2.5. Ths mode
assumes that the atmospheres reatve humdty remans constant and the
temperature decreases wth attude at a rate of 6.5 per kometer. The
assumpton of constant reatve humdty s mportant, because water vapor n the
atmosphere s another effcent absorber of radaton at nfrared waveengths.
Because warm ar can hod more mosture than coo ar, the reatve humdty w
be constant ony f the amount of water vapor n the atmosphere ncreases as the
temperature rses. Therefore, more nfrared radaton woud be absorbed and
056 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
reradated back to the Earths surface. The resutant warmng at the surface coud
be expected to met snow and ce, reducng the Earths refectvty. More soar
radaton woud then be absorbed, eadng to a further ncrease n temperature.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) warn of the dangers of continued burning of fossil fuels
(B) discuss the significance of increasing the amount of carbon dio$ide in the
atmosphere
(C) e$plain how a constant temperature is maintained on the #arth4s surface
() describe the ways in which 'arious atmospheric and climatic conditions
contribute to the #arth4s weather
(#) demonstrate the usefulness of mathematical models in predicting long(range
climatic change
16. According to the passage/ the greatest part of the solar energy that reaches the
#arth is
(A) concentrated in the infrared spectrum
(B) concentrated at 'isible wa'elengths
(C) absorbed by carbon dio$ide molecules
() absorbed by atmospheric water 'apor
(#) reflected back to space by snow and ice
1,. According to the passage/ atmospheric carbon dio$ide performs all of the
following functions #DC#@TE
(A) absorbing radiation at 'isible wa'elengths
(B) absorbing infrared radiation
(C) absorbing outgoing radiation from the #arth
() helping to retain heat near the #arth4s surface
(#) helping to maintain a constant a'erage temperature on the #arth4s surface
25. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward the increasing
amount of carbon dio$ide in the atmosphere and its conse"uences%
(A) 3ncredulous
(B) Completely detached
(C) 3nterested but skeptical
() Angry yet resigned
(#) 8b<ecti'e yet concerned
21. 3t can be concluded from information contained in the passage that the a'erage
temperature at an altitude of 1 kilometer abo'e the #arth is about
(A) 11
(B) ,
GRE 05,
(C) 2.1
() (12
(#) (16
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the construction of the mathematical
model mentioned in the passage in'ol'ed the formulation of which of the
following%
(A) An assumption that the amount of carbon dio$ide added to the atmosphere
would in reality steadily increase
(B) An assumption that human acti'ities are the only agencies by which carbon
dio$ide is added to the atmosphere
(C) Assumptions about the social and political conse"uences of any curtailment
of the use of fossil fuels
() Assumptions about the physical conditions that are likely to pre'ail during the
period for which the model was made
(#) Assumptions about the differential beha'ior of carbon dio$ide molecules at
the 'arious le'els of temperature calculated in the model
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the last hundred
years%
(A) >ossil fuels were burned for the first time.
(B) Breater amounts of land were cleared than at any time before.
(C) The a'erage temperature at the #arth4s surface has become 2 cooler.
() The amount of carbon dio$ide in the atmosphere has increased measurably.
(#) The amount of farmland worldwide has doubled.
Some modern anthropoogsts hod that boogca evouton has shaped not
ony human morphoogy but aso human behavor. The roe those anthropoogsts
ascrbe to evouton s not of dctatng the detas of human behavor but one of
mposng constrants-ways of feeng, thnkng, and actng that "come naturay"
n archetypa stuatons n any cuture. Our "frates"-emotons and motves such
as rage, fear, greed, guttony, |oy, ust, ove-may be a very mxed assortment,
but they share at east one mmedate quaty: we are, as we say, "n the grp" of
them. And thus they gve us our sense of constrants.
Unhappy, some of those frates-our need for ever-ncreasng securty
among them-are presenty maadaptve. Yet beneath the overay of cutura
deta, they, too, are sad to be boogca n drecton, and therefore as natura to
us as are our appendxes. We woud need to comprehend thoroughy ther
adaptve orgns n order to understand how bady they gude us now. And we
mght then begn to resst ther pressure.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to present
(A) a position on the foundations of human beha'ior and on what those
015 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
foundations imply
(B) a theory outlining the parallel de'elopment of human morphology and of
human beha'ior
(C) a diagnostic test for separating biologically determined beha'ior patterns
from culture(specific detail
() a practical method for resisting the pressures of biologically determined
dri'es
(#) an o'er'iew of those human emotions and moti'es that impose constraints on
human beha'ior
21. The author implies that control to any e$tent o'er the *frailties+ that constrain our
beha'ior is thought to presuppose
(A) that those frailties are recogni!ed as currently beneficial and adapti'e
(B) that there is little or no o'erlay of cultural detail that masks their true nature
(C) that there are cultures in which those frailties do not *come naturally+ and
from which such control can be learned
() a full understanding of why those frailties e'ol'ed and of how they function
now
(#) a thorough grasp of the principle that cultural detail in human beha'ior can
differ arbitrarily from society to society
22. &hich of the following most probably pro'ides an appropriate analogy from
human morphology for the *details+ 'ersus *constraints+ distinction made in the
passage in relation to human beha'ior%
(A) The ability of most people to see all the colors of the 'isible spectrum as
against most people4s inability to name any but the primary colors
(B) The ability of e'en the least fortunate people to show compassion as against
people4s inability to mask their feelings completely
(C) The ability of some people to di'e to great depths as against most people4s
inability to swim long distances
() The psychological profile of those people who are able to delay gratification
as against people4s inability to control their li'es completely
(#) The greater lung capacity of mountain peoples that helps them li'e in o$ygen(
poor air as against people4s inability to fly without special apparatus
2-. 3t can be inferred that in his discussion of maladapti'e frailties the author assumes
that
(A) e'olution does not fa'or the emergence of adapti'e characteristics o'er the
emergence of maladapti'e ones
(B) any structure or beha'ior not positi'ely adapti'e is regarded as transitory in
e'olutionary theory
(C) maladapti'e characteristics/ once fi$ed/ make the emergence of other
GRE 011
maladapti'e characteristics more likely
() the designation of a characteristic as being maladapti'e must always remain
highly tentati'e
(#) changes in the total human en'ironment can outpace e'olutionary change
No. 6-2
SECTION A
Whether the anguages of the ancent Amercan peopes were used for
expressng abstract unversa concepts can be ceary answered n the case of
Nahuat. Nahuat, ke Greek and German, s a anguage that aows the formaton
of extensve compounds. By the combnaton of radcas or semantc eements,
snge compound words can express compex conceptua reatons, often of an
abstract unversa character.
The tlamatinime ("those who know") were abe to use ths rch stock of
abstract terms to express the nuances of ther thought. They aso avaed
themseves of other forms of expresson wth metaphorca meanng, some
probaby orgna, some derved from Totec conages. Of these forms the most
characterstc n Nahuat s the |uxtaposton of two words that, because they are
synonyms, assocated terms, or even contrares, compement each other to evoke
one snge dea. Used as metaphor, the |uxtaposed terms connote specfc or
essenta trats of the beng they refer to, ntroducng a mode of poetry as an
amost habtua form of expresson.
1-. A main purpose of the passage is to
(A) delineate the function of the tla-atini-e in 9ahuatl society
(B) e$plain the abstract philosophy of the 9ahuatl thinkers
(C) argue against a theory of poetic e$pression by citing e'idence about the
9ahuatl
() e$plore the rich metaphorical heritage the 9ahuatl recei'ed from the Toltecs
(#) describe some conceptual and aesthetic resources of the 9ahuatl language
16. According to the passage/ some abstract uni'ersal ideas can be e$pressed in
9ahuatl by
(A) taking away from a word any reference to particular instances
(B) remo'ing a word from its associations with other words
(C) gi'ing a word a new and opposite meaning
() putting 'arious meaningful elements together in one word
(#) turning each word of a phrase into a poetic metaphor
1,. 3t can be inferred solely from the information in the passage that
012 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) there are many languages that/ like Breek or Berman/ allow e$tensi'e
compounding
(B) all abstract uni'ersal ideas are ideas of comple$ relations
(C) some record or e'idence of the thought of the tla-atini-e e$ists
() metaphors are always used in 9ahuatl to e$press abstract conceptual
relationships
(#) the abstract terms of the 9ahuatl language are habitually used in poetry
Many theores have been formuated to expan the roe of grazers such as
zoopankton n controng the amount of panktonc agae (phytopankton) n
akes. The frst theores of such grazer contro were merey based on observatons
of negatve correatons between aga and zoopankton numbers. A ow number of
aga ces n the presence of a hgh number of grazers suggested, but dd not
prove, that the grazers had removed most of the agae. The converse observaton,
of the absence of grazers n areas of hgh phytopankton concentraton, ed Hardy
to propose hs prncpe of anma excuson, whch hypotheszed that
phytopankton produced a repeent that excuded grazers from regons of hgh
phytopankton concentraton. Ths was the frst suggeston of aga defenses
aganst grazng.
Perhaps the fact that many of these frst studes consdered ony agae of a
sze that coud be coected n a net (net phytopankton), a practce that
overooked the smaer phytopankton (nannopankton) that we now know grazers
are most key to feed on, ed to a de-emphass of the roe of grazers n
subsequent research. Increasngy, as n the ndvdua studes of Lund, Round, and
Reynods, researchers began to stress the mportance of envronmenta factors
such as temperature, ght, and water movements n controng aga numbers.
These envronmenta factors were amenabe to fed montorng and to smuaton
n the aboratory. Grazng was beeved to have some effect on aga numbers,
especay after phytopankton growth rates decned at the end of boom perods,
but grazng was consdered a mnor component of modes that predcted aga
popuaton dynamcs.
The potenta magntude of grazng pressure on freshwater phytopankton has
ony recenty been determned emprcay. Studes by Hargrave and Geen
estmated natura communty grazng rates by measurng feedng rates of
ndvdua zoopankton speces n the aboratory and then computng communty
grazng rates for fed condtons usng the known popuaton densty of grazers.
The hgh estmates of grazng pressure postuated by these researchers were not
fuy accepted, however, unt the grazng rates of zoopankton were determned
drecty n the fed, by means of new expermenta technques. Usng a specay
prepared feedng chamber, Haney was abe to record zoopankton grazng rates n
natura fed condtons. In the perods of peak zoopankton abundance, that s, n
the ate sprng and n the summer, Haney recorded maxmum day communty
grazng rates, for nutrent-poor akes and bog akes, respectvey, of 6.6 percent
GRE 01.
and 114 percent of day phytopankton producton. Cadocerans had hgher
grazng rates than copepods, usuay accountng for 80 percent of the communty
grazng rate. These rates vared seasonay, reachng the owest pont n the
wnter and eary sprng. Haneys thorough research provdes convncng fed
evdence that grazers can exert sgnfcant pressure on phytopankton popuaton.
25. The author most likely mentions )ardy4s principle of animal e$clusion in order to
(A) gi'e an e$ample of one theory about the interaction of gra!ers and
phytoplankton
(B) defend the first theory of algal defenses against gra!ing
(C) support the contention that phytoplankton numbers are controlled primarily
by en'ironmental factors
() demonstrate the superiority of laboratory studies of !ooplankton feeding rates
to other kinds of studies of such rates
(#) refute researchers who belie'ed that low numbers of phytoplankton indicated
the gra!ing effect of low numbers of !ooplankton
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *first theories+ of gra!er control
mentioned in line 0 would ha'e been more con'incing if researchers had been
able to
(A) obser'e high phytoplankton numbers under natural lake conditions
(B) disco'er negati'e correlations between algae and !ooplankton numbers from
their field research
(C) understand the central importance of en'ironmental factors in controlling the
growth rates of phytoplankton
() make 'erifiable correlations of cause and effect between !ooplankton and
phytoplankton numbers
(#) in'ent laboratory techni"ues that would ha'e allowed them to bypass their
field research concerning gra!er control
22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would call into "uestion )ardy4s principle of
animal e$clusion%
(A) Looplankton are not the only organisms that are affected by phytoplankton
repellents.
(B) Looplankton e$clusion is unrelated to phytoplankton population density.
(C) Looplankton population density is higher during some parts of the year than
during others.
() 9et phytoplankton are more likely to e$clude !ooplankton than are
nannoplankton.
(#) @hytoplankton numbers can be strongly affected by en'ironmental factors.
2.. The author would be likely to agree with which of the following statements
regarding the pressure of gra!ers on phytoplankton numbers%
010 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3. Bra!ing pressure can 'ary according to the indi'idual type of !ooplankton.
33. Bra!ing pressure can be lower in nutrient(poor lakes than in bog lakes.
333. Bra!ing tends to e$ert about the same pressure as does temperature.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
20. The passage supplies information to indicate that )argra'e and Been4s
conclusion regarding the gra!ing pressure e$erted by !ooplankton on
phytoplankton numbers was most similar to the conclusion regarding gra!ing
pressure reached by which of the following researchers%
(A) )ardy
(B) Kund
(C) =ound
() =eynolds
(#) )aney
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one way in which many of the early
researchers on gra!er control could ha'e impro'ed their data would ha'e been to
(A) emphasi!e the effects of temperature/ rather than of light/ on phytoplankton
(B) disregard nannoplankton in their analysis of phytoplankton numbers
(C) collect phytoplankton of all si!es before analy!ing the e$tent of
phytoplankton concentration
() recogni!e that phytoplankton other than net phytoplankton could be collected
in a net
(#) understand the crucial significance of net phytoplankton in the diet of
!ooplankton
22. According to the passage/ )argra'e and Been did which of the following in their
e$periments%
(A) They compared the gra!ing rates of indi'idual !ooplankton species in the
laboratory with the natural gra!ing rates of these species.
(B) The hypothesi!ed about the population density of gra!ers in natural habitats
by using data concerning the population density of gra!ers in the laboratory.
(C) They estimated the community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton in the laboratory
by using data concerning the natural community gra!ing rates of
!ooplankton.
() They estimated the natural community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton by using
data concerning the known population density of phytoplankton.
GRE 011
(#) They estimated the natural community gra!ing rates of !ooplankton by using
laboratory data concerning the gra!ing rates of indi'idual !ooplankton
species.
2-. &hich of the following is a true statement about the !ooplankton numbers and
!ooplankton gra!ing rates obser'ed in )aney4s e$periments%
(A) &hile !ooplankton numbers began to decline in August/ !ooplankton gra!ing
rates began to increase.
(B) Although !ooplankton numbers were high in ?ay/ gra!ing rates did not
become high until Aanuary.
(C) Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were higher in ecember than in
9o'ember.
() Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were lower in ?arch than in
Aune.
(#) Both !ooplankton numbers and gra!ing rates were highest in >ebruary.
SECTION B
Hydrogeoogy s a scence deang wth the propertes, dstrbuton, and
crcuaton of water on the surface of the and, n the so and underyng rocks,
and n the atmosphere. The hydroogc cyce, a ma|or topc n ths scence, s the
compete cyce of phenomena through whch water passes, begnnng as
atmospherc water vapor, passng nto qud and sod form as precptaton,
thence aong and nto the ground surface, and fnay agan returnng to the form
of atmospherc water vapor by means of evaporaton and transpraton.
The term "geohydroogy" s sometmes erroneousy used as a synonym for
"hydrogeoogy." Geohydroogy s concerned wth underground water. There are
many formatons that contan water but are not part of the hydroogc cyce
because of geoogc changes that have soated them underground. These
systems are propery termed geohydroogc but not hydrogeoogc. Ony when a
system possesses natura or artfca boundares that assocate the water wthn t
wth the hydroogc cyce may the entre system propery be termed
hydrogeoogc.
1-. The author4s primary purpose is most probably to
(A) present a hypothesis
(B) refute an argument
(C) correct a misconception
() predict an occurrence
(#) describe an enigma
16. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is most likely to be the sub<ect of
study by a geohydrologist%
012 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) ;oft/ porous rock being worn away by a waterfall
(B) &ater depositing minerals on the banks of a gorge through which the water
runs
(C) The trapping of water in a sealed underground rock ca'ern through the action
of an earth"uake
() &ater becoming unfit to drink through the release of pollutants into it from a
manufacturing plant
(#) The changing course of a ri'er channel as the action of the water wears away
the rocks past which the ri'er flows
1,. The author refers to *many formations+ (line 12) primarily in order to
(A) clarify a distinction
(B) introduce a sub<ect
(C) draw an analogy
() emphasi!e a similarity
(#) resol'e a conflict
The hstoran Frederck |. Turner wrote n the 1890s that the agraran
dscontent that had been deveopng steady n the Unted States snce about
1870 had been precptated by the cosng of the nterna fronter-that s, the
depeton of avaabe new and needed for further expanson of the Amercan
farmng system. Not ony was Turners thess nfuenta at the tme, t was ater
adopted and eaborated by other schoars, such as |ohn D. Hcks n The Po#ulist
*evolt (1931). Actuay, however, new ands were taken up for farmng n the
Unted States throughout and beyond the nneteenth century. In the 1890s, when
agraran dscontent had become most acute, 1,100,000 new farms were setted,
whch was 500,000 more than had been setted durng the prevous decade. After
1890, under the terms of the Homestead Act and ts successors, more new and
was taken up for farmng than had been taken up for ths purpose n the Unted
States up unt that tme. It s true that a hgh proporton of the newy farmed and
was sutabe ony for grazng and dry farmng, but agrcutura practces had
become suffcenty advanced to make t possbe to ncrease the proftabty of
farmng by utzng even these reatvey barren ands.
The emphass gven by both schoars and statesmen to the presumed
dsappearance of the Amercan fronter heped to obscure the great mportance of
changes n the condtons and consequences of nternatona trade that occurred
durng the second haf of the nneteenth century. In 1869 the Suez Cana was
opened and the frst transcontnenta raroad n the Unted States was competed.
An extensve network of teegraph and teephone communcatons was spun:
Europe was connected by submarne cabe wth the Unted States n 1866 and
wth South Amerca n 1874. By about 1870 mprovements n agrcutura
technoogy made possbe the fu expotaton of areas that were most sutabe for
extensve farmng on a mechanzed bass. Huge tracts of and were beng setted
GRE 01-
and farmed n Argentna, Austraa, Canada, and n the Amercan West, and these
areas were |oned wth one another and wth the countres of Europe nto an
nterdependent market system. As a consequence, agraran depressons no onger
were oca or natona n scope, and they struck severa natons whose nterna
fronters had not vanshed or were not about to vansh. Between the eary 1870s
and the 1890s, the mountng agraran dscontent n Amerca paraeed the
amost unnterrupted decne n the prces of Amercan agrcutura products on
foregn markets. Those stape-growng farmers n the Unted States who exhbted
the greatest dscontent were those who had become most dependent on foregn
markets for the sae of ther products. Insofar as Amercans had been deterred
from takng up new and for farmng, t was because market condtons had made
ths perod a perous tme n whch to do so.
25. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) showing that a certain interpretation is better supported by the e'idence than
is an alternati'e e$planation
(B) de'eloping an alternati'e interpretation by using sources of e'idence that
formerly had been una'ailable
(C) "uestioning the accuracy of the e'idence that most scholars ha'e used to
counter the author4s own interpretation
() re'iewing the e'idence that formerly had been thought to obscure a 'alid
interpretation
(#) presenting e'idence in support of a contro'ersial 'ersion of an earlier
interpretation
21. According to the author/ changes in the conditions of international trade resulted
in an
(A) underestimation of the amount of new land that was being famed in the
:nited ;tates
(B) underutili!ation of relati'ely small but rich plots of land
(C) o'ere$pansion of the world transportation network for shipping agricultural
products
() e$tension of agrarian depressions beyond national boundaries
(#) emphasis on the importance of market forces in determining the prices of
agricultural products
22. The author implies that the change in the state of the American farmer4s morale
during the latter part of the nineteenth century was traceable to the American
farmer4s increasing perception that the
(A) costs of culti'ating the land were prohibiti'e within the :nited ;tates
(B) de'elopment of the first transcontinental railroad in the :nited ;tates
occurred at the e$pense of the American farmer
016 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) American farming system was about to run out of the new farmland that was
re"uired for its e$pansion
() prices of American agricultural products were deteriorating especially rapidly
on domestic markets
(#) proceeds from the sales of American agricultural products on foreign markets
were unsatisfactory
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following occurred prior to 16,5%
(A) >rederick A. Turner4s thesis regarding the American frontier became
influential.
(B) The )omestead Act led to an increase in the amount of newly farmed land in
the :nited ;tates.
(C) The manufacturers of technologically ad'anced agricultural machinery
rapidly increased their marketing efforts.
() irect lines of communication were constructed between the :nited ;tates
and ;outh America.
(#) Technological ad'ances made it fruitful to farm e$tensi'ely on a mechani!ed
basis.
20. The author implies that/ after certain territories and countries had been <oined into
an interdependent market system in the nineteenth century/ agrarian depressions
within that system
(A) spread to se'eral nations/ e$cluding those in which the internal frontier
remained open
(B) manifested themsel'es in se'eral nations/ including those in which new land
remained a'ailable for farming
(C) slowed down the pace of new technological de'elopments in international
communications and transportation
() affected the local and national prices of the nonagricultural products of
se'eral nations
(#) encouraged se'eral nations to sell more of their agricultural products on
foreign markets
21. The author pro'ides information concerning newly farmed lands in the :nited
;tates (lines 11(2-) as e'idence in direct support of which of the following%
(A) A proposal by >rederick A. Turner that was later disputed by Aohn . )icks
(B) An elaboration by Aohn . )icks of a thesis that formerly had been
"uestioned by >rederick A. Turner
(C) The established 'iew that was disputed by those scholars who adopted the
thesis of >rederick A. Turner
() The thesis that important changes occurred in the nature of international trade
during the second half of the nineteenth century
GRE 01,
(#) The 'iew that the American frontier did not become closed during the
nineteenth century or soon thereafter
22. The author implies that the cause of the agrarian discontent was
(A) masked by the 'agueness of the official records on newly settled farms
(B) o'ershadowed by disputes on the reliability of the e$isting historical e'idence
(C) misidentified as a result of influential but erroneous theori!ing
() o'erlooked because of a preoccupation with market conditions
(#) undetected because 'isible indications of the cause occurred so gradually and
sporadically
2-. The author4s argument implies that/ compared to the yearly price changes that
actually occurred on foreign agricultural markets during the 16654s/ American
farmers would ha'e most preferred yearly price changes that were
(A) much smaller and in the same direction
(B) much smaller but in the opposite direction
(C) slightly smaller and in the same direction
() similar in si!e but in the opposite direction
(#) slightly greater and in the same direction
No. 6-3
SECTION A
The use of heat pumps has been hed back argey by skeptcsm about
advertsers cams that heat pumps can provde as many as two unts of therma
energy for each unt of eectrca energy used, thus apparenty contradctng the
prncpe of energy conservaton. Heat pumps crcuate a fud refrgerant that
cyces aternatvey from ts qud phase to ts vapor phase n a cosed oop. The
refrgerant, startng as a ow-temperature, ow-pressure vapor, enters a
compressor drven by an eectrc motor. The refrgerant eaves the compressor as
a hot, dense vapor and fows through a heat exchanger caed the condenser,
whch transfers heat from the refrgerant to a body of ar. Now the refrgerant, as a
hgh-pressure, cooed qud, confronts a fow restrcton whch causes the pressure
to drop. As the pressure fas, the refrgerant expands and partay vaporzes,
becomng ched. It then passes through a second heat exchanger, the
evaporator, whch transfers heat from the ar to the refrgerant, reducng the
temperature of ths second body of ar. Of the two heat exchangers, one s ocated
nsde, and the other one outsde the house, so each s n contact wth a dfferent
body of ar: room ar and outsde ar, respectvey.
The fow drecton of refrgerant through a heat pump s controed by vaves.
When the refrgerant fow s reversed, the heat exchangers swtch functon. Ths
025 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
fow-reversa capabty aows heat pumps ether to heat or coo room ar. Now, f
under certan condtons a heat pump puts out more therma energy than t
consumes n eectrca energy, has the aw of energy conservaton been
chaenged? No, not even remotey: the addtona nput of therma energy nto the
crcuatng refrgerant va the evaporator accounts for the dfference n the energy
equaton.
Unfortunatey, there s one rea probem. The heatng capacty of a heat pump
decreases as the outdoor temperature fas. The drop n capacty s caused by the
essenng amount of refrgerant mass moved through the compressor at one tme.
The heatng capacty s proportona to ths mass fow rate: the ess the mass of
refrgerant beng compressed, the ess the therma oad t can transfer through
the heat-pump cyce. The voume fow rate of refrgerant vapor through the
snge-speed rotary compressor used n heat pumps s approxmatey constant.
But cod refrgerant vapor enterng a compressor s at ower pressure than warmer
vapor. Therefore, the mass of cod refrgerant-and thus the therma energy t
carres-s ess than f the refrgerant vapor were warmer before compresson.
Here, then, es a genune drawback of heat pumps: n extremey cod cmates
-where the most heat s needed-heat pumps are east abe to suppy enough
heat.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain the differences in the working of a heat pump when the outdoor
temperature changes
(B) contrast the heating and the cooling modes of heat pumps
(C) describe heat pumps/ their use/ and factors affecting their use
() ad'ocate the more widespread use of heat pumps
(#) e$pose e$tra'agant claims about heat pumps as false
16. The author resol'es the "uestion of whether heat pumps run counter to the
principle of energy conser'ation by
(A) carefully "ualifying the meaning of that principle
(B) pointing out a factual error in the statement that gi'es rise to this "uestion
(C) supplying additional rele'ant facts
() denying the rele'ance of that principle to heat pumps
(#) e$plaining that heat pumps can cool/ as well as heat/ room air
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in the course of a heating season/ the
heating capacity of a heat pump is greatest when
(A) heating is least essential
(B) electricity rates are lowest
(C) its compressor runs the fastest
() outdoor temperatures hold steady
GRE 021
(#) the heating demand surges
25. 3f the author4s assessment of the use of heat pumps (lines 1(2) is correct/ which of
the following best e$presses the lesson that ad'ertisers should learn from this
case%
(A) o not make e$aggerated claims about the products you are trying to
promote.
(B) >ocus your ad'ertising campaign on 'ague analogies and 'eiled implications
instead of on facts.
(C) o not use facts in your ad'ertising that will strain the prospecti'e client4s
ability to belie'e.
() o not assume in your ad'ertising that the prospecti'e clients know e'en the
most elementary scientific principles.
(#) Concentrate your ad'ertising firmly on financially rele'ant issues such as
price discounts and efficiency of operation.
21. The passage suggests that heat pumps would be used more widely if
(A) they could also be used as air conditioners
(B) they could be mo'ed around to supply heat where it is most needed
(C) their heat output could be thermostatically controlled
() models with truly superior cooling capacity were ad'ertised more effecti'ely
(#) people appreciated the role of the e'aporator in the energy e"uation
22. According to the passage/ the role of the flow restriction (lines 12(1-) in a heat
pump is to
(A) measure accurately the flow rate of the refrigerant mass at that point
(B) compress and heat the refrigerant 'apor
(C) bring about the e'aporation and cooling of refrigerant
() e$change heat between the refrigerant and the air at that point
(#) re'erse the direction of refrigerant flow when needed
2.. The author regards the notion that heat pumps ha'e a genuine drawback as a
(A) cause for regret
(B) sign of premature defeatism
(C) welcome challenge
() case of sloppy thinking
(#) focus for an educational campaign
A of Francose Duparcs survvng pantngs bend portrature and genre. Her
sub|ects appear to be acquantances whom she has asked to pose; she has
captured both ther sef-conscousness and the spontanety of ther everyday
actvtes, the depcton of whch characterzes genre pantng. But genre pantng,
022 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
especay when t portrayed members of the humbest casses, was never popuar
n eghteenth-century France. The Le Nan brothers and Georges de La Tour, who
aso chose such themes, were argey gnored. Ther present hgh standng s due
to a dfferent, more democratc potca cmate and to dfferent aesthetc vaues:
we no onger requre artsts to provde dea mages of humanty for our mora
edfcaton but rather regard such deazaton as a fasfcaton of the truth.
Duparc gves no mprovng message and dscreety refrans from |udgng her
sub|ects. In bref, her works nether eevate nor nstruct. Ths restrant argey
expans her ack of popuar success durng her fetme, even f her taent dd not
go competey unrecognzed by her eghteenth-century French contemporares.
20. According to the passage/ modern 'iewers are not likely to 'alue which of the
following "ualities in a painting%
(A) The technical elements of the painting
(B) The spontaneity of the painting
(C) The moral lesson imparted by the painting
() The degree to which the painting realistically depicts its sub<ect
(#) The degree to which the artist4s personality is re'ealed in the painting
21. 3f the history of uparc4s artistic reputation were to follow that of the Ke 9ain
brothers and Beorges de Ka Tour/ present(day assessments of her work would be
likely to contain which of the following%
(A) An e'aluation that accords high status to her work
(B) Acknowledgement of her technical e$pertise but dismissal of her sub<ect
matter as tri'ial
(C) Agreement with assessments made in her own time but acknowledgements of
the e$ceptional "uality of a few of her paintings
() @lacement of her among the foremost artists of her century
(#) A reclassification of her work as portraiture rather than genre painting
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the term *genre painting+ would most
likely apply to which of the following%
(A) A painting depicting a glorious moment of 'ictory following a battle
(B) A painting illustrating a narrati'e from the Bible
(C) A portrayal of a mythological Breek goddess
() A portrayal of a ser'ant engaged in his work
(#) A formal portrait of an eighteenth(century king
2-. The argument of the passage best supports which of the following contentions
concerning <udgments of artistic work%
(A) Aesthetic <udgments can be influenced by the political beliefs of those
making the <udgment.
GRE 02.
(B) Audgments of the 'alue of an artist4s work made by his or her contemporaries
must be discounted before a true <udgment can be made.
(C) ?odern aesthetic taste is once again mo'ing in the direction of regarding
idealistic painting as the most desirable form of painting.
() 3n order to be highly regarded/ an artist cannot be solely identified with one
particular kind of painting.
(#) ;pontaneity is the most 'aluable "uality a portrait painter can ha'e.
SECTION B
Mycorrhza fung nfect more pants than do any other fung and are
necessary for many pants to thrve, but they have escaped wdespread
nvestgaton unt recenty for two reasons. Frst, the symbotc assocaton s so
we-baanced that the roots of host pants show no damage even when densey
nfected. Second, the fung cannot as yet be cutvated n the absence of a vng
root. Despte these dffcutes, there has been mportant new work that suggests
that ths symbotc assocaton can be harnessed to acheve more economca use
of costy superphosphate fertzer and to permt better expotaton of cheaper,
ess soube rock phosphate. Mycorrhza benefts are not mted to mproved
phosphate uptake n host pants. In egumes, mycorrhza nocuaton has
ncreased ntrogen fxaton beyond eves acheved by addng phosphate fertzer
aone. Certan symbotc assocatons aso ncrease the host pants resstance to
harmfu root fung. Whether ths resstance resuts from excuson of harmfu fung
through competton for stes, from metaboc change nvovng antbotc
producton, or from ncreased vgor s undetermned.
1-. &hich of the following most accurately describes the passage%
(A) A description of a replicable e$periment
(B) A summary report of new findings
(C) A recommendation for abandoning a difficult area of research
() A refutation of an earlier hypothesis
(#) A confirmation of earlier research
16. The le'el of information in the passage abo'e is suited to the needs of all of the
following people #DC#@TE
(A) a researcher whose <ob is to identify potentially profitable areas for research
and product de'elopment
(B) a state official whose position re"uires her to alert farmers about possible
inno'ations in farming
(C) an official of a research foundation who identifies research pro<ects for
potential funding
() a biologist attempting to keep up with scientific de'elopments in an area
020 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
outside of his immediate area of speciali!ation
(#) a botanist conducting e$periments to determine the relationship between
degree of mycorrhi!al infection and e$pected uptake of phosphate
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following has been a factor
influencing the e$tent to which research on mycorrhi!al fungi has progressed%
(A) Kack of funding for such research
(B) Kack of immediate application of such research
(C) Kack of a method for identifying mycorrhi!al fungi
() ifficulties surrounding laboratory production of specimens for study
(#) ifficulties ensuing from the high cost and scarcity of superphosphate
fertili!ers
25. The passage suggests which of the following about the increased resistance to
harmful root fungi that some plants infected with mycorrhi!al fungi seem to
e$hibit%
(A) There are at least three hypotheses that might account for the increase.
(B) An e$planation lies in the fact that mycorrhi!al fungi increase more rapidly in
number than harmful root fungi do.
(C) The plants that show increased resistance also e$hibit impro'ed nitrogen
fi$ation.
() ;uch increases may be independent of mycorrhi!al infection.
(#) 3t is unlikely that a satisfactory e$planation can be found to account for the
increase.
In the eary 1950s, hstorans who studed prendustra Europe (whch we
may defne here as Europe n the perod from roughy 1300 to 1800) began, for
the frst tme n arge numbers, to nvestgate more of the prendustra European
popuaton than the 2 or 3 percent who comprsed the potca and soca ete: the
kngs, generas, |udges, nobes, bshops, and oca magnates who had htherto
usuay fed hstory books. One dffcuty, however, was that few of the remanng
97 percent recorded ther thoughts or had them chronced by contemporares.
Faced wth ths stuaton, many hstorans based ther nvestgatons on the ony
records that seemed to exst: brth, marrage, and death records. As a resut,
much of the eary work on the nonete was ardy statstca n nature; reducng
the vast ma|orty of the popuaton to a set of numbers was hardy more
enghtenng than gnorng them atogether. Hstorans st dd not know what
these peope thought or fet.
One way out of ths demma was to turn to the records of ega courts, for
here the voces of the nonete can most often be heard, as wtnesses, pantffs,
and defendants. These documents have acted as "a pont of entry nto the menta
word of the poor." Hstorans such as Le Roy Ladure have used the documents to
extract case hstores, whch have umnated the atttudes of dfferent soca
GRE 021
groups (these atttudes ncude, but are not confned to, atttudes toward crme
and the aw) and have reveaed how the authortes admnstered |ustce. It has
been socetes that have had a deveoped poce system and practced Roman aw,
wth ts wrtten depostons, whose court records have yeded the most data to
hstorans. In Ango-Saxon countres hardy any of these benefts obtan, but t has
st been possbe to gean nformaton from the study of ega documents.
The extracton of case hstores s not, however, the ony use to whch court
records may be put. Hstorans who study prendustra Europe have used the
records to estabsh a seres of categores of crme and to quantfy ndctments
that were ssued over a gven number of years. Ths use of the records does yed
some nformaton about the nonete, but ths nformaton gves us tte nsght
nto the menta ves of the nonete. We aso know that the number of ndctments
n prendustra Europe bears tte reaton to the number of actua crmna acts,
and we strongy suspect that the reatonshp has vared wdey over tme. In
addton, aggregate popuaton estmates are very shaky, whch makes t dffcut
for hstorans to compare rates of crme per thousand n one decade of the
prendustra perod wth rates n another decade. Gven these nadequaces, t s
cear why the case hstory use of court records s to be preferred.
21. The author suggests that/ before the early 1,154s/ most historians who studied
preindustrial #urope did which of the following%
(A) >ailed to make distinctions among members of the preindustrial #uropean
political and social elite.
(B) :sed in'estigatory methods that were almost e$clusi'ely statistical in nature.
(C) 3naccurately estimated the influence of the preindustrial #uropean political
and social elite.
() Confined their work to a narrow range of the preindustrial #uropean
population.
(#) Tended to rely hea'ily on birth/ marriage/ and death records.
22. According to the passage/ the case histories e$tracted by historians ha'e
(A) scarcely illuminated the attitudes of the political and social elite
(B) indicated the manner in which those in power apportioned <ustice
(C) focused almost entirely on the thoughts and feelings of different social groups
toward crime and the law
() been considered the first kind of historical writing that utili!ed the records of
legal courts
(#) been based for the most part on the trial testimony of police and other legal
authorities
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that much of the early work by historians on
the #uropean nonelite of the preindustrial period might ha'e been more
illuminating if these historians had
022 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) used different methods of statistical analysis to in'estigate the nonelite
(B) been more successful in identifying the attitudes of ci'il authorities/
especially those who administered <ustice/ toward the nonelite
(C) been able to draw on more accounts/ written by contemporaries of the
nonelite/ that described what this nonelite thought
() relied more hea'ily on the personal records left by members of the #uropean
political and social elite who li'ed during the period in "uestion
(#) been more willing to base their research on the birth/ marriage/ and death
records of the nonelite
20. The author mentions Ke =oy Kadurie (line 22) in order to
(A) gi'e an e$ample of a historian who has made one kind of use of court records
(B) cite a historian who has based case histories on the birth/ marriage/ and death
records of the nonelite
(C) identify the author of the "uotation cited in the pre'ious sentence
() gain authoritati'e support for the 'iew that the case history approach is the
most fruitful approach to court records
(#) point out the first historian to reali!e the 'alue of court records in illuminating
the beliefs and 'alues of the nonelite
21. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of indictments for crime
in #urope in the preindustrial period%
(A) They ha'e/ in terms of their numbers/ remained relati'ely constant o'er time.
(B) They gi'e the historian important information about the mental li'es of those
indicted.
(C) They are not a particularly accurate indication of the e$tent of actual criminal
acti'ity.
() Their importance to historians of the nonelite has been generally
o'erestimated.
(#) Their problematic relationship to actual crime has not been acknowledged by
most historians.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a historian who wished to compare crime
rates per thousand in a #uropean city in one decade of the fifteenth century with
crime rates in another decade of that century would probably be most aided by
better information about which of the following%
(A) The causes of unrest in the city during the two decades
(B) The aggregate number of indictments in the city nearest to the city under
in'estigation during the two decades
(C) The number of people who li'ed in the city during each of the decades under
in'estigation
GRE 02-
() The mental attitudes of criminals in the city/ including their feelings about
authority/ during each of the decades under in'estigation
(#) The possibilities for a member of the city4s nonelite to become a member of
the political and social elite during the two decades
2-. The passage would be most likely to appear as part of
(A) a book re'iew summari!ing the achie'ements of historians of the #uropean
aristocracy
(B) an essay describing trends in the practice of writing history
(C) a te$tbook on the application of statistical methods in the social sciences
() a report to the historical profession on the work of early(twentieth(century
historians
(#) an article urging the adoption of historical methods by the legal profession
No. 7-1
SECTION A
Our vsua percepton depends on the recepton of energy refectng or
radatng from that whch we wsh to perceve. If our eyes coud receve and
measure nfntey decate sense-data, we coud perceve the word wth nfnte
precson. The natura mts of our eyes have, of course, been extended by
mechanca nstruments; teescopes and mcroscopes, for exampe, expand our
capabtes greaty. There s, however, an utmate mt beyond whch no
nstrument can take us; ths mt s mposed by our nabty to receve sense-data
smaer than those conveyed by an ndvdua quantum of energy. Snce these
quanta are beeved to be ndvsbe packages of energy and so cannot be further
refned, we reach a pont beyond whch further resouton of the word s not
possbe. It s ke a drawng a chd mght make by stckng ndvsbe dscs of
coor onto a canvas.
We mght thnk that we coud avod ths mtaton by usng quanta wth
extremey ong waveengths; such quanta woud be suffcenty senstve to
convey extremey decate sense-data. And these quanta woud be usefu, as ong
as we ony wanted to measure energy, but a competey accurate percepton of
the word w depend aso on the exact measurement of the engths and postons
of what we wsh to perceve. For ths, quanta of extremey ong waveengths are
useess. To measure a ength accuratey to wthn a month of an nch, we must
have a measure graduated n months of an nch; a yardstck graduated n
nches n useess. Ouanta wth a waveength of one nch woud be, n a sense,
measures that are graduated n nches. Ouanta of extremey ong waveength are
useess n measurng anythng except extremey arge dmensons.
Despte these dffcutes, quanta have mportant theoretca mpcatons for
026 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
physcs. It used to be supposed that, n the observaton of nature, the unverse
coud be dvded nto two dstnct parts, a percevng sub|ect and a perceved
ob|ect. In physcs, sub|ect and ob|ect were supposed to be entrey dstnct, so that
a descrpton of any part of the unverse woud be ndependent of the observer.
The quantum theory, however, suggests otherwse, for every observaton nvoves
the passage of a compete quantum from the ob|ect to the sub|ect, and t now
appears that ths passage consttutes an mportant coupng between observer
and observed. We can no onger make a sharp dvson between the two n an
effort to observe nature ob|ectvey. Such an attempt at ob|ectvty woud dstort
the cruca nterreatoshp of observer and observed as parts of a snge whoe.
But, even for scentsts, t s ony n the word of atoms that ths new deveopment
makes any apprecabe dfference n the expanaton of observatons.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss a problem that hinders precise perception of the world
(B) point out the inade"uacies of accepted units of measurement
(C) critici!e attempts to distinguish between percei'ing sub<ects and percei'ed
ob<ects
() compare and contrast ri'al scientific hypotheses about how the world should
be measured and obser'ed
(#) suggest the limited function of sensory obser'ation
16. According to the passage/ "uanta with an e$tremely long wa'elength cannot be
used to gi'e complete information about the physical world because they
(A) e$ist independently of sense(data
(B) are graduated only in inches
(C) ha'e an insignificant amount of energy
() cannot/ with present(day instruments/ be isolated from "uanta of shorter
wa'elength
(#) pro'ide an insufficiently precise means of measuring length and position
1,. &hich of the following describes a situation most analogous to the situation
discussed in lines ,(1.%
(A) A mathematician can only sol'e problems the solution of which can be
deduced from known a$iom.
(B) An animal can respond to no command that is more complicated syntactically
than any it has pre'iously recei'ed.
(C) A 'iewer who has not learned/ at least intuiti'ely/ the con'entions of painting/
cannot understand perspecti'e in a drawing.
() A sensiti!ed film will record no detail on a scale that is smaller than the grain
of the film.
(#) A shadow cast on a screen by an opa"ue ob<ect will ha'e sharp edge only if
GRE 02,
the light source is small or 'ery distant.
25. The author uses the analogy of the child4s drawing (lines 1-(1,) primarily in
order to
(A) illustrate the ultimate limitation in the precision of sense(data con'eyed by
"uanta
(B) show the sense of helplessness scientists feel in the face of significant
obser'ational problems
(C) anticipate the ob<ections of the those scientists who belie'e that no
instrumental aid to obser'ation is entirely reliable
() e$emplify the similarities between packages of energy and 'arieties of color
(#) disparage those scientists who belie'e that measurement by means of "uanta
offers an accurate picture of the world
21. The author implies that making a sharp di'ision between sub<ect and ob<ect in
physics is
(A) possible in a measurement o ob<ect4s length and position/ but not in a
measurement of its energy
(B) still theoretically possible in the small(scale world of atoms and electrons
(C) possible in the case of obser'ations in'ol'ing the passage of a complete
"uantum
() no longer an entirely accurate way to describe obser'ation of the uni'erse
(#) a goal at which scientists still aim
22. The author4s use of the phrase *in a sense+ (line .0) implies which of the
following%
(A) Nuanta of e$tremely long wa'elength are essentially graduated in inches.
(B) "uanta of one(inch wa'elength are not precisely analogous to yardsticks
graduated in inches.
(C) Nuanta of e$tremely long wa'elength/ in at least on e respect/ resemble
"uanta of shorter wa'elength.
() "uanta of on(inch wa'elength and "uanta of e$tremely long wa'elength do
not differ only in their wa'elengths.
(#) "uanta of one(inch wa'elength must be measured by different standards than
"uanta of e$tremely long wa'elength.
2.. According to the passage/ the "uantum theory can be distinguished from pre'ious
theories of physics by its
(A) insistence on scrupulously precise mathematical formulations
(B) understanding of the inherent interrelationship of percei'er and percei'ed
(C) recognition of the need for sophisticated instruments of measurement
() emphasis on small(scale rather than on large(scale phenomena
0.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) regard for philosophical issues as well as for strictly scientific ones
Te Osens fcton and essays have been wdey and rghty acknowedged as
ma|or contrbutons to Amercan terature. Her work has been partcuary vaued
by contemporary femnsts. Yet few of Osens readers reaze the extent to whch
her vson and choce of sub|ect are rooted n an earer terary hertage-the
tradton of radca potca thought, mosty socast and anarchst, of the 1910s
and 1920s, and the Od Left tradton of the 1930s. I do not mean that one can
adequatey expan the eoquence of her work n terms of ts potca orgns, or
that eft-wng potcs were the snge most mportant nfuence on t. My pont s
that ts centra conscousness-ts profound understandng of cass and gender as
shapng nfuences on peopes ves-owes much to that earer terary hertage,
a hertage that, n genera, has not been suffcenty vaued by most contemporary
terary crtcs.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) argue that 8lsen4s understanding of class and gender is her greatest gift as a
writer
(B) acknowledge 8lsen4s importance as the leading spokesperson for a radical
literary heritage
(C) point out a literary heritage to which 8lsen4s work is related
() urge literary critics to in'estigate the origins of a literary heritage
(#) suggest that 8lsen4s work has been placed in a literary heritage to which it
does not belong
21. According to the author/ which of the following is true of the heritage mentioned
in the passage%
(A) 3t emphasi!es gender as the determinate influence on people4s li'es.
(B) 3t has been the most important influence on 8lsen4s work.
(C) 3t includes political traditions that span three decades of the twentieth century.
() 3t e$plains the elo"uence but not the sub<ect matter of 8lsen4s work.
(#) 3t reflects primarily the de'elopment of socialist political thought in the early
twentieth century.
22. 3n the sentence *3 do not R influence on it+ (lines 15(10)/ the author dos which of
the following%
(A) Broadens an e$isting classification.
(B) Contradicts the passage4s central thesis.
(C) Nualifies a commonly accepted point of 'iew.
() @resents conflicting e$planations for a phenomenon.
(#) enies possible interpretations of an earlier assertion.
2-. According to the author/ 8lsen4s work has been
GRE 0.1
(A) rightly acknowledged for its contribution to political thought
(B) thought to represent the beginning of new literary tradition
(C) a needed impetus for social change
() most clearly influenced by feminism
(#) deser'edly admired by readers
SECTION B
Currenty, the paramount probem n the fed of bomateras, the scence of
repacng dseased tssue wth human-made mpants, s contro over the nterface,
or surface, between mpanted bomateras and vng tssues. The physca
propertes of most tssues can be matched by carefu seecton of raw materas:
metas, ceramcs, or severa varetes of poymer materas. Even the requrement
that bomateras processed from these materas be nontoxc to host tssue can
be met by technques derved from studyng the reactons of tssue cutures to
bomateras or from short-term mpants. But achevng necessary matches n
physca propertes across nterfaces between vng and non-vng matter requres
knowedge of whch moecues contro the bondng of ces to each other-an area
that we have not yet expored thoroughy. Athough recent research has aowed
us to stabze the tssue-bomatera nterface by controng ether the chemca
reactons or the mcrostructure of the bomatera, our fundamenta understandng
of how mpant devces adhere to tssues remans woefuy ncompete.
1-. According to the passage/ the ma<or problem currently facing scientists in the
field of biomaterials is
(A) assessing and regulating the bonding between host tissue and implants
(B) controlling the transfer of potentially to$ic materials across the interface of
tissue and implant
(C) disco'ering new materials from which to construct implant de'ices
() deciding in what situations implants are needed
(#) determining the importance of short(term implants to long(term stability of
tissue(implant interfaces
16. The passage suggests which of the following about the recent research mentioned
in lines 1,(21%
(A) 3t has sol'ed one set of problems but has created another.
(B) 3t has concentrated on secondary concerns but has ignored primary concerns.
(C) 3t has impro'ed practical applications of biomaterial technology without
pro'iding a complete theoretical e$planation of that impro'ement.
() 3t has thoroughly in'estigated properties of biomaterials but has paid little
attention to rele'ant characteristics of human tissue.
(#) 3t has pro'ided considerable information on short(term implant technology
0.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
but little on long(term implant technology.
1,. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) answer a theoretical "uestion in the field of biomaterials
(B) discuss the current state of technology in the field of biomaterials
(C) resol'e a research dispute in the field of biomaterial
() predict an ethical crisis for biomaterials researchers
(#) suggest some practical benefits of biomaterial implants
Isamc aw s a partcuary nstructve exampe of "sacred aw." Isamc aw s
a phenomenon so dfferent from a other forms of aw-notwthstandng, of
course, a consderabe and nevtabe number of concdences wth one or the
other of them as far as sub|ect matter and postve enactments are concerned-
that ts study s ndspensabe n order to apprecate adequatey the fu range of
possbe ega phenomena. Even the two other representatves of sacred aw that
are hstorcay and geographcay nearest to t, |ewsh aw and Roman Cathoc
canon aw, are perceptby dfferent.
Both |ewsh aw and canon aw are more unform than Isamc aw. Though
hstorcay there s a dscernbe break between |ewsh aw of the soveregn state
of ancent Israe and of the Daspora (the dsperson of |ewsh peope after the
conquest of Israe), the sprt of the ega matter n ater parts of the Od
Testament s very cose to that of the Tamud, one of the prmary codfcatons of
|ewsh aw n the Daspora. Isam, on the other hand, represented a radca
breakaway from the Arab pagansm that preceded t; Isamc aw s the resut of an
examnaton, from a regous ange, of ega sub|ect matter that was far from
unform, comprsng as t dd the varous components of the aws of pre-Isamc
Araba and numerous ega eements taken over from the non-Arab peopes of the
conquered terrtores. A ths was unfed by beng sub|ected to the same knd of
regous scrutny, the mpact of whch vared greaty, beng amost nonexstent n
some feds, and n others orgnatng nove nsttutons. Ths centra duaty of
ega sub|ect matter and regous norm s addtona to the varety of ega,
ethca, and rtua rues that s typca of sacred aw.
In ts reaton to the secuar state, Isamc aw dffered from both |ewsh and
canon aw. |ewsh aw was buttressed by the coheson of the communty,
renforced by pressure from outsde; ts rues are the drect expresson of ths
feeng of coheson, tendng toward the accommodaton of dssent. Canon and
Isamc aw, on the contrary, were domnated by the duasm of regon and state,
where the state was not, n contrast wth |udasm, an aen power but the potca
expresson of the same regon. But the confct between state and regon took
dfferent forms; n Chrstanty t appeared as the strugge for potca power on
the part of a tghty organzed eccesastca herarchy, and canon aw was one of
ts potca weapons. Isamc aw, on the other hand, was never supported by an
organzed nsttuton; consequenty, there never deveoped an overt tra of
GRE 0..
strength. There merey exsted dscordance between appcaton of the sacred aw
and many of the reguatons framed by Isamc states; ths antagonsm vared
accordng to pace and tme.
25. The author4s purpose in comparing 3slamic law to Aewish law and canon law is
most probably to
(A) contend that traditional legal sub<ect matter does not play a large role in
3slamic law
(B) support his argument that 3slamic law is a uni"ue kind of legal phenomenon
(C) emphasi!e the 'ariety of forms that can all be considered sacred law
() pro'ide an e$ample of how he belie'es comparati'e institutional study should
be undertaken
(#) argue that geographical and historical pro$imity does not necessarily lead to
parallel institutional de'elopment
21. The passage pro'ides information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) oes 3slamic law depend on sources other than Arab legal principles%
(B) &hat secular practices of 3slamic states conflicted with 3slamic law%
(C) Are Aewish law and canon law the most typical e$amples of sacred law%
() 3s Aewish law more uniform than canon law%
(#) &hat characteri!ed Arab law of the pre(3slamic era%
22. According to the passage/ which of the following statements about sacred law is
correct%
(A) The 'arious systems of sacred law originated in a limited geographical area.
(B) The 'arious systems of sacred law ha'e had marked influence on one another.
(C) ;ystems of sacred law usually rely on a wide 'ariety of precedents.
() ;ystems of sacred law generally contain prescriptions go'erning di'erse
aspects of human acti'ity.
(#) ;ystems of sacred law function most effecti'ely in communities with
relati'ely small populations.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the application of 3slamic law in 3slamic
states has
(A) systematically been opposed by groups who belie'e it is contrary to their
interests
(B) suffered irreparably from the lack of firm institutional backing
(C) fre"uently been at odds with the legal acti'ity of go'ernment institutions
() remained unaffected by the political forces operating alongside it
(#) benefited from the fact that it ne'er e$perienced a direct confrontation with
the state
0.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
20. &hich of the following most accurately describes the organi!ation of the
passage%
(A) A uni'ersal principle is ad'anced and then discussed in relation to a particular
historical phenomenon.
(B) A methodological inno'ation is suggested and then e$amples of its efficacy
are pro'ided.
(C) A traditional interpretation is "uestioned and then modified to include new
data.
() A general opinion is e$pressed and then supporti'e illustrations are ad'anced.
(#) A contro'ersial 'iewpoint is presented and then both supporti'e e'idence and
contradictory e'idence are cited.
21. The passage implies that the relationship of 3slamic/ Aewish/ and canon law is
correctly described by which of the following statements%
3. Because each constitutes an e$ample of sacred law/ they necessarily share
some features.
33. They each de'eloped in reaction to the interference of secular political
institutions.
333. The differences among them result partly from their differing emphasis on
purely ethical rules.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. The passage suggests that canon law differs from 3slamic law in that only canon
law
(A) contains prescriptions that nonsacred legal systems might regard as properly
legal
(B) concerns itself with the duties of a person in regard to the community as a
whole
(C) was affected by the tension of the conflict between religion and state
() de'eloped in a political en'ironment that did not challenge its fundamental
e$istence
(#) played a role in the direct confrontation between institutions 'ying for power
2-. All of the following statements about the de'elopment of 3slamic law are implied
in the passage #DC#@TE
(A) @re(3slamic legal principles were incorporated into 3slamic law with widely
differing degrees of change.
GRE 0.1
(B) i'erse legal elements were <oined together through the application of a
purely religious criterion.
(C) Although some of the sources of 3slamic law were pagan/ its integrity as a
sacred law was not compromised by their incorporation.
() There was a fundamental shared characteristic in all pre(3slamic legal matter
taken o'er by 3slamic law.
(#) Although 3slam emerged among the Arabs/ 3slamic law was influenced by
ethnically di'erse elements.
No. 7-2
SECTION A
Eght percent of the Earths crust s aumnum, and there are hundreds of
aumnum-bearng mneras and vast quanttes of the rocks that contan them.
The best aumnum ore s bauxte, defned as aggregates of aumnous mneras,
more or ess mpure, n whch aumnum s present as hydrated oxdes. Bauxte s
the rchest of a those aumnous rocks that occur n arge quanttes, and t yeds
aumna, the ntermedate product requred for the producton of aumnum.
Aumna aso occurs naturay as the mnera corundum, but corundum s not
found n arge deposts of hgh purty, and therefore t s an mpractca source for
makng aumnum. Most of the many abundant nonbauxte aumnous mneras
are scates, and, ke a scate mneras, they are refractory, resstant to
anayss, and extremey dffcut to process. The aumnum scates are therefore
generay unsutabe aternatves to bauxte because consderaby more energy s
requred to extract aumna from them.
1-. The author implies that a mineral must either be or readily supply which of the
following in order to be classified as an aluminum ore%
(A) An aggregate
(B) Bau$ite
(C) Alumina
() Corundum
(#) An aluminum silicate
16. The passage supplies information for answering all of the following "uestions
regarding aluminous minerals #DC#@TE
(A) &hat percentage of the aluminum in the #arth4s crust is in the form of
bau$ite%
(B) Are aluminum(bearing nonbau$ite minerals plentiful%
(C) o the aluminous minerals found in bau$ite contain hydrated o$ides%
() Are aluminous hydrated o$ides found in rocks%
0.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) o large "uantities of bau$ite e$ist%
1,. The author implies that corundum would be used to produce aluminum if
(A) corundum could be found that is not contaminated by silicates
(B) the production of alumina could be eliminated as an intermediate step in
manufacturing aluminum
(C) many large deposits of 'ery high "uality corundum were to be disco'ered
() new technologies were to make it possible to con'ert corundum to a silicate
(#) manufacturers were to reali!e that the world4s supply of bau$ite is not
unlimited
Tradtonay, the study of hstory has had fxed boundares and foca ponts-
perods, countres, dramatc events, and great eaders. It aso has had cear and
frm notons of schoary procedure: how one nqures nto a hstorca probem,
how one presents and documents ones fndngs, what consttutes admssbe and
adequate proof.
Anyone who has foowed recent hstorca terature can testfy to the
revouton that s takng pace n hstorca studes. The currenty fashonabe
sub|ects come drecty from the socoogy cataog: chdhood, work, esure. The
new sub|ects are accompaned by new methods. Where hstory once was prmary
narratve, t s now entrey anaytc. The od questons "What happened?" and
"How dd t happen?" have gven way to the queston "Why dd t happen?"
Promnent among the methods used to answer the queston "Why" s
psychoanayss, and ts use has gven rse to psychohstory.
Psychohstory does not merey use psychoogca expanatons n hstorca
contexts. Hstorans have aways used such expanatons when they were
approprate and when there was suffcent evdence for them. But ths pragmatc
use of psychoogy s not what psychohstorans ntend. They are commtted, not
|ust to psychoogy n genera, but to Freudan psychoanayss. Ths commtment
precudes a commtment to hstory as hstorans have aways understood t.
Psychohstory derves ts "facts" not from hstory, the detaed records of events
and ther consequences, but from psychoanayss of the ndvduas who made
hstory, and deduces ts theores not from ths or that nstance n ther ves, but
from a vew of human nature that transcends hstory. It denes the basc crteron
of hstorca evdence: that evdence be pubcy accessbe to, and therefore
assessabe by, a hstorans. And t voates the basc tenet of hstorca method:
that hstorans be aert to the negatve nstances that woud refute ther theses.
Psychohstorans, convnced of the absoute rghtness of ther own theores, are
aso convnced that thers s the "deepest" expanaton of any event, that other
expanatons fa short of the truth.
Psychohstory s not content to voate the dscpne of hstory (n the sense of
the proper mode of studyng and wrtng about the past); t aso voates the past
tsef. It denes to the past an ntegrty and w of ts own, n whch peope acted
GRE 0.-
out of a varety of motves and n whch events had a mutpcty of causes and
effects. It mposes upon the past the same determnsm that t mposes upon the
present, thus robbng peope and events of ther ndvduaty and of ther
compexty. Instead of respectng the partcuarty of the past, t assmates a
events, past and present, nto a snge determnstc schema that s presumed to
be true at a tmes and n a crcumstances.
25. &hich of the following best states the main point of the passage%
(A) The approach of psychohistorians to historical study is currently in 'ogue
e'en though it lacks the rigor and 'erifiability of traditional historical
method.
(B) Traditional historians can benefit from studying the techni"ues and findings
of psychohistorians.
(C) Areas of sociological study such as childhood and work are of little interest to
traditional historians.
() The psychological assessment of an indi'idual4s beha'ior and attitudes is
more informati'e than the details of his or her daily life.
(#) )istory is composed of uni"ue and nonrepeating e'ents that must be
indi'idually analy!ed on the basis of publicly 'erifiable e'idence.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one way in which traditional history can
be distinguished from psychohistory is that traditional history usually
(A) 'iews past e'ents as comple$ and ha'ing their own indi'iduality
(B) relies on a single interpretation of human beha'ior to e$plain historical e'ents
(C) interprets historical e'ents in such a way that their specific nature is
transcended
() turns to psychological e$planations in historical conte$ts to account for
e'ents
(#) relies strictly on data that are concrete and "uantifiable
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the methods used by psychohistorians
probably pre'ent them from
(A) presenting their material in chronological order
(B) producing a one(sided picture of an indi'idual4s personality and moti'ations
(C) unco'ering alternati'e e$planations that might cause them to "uestion their
own conclusions
() offering a consistent interpretation of the impact of personality on historical
e'ents
(#) recogni!ing connections between a go'ernment4s political actions and the
aspirations of go'ernment leaders
2.. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following
"uestions%
0.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) &hat are some specific e$amples of the use of psychohistory in historical
interpretation%
(B) &hen were the con'entions go'erning the practice of traditional history first
established%
(C) &hen do traditional historians consider psychological e$planations of
historical de'elopments appropriate%
() &hat sort of historical figure is best suited for psychohistorical analysis%
(#) &hat is the basic criterion of historical e'idence re"uired by traditional
historians%
20. The author mentions which of the following as a characteristic of the practice of
psychohistorians%
(A) The li'es of historical figures are presented in episodic rather than narrati'e
form.
(B) Archi'es used by psychohistorians to gather material are not accessible to
other scholars.
(C) @ast and current e'ents are all placed within the same deterministic schema.
() #'ents in the adult life of a historical figure are seen to be more conse"uential
than are those in the childhood of the figure.
(#) Analysis is focused on group beha'ior rather than on particular e'ents in an
indi'idual4s life.
21. The author of the passage suggests that psychohistorians 'iew history primarily
as
(A) a report of e'ents/ causes/ and effects that is generally accepted by historians
but which is/ for the most part/ un'erifiable
(B) an episodic account that lacks cohesion because records of the role of
childhood/ work/ and leisure in the li'es of historical figures are rare
(C) an uncharted sea of seemingly une$plainable e'ents that ha'e meaning only
when e$amined as discrete units
() a record of the way in which a closed set of immutable psychological laws
seems to ha'e shaped e'ents
(#) a proof of the e$istence of intricate causal interrelationships between past and
present e'ents
22. The author of the passage puts the word *deepest+ (line 00) in "uotation marks
most probably in order to
(A) signal her reser'ations about the accuracy of psychohistorians4 claims for
their work
(B) draw attention to a contradiction in the psychohistorians4 method
(C) emphasi!e the ma<or difference between the traditional historians4 method
and that of psychohistorians
GRE 0.,
() disassociate her opinion of the psychohistorians4 claims from her opinion of
their method
(#) "uestion the usefulness of psychohistorians4 insights into traditional historical
scholarship
2-. 3n presenting her analysis/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) ?ake general statement without reference to specific e$amples.
(B) escribe some of the criteria employed by traditional historians.
(C) Nuestion the ade"uacy of the psychohistorians4 interpretation of e'ents.
() @oint out inconsistencies in the psychohistorians4 application of their
methods.
(#) Contrast the underlying assumptions of psychohistorians with those of
traditional historians.
SECTION B
|ean Wagners most endurng contrbuton to the study of Afro-Amercan
poetry s hs nsstence that t be anayzed n a regous, as we as secuar, frame
of reference. The approprateness of such an approach may seem sef-evdent for
a tradton commencng wth sprtuas and owng ts eary forms, rhythms,
vocabuary, and evangeca fervor to Weseyan hymnas. But before Wagner a
secuar outook that anayzed Back poetry soey wthn the context of potca
and soca protest was domnant n the fed.
It s Wagner who frst demonstrated the essenta fuson of raca and regous
feeng n Afro-Amercan poetry. The two, he argued, form a symbotc unon n
whch regous feengs are often apped to raca ssues and raca probems are
often pro|ected onto a metaphysca pane. Wagner found ths most eoquenty
ustrated n the Back sprtua, where the desre for freedom n ths word and the
hope for savaton n the next are nextrcaby ntertwned.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) contrast the theories of Aean &agner with those of other contemporary critics
(B) document the influence of Aean &agner on the de'elopment of Afro(
American poetry
(C) e$plain the rele'ance of Aean &agner4s work to the study of Afro(American
religion
() indicate the importance of Aean &agner4s analysis of Afro(American poetry
(#) present the contributions of Aean &agner to the study of Black spirituals
16. All of the following aspects of Afro(American poetry are referred to in the
passage as ha'ing been influenced by &esleyan hymnals #DC#@TE
(A) sub<ect matter
005 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) word choice
(C) rhythm
() structure
(#) tone
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ before &agner/ most students of Afro(
American poetry did which of the following%
(A) Contributed appreciably to the transfer of political protest from Afro(
American poetry to direct political action.
(B) 3gnored at least some of the historical roots of Afro(American poetry.
(C) Analy!ed fully the aspects of social protest to be found in such traditional
forms of Afro(American poetry as the Black spiritual.
() =egarded as unimportant the de'elopment of fer'ent emotionalism in a
portion of Afro(American poetry.
(#) Concentrated on the comple$ relations between the technical elements in
Afro(American poetry and its political content.
Two reatvey recent ndependent deveopments stand behnd the current
ma|or research effort on ntrogen fxaton, the process by whch bactera
symbotcay render egumnous pants ndependent of ntrogen fertzer. The one
deveopment has been the rapd, sustaned ncrease n the prce of ntrogen
fertzer. The other deveopment has been the rapd growth of knowedge of and
technca sophstcaton n genetc engneerng. Fertzer prces, argey ted to the
prce of natura gas, huge amounts of whch go nto the manufacture of fertzer,
w contnue to represent an enormous and escaatng economc burden on
modern agrcuture, spurrng the search for aternatves to synthetc fertzers.
And genetc engneerng s |ust the sort of fundamenta breakthrough that opens
up prospects of whoy nove aternatves. One such nove dea s that of nsertng
nto the chromosomes of pants dscrete genes that are not a part of the pants
natura consttuton: specfcay, the dea of nsertng nto nonegumnous pants
the genes, f they can be dentfed and soated, that ft the egumnous pants to
be hosts for ntrogen-fxng bactera. Hence, the ntensfed research on egumes.
Ntrogen fxaton s a process n whch certan bactera use atmospherc
ntrogen gas, whch green pants cannot drecty utze, to produce ammona, a
ntrogen compound pants can use. It s one of natures great rones that the
avaabty of ntrogen n the so frequenty sets an upper mt on pant growth
even though the pants eaves are bathed n a sea of ntrogen gas. The
egumnous pants-among them crop pants such as soybeans, peas, afafa, and
cover-have soved the ntrogen suppy probem by enterng nto a symbotc
reatonshp wth the bactera genus *hi1o$ium; as a matter of fact, there s a
specfc stran of *hi1o$ium for each speces of egume. The host pant suppes
the bactera wth food and a protected habtat and receves surpus ammona n
exchange. Hence, egumes can thrve n ntrogen-depeted so.
GRE 001
Unfortunatey, most of the ma|or food crops-ncudng maze, wheat, rce,
and potatoes-cannot. On the contrary, many of the hgh-yedng hybrd varetes
of these food crops bred durng the Green Revouton of the 1960s were seected
specfcay to gve hgh yeds n response to generous appcatons of ntrogen
fertzer. Ths poses an addtona, formdabe chaenge to pant genetcsts: they
must work on enhancng fxaton wthn the exstng symboses. Uness they
succeed, the yed gans of the Green Revouton w be argey ost even f the
genes n egumes that equp those pants to enter nto a symboss wth ntrogen
fxers are dentfed and soated, and even f the transfer of those gene
compexes, once they are found, becomes possbe. The overa task ooks
forbddng, but the stakes are too hgh not to undertake t.
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$pose the fragile nature of the foundations on which the high yields of
modern agriculture rest
(B) argue that genetic engineering promises to lead to e'en higher yields than are
achie'able with synthetic fertili!ers
(C) argue that the capacity for nitrogen(fi$ing symbioses is transferable to
nonleguminous plants
() e$plain the reasons for and the ob<ecti'es of current research on nitrogen(
fi$ing symbioses
(#) describe the nature of the genes that regulate the symbiosis between legumes
and certain bacteria
21. According to the passage/ there is currently no strain of "hi.obiu- that can enter
into a symbiosis with
(A) alfalfa
(B) clo'er
(C) mai!e
() peas
(#) soybeans
22. The passage implies that which of the following is true of the bacterial genus
"hi.obiu-%
(A) "hi.obiu- bacteria are found primarily in nitrogen(depleted soils.
(B) ;ome strains of "hi.obiu- are not capable of entering into a symbiosis with
any plant.
(C) 9ewly bred 'arieties of legumes cannot be hosts to any strain of "hi.obiu-.
() "hi.obiu- bacteria cannot sur'i'e outside the protected habitat pro'ided by
host plants.
(#) "hi.obiu- bacteria produce some ammonia for their own purposes.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following was the most
002 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
influential factor in bringing about intensified research on nitrogen fi$ation%
(A) The high yields of the Breen =e'olution
(B) The persistent upward surge in natural gas prices
(C) The 'ariety of "hi.obiu- strains
() The mechani!ation of modern agriculture
(#) The en'ironmental ill effects of synthetic fertili!ers
20. &hich of the following situations is most closely analogous to the situation
described by the author as one of nature4s great ironies (lines 26(.2)%
(A) That of a farmer whose crops ha'e failed because the normal midseason rains
did not materiali!e and no preparations for irrigation had been made
(B) That of a long(distance runner who loses a marathon race because of a wrong
turn that cost him twenty seconds
(C) That of shipwrecked sailors at sea in a lifeboat/ with one flask of drinking
water to share among them
() That of a motorist who runs out of gas a mere fi'e miles from the nearest gas
station
(#) That of tra'elers who want to reach their destination as fast and as cheaply as
possible/ but find that cost increases as tra'el speed increases
21. According to the passage/ the ultimate goal of the current research on nitrogen
fi$ation is to de'elop
(A) strains of "hi.obiu- that can enter into symbioses with e$isting 'arieties of
wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes
(B) strains of "hi.obiu- that produce more ammonia for leguminous host plants
than do any of the strains presently known
(C) 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that yield as much as do
e$isting 'arieties/ but re"uire less nitrogen
() 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that maintain an ade"uate
symbiotic relationship with nitrogen(fi$ing bacteria and produce high yields
(#) high(yielding 'arieties of wheat/ rice/ and other nonlegumes that are
genetically e"uipped to fi$ nitrogen from the air without the aid of bacteria
22. The author regards the research program under discussion as
(A) original and e$tensi'e but ill(defined as to method
(B) necessary and ambitious but 'ulnerable to failure
(C) cogent and worthwhile but se'erely under(funded
() prohibiti'ely e$pensi'e but conceptually elegant
(#) theoretically fascinating but practically useless
2-. ?ost nearly parallel/ in its fundamental approach/ to the research program
described in the passage would be a program designed to
GRE 00.
(A) achie'e greater frost resistance in frost(tender food plants by means of
selecti'e breeding/ thereby e$panding those plants4 area of culti'ation
(B) achie'e greater yields from food plants by interplanting crop plants that are
mutually beneficial
(C) find ine$pensi'e and abundant natural substances that could/ without
reducing yields/ be substituted for e$pensi'e synthetic fertili!ers
() change the genetic makeup of food plants that cannot li'e in water with high
salinity/ using genes from plants adapted to salt water
(#) de'elop/ through genetic engineering/ a genetic configuration for the ma<or
food plants that impro'es the storage characteristics of the edible portion of
the plants
No. 7-3
SECTION A
Of Homers two epc poems, the 4dyssey has aways been more popuar than
the )liad, perhaps because t ncudes more features of mythoogy that are
accessbe to readers. Its sub|ect (to use Maynard Macks categores) s "fe-as-
spectace," for readers, dverted by ts varous ncdents, observe ts hero
Odysseus prmary from wthout; the tragc )liad, however, presents "fe-as-
experence": readers are asked to dentfy wth the mnd of Aches, whose
motvatons render hm a not partcuary kabe hero. In addton, the )liad, more
than the 4dyssey, suggests the compexty of the gods nvovement n human
actons, and to the extent that modern readers fnd ths compexty a needess
compcaton, the )liad s ess satsfyng than the 4dyssey, wth ts smper scheme
of dvne |ustce. Fnay, snce the )liad presents a hstorcay verfabe acton,
Troys sege, the poem rases hstorca questons that are absent from the
4dysseys bthey magnatve word.
1-. The author uses ?ack4s *categories+ (lines 0(1) most probably in order to
(A) argue that the /liad should replace the 0dyssey as the more popular poem
(B) indicate ?ack4s importance as a commentator on the /liad and the 0dyssey
(C) suggest one way in which the /liad and the 0dyssey can be distinguished
() point out some of the difficulties faced by readers of the /liad and the
0dyssey
(#) demonstrate that the /liad and the 0dyssey can best be distinguished by
comparing their respecti'e heroes
16. The author suggests that the 'ariety of incidents in the 0dyssey is likely to deter
the reader from
(A) concentrating on the poem4s mythological features
000 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) concentrating on the psychological states of the poem4s central character
(C) accepting the e$planation that ha'e been offered for the poem4s popularity
() accepting the poem4s scheme of di'ine <ustice
(#) accepting ?aynard ?ack4s theory that the poem4s sub<ect is *life(as(
spectacle+
1,. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) distinguishing arguments
(B) applying classifications
(C) initiating a debate
() resol'ing a dispute
(#) de'eloping a contrast
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a reader of the /liad is likely to ha'e
trouble identifying with the poem4s hero for which of the following reasons%
(A) The hero is e'entually re'ealed to be unheroic.
(B) The hero can be obser'ed by the reader only from without.
(C) The hero4s psychology is not historically 'erifiable.
() The hero4s emotions often do not seem appealing to the reader.
(#) The hero4s emotions are not sufficiently 'arious to engage the reader4s
attention.
Fatfsh, such as the founder, are among the few vertebrates that ack
approxmate batera symmetry (symmetry n whch structures to the eft and
rght of the bodys mdne are mrror mages). Most strkng among the many
asymmetres evdent n an adut fatfsh s eye pacement: before maturty one
eye mgrates, so that n an adut fatfsh both eyes are on the same sde of the
head. Whe n most speces wth asymmetres vrtuay a aduts share the same
asymmetry, members of the starry founder speces can be ether eft-eyed (both
eyes on the eft sde of head) or rght-eyed. In the waters between the Unted
States and |apan, the starry founder popuatons vary from about 50 percent eft-
eyed off the Unted States West Coast, through about 70 percent eft-eyed hafway
between the Unted States and |apan, to neary 100 percent eft-eyed off the
|apanese coast.
Boogsts ca ths knd of gradua varaton over a certan geographc range a
"cne" and nterpret cnes as strong ndcatons that the varaton s adaptve, a
response to envronmenta dfferences. For the starry founder ths nterpretaton
mpes that a geometrc dfference (between fsh that are mrror mages of one
another) s adaptve, that eft-eyedness n the |apanese starry founder has been
seected for, whch provokes a perpexng questons: what s the seectve
advantage n havng both eyes on one sde rather than on the other?
The ease wth whch a fsh can reverse the effect of the sdedness of ts eye
GRE 001
asymmetry smpy by turnng around has caused boogsts to study nterna
anatomy, especay the optc nerves, for the answer. In a fatfsh the optc nerves
cross, so that the rght optc nerve s |oned to the brans eft sde and vce versa.
Ths crossng ntroduces an asymmetry, as one optc nerve must cross above or
beow the other. G. H. Parker reasoned that f, for exampe, a fatfshs eft eye
mgrated when the rght optc nerve was on top, there woud be a twstng of
nerves, whch mght be mechancay dsadvantageous. For starry founders, then,
the eft-eyed varety woud be seected aganst, snce n a starry founder the eft
optc nerve s uppermost.
The probem wth the above expanaton s that the |apanese starry founder
popuaton s amost excusvey eft-eyed, an natura seecton never promotes a
purey ess advantageous varaton. As other expanatons proved equay
untenabe, boogsts concuded that there s no mportant adaptve dfference
between eft-eyedness and rght-eyedness, and that the two characterstcs are
genetcay assocated wth some other adaptvey sgnfcant characterstc. Ths
stuaton s one commony encountered by evoutonary boogsts, who must often
decde whether a characterstc s adaptve or seectvey neutra. As for the eft-
eyed and rght-eyed fatfsh, ther dfference, however strkng, appears to be an
evoutonary red herrng.
21. According to the passage/ starry flounder differ from most other species of
flatfish in that starry flounder
(A) are not basically bilaterally symmetric
(B) do not become asymmetric until adulthood
(C) do not all share the same asymmetry
() ha'e both eyes on the same side of the head
(#) tend to cluster in only certain geographic regions
22. The author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements
about left(eyedness and right(eyedness in the starry flounder%
3. They are adapti'e 'ariations by the starry flounder to en'ironmental
differences.
33. They do not seem to gi'e ob'ious selecti'e ad'antages to the starry flounder.
333. They occur in different proportions in different locations.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2.. According to the passage/ a possible disad'antage associated with eye migration
in flatfish is that the optic ner'es can
002 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) adhere to one another
(B) detach from the eyes
(C) cross
() stretch
(#) twist
20. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage as a whole%
(A) A phenomenon is described and an interpretation presented and re<ected.
(B) A generali!ation is made and supporting e'idence is supplied and weighed.
(C) A contradiction is noted and a resolution is suggested and then modified.
() A series of obser'ations is presented and e$plained in terms of the dominant
theory.
(#) A hypothesis is introduced and corroborated in the light of new e'idence.
21. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hy are Aapanese starry flounder mostly left(eyed%
(B) &hy should the eye(sidedness in starry flounder be considered selecti'ely
neutral%
(C) &hy ha'e biologists recently become interested in whether a characteristic is
adapti'e or selecti'ely neutral%
() )ow do the eyes in flatfish migrate%
(#) )ow did @arker make his disco'eries about the anatomy of optic ner'es in
flatfish%
22. &hich of the following is most clearly similar to a cline as it is described in the
second paragraph of the passage%
(A) A 'egetable market in which the 'arious items are grouped according to place
of origin
(B) A wheat field in which different 'arieties of wheat are planted to yield a crop
that will bring the ma$imum profit
(C) A flower stall in which the 'arious species of flowers are arranged according
to their price
() A housing de'elopment in which the length of the front struts supporting the
porch of each house increases as houses are built up the hill
(#) A national park in which the ranger stations are placed so as to be
inconspicuous/ and yet as easily accessible as possible
2-. &hich of the following phrases from the passage best e$presses the author4s
conclusion about the meaning of the difference between left(eyed and right(eyed
flatfish%
(A) *?ost striking+ (line 0)
GRE 00-
(B) *'ariation is adapti'e+ (line 1,)
(C) *mechanically disad'antageous+ (lines .-.6)
() *adapti'ely significant+ (lines 06(0,)
(#) *e'olutionary red herring+ (line 10)
SECTION B
If a supernova (the exposon of a massve star) trggered star formaton from
dense couds of gas and dust, and f the most massve star to be formed from the
coud evoved nto a supernova and trggered a new round of star formaton, and
so on, then a chan of star-formng regons woud resut. If many such chans were
created n a dfferentay rotatng gaaxy, the dstrbuton of stars woud resembe
the observed dstrbuton n a spra gaaxy.
Ths ne of reasonng underes an exctng new theory of spra-gaaxy
structure. A computer smuaton based on ths theory has reproduced the
appearance of many spra gaaxes wthout assumng an underyng densty wave,
the hamark of the most wdey accepted theory of the arge-scae structure of
spra gaaxes. That theory mantans that a densty wave of spra form sweeps
through the centra pane of a gaaxy, compressng couds of gas and dust, whch
coapse nto stars that form a spra pattern.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe what results when a superno'a triggers the creation of chains of star(
forming regions
(B) propose a modification in the most widely accepted theory of spiral(gala$y
structure
(C) compare and contrast the roles of clouds of gas and dust in two theories of
spiral(gala$y structure
() describe a new theory of spiral(gala$y structure and contrast it with the most
widely accepted theory
(#) describe a new theory of spiral(gala$y structure and discuss a reason why it is
inferior to the most widely accepted theory
16. The passage implies that/ according to the new theory of spiral(gala$y structure/ a
spiral gala$y can be created by superno'as when the superno'as are
(A) producing an underlying density wa'e
(B) affected by a density wa'e of spiral form
(C) distributed in a spiral pattern
() located in the central plane of a gala$y
(#) located in a differentially rotating gala$y
1,. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most discredit the new theory as described
006 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
in the passage%
(A) The e$act mechanism by which a star becomes a superno'a is not yet
completely known and may e'en differ for different stars.
(B) Chains of star(forming regions like those postulated in the new theory ha'e
been obser'ed in the 'icinity of dense clouds of gas and dust.
(C) The most massi'e stars formed from superno'a e$plosions are unlikely to
e'ol'e into superno'as.
() Computer simulations of superno'as pro'ide a poor picture of what occurs
<ust before a superno'a e$plosion.
(#) A density wa'e cannot compress clouds of gas and dust to a density high
enough to create a star.
25. The author4s attitude toward the new theory of spiral(gala$y structure can best be
described as
(A) euphoric
(B) enthusiastic
(C) concerned
() critical
(#) disputatious
The frst menton of savery n the statutes of the Engsh coones of North
Amerca does not occur unt after 1660-some forty years after the mportaton of
the frst Back peope. Lest we thnk that savery exsted n fact before t dd n
aw, Oscar and Mary Handn assure us that the status of Back peope down to the
1660s was that of servants. A crtque of the Handns nterpretaton of why ega
savery dd not appear unt the 1660s suggests that assumptons about the
reaton between savery and raca pre|udce shoud be reexamned, and that
expanatons for the dfferent treatment of Back saves n North and South
Amerca shoud be expanded.
The Handns expan the appearance of ega savery by argung that, durng
the 1660s, the poston of Whte servants was mprovng reatve to that of Back
servants. Thus, the Handns contend, Back and Whte servants, heretofore
treated ake, each attaned a dfferent status. There are, however, mportant
ob|ectons to ths argument. Frst, the Handns cannot adequatey demonstrate
that the Whte servants poston was mprovng durng and after the 1660s;
severa acts of the Maryand and Vrgna egsatures ndcate otherwse. Another
faw n the Handns nterpretaton s ther assumpton that pror to the
estabshment of ega savery there was no dscrmnaton aganst Back peope. It
s true that before the 1660s Back peope were rarey caed saves. But ths
shoud not overshadow evdence from the 1630s on that ponts to raca
dscrmnaton wthout usng the term savery. Such dscrmnaton sometmes
stopped short of fetme servtude or nherted status-the two attrbutes of true
savery-yet n other cases t ncuded both. The Handns argument excudes the
GRE 00,
rea possbty that Back peope n the Engsh coones were never treated as the
equas of Whte peope.
Ths possbty has mportant ramfcatons. If from the outset Back peope
were dscrmnated aganst, then ega savery shoud be vewed as a refecton
and an extenson of raca pre|udce rather than, as many hstorans ncudng the
Handns have argued, the cause of pre|udce. In addton, the exstence of
dscrmnaton before the advent of ega savery offers a further expanaton for
the harsher treatment of Back saves n North than n South Amerca. Freyre and
Tannenbaum have rghty argued that the ack of certan tradtons n North
Amerca-such as a Roman concepton of savery and a Roman Cathoc emphass
on equaty-expans why the treatment of Back saves was more severe there
than n the Spansh and Portuguese coones of South Amerca. But ths cannot be
the whoe expanaton snce t s merey negatve, based ony on a ack of
somethng. A more compeng expanaton s that the eary and sometmes
extreme raca dscrmnaton n the Engsh coones heped determne the
partcuar nature of the savery that foowed.
21. &hich of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of lines 1(6 of
the passage%
(A) A historical trend is sketched and an e$ception to that trend is cited.
(B) #'idence for a historical irregularity is mentioned and a generali!ation from
that e'idence is ad'anced.
(C) A parado$ about the origins of an institution is pointed out and the author4s
e$planation of the parado$ is e$pounded.
() A statement about a historical phenomenon is offered and a possible
misinterpretation of that statement is addressed.
(#) An interpretation of the rise of an institution is stated and e'idence for that
interpretation is pro'ided.
22. &hich of the following is the most logical inference to be drawn from the
passage about the effects of *se'eral acts of the ?aryland and Cirginia
legislatures+ (lines 22(2.) passed during and after the 12254s%
(A) The acts negati'ely affected the pre(12254s position of Black as well as of
&hite ser'ants.
(B) The acts had the effect of impairing rather than impro'ing the position of
&hite ser'ants relati'e to what it had been before the 12254s.
(C) The acts had a different effect o n the position of &hite ser'ants than did
many of the acts passed during this time by the legislatures of other colonies.
() The acts/ at the 'ery least/ caused the position of &hite ser'ants to remain no
better than it had been before the 12254s.
(#) The acts/ at the 'ery least/ tended to reflect the attitudes toward Black
ser'ants that already e$isted before the 12254s.
015 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2.. &ith which of the following statements regarding the status of Black people in
the #nglish colonies of 9orth America before the 12254s would the author be
K#A;T likely to agree%
(A) Although Black people were not legally considered to be sla'es/ they were
often called sla'es.
(B) Although sub<ect to some discrimination/ Black people had a higher legal
status than they did after the 12254s.
(C) Although sometimes sub<ect to lifetime ser'itude/ Black people were not
legally considered to be sla'es.
() Although often not treated the same as &hite people/ Black people/ like many
&hite people/ possessed the legal status of ser'ants.
(#) Although apparently sub<ect to more discrimination after 12.5 than before
12.5/ Black people from 1225 to the 12254s were legally considered to be
ser'ants.
20. According to the passage/ the )andlins ha'e argued which of the following about
the relationship between racial pre<udice and the institution of legal sla'ery in the
#nglish colonies of 9orth America%
(A) =acial pre<udice and the institution of sla'ery arose simultaneously.
(B) =acial pre<udice most often took the form of the imposition of inherited
status/ one of the attributes of sla'ery.
(C) The source of racial pre<udice was the institution of sla'ery.
() Because of the influence of the =oman Catholic church/ racial pre<udice
sometimes did not result in sla'ery.
(#) Although e$isting in a lesser form before the 12254s/ racial pre<udice
increased sharply after sla'ery was legali!ed.
21. The passage suggests that the e$istence of a =oman conception of sla'ery in
;panish and @ortuguese colonies had the effect of
(A) e$tending rather than causing racial pre<udice in these colonies
(B) hastening the legali!ation of sla'ery in these colonies
(C) mitigating some of the conditions of sla'ery for Black people in these
colonies
() delaying the introduction of sla'ery into the #nglish colonies
(#) bringing about an impro'ement in the treatment of Black sla'es in the #nglish
colonies
22. The author considers the e$planation put forward by >reyre and Tannenbaum for
the treatment accorded Black sla'es in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America to
be
(A) ambitious but misguided
(B) 'alid but limited
GRE 011
(C) popular but suspect
() anachronistic and contro'ersial
(#) premature and illogical
2-. &ith which of the following statements regarding the reason for the introduction
of legal sla'ery in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America would the author be
most likely to agree%
(A) The introduction is partly to be e$plained by reference to the origins of
sla'ery/ before the 12254s/ in the ;panish and @ortuguese colonies.
(B) The introduction is to be e$plained by reference to a growing consensus
beginning in the 12.54s about what were the attributes of true sla'ery.
(C) The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to a decline than
to an impro'ement in the position of &hite ser'ants in the colonies during
and after the 12254s.
() The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to the position of
Black ser'ants in the colonies in the 12.54s than by reference to their
position in the 12054s and 12154s.
(#) The introduction is more likely to be e$plained by reference to the history of
Black people in the colonies before 1225 than by reference to the impro'ing
position of &hite ser'ants during and after the 12254s.
No. 8-1
SECTION A
Geoogsts have ong known that the Earths mante s heterogeneous, but ts
spata arrangement remans unresoved-s the mante essentay ayered or
rreguary heterogeneous? The best evdence for the ayered mante thess s the
we-estabshed fact that vocanc rocks found on oceanc sands, sands beeved
to resut from mante pumes arsng from the ower mante, are composed of
matera fundamentay dfferent from that of the mdocean rdge system, whose
source, most geoogsts contend, s the upper mante.
Some geoogsts, however, on the bass of observatons concernng mante
xenoths, argue that the mante s not ayered, but that heterogenety s created
by fuds rch n "ncompatbe eements" (eements tendng toward qud rather
than sod state) percoatng upward and transformng portons of the upper
mante rreguary, accordng to the vagares of the fuds pathways. We beeve,
perhaps unmagnatvey, that ths debate can be resoved through further study,
and that the underexpored mdocean rdge system s the key.
1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) Current theories regarding the structure of the #arth4s mantle cannot account
012 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
for new disco'eries regarding the composition of mantle $enoliths.
(B) There are conflicting hypotheses about the heterogeneity of the #arth4s
mantle because few mantle elements ha'e been thoroughly studied.
(C) >urther research is needed to resol'e the debate among geologists o'er the
composition of the midocean ridge system.
() There is clear(cut disagreement within the geological community o'er the
structure of the #arth4s mantle.
(#) There has recently been a strong and e$citing challenge to geologists4 long(
standing belief in the heterogeneity of the #arth4s mantle.
16. According to the passage/ it is belie'ed that oceanic islands are formed from
(A) the same material as mantle $enoliths
(B) the same material as the midocean ridge system
(C) 'olcanic rocks from the upper mantle
() incompatible elements percolating up from the lower mantle
(#) mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the supporters of the *layered(mantle+
theory belie'e which of the following%
3. The 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands are composed of material deri'ed
from the lower part of the mantle.
33. The materials of which 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands and midocean
ridges are composed are typical of the layers from which they are thought to
originate.
333. The differences in composition between 'olcanic rocks on oceanic islands
and the midocean ridges are a result of different concentrations of
incompatible elements.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
25. The authors suggest that their proposal for determining the nature of the mantle4s
heterogeneity might be considered by many to be
(A) pedestrian
(B) contro'ersial
(C) unrealistic
() no'el
(#) parado$ical
GRE 01.
Many terary detectves have pored over a great puzze concernng the wrter
Marce Proust: what happened n 1909? How dd Contre aint-Beuve, an essay
attackng the methods of the crtc Sant Beuve, turn nto the start of the nove
*emem$rance of Things Past? A recenty pubshed etter from Proust to the edtor
Vaette confrms that Faos, the edtor of the 1954 edton of Contre aint-Beuve,
made an essentay correct guess about the reatonshp of the essay to the nove.
Faos proposed that Proust had tred to begn a nove n 1908, abandoned t for
what was to be a ong demonstraton of Sant-Beuves bndness to the rea nature
of great wrtng, found the essay gvng rse to persona memores and fctona
deveopments, and aowed these to take over n a steady deveopng nove.
Draft passages n Prousts 1909 notebooks ndcate that the transton from
essay to nove began n Contre aint-Beuve, when Proust ntroduced severa
exampes to show the powerfu nfuence that nvountary memory exerts over the
creatve magnaton. In effect, n tryng to demonstrate that the magnaton s
more profound and ess submssve to the nteect than Sant-Beuve assumed,
Proust ected vta memores of hs own and, fndng subte connectons between
them, began to amass the matera for *emem$rance. By August, Proust was
wrtng to Vaette, nformng hm of hs ntenton to deveop the matera as a
nove. Maurce Bardeche, n (arcel Proust& romancier, has shown the mportance
n the drafts of *emem$rance of spontaneous and apparenty random
assocatons of Prousts subconscous. As ncdents and refectons occurred to
Proust, he contnuay nserted new passages aterng and expandng hs narratve.
But he found t dffcut to contro the drft of hs nspraton. The very rchness and
compexty of the meanngfu reatonshps that kept presentng and rearrangng
themseves on a eves, from abstract ntegence to profound dreamy feengs,
made t dffcut for Proust to set them out coherenty. The begnnng of contro
came when he saw how to connect the begnnng and the end of hs nove.
Intrgued by Prousts cam that he had "begun and fnshed" *emem$rance at
the same tme, Henr Bonnet dscovered that parts of *emem$rances ast book
were actuay started n 1909. Aready n that year, Proust had drafted
descrptons of hs noves characters n ther od age that woud appear n the
fna book of *emem$rance, where the permanence of art s set aganst the
ravages of tme. The etter to Vaette, drafts of the essay and nove, and Bonnets
researches estabsh n broad outne the process by whch Proust generated hs
nove out of the runs of hs essay. But those of us who hoped, wth Kob, that
Kobs newy pubshed compete edton of Prousts correspondence for 1909
woud document the process n greater deta are dsapponted. For unt Proust
was confdent that he was at ast n sght of a vabe structure for *emem$rance,
he tod few correspondents that he was producng anythng more ambtous than
Contre aint-Beuve.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) the role of in'oluntary memory in @roust4s writing
010 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) e'idence concerning the genesis of @roust4s no'el "e-e-brance o+ Things
Past
(C) conflicting scholarly opinions about the 'alue of studying the drafts of
"e-e-brance o+ Things Past
() @roust4s correspondence and what it re'eals about "e-e-brance o+ Things
Past
(#) the influence of ;aint(Beu'e4s criticism on @roust4s no'el "e-e-brance o+
Things Past
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that all of the following are literary detecti'es
who ha'e tried/ by means of either scholarship or criticism/ to help sol'e the
*great pu!!le+ mentioned in lines 1(2 #DC#@TE
(A) Bardeche
(B) Bonnet
(C) >allois
() Molb
(#) Callette
2.. According to the passage/ in drafts of Contre Saint %eu$e @roust set out to show
that ;aint(Beu'e made which of the following mistakes as a critic%
3. ;aint(Beu'e made no effort to study the de'elopment of a no'el through its
drafts and re'isions.
33. ;aint(Beu'e assigned too great a role in the creati'e process to a writer4s
conscious intellect.
333. ;aint(Beu'e concentrated too much on plots and not enough on imagery and
other elements of style.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
20. &hich of the following best states the author4s attitude toward the information
that scholars ha'e gathered about @roust4s writing in 1,5,%
(A) The author is disappointed that no new documents ha'e come to light since
>allois4s speculations.
(B) The author is dissatisfied because there are too many gaps and inconsistencies
in the drafts.
(C) The author is confident that >allois4s 1,10 guess has been pro'ed largely
correct/ but regrets that still more detailed documentation concerning
@roust4s transition from the essay to the no'el has not emerged.
GRE 011
() The author is satisfied that >allois4s <udgment was largely correct/ but feels
that @roust4s early work in designing and writing the no'el was probably far
more deliberate than >allois4s description of the process would suggest.
(#) The author is satisfied that the facts of @roust4s life in 1,5, ha'e been
thoroughly established/ but belie'es such documents as drafts and
correspondence are only of limited 'alue in a critical assessment of @roust4s
writing.
21. The author of the passage implies that which of the following would be the
K#A;T useful source of information about @roust4s transition from working on
Contre Saint-%eu$e to ha'ing a 'iable structure for "e-e-brance o+ Things Past%
(A) >allois4s comments in the 1,10 edition of Contre Saint-%eu$e
(B) @roust4s 1,5, notebooks/ including the drafts of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past
(C) @roust4s 1,5, correspondence/ e$cluding the letter to Callette
() Bardeche4s ?arcel @roust/ romancier
(#) Bonnet4s researches concerning @roust4s drafts of the final book of
"e-e-brance o+ Things Past
22. The passage offers information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) @recisely when in 1,5, did @roust decide to abandon Contre Saint-%eu$e%
(B) @recisely when in 1,5, did @roust decide to connect the beginning and the
end of "e-e-brance o+ Things Past%
(C) &hat was the sub<ect of the no'el that @roust attempted in 1,56%
() &hat specific criticisms of ;aint(Beu'e appear/ in fictional form/ in
"e-e-brance o+ Things Past%
(#) &hat is a theme concerning art that appears in the final book of
"e-e-brance o+ Things Past%
2-. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between Contre Saint-
%eu$e and "e-e-brance o+ Things Past as it is e$plained in the passage%
(A) 3mmediately after abandoning Contre Saint-%eu$e/ at Callette4s suggestion/
@roust started "e-e-brance as a fictional demonstration that ;aint(Beu'e
was wrong about the imagination.
(B) 3mmediately after abandoning Contre Saint-%eu$e/ at Callette4s suggestion/
@roust turned his attention to "e-e-brance/ starting with incidents that had
occurred to him while planning the essay.
(C) espondent that he could not find a coherent structure for Contre Saint-
%eu$e/ an essay about the role of memory in fiction/ @roust began instead to
write "e-e-brance/ a no'el de'oted to important early memories.
() &hile de'eloping his argument about the imagination in Contre Saint-%eu$e/
@roust described and began to link together personal memories that became
a foundation for "e-e-brance.
012 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) &hile de'eloping his argument about memory and imagination in Contre
Saint-%eu$e1 @roust created fictional characters to embody the abstract
themes in his essay.
SECTION B
Tradtona research has confronted ony Mexcan and Unted States
nterpretatons of Mexcan-Amercan cuture. Now we must aso examne the
cuture as we Mexcan Amercans have experenced t, passng from a soveregn
peope to compatrots wth newy arrvng setters to, fnay, a conquered peope-
a charter mnorty on our own and.
When the Spansh frst came to Mexco, they ntermarred wth and absorbed
the cuture of the ndgenous Indans. Ths pocy of coonzaton through
accuturaton was contnued when Mexco acqured Texas n the eary 1800s and
brought the ndgenous Indans nto Mexcan fe and government. In the 1820s,
Unted States ctzens mgrated to Texas, attracted by and sutabe for cotton. As
ther numbers became more substanta, ther pocy of acqurng and by
subdung natve popuatons began to domnate. The two deooges cashed
repeatedy, cumnatng n a mtary confct that ed to vctory for the Unted
States. Thus, suddeny deprved of our parent cuture, we had to evove unquey
Mexcan-Amercan modes of thought and acton n order to survve.
1-. The author4s purpose in writing this passage is primarily to
(A) suggest the moti'es behind ?e$ican and :nited ;tates inter'ention in Te$as
(B) document certain early ob<ecti'es of ?e$ican(American society
(C) pro'ide a historical perspecti'e for a new analysis of ?e$ican(American
culture
() appeal to both ?e$ican and :nited ;tates scholars to gi'e greater
consideration to economic interpretations of history
(#) bring to light pre'iously o'erlooked research on ?e$ican Americans
16. The author most probably uses the phrase *charter minority+ (lines 2(-) to
reinforce the idea that ?e$ican Americans
(A) are a nati'e rather than an immigrant group in the :nited ;tates
(B) played an acti'e political role when Te$as first became part of the :nited
;tates
(C) recogni!ed 'ery early in the nineteenth century the need for official
confirmation of their rights of citi!enship
() ha'e been misunderstood by scholars trying to interpret their culture
(#) identify more closely with their 3ndian heritage than with their ;panish
heritage
1,. According to the passage/ a ma<or difference between the coloni!ation policy of
GRE 01-
the :nited ;tates and that of ?e$ico in Te$as in the 16554s was the
(A) degree to which policies were based on tradition
(B) form of economic interdependency between different cultural groups
(C) number of people who came to settle new areas
() treatment of the nati'e inhabitants
(#) relationship between the military and the settlers
25. &hich of the following statements most clearly contradicts the information in this
passage%
(A) 3n the early 16554s/ the ;panish committed more resources to settling
California than to de'eloping Te$as.
(B) &hile Te$as was under ?e$ican control/ the population of Te$as "uadrupled/
in spite of the fact that ?e$ico discouraged immigration from the :nited
;tates.
(C) By the time ?e$ico ac"uired Te$as/ many 3ndians had already married people
of ;panish heritage.
() ?any ?e$icans li'ing in Te$as returned to ?e$ico after Te$as was anne$ed
by the :nited ;tates.
(#) ?ost 3ndians li'ing in Te$as resisted ;panish acculturation and were either
killed or ensla'ed.
Ths passage was adapted from an artce pubshed n 1982.
Unt about fve years ago, the very dea that peptde hormones mght be
made anywhere n the bran besdes the hypothaamus was astoundng. Peptde
hormones, scentsts thought, were made by endocrne gands and the
hypothaamus was thought to be the brans ony endocrne gand. What s more,
because peptde hormones cannot cross the bood-bran barrer, researchers
beeved that they never got to any part of the bran other than the
hypothaamus, where they were smpy produced and then reeased nto the
boodstream.
But these beefs about peptde hormones were questoned as aboratory after
aboratory found that antserums to peptde hormones, when n|ected nto the
bran, bnd n paces other than the hypothaamus, ndcatng that ether the
hormones or substances that cross-react wth the antserums are present. The
mmunoogca method of detectng peptde hormones by means of antserums,
however, s mprecse. Cross-reactons are possbe and ths method cannot
determne whether the substances detected by the antserums reay are the
hormones, or merey cose reatves. Furthermore, ths method cannot be used to
determne the ocaton n the body where the detected substances are actuay
produced.
New technques of moecuar boogy, however, provde a way to answer these
questons. It s possbe to make specfc compementary DNAs (cDNAs) that can
016 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
serve as moecuar probes to seek out the messenger RNAs (mRNAs) of the
peptde hormones. If bran ces are makng the hormones, the ces w contan
these mRNAs. If the products the bran ces make resembe the hormones but
are not dentca to them, then the cDNAs shoud st bnd to these mRNAs, but
shoud not bnd as tghty as they woud to mRNAs for the true hormones. The
ces contanng these mRNAs can then be soated and ther mRNAs decoded to
determne |ust what ther proten products are and how cosey the products
resembe the true peptde hormones.
The moecuar approach to detectng peptde hormones usng cDNA probes
shoud aso be much faster than the mmunoogca method because t can take
years of tedous purfcatons to soate peptde hormones and then deveop
antserums to them. Roberts, expressng the sentment of many researchers,
states: "I was traned as an endocrnoogst. But t became cear to me that the
fed of endocrnoogy needed moecuar boogy nput. The process of grndng out
proten purfcatons s |ust too sow."
If, as the nta tests wth cDNA probes suggest, peptde hormones reay are
made n the bran n areas other than the hypothaamus, a theory must be
deveoped that expans ther functon n the bran. Some have suggested that the
hormones are a growth reguators, but Rosens work on rat brans ndcates that
ths cannot be true. A number of other researchers propose that they mght be
used for nterceuar communcaton n the bran.
21. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the passage%
(A) 3s ?olecular Biology the Mey to :nderstanding 3ntercellular Communication
in the Brain%
(B) ?olecular BiologyE Can =esearchers #$ploit 3ts Techni"ues to ;ynthesi!e
@eptide )ormones%
(C) The Ad'antages and isad'antages of the 3mmunological Approach to
etecting @eptide )ormones
() @eptide )ormonesE )ow ;cientists Are Attempting to ;ol'e @roblems of
Their etection and to :nderstand Their >unction
(#) @eptide )ormonesE The =ole @layed by ?essenger =9A4s in Their etection
22. The passage suggests that a substance detected in the brain by use of antiserums
to peptide hormones may
(A) ha'e been stored in the brain for a long period of time
(B) play no role in the functioning of the brain
(C) ha'e been produced in some part of the body other than the brain
() ha'e escaped detection by molecular methods
(#) play an important role in the functioning of the hypothalamus
2.. According to the passage/ confirmation of the belief that peptide hormones are
made in the brain in areas other than the hypothalamus would force scientists to
GRE 01,
(A) re<ect the theory that peptide hormones are made by endocrine glands
(B) re'ise their beliefs about the ability of antiserums to detect peptide hormones
(C) in'ent techni"ues that would allow them to locate accurately brain cells that
produce peptide hormones
() search for techni"ues that would enable them to distinguish peptide hormones
from their close relati'es
(#) de'elop a theory that e$plains the role played by peptide hormones in the
brain
20. &hich of the following is mentioned in the passage as a drawback of the
immunological method of detecting peptide hormones%
(A) 3t cannot be used to detect the presence of growth regulators in the brain.
(B) 3t cannot distinguish between the peptide hormones and substances that are
'ery similar to them.
(C) 3t uses antiserums that are unable to cross the blood(brain barrier.
() 3t in'ol'es a purification process that re"uires e$tensi'e training in
endocrinology.
(#) 3t in'ol'es in<ecting foreign substances directly into the bloodstream.
21. The passage implies that/ in doing research on rat brains/ =osen disco'ered that
(A) peptide hormones are used for intercellular communication
(B) complementary 9A4s do not bind to cells producing peptide hormones
(C) products closely resembling peptide hormones are not identical to peptide
hormones
() some peptide hormones do not function as growth regulators
(#) antiserums cross(react with substances that are not peptide hormones
22. &hich of the following is a way in which the immunological method of detecting
peptide hormones differs from the molecular method%
(A) The immunological method uses substances that react with products of
hormone(producing cells/ whereas the molecular method uses substances
that react with a specific component of the cells themsel'es.
(B) The immunological method has produced results consistent with long(held
beliefs about peptide hormones/ whereas the molecular method has produced
results that upset these beliefs.
(C) The immunological method re"uires a great deal of e$pertise/ whereas the
molecular method has been used successfully by nonspecialists.
() The immunological method can only be used to test for the presence of
peptide hormones within the hypothalamus/ whereas the molecular method
can be used throughout the brain.
(#) The immunological method uses probes that can only bind with peptide
025 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
hormones/ whereas the molecular method uses probes that bind with peptide
hormones and substances similar to them.
2-. The idea that the field of endocrinology can gain from de'elopments in molecular
biology is regarded by =oberts with
(A) incredulity
(B) derision
(C) indifference
() pride
(#) enthusiasm
No. 8-2
SECTION A
Ragtme s a musca form that syntheszes fok meodes and musca
technques nto a bref quadre-ke structure, desgned to be payed-exacty as
wrtten-on the pano. A strong anaogy exsts between European composers ke
Raph Vaughan Wams, Edvard Greg, and Anton Dvorak who combned fok
tunes and ther own orgna materas n arger compostons and the poneer
ragtme composers n the Unted States. Composers ke Scott |opn and |ames
Scott were n a sense coectors or muscoogsts, coectng dance and fok musc
n Back communtes and conscousy shapng t nto bref sutes or anthooges
caed pano rags.
It has sometmes been charged that ragtme s mechanca. For nstance,
Wfred Meers comments, "rags were transferred to the panoa ro and, even f
not payed by a machne, shoud be payed ke a machne, wth metcuous
precson." However, there s no reason to assume that ragtme s nherenty
mechanca smpy because commerca manufacturers apped a mechanca
recordng method to ragtme, the ony way to record panos at that date.
Ragtmes s not a mechanca precson, and t s not precson mted to the stye
of performance. It arses from ragtmes foowng a we-defned form and obeyng
smpe rues wthn that form.
The cassc formua for the pano rag dsposes three to fve themes n sxteen-
bar strans, often organzed wth repeats. The rag opens wth a brght, memorabe
stran or theme, foowed by a smar theme, eadng to a tro of marked yrca
character, wth the structure concuded by a yrca stran that paraes the
rhythmc deveopments of the earer themes. The am of the structure s to rse
from one theme to another n a star-step manner, endng on a note of trumph or
exharaton. Typcay, each stran s dvded nto two 8-bar segments that are
essentay ake, so the rhythmc-meodc unt of ragtme s ony eght bars of 2/4
measure. Therefore, themes must be bref wth cear, sharp meodc fgures. Not
GRE 021
concerned wth deveopment of musca themes, the ragtme composer nstead
sets a theme down ntact, n fnshed form, and nks t to varous reated themes.
Tenson n ragtme compostons arses from a poarty between two basc
ngredents: a contnuous bass-caed by |azz muscans a boom-chck bass-n
the pansts eft hand, and ts meodc, syncopated counterpart n the rght hand.
Ragtme remans dstnct from |azz both as an nstrumenta stye and as a
genre. Ragtme stye stresses a pattern of repeated rhythms, not the constant
nventons and varatons of |azz. As a genre, ragtme requres strct attenton to
structure, not nventveness or vrtuosty. It exsts as a tradton, a set of
conventons, a body of wrtten scores, separate from the ndvdua payers
assocated wth t. In ths sense ragtme s more akn to fok musc of the
nneteenth century than to |azz.
1-. &hich of the following best describes the main purpose of the passage%
(A) To contrast ragtime music and <a!!
(B) To acknowledge and counter significant ad'erse criticisms of ragtime music
(C) To define ragtime music as an art form and describe its structural
characteristics
() To re'iew the history of ragtime music and analy!e ragtime4s effect on
listeners
(#) To e$plore the similarities between ragtime music and certain #uropean
musical compositions
16. According to the passage/ each of the following is a characteristic of ragtime
compositions that follow the classic ragtime formula #DC#@TE
(A) syncopation
(B) well(defined melodic figures
(C) rising rhythmic(melodic intensity
() full de'elopment of musical themes
(#) a bass line distinct from the melodic line
1,. According to the passage/ =alph Caughan &illiams/ Anton 'orak/ and ;cott
Aoplin are similar in that they all
(A) conducted research into musicological history
(B) wrote original compositions based on folk tunes
(C) collected and recorded abbre'iated piano suites
() created intricate sonata(like musical structures
(#) e$plored the relations between Black music and continental folk music
25. The author re<ects the argument that ragtime is a mechanical music because that
argument
(A) o'erlooks the precision re"uired of the ragtime player
022 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) does not accurately describe the sound of ragtime pianola music
(C) confuses the means of recording and the essential character of the music
() e$aggerates the influence of the performance style of professional ragtime
players on the reputation of the genre
(#) improperly identifies commercial ragtime music with the subtler classic
ragtime style
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es that the most important
feature of ragtime music is its
(A) commercial success
(B) formal structure
(C) emotional range
() impro'isational opportunities
(#) role as a forerunner of <a!!
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the essential nature of ragtime has been
obscured by commentaries based on
(A) the way ragtime music was first recorded
(B) interpretations of ragtime by <a!! musicians
(C) the dance fashions that were contemporary with ragtime
() early re'iewers4 accounts of characteristic structure
(#) the musical sources used by ;cott Aoplin and Aames ;cott
2.. &hich of the following is most nearly analogous in source and artistic character
to a ragtime composition as described in the passage%
(A) ;ymphonic music deri'ed from comple$ <a!! motifs
(B) An e$perimental no'el based on well(known cartoon characters
(C) A dramatic production in which actors in'ent scenes and impro'ise lines
() A ballet whose disciplined choreography is based on folk(dance steps
(#) A painting whose abstract shapes e'oke familiar ob<ects in a natural landscape
Echoocatng bats emt sounds n patterns-characterstc of each speces-
that contan both frequency-moduated (FM) and constant-frequency (CF) sgnas.
The broadband FM sgnas and the narrowband CF sgnas trave out to a target,
refect from t, and return to the huntng bat. In ths process of transmsson and
refecton, the sounds are changed, and the changes n the echoes enabe the bat
to perceve features of the target.
The FM sgnas report nformaton about target characterstcs that modfy the
tmng and the fne frequency structure, or spectrum, of echoes-for exampe, the
targets sze, shape, texture, surface structure, and drecton n space. Because of
ther narrow bandwdth, CF sgnas portray ony the targets presence and, n the
case of some bat speces, ts moton reatve to the bats. Respondng to changes
GRE 02.
n the CF echos frequency, bats of some speces correct n fght for the drecton
and veocty of ther movng prey.
20. According to the passage/ the information pro'ided to the bat by C> echoes
differs from that pro'ided by >? echoes in which of the following ways%
(A) 8nly C> echoes alert the bat to mo'ing targets.
(B) 8nly C> echoes identify the range of widely spaced targets.
(C) 8nly C> echoes report the target4s presence to the bat.
() 3n some species/ C> echoes enable the bat to <udge whether it is closing in on
its target.
(#) 3n some species/ C> echoes enable the bat to discriminate the si!e of its target
and the direction in which the target is mo'ing.
21. According to the passage/ the configuration of the target is reported to the
echolocating bat by changes in the
(A) echo spectrum of C> signals
(B) echo spectrum of >? signals
(C) direction and 'elocity of the >? echoes
() delay between transmission and reflection of the C> signals
(#) relati'e fre"uencies of the >? and the C> echoes
22. The author presents the information concerning bat sonar in a manner that could
be best described as
(A) argumentati'e
(B) commendatory
(C) critical
() disbelie'ing
(#) ob<ecti'e
2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A fact is stated/ a process is outlined/ and specific details of the process are
described.
(B) A fact is stated/ and e$amples suggesting that a distinction needs correction
are considered.
(C) A fact is stated/ a theory is presented to e$plain that fact/ and additional facts
are introduced to 'alidate the theory.
() A fact is stated/ and two theories are compared in light of their e$planations
of this fact.
(#) A fact is stated/ a process is described/ and e$amples of still another process
are illustrated in detail.
020 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
SECTION B
The soca scences are ess key than other nteectua enterprses to get
credt for ther accompshments. Arguaby, ths s so because the theores and
conceptua constructs of the soca scences are especay accessbe: human
ntegence apprehends truths about human affars wth partcuar facty. And
the dscoveres of the soca scences, once soated and abeed, are qucky
absorbed nto conventona wsdom, whereupon they ose ther dstnctveness as
scentfc advances.
Ths underapprecaton of the soca scences contrasts oddy wth what many
see as ther overutzaton. Game theory s pressed nto servce n studes of
shftng nternatona aances. Evauaton research s caed upon to demonstrate
successes or faures of soca programs. Modes from economcs and demography
become the defntve toos for examnng the fnanca base of soca securty. Yet
ths rush nto practca appcatons s tsef qute understandabe: pubc pocy
must contnuay be made, and pocymakers rghty fee that even tentatve
fndngs and untested theores are better gudes to decson-makng than no
fndngs and no theores at a.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ocating a more modest 'iew/ and less widespread utili!ation/ of the social
sciences
(B) analy!ing the mechanisms for translating disco'eries into applications in the
social sciences
(C) dissol'ing the air of parado$ inherent in human beings studying themsel'es
() e$plaining a peculiar dilemma that the social sciences are in
(#) maintaining a strict separation between pure and applied social science
16. &hich of the following is a social science discipline that the author mentions as
being possibly o'erutili!ed%
(A) Con'entional theories of social change
(B) Bame theory
(C) ecision(making theory
() #conomic theories of international alliances
(#) ;ystems analysis
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ when speaking of the *o'erutili!ation+
(line 11) of the social sciences/ the author is referring to the
(A) premature practical application of social science ad'ances
(B) habitual reliance on the social sciences e'en where common sense would
ser'e e"ually well
(C) practice of bringing a greater 'ariety of social science disciplines to bear on a
GRE 021
problem than the nature of the problem warrants
() use of social science constructs by people who do not fully understand them
(#) tendency on the part of social scientists to recast e'eryday truths in social
science <argon
25. The author confronts the claim that the social sciences are being o'erutili!ed with
(A) proof that o'ere$tensions of social science results are self(correcting
(B) e'idence that some public policy is made without any recourse to social
science findings or theories
(C) a long list of social science applications that are perfectly appropriate and
e$tremely fruitful
() the argument that o'erutili!ation is by and large the e$ception rather than the
rule
(#) the obser'ation that this practice represents the lesser of two e'ils under
e$isting circumstances
The term "Ice Age" may gve a wrong mpresson. The epoch that geoogsts
know as the Pestocene and that spanned the 1.5 to 2.0 mon years pror to the
current geoogc epoch was not one ong contnuous gacaton, but a perod of
oscatng cmate wth ce advances punctuated by tmes of ntergaca cmate
not very dfferent from the cmate experenced now. Ice sheets that derved from
an ce cap centered on northern Scandnava reached southward to Centra
Europe. And Beyond the margns of the ce sheets, cmatc oscatons affected
most of the rest of the word; for exampe, n the deserts, perods of wetter
condtons (puvas) contrasted wth drer, nterpuva perods. Athough the tme
nvoved s so short, about 0.04 percent of the tota age of the Earth, the amount
of attenton devoted to the Pestocene has been ncredby arge, probaby
because of ts mmedacy, and because the epoch argey concdes wth the
appearance on Earth of humans and ther mmedate ancestors.
There s no reabe way of datng much of the Ice Age. Geoogca dates are
usuay obtaned by usng the rates of decay of varous radoactve eements
found n mneras. Some of these rates are sutabe for very od rocks but nvove
ncreasng errors when used for young rocks; others are sutabe for very young
rocks and errors ncrease rapdy n oder rocks. Most of the Ice Age spans a perod
of tme for whch no eement has an approprate decay rate.
Nevertheess, researchers of the Pestocene epoch have deveoped a sorts of
more or ess fancfu mode schemes of how they woud have arranged the Ice Age
had they been n charge of events. For exampe, an eary cassfcaton of Apne
gacaton suggested the exstence there of four gacatons, named the Gunz,
Mnde, Rss, and Wurm. Ths successon was based prmary on a seres of
deposts and events not drecty reated to gaca and ntergaca perods, rather
than on the more usua modern method of studyng boogca remans found n
ntergaca beds themseves nterstratfed wthn gaca deposts. Yet ths
022 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
successon was forced wy-ny onto the gacated parts of Northern Europe,
where there are parta successons of true gaca ground moranes and
ntergaca deposts, wth hopes of utmatey pecng them together to provde a
compete Pestocene successon. Eradcaton of the Apne nomencature s st
provng a Hercuean task.
There s no concusve evdence about the reatve ength, compexty, and
temperatures of the varous gaca and ntergaca perods. We do not know
whether we ve n a postgaca perod or an ntergaca perod. The ch truth
seems to be that we are aready past the optmum cmate of postgaca tme.
Studes of certan foss dstrbutons and of the poen of certan temperate pants
suggest decreases of a degree or two n both summer and wnter temperatures
and, therefore, that we may be n the decnng cmatc phase eadng to
gacaton and extncton.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) searching for an accurate method of dating the @leistocene epoch
(B) discussing problems in'ol'ed in pro'iding an accurate picture of the
@leistocene epoch
(C) declaring opposition to the use of the term *3ce Age+ for the @leistocene
epoch
() critici!ing fanciful schemes about what happened in the @leistocene epoch
(#) refuting the idea that there is no way to tell if we are now li'ing in an 3ce Age
22. The *wrong impression+ (line 1) to which the author refers is the idea that the
(A) climate of the @leistocene epoch was not 'ery different from the climate we
are now e$periencing
(B) climate of the @leistocene epoch was composed of periods of 'iolent storms
(C) @leistocene epoch consisted of 'ery wet/ cold periods mi$ed with 'ery day/
hot periods
() @leistocene epoch comprised one period of continuous glaciation during
which 9orthern #urope was co'ered with ice sheets
(#) @leistocene epoch had no long periods during which much of the #arth was
co'ered by ice
2.. According to the passage/ one of the reasons for the deficiencies of the *early
classification of Alpine glaciation+ (lines .2(..) is that it was
(A) deri'ed from e'idence that was only tangentially related to times of actual
glaciation
(B) based primarily on fossil remains rather than on actual li'ing organisms
(C) an abstract/ imaginati'e scheme of how the period might ha'e been structured
() based on unmethodical e$aminations of randomly chosen glacial biological
remains
GRE 02-
(#) deri'ed from e'idence that had been hapha!ardly gathered from glacial
deposits and inaccurately e'aluated
20. &hich of the following does the passage imply about the *early classification of
Alpine glaciation+ (lines .2(..)%
(A) 3t should not ha'e been applied as widely as it was.
(B) 3t represents the best possible scientific practice/ gi'en the tools a'ailable at
the time.
(C) 3t was a 'aluable tool/ in its time/ for measuring the length of the four periods
of glaciation.
() 3t could be useful/ but only as a general guide to the e'ents of the @leistocene
epoch.
(#) 3t does not shed any light on the methods used at the time for in'estigating
periods of glaciation.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an important result of producing an
accurate chronology of e'ents of the @leistocene epoch would be a
(A) clearer idea of the origin of the #arth
(B) clearer picture of the #arth during the time that humans de'eloped
(C) clearer understanding of the reasons for the e$istence of deserts
() more detailed understanding of how radioacti'e dating of minerals works
(#) firmer understanding of how the northern polar ice cap de'eloped
22. The author refers to deserts primarily in order to
(A) illustrate the idea that an interglacial climate is marked by oscillations of wet
and dry periods
(B) illustrate the idea that what happened in the deserts during the 3ce Age had
far(reaching effects e'en on the ice sheets of Central and 9orthern #urope
(C) illustrate the idea that the effects of the 3ce Age4s climatic 'ariations e$tended
beyond the areas of ice
() support the 'iew that during the 3ce Age sheets of ice co'ered some of the
deserts of the world
(#) support the 'iew that we are probably li'ing in a postglacial period
2-. The author would regard the idea that we are li'ing in an interglacial period as
(A) unimportant
(B) unscientific
(C) self(e'ident
() plausible
(#) absurd
026 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
No. 8-3
SECTION A
(Ths passage s excerpted from an artce that was pubshed n 1981.)
The deep sea typcay has a sparse fauna domnated by tny worms and
crustaceans, wth an even sparser dstrbuton of arger anmas. However, near
hydrotherma vents, areas of the ocean where warm water emerges from
subterranean sources, ve remarkabe denstes of huge cams, bnd crabs, and
fsh.
Most deep-sea faunas rey for food on partcuate matter, utmatey derved
from photosynthess, fang from above. The food suppes necessary to sustan
the arge vent communtes, however, must be many tmes the ordnary faout.
The frst reports descrbng vent faunas proposed two possbe sources of
nutrton: bactera chemosynthess, producton of food by bactera usng energy
derved from chemca changes, and advecton, the drftng of food materas from
surroundng regons. Later, evdence n support of the dea of ntense oca
chemosynthess was accumuated: hydrogen sufde was found n vent water;
many vent-ste bactera were found to be capabe of chemosynthess; and
extremey arge concentratons of bactera were found n sampes of vent water
thought to be pure. Ths fna observaton seemed decsve. If such astonshng
concentratons of bactera were typca of vent outfow, then food wthn the vent
woud dwarf any contrbuton from advecton. Hence, the wdey quoted
concuson was reached that bactera chemosynthess provdes the foundaton for
hydrotherma-vent food chans-an exctng prospect because no other
communtes on Earth are ndependent of photosynthess.
There are, however, certan dffcutes wth ths nterpretaton. For exampe,
some of the arge sedentary organsms assocated wth vents are aso found at
ordnary deep-sea temperatures many meters from the nearest hydrotherma
sources. Ths suggests that bactera chemosynthess s not a suffcent source of
nutrton for these creatures. Another dffcuty s that smary dense popuatons
of arge deep-sea anmas have been found n the proxmty of "smokers"-vents
where water emerges at temperatures up to 350. No bactera can survve such
heat, and no bactera were found there. Uness smokers are consstenty ocated
near more hosptabe warm-water vents, chemosynthess can account for ony a
fracton of the vent faunas. It s concevabe, however, that these arge, sedentary
organsms do n fact feed on bactera that grow n warm-water vents, rse n the
vent water, and then ran n perphera areas to noursh anmas vng some
dstance from the warm-water vents.
Nonetheess advecton s a more key aternatve food source. Research has
demonstrated that advectve fow, whch orgnates near the surface of the ocean
where suspended partcuate matter accumuates, transports some of that matter
GRE 02,
and water to the vents. Estmates suggest that for every cubc meter of vent
dscharge, 350 mgrams of partcuate organc matera woud be advected nto
the vent area. Thus, for an average-szed vent, advecton coud provde more than
30 kograms of potenta food per day. In addton, t s key that sma ve
anmas n the advected water mght be ked or stunned by therma and/or
chemca shock, thereby contrbutng to the food suppy of vents.
12. The passage pro'ides information for answering which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat causes warm(water 'ents to form%
(B) o 'ent faunas consume more than do deep(sea faunas of similar si!e%
(C) o bacteria li'e in the 'ent water of smokers%
() &hat role does hydrogen sulfide play in chemosynthesis%
(#) &hat accounts for the locations of deep(sea smokers%
1-. The information in the passage suggests that the ma<ority of deep(sea faunas that
li'e in non'ent habitats ha'e which of the following characteristics%
(A) They do not normally feed on particles of food in the water.
(B) They are smaller than many 'ent faunas.
(C) They are predators.
() They deri'e nutrition from a chemosynthetic food source.
(#) They congregate around a single main food source.
16. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe a pre'iously unknown natural phenomenon
(B) reconstruct the e'olution of a natural phenomenon
(C) establish une"ui'ocally the accuracy of a hypothesis
() sur'ey e$planations for a natural phenomenon and determine which is best
supported by e'idence
(#) entertain criticism of the author4s research and pro'ide an effecti'e response
1,. &hich of the following does the author cite as a weakness in the argument that
bacterial chemosynthesis pro'ides the foundation for the food chains at deep(sea
'ents%
(A) Cents are coloni!ed by some of the same animals found in other areas of the
ocean floor.
(B) Cent water does not contain sufficient "uantities of hydrogen sulfide.
(C) Bacteria cannot produce large "uantities of food "uickly enough.
() Karge concentrations of minerals are found in 'ent water.
(#) ;ome bacteria found in the 'ents are incapable of chemosynthesis.
25. &hich of the following is information supplied in the passage that would support
0-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the statement that the food supplies necessary to sustain 'ent communities must
be many times that of ordinary fallout%
3. Karge 'ent faunas mo'e from 'ent to 'ent in search of food.
33. Cent faunas are not able to consume food produced by photosynthesis.
333. Cents are more densely populated than are other deep(sea areas.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
21. The author refers to *smokers+ (line .6) most probably in order to
(A) show how thermal shock can pro'ide food for some 'ent faunas by stunning
small animals
(B) pro'e that the habitat of most deep(sea animals is limited to warm(water
'ents
(C) e$plain how bacteria carry out chemosynthesis
() demonstrate how ad'ection compensates for the lack of food sources on the
seafloor
(#) present e'idence that bacterial chemosynthesis may be an inade"uate source
of food for some 'ent faunas
22. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the particulate
matter that is carried down from the surface of the ocean%
(A) 3t is the basis of bacterial chemosynthesis in the 'ents.
(B) 3t may pro'ide an important source of nutrition for 'ent faunas.
(C) 3t may cause the internal temperature of the 'ents to change significantly.
() 3t is transported as large aggregates of particles.
(#) 3t contains hydrogen sulfide.
Throughout human hstory there have been many strngent taboos concernng
watchng other peope eat or eatng n the presence of others. There have been
attempts to expan these taboos n terms of napproprate soca reatonshps
ether between those who are nvoved and those who are not smutaneousy
nvoved n the satsfacton of a body need, or between those aready satated
and those who appear to be shameessy gorgng. Undoubtedy such eements
exst n the taboos, but there s an addtona eement wth a much more
fundamenta mportance. In prehstorc tmes, when food was so precous and the
on-ookers so hungry, not to offer haf of the tte food one had was unthnkabe,
snce every gance was a pea for fe. Further, durng those tmes, peope exsted
n nucear or extended famy groups, and the sharng of food was qute teray
supportng ones famy or, by extenson, preservng ones sef.
GRE 0-1
2.. 3f the argument in the passage is 'alid/ taboos against eating in the presence of
others who are not also eating would be K#A;T likely in a society that
(A) had always had a plentiful supply of food
(B) emphasi!ed the need to share worldly goods
(C) had a nomadic rather than an agricultural way of life
() emphasi!ed the 'alue of pri'acy
(#) discouraged o'erindulgence
20. The author4s hypothesis concerning the origin of taboos against watching other
people eat emphasi!es the
(A) general palatability of food
(B) religious significance of food
(C) limited a'ailability of food
() 'arious sources of food
(#) nutritional 'alue of food
21. According to the passage/ the author belie'es that past attempts to e$plain some
taboos concerning eating are
(A) unimaginati'e
(B) implausible
(C) inelegant
() incomplete
(#) unclear
22. 3n de'eloping the main idea of the passage/ the author does which of the
following%
(A) ownplays earlier attempts to e$plain the origins of a social prohibition.
(B) Adapts a scientific theory and applies it to a spiritual relationship.
(C) ;implifies a comple$ biological phenomenon by e$plaining it in terms of
social needs.
() =eorgani!es a system designed to guide personal beha'ior.
(#) Codifies earlier/ unsystemati!ed con<ectures about family life.
SECTION B
(Ths passage s from a book pubshed n 1975.)
That Louse Neveson s beeved by many crtcs to be the greatest twenteth-
century scuptor s a the more remarkabe because the greatest resstance to
women artsts has been, unt recenty, n the fed of scupture. Snce Neothc
tmes, scupture has been consdered the prerogatve of men, party, perhaps, for
purey physca reasons: t was erroneousy assumed that women were not suted
0-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
for the hard manua abor requred n scuptng stone, carvng wood, or workng n
meta. It has been ony durng the twenteth century that women scuptors have
been recognzed as ma|or artsts, and t has been n the Unted States, especay
snce the decades of the fftes and sxtes, that women scuptors have shown the
greatest orgnaty and creatve power. Ther rse to promnence paraes the
deveopment of scupture tsef n the Unted States: whe there had been a few
taented scuptors n the Unted States before the 1940s, t was ony after 1945-
when New York was rapdy becomng the art capta of the word-that ma|or
scupture was produced n the Unted States. Some of the best was the work of
women.
By far the most outstandng of these women s Louse Neveson, who n the
eyes of many crtcs s the most orgna femae artst ave today. One famous and
nfuenta crtc, Hton Kramer, sad of her work, "For mysef, I thnk Ms. Neveson
succeeds where the panters often fa."
Her works have been compared to the Cubst constructons of Pcasso, the
Surreastc ob|ects of Mro, and the Merzbau of Schwtters. Neveson woud be the
frst to admt that she has been nfuenced by a of these, as we as by Afrcan
scupture, and by Natve Amercan and pre-Coumban art, but she has absorbed
a these nfuences and st created a dstnctve art that expresses the urban
andscape and the aesthetc sensbty of the twenteth century. Neveson says, "I
have aways wanted to show the word that art s everywhere, except that t has
to pass through a creatve mnd."
Usng mosty dscarded wooden ob|ects ke packng crates, broken peces of
furnture, and abandoned archtectura ornaments, a of whch she has hoarded
for years, she assembes archtectura constructons of great beauty and power.
Creatng very freey wth no sketches, she gues and nas ob|ects together, pants
them back, or more rarey whte or god, and paces them n boxes. These
assembages, was, even entre envronments create a mysterous, amost awe-
nsprng atmosphere. Athough she has dened any symboc or regous ntent n
her works, ther three-dmensona grandeur and even ther ttes, such as ky
Cathedral and +ight Cathedral, suggest such connotatons. In some ways, her
most ambtous works are coser to archtecture than to tradtona scupture, but
then nether Louse Neveson nor her art fts nto any neat category.
1-. The passage focuses primarily on which of the following%
(A) A general tendency in twentieth(century art
(B) The work of a particular artist
(C) The artistic influences on women sculptors
() Critical responses to twentieth(century sculpture
(#) ?aterials used by twentieth(century sculptors
16. &hich of the following statements is supported by information gi'en in the
passage%
GRE 0-.
(A) ;ince 1,01 women sculptors in the :nited ;tates ha'e produced more
sculpture than ha'e men sculptors.
(B) ;ince 1,15 sculpture produced in the :nited ;tates has been the most original
and creati'e sculpture produced anywhere.
(C) >rom 1,55 to 1,15 women sculptors in #urope en<oyed more recognition for
their work than did women sculptors in the :nited ;tates.
() @rior to 1,01 there were many women sculptors whose work was ignored by
critics.
(#) @rior to 1,01 there was little ma<or sculpture produced by men or women
sculptors working in the :nited ;tates.
1,. The author "uotes )ilton Mramer in lines 21(2- most probably in order to
illustrate which of the following%
(A) The realism of 9e'elson4s work
(B) The uni"ue "ualities of 9e'elson4s style
(C) The e$tent of critical appro'al of 9e'elson4s work
() A distinction between sculpture and painting
(#) A reason for the prominence of women sculptors since the 1,154s
25. &hich of the following is one way in which 9e'elson4s art illustrates her theory
as it is e$pressed in lines .2(.6%
(A) ;he sculpts in wood rather than in metal or stone.
(B) ;he paints her sculptures and frames them in bo$es.
(C) ;he makes no preliminary sketches but rather allows the sculpture to de'elop
as she works.
() ;he puts together pieces of ordinary ob<ects once used for different purposes
to make her sculptures.
(#) ;he does not deliberately attempt to con'ey symbolic or religious meanings
through her sculpture.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about 9e'elson4s sculptures%
(A) They suggest religious and symbolic meanings.
(B) They do not ha'e "ualities characteristic of sculpture.
(C) They are mysterious and awe(inspiring/ but not beautiful.
() They are uni"uely American in style and sensibility.
(#) They show the influence of twentieth(century architecture.
22. The author regards 9e'elson4s stature in the art world as *remarkable+ (line .) in
part because of which of the following%
(A) )er work is currently o'errated.
0-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) &omen sculptors ha'e found it especially difficult to be accepted and
recogni!ed as ma<or artists.
(C) 9e'elson4s sculptures are difficult to understand.
() ?any art critics ha'e fa'ored painting o'er sculpture in writing about
de'elopments in the art world.
(#) >ew of the artists prominent in the twentieth century ha'e been sculptors.
2.. &hich of the following statements about 9e'elson4s sculptures can be inferred
from the passage%
(A) They are meant for display outdoors.
(B) They are often painted in se'eral colors.
(C) They are sometimes 'ery large.
() They are hand car'ed by 9e'elson.
(#) They are built around a central wooden ob<ect.
Vocanc rock that forms as fud ava chs rapdy s caed pow ava. Ths
rapd chng occurs when ava erupts drecty nto water (or beneath ce) or when
t fows across a shorene and nto a body of water. Whe the term "pow ava"
suggests a defnte shape, n fact geoogsts dsagree. Some geoogsts argue that
pow ava s characterzed by dscrete, epsoda masses. Others descrbe pow
ava as a tanged mass of cyndrca, nterconnected fow obes. Much of ths
controversy probaby resuts from unwarranted extrapoatons of the orgna
confguraton of pow fows from two-dmensona cross sectons of eroded pows
n and outcroppngs. Vrtuay any cross secton cut through a tanged mass of
nterconnected fow obes woud gve the appearance of a pe of dscrete
epsoda masses. Adequate three-dmensona mages of ntact pows are
essenta for defnng the true geometry of powed fows and thus ascertanng
ther mode of orgn. Indeed, the term "pow," tsef suggestve of dscrete
masses, s probaby a msnomer.
20. &hich of the following is a fact presented in the passage%
(A) The shape of the connections between the separate/ sacklike masses in pillow
la'a is unknown.
(B) ?ore accurate cross sections of pillow la'a would re'eal the mode of origin.
(C) &ater or ice is necessary for the formation of pillow la'a.
() 9o three(dimensional e$amples of intact pillows currently e$ist.
(#) The origin of pillow la'a is not yet known.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily interested in
(A) analy!ing the source of a scientific contro'ersy
(B) critici!ing some geologists4 methodology
(C) pointing out the flaws in a geological study
GRE 0-1
() proposing a new theory to e$plain e$isting scientific e'idence
(#) describing a physical phenomenon
22. The author of the passage would most probably agree that the geologists
mentioned in line 2 (*;ome geologists+) ha'e made which of the following errors
in reasoning%
3. Benerali!ed un<ustifiably from a'ailable e'idence.
33. eliberately ignored e$isting countere'idence.
333. =epeatedly failed to take new e'idence into account.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
2-. The author implies that the *contro'ersy+ (line ,) might be resol'ed if
(A) geologists did not persist in using the term *pillow+
(B) geologists did not rely on potentially misleading information
(C) geologists were more willing to confer directly with one another
() two(dimensional cross sections of eroded pillows were a'ailable
(#) e$isting pillows in land outcroppings were not so badly eroded
No. 9-1
SECTION A
Many crtcs of Emy Brontes nove ,uthering %eights see ts second part as
a counterpont that comments on, f t does not reverse, the frst part, where a
"romantc" readng receves more confrmaton. Seeng the two parts as a whoe s
encouraged by the noves sophstcated structure, reveaed n ts compex use of
narrators and tme shfts. Granted that the presence of these eements need not
argue an authora awareness of novestc constructon comparabe to that of
Henry |ames, ther presence does encourage attempts to unfy the noves
heterogeneous parts. However, any nterpretaton that seeks to unfy a of the
noves dverse eements s bound to be somewhat unconvncng. Ths s not
because such an nterpretaton necessary stffens nto a thess (athough rgdty
n any nterpretaton of ths or of any nove s aways a danger), but because
,uthering %eights has recactrant eements of undenabe power that, utmatey,
resst ncuson n an a-encompassng nterpretaton. In ths respect, ,uthering
%eights shares a feature of %amlet.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about the
0-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
first and second parts of Wuthering &eights%
(A) The second part has recei'ed more attention from critics.
(B) The second part has little relation to the first part.
(C) The second part annuls the force of the first part.
() The second part pro'ides less substantiation for a *romantic+ reading.
(#) The second part is better because it is more realistic.
16. &hich of the following inferences about )enry Aames4s awareness of no'elistic
construction is best supported by the passage%
(A) Aames/ more than any other no'elist/ was aware of the difficulties of
no'elistic construction.
(B) Aames was 'ery aware of the details of no'elistic construction.
(C) Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction deri'ed from his reading of
Bronte.
() Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction has led most commentators to
see unity in his indi'idual no'els.
(#) Aames4s awareness of no'elistic construction precluded him from 'iolating the
unity of his no'els.
1,. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree that an interpretation of a
no'el should
(A) not try to unite heterogeneous elements in the no'el
(B) not be infle$ible in its treatment of the elements in the no'el
(C) not argue that the comple$ use of narrators or of time shifts indicates a
sophisticated structure
() concentrate on those recalcitrant elements of the no'el that are outside the
no'el4s main structure
(#) primarily consider those elements of no'elistic construction of which the
author of the no'el was aware
25. The author of the passage suggests which of the following about &a-let%
3. &a-let has usually attracted critical interpretations that tend to stiffen into
theses.
33. &a-let has elements that are not amenable to an all(encompassing critical
interpretation.
333. &a-let is less open to an all(encompassing critical interpretation than is
Wuthering &eights.
3C. &a-let has not recei'ed a critical interpretation that has been widely
accepted by readers.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
GRE 0--
(C) 3 and 3C only
() 333 and 3C only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333 only
The determnaton of the sources of copper ore used n the manufacture of
copper and bronze artfacts of Bronze Age cvzatons woud add greaty to our
knowedge of cutura contacts and trade n that era. Researchers have anayzed
artfacts and ores for ther concentratons of eements, but for a varety of
reasons, these studes have generay faed to provde evdence of the sources of
the copper used n the ob|ects. Eementa composton can vary wthn the same
copper-ore ode, usuay because of varyng admxtures of other eements,
especay ron, ead, znc, and arsenc. And hgh concentratons of cobat or znc,
notced n some artfacts, appear n a varety of copper-ore sources. Moreover, the
processng of ores ntroduced poory controed changes n the concentratons of
mnor and trace eements n the resutng meta. Some eements evaporate durng
smetng and roastng; dfferent temperatures and processes produce dfferent
degrees of oss. Fnay, fux, whch s sometmes added durng smetng to remove
waste matera from the ore, coud add quanttes of eements to the fna product.
An eementa property that s unchanged through these chemca processes s
the sotopc composton of each metac eement n the ore. Isotopc composton,
the percentages of the dfferent sotopes of an eement n a gven sampe of the
eement, s therefore partcuary sutabe as an ndcator of the sources of the ore.
Of course, for ths purpose t s necessary to fnd an eement whose sotopc
composton s more or ess constant throughout a gven ore body, but vares from
one copper ore body to another or, at east, from one geographc regon to
another.
The dea choce, when sotopc composton s used to nvestgate the source
of copper ore, woud seem to be copper tsef. It has been shown that sma but
measurabe varatons occur naturay n the sotopc composton of copper.
However, the varatons are arge enough ony n rare ores; between sampes of
the common ore mneras of copper, sotopc varatons greater than the
measurement error have not been found. An aternatve choce s ead, whch
occurs n most copper and bronze artfacts of the Bronze Age n amounts
consstent wth the ead beng derved from the copper ores and possby from the
fuxes. The sotopc composton of ead often vares from one source of common
copper ore to another, wth varatons exceedng the measurement error; and
premnary studes ndcate vrtuay unform sotopc composton of the ead from
a snge copper-ore source. Whe some of the ead found n an artfact may have
been ntroduced from fux or when other metas were added to the copper ore,
ead so added n Bronze Age processng woud usuay have the same sotopc
composton as the ead n the copper ore. Lead sotope studes may thus prove
usefu for nterpretng the archaeoogca record of the Bronze Age.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
0-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) discuss the techni"ues of analy!ing lead isotope composition
(B) propose a way to determine the origin of the copper in certain artifacts
(C) resol'e a dispute concerning the analysis of copper ore
() describe the deficiencies of a currently used method of chemical analysis of
certain metals
(#) offer an interpretation of the archaeological record of the Bron!e Age
22. The author first mentions the addition of flu$ during smelting (lines 16(21) in
order to
(A) gi'e a reason for the failure of elemental composition studies to determine
ore sources
(B) illustrate differences between 'arious Bron!e Age ci'ili!ations
(C) show the need for using high smelting temperatures
() illustrate the uniformity of lead isotope composition
(#) e$plain the success of copper isotope composition analysis
2.. The author suggests which of the following about a Bron!e Age artifact
containing high concentrations of cobalt or !inc%
(A) 3t could not be reliably tested for its elemental composition.
(B) 3t could not be reliably tested for its copper isotope composition.
(C) 3t could not be reliably tested for its lead isotope composition.
() 3t could ha'e been manufactured from ore from any one of a 'ariety of
sources.
(#) 3t could ha'e been produced by the addition of other metals during the
processing of the copper ore.
20. According to the passage/ possible sources of the lead found in a copper or
bron!e artifact include which of the following%
3. The copper ore used to manufacture the artifact
33. >lu$ added during processing of the copper ore
333. 8ther metal added during processing of the copper ore
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
21. The author re<ects copper as the *ideal choice+ mentioned in line .. because
(A) the concentration of copper in Bron!e Age artifacts 'aries
(B) elements other than copper may be introduced during smelting
(C) the isotopic composition of copper changes during smelting
GRE 0-,
() among common copper ores/ differences in copper isotope composition are
too small
(#) within a single source of copper ore/ copper isotope composition can 'ary
substantially
22. The author makes which of the following statements about lead isotope
composition%
(A) 3t often 'aries from one copper(ore source to another.
(B) 3t sometimes 'aries o'er short distances in a single copper(ore source.
(C) 3t can 'ary during the testing of artifacts/ producing a measurement error.
() 3t fre"uently changes during smelting and roasting.
(#) 3t may change when artifacts are buried for thousands of years.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the use of flu$ in processing copper ore
can alter the lead isotope composition of the resulting metal #DC#@T when
(A) there is a smaller concentration of lead in the flu$ than in the copper ore
(B) the concentration of lead in the flu$ is e"ui'alent to that of the lead in the ore
(C) some of the lead in the flu$ e'aporates during processing
() any lead in the flu$ has the same isotopic composition as the lead in the ore
(#) other metals are added during processing
SECTION B
Snce the Hawaan Isands have never been connected to other and masses,
the great varety of pants n Hawa must be a resut of the ong-dstance
dspersa of seeds, a process that requres both a method of transport and an
equvaence between the ecoogy of the source area and that of the recpent
area.
There s some dspute about the method of transport nvoved. Some
boogsts argue that ocean and ar currents are responsbe for the transport of
pant seeds to Hawa. Yet the resuts of fotaton experments and the ow
temperatures of ar currents cast doubt on these hypotheses. More probabe s
brd transport, ether externay, by accdenta attachment of the seeds to
feathers, or nternay, by the swaowng of frut and subsequent excreton of the
seeds. Whe t s key that fewer varetes of pant seeds have reached Hawa
externay than nternay, more varetes are known to be adapted to externa
than to nterna transport.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) discussing different approaches biologists ha'e taken to testing theories about
the distribution of plants in )awaii
(B) discussing different theories about the transport of plant seeds to )awaii
065 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) discussing the e$tent to which air currents are responsible for the dispersal of
plant seeds to )awaii
() resol'ing a dispute about the adaptability of plant seeds to bird transport
(#) resol'ing a dispute about the ability of birds to carry plant seeds long
distances
16. The author mentions the results of flotation e$periments on plant seeds (lines 15(
12) most probably in order to
(A) support the claim that the distribution of plants in )awaii is the result of the
long(distance dispersal of seeds
(B) lend credibility to the thesis that air currents pro'ide a method of transport for
plant seeds to )awaii
(C) suggest that the long(distance dispersal of seeds is a process that re"uires long
periods of time
() challenge the claim that ocean currents are responsible for the transport of
plant seeds to )awaii
(#) refute the claim that )awaiian flora e'ol'ed independently from flora in other
parts of the world
1,. 3t can be inferred from information in the passage that the e$istence in alpine
regions of )awaii of a plant species that also grows in the southwestern :nited
;tates would <ustify which of the following conclusions%
(A) The ecology of the southwestern :nited ;tates is similar in important respects
to the ecology of alpine regions of )awaii.
(B) There are ocean currents that flow from the southwestern :nited ;tates to
)awaii.
(C) The plant species disco'ered in )awaii must ha'e tra'eled from the
southwestern :nited ;tates only 'ery recently.
() The plant species disco'ered in )awaii reached there by attaching to the
feathers of birds migrating from the southwestern :nited ;tates.
(#) The plant species disco'ered in )awaii is especially well adapted to transport
o'er long distances.
25. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hy does successful long(distance dispersal of plant seeds re"uire an
e"ui'alence between the ecology of the source area and that of the recipient
area%
(B) &hy are more 'arieties of plant seeds adapted to e$ternal rather than to
internal bird transport%
(C) &hat 'arieties of plant seeds are birds that fly long distances most likely to
swallow%
GRE 061
() &hat is a reason for accepting the long(distance dispersal of plant seeds as an
e$planation for the origin of )awaiian flora%
(#) &hat e'idence do biologists cite to argue that ocean and air currents are
responsible for the transport of plant seeds to )awaii%
A ong-hed vew of the hstory of the Engsh coones that became the Unted
States has been that Engands pocy toward these coones before 1763 was
dctated by commerca nterests and that a change to a more mpera pocy,
domnated by expansonst mtarst ob|ectves, generated the tensons that
utmatey ed to the Amercan Revouton. In a recent study, Stephen Saunders
Webb has presented a formdabe chaenge to ths vew. Accordng to Webb,
Engand aready had a mtary mpera pocy for more than a century before the
Amercan Revouton. He sees Chares II, the Engsh monarch between 1660 and
1685, as the proper successor of the Tudor monarchs of the sxteenth century and
of Over Cromwe, a of whom were bent on extendng centrazed executve
power over Engands possessons through the use of what Webb cas "garrson
government." Garrson government aowed the coonsts a egsatve assemby,
but rea authorty, n Webbs vew, beonged to the coona governor, who was
apponted by the kng and supported by the "garrson," that s, by the oca
contngent of Engsh troops under the coona governors command.
Accordng to Webb, the purpose of garrson government was to provde
mtary support for a roya pocy desgned to mt the power of the upper casses
n the Amercan coones. Webb argues that the coona egsatve assembes
represented the nterests not of the common peope but of the coona upper
casses, a coaton of merchants and nobty who favored sef-rue and sought to
eevate egsatve authorty at the expense of the executve. It was, accordng to
Webb, the coona governors who favored the sma farmer, opposed the
pantaton system, and tred through taxaton to break up arge hodngs of and.
Backed by the mtary presence of the garrson, these governors tred to prevent
the gentry and merchants, aed n the coona assembes, from transformng
coona Amerca nto a captastc ogarchy.
Webbs study umnates the potca agnments that exsted n the coones
n the century pror to the Amercan Revouton, but hs vew of the crowns use of
the mtary as an nstrument of coona pocy s not entrey convncng. Engand
durng the seventeenth century was not noted for ts mtary achevements.
Cromwe dd mount Engands most ambtous overseas mtary expedton n
more than a century, but t proved to be an utter faure. Under Chares II, the
Engsh army was too sma to be a ma|or nstrument of government. Not unt the
war wth France n 1697 dd Wam III persuade Parament to create a
professona standng army, and Paraments prce for dong so was to keep the
army under tght egsatve contro. Whe t may be true that the crown
attempted to curta the power of the coona upper casses, t s hard to magne
how the Engsh army durng the seventeenth century coud have provded
sgnfcant mtary support for such a pocy.
062 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. The passage can best be described as a
(A) sur'ey of the inade"uacies of a con'entional 'iewpoint
(B) reconciliation of opposing points of 'iew
(C) summary and e'aluation of a recent study
() defense of a new thesis from anticipated ob<ections
(#) re'iew of the subtle distinctions between apparently similar 'iews
22. The passage suggests that the 'iew referred to in lines 1(- argued that
(A) the colonial go'ernors were sympathetic to the demands of the common
people
(B) Charles 33 was a pi'otal figure in the shift of #nglish monarchs toward a more
imperial policy in their go'ernorship of the American colonies
(C) the American =e'olution was generated largely out of a conflict between the
colonial upper classes and an alliance of merchants and small farmers
() the military did not play a ma<or role as an instrument of colonial policy until
1-2.
(#) the colonial legislati'e assemblies in the colonies had little influence o'er the
colonial go'ernors
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &ebb would be most likely to agree with
which of the following statements regarding garrison go'ernment%
(A) Barrison go'ernment ga'e legislati'e assemblies in the colonies relati'ely
little authority/ compared to the authority that it ga'e the colonial go'ernors.
(B) Barrison go'ernment pro'ed relati'ely ineffecti'e until it was used by
Charles 33 to curb the power of colonial legislatures.
(C) Barrison go'ernment became a less 'iable colonial policy as the #nglish
@arliament began to e$ert tighter legislati'e control o'er the #nglish
military.
() 8li'er Cromwell was the first #nglish ruler to make use of garrison
go'ernment on a large scale.
(#) The creation of a professional standing army in #ngland in 12,- actually
weakened garrison go'ernment by di'erting troops from the garrisons
stationed in the American colonies.
20. According to the passage/ &ebb 'iews Charles 33 as the *proper successor+ (line
1.) of the Tudor monarchs and Cromwell because Charles 33
(A) used colonial ta$ re'enues to fund o'erseas military e$peditions
(B) used the military to e$tend e$ecuti'e power o'er the #nglish colonies
(C) wished to transform the American colonies into capitalistic oligarchies
() resisted the #nglish @arliament4s efforts to e$ert control o'er the military
(#) allowed the American colonists to use legislati'e assemblies as a forum for
GRE 06.
resol'ing grie'ances against the crown
21. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously weaken the author4s
assertion in lines 10(16%
(A) Because they were poorly administered/ Cromwell4s o'erseas military
e$peditions were doomed to failure.
(B) Because it relied primarily on the symbolic presence of the military/ garrison
go'ernment could be effecti'ely administered with a relati'ely small number
of troops.
(C) :ntil early in the se'enteenth century/ no professional standing army in
#urope had performed effecti'ely in o'erseas military e$peditions.
() ?any of the colonial go'ernors appointed by the crown were also
commissioned army officers.
(#) ?any of the #nglish troops stationed in the American colonies were 'eterans
of other o'erseas military e$peditions.
22. According to &ebb4s 'iew of colonial history/ which of the following was (were)
true of the merchants and nobility mentioned in line .5%
3. They were opposed to policies formulated by Charles 33 that would ha'e
transformed the colonies into capitalistic oligarchies.
33. They were opposed to attempts by the #nglish crown to limit the power of
the legislati'e assemblies.
333. They were united with small farmers in their opposition to the stationing of
#nglish troops in the colonies.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. The author suggests that if &illiam 333 had wanted to make use of the standing
army mentioned in line 12 to administer garrison go'ernment in the American
colonies/ he would ha'e had to.
(A) make peace with >rance
(B) abolish the colonial legislati'e assemblies
(C) seek appro'al from the #nglish @arliament
() appoint colonial go'ernors who were more sympathetic to royal policy
(#) raise additional re'enues by increasing ta$ation of large landholdings in the
colonies
No. 9-2
060 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
SECTION A
A serous crtc has to comprehend the partcuar content, unque structure,
and speca meanng of a work of art. And here she faces a demma. The crtc
must recognze the artstc eement of unqueness that requres sub|ectve
reacton; yet she must not be unduy pre|udced by such reactons. Her kes and
dskes are ess mportant than what the work tsef communcates, and her
preferences may bnd her to certan quates of the work and thereby prevent an
adequate understandng of t. Hence, t s necessary that a crtc deveop a
sensbty nformed by famarty wth the hstory of art and aesthetc theory. On
the other hand, t s nsuffcent to treat the artwork soey hstorcay, n reaton
to a fxed set of deas or vaues. The crtcs knowedge and tranng are, rather, a
preparaton of the cogntve and emotona abtes needed for an adequate
persona response to an artworks own partcuar quates.
1-. According to the author/ a serious art critic may a'oid being pre<udiced by her
sub<ecti'e reactions if she
(A) treats an artwork in relation to a fi$ed set of ideas and 'alues
(B) brings to her obser'ation a knowledge of art history and aesthetic theory
(C) allows more time for the obser'ation of each artwork
() takes into account the preferences of other art critics
(#) limits herself to that art with which she has ade"uate familiarity
16. The author implies that it is insufficient to treat a work of art solely historically
because
(A) doing so would lead the critic into a dilemma
(B) doing so can blind the critic to some of the artwork4s uni"ue "ualities
(C) doing so can insulate the critic from personally held beliefs
() sub<ecti'e reactions can produce a biased response
(#) critics are not sufficiently familiar with art history
1,. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which of
the following statements%
(A) Art speaks to the passions as well as to the intellect.
(B) ?ost works of art e$press unconscious wishes or desires.
(C) The best art is accessible to the greatest number of people.
() The art produced in the last few decades is of inferior "uality.
(#) The meaning of art is a function of the social conditions in which it was
produced.
25. The author4s argument is de'eloped primarily by the use of
(A) an attack on sentimentality
GRE 061
(B) an e$ample of successful art criticism
(C) a criti"ue of artists training
() a warning against e$tremes in art criticism
(#) an analogy between art criticism and art production
Vruses, nfectous partces consstng of nucec acd packaged n a proten
coat (the capsd), are dffcut to resst. Unabe to reproduce outsde a vng ce,
vruses reproduce ony by subvertng the genetc mechansms of a host ce. In
one knd of vra fe cyce, the vrus frst bnds to the ces surface, then
penetrates the ce and sheds ts capsd. The exposed vra nucec acd produces
new vruses from the contents of the ce. Fnay, the ce reeases the vra
progeny, and a new ce cyce of nfecton begns. The human body responds to a
vra nfecton by producng antbodes: compex, hghy specfc protens that
seectvey bnd to foregn moecues such as vruses. An antbody can ether
nterfere wth a vruss abty to bnd to a ce, or can prevent t from reeasng ts
nucec acd.
Unfortunatey, the common cod, produced most often by rhnovruses, s
ntractabe to antvra defense. Humans have dffcuty resstng cods because
rhnovruses are so dverse, ncudng at east 100 strans. The strans dffer most
n the moecuar structure of the protens n ther capsds. Snce dsease-fghtng
antbodes bnd to the capsd, an antbody deveoped to protect aganst one
rhnovrus stran s useess aganst other strans. Dfferent antbodes must be
produced for each stran.
A defense aganst rhnovruses mght nonetheess succeed by expotng
hdden smartes among the rhnovrus strans. For exampe, most rhnovrus
strans bnd to the same knd of moecue (deta-receptors) on a ces surface
when they attack human ces. Coonno, takng advantage of these common
receptors, devsed a strategy for bockng the attachment of rhnovruses to ther
approprate receptors. Rather than frutessy searchng for an antbody that woud
bnd to a rhnovruses, Coonno reazed that an antbody bndng to the common
receptors of a human ce woud prevent rhnovruses from ntatng an nfecton.
Because human ces normay do not deveop antbodes to components of ther
own ces, Coonno n|ected human ces nto mce, whch dd produce an antbody
to the common receptor. In soated human ces, ths antbody proved to be
extraordnary effectve at thwartng the rhnovrus. Moreover, when the antbody
was gven to chmpanzees, t nhbted rhnovra growth, and n humans t
essened both the severty and duraton of cod symptoms.
Another possbe defense aganst rhnovruses was proposed by Rossman, who
descrbed rhnovruses detaed moecuar structure. Rossman showed that
proten sequences common to a rhnovrus strans e at the base of a deep
"canyon" scorng each face of the capsd. The narrow openng of ths canyon
possby prevents the reatvey arge antbody moecues from bndng to the
common sequence, but smaer moecues mght reach t. Among these smaer,
062 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
nonantbody moecues, some mght bnd to the common sequence, ock the
nucec acd n ts coat, and thereby prevent the vrus from reproducng.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss 'iral mechanisms and possible ways of circum'enting certain kinds
of those mechanisms
(B) challenge recent research on how rhino'iruses bind to receptors on the
surfaces of cells
(C) suggest future research on rhino'iral growth in chimpan!ees
() defend a contro'ersial research program whose purpose is to disco'er the
molecular structure of rhino'irus capsids
(#) e'aluate a dispute between ad'ocates of two theories about the rhino'irus life
cycle
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the protein se"uences of the capsid that
'ary most among strains of rhino'irus are those
(A) at the base of the *canyon+
(B) outside of the *canyon+
(C) responsible for producing nucleic acid
() responsible for pre'enting the formation of delta(receptors
(#) pre'enting the capsid from releasing its nucleic acid
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a cell lacking delta(receptors will be
(A) unable to pre'ent the rhino'iral nucleic acid from shedding its capsid
(B) defenseless against most strains of rhino'irus
(C) unable to release the 'iral progeny it de'elops after infection
() protected from new infections by antibodies to the rhino'irus
(#) resistant to infection by most strains of rhino'irus
20. &hich of the following research strategies for de'eloping a defense against the
common cold would the author be likely to find most promising%
(A) Continuing to look for a general antirhino'iral antibody
(B) ;earching for common cell(surface receptors in humans and mice
(C) Continuing to look for similarities among the 'arious strains of rhino'irus
() isco'ering how the human body produces antibodies in response to a
rhino'iral infection
(#) etermining the detailed molecular structure of the nucleic acid of a
rhino'irus
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the purpose of Colonno4s e$periments
was to determine whether
(A) chimpan!ees and humans can both be infected by rhino'iruses
GRE 06-
(B) chimpan!ees can produce antibodies to human cell(surface receptors
(C) a rhino'irus4 nucleic acid might be locked in its protein coat
() binding antibodies to common receptors could produce a possible defense
against rhino'iruses
(#) rhino'iruses are 'ulnerable to human antibodies
22. According to the passage/ =ossman4s research suggests that
(A) a defense against rhino'iruses might e$ploit structural similarities among the
strains of rhino'irus
(B) human cells normally do not de'elop antibodies to components of their own
cells
(C) the 'arious strains of rhino'irus differ in their ability to bind to the surface of
a host cell
() rhino'irus 'ersatility can work to the benefit of researchers trying to find a
useful antibody
(#) Colonno4s research findings are probably in'alid
2-. According to the passage/ in order for a gi'en antibody to bind to a gi'en
rhino'iral capsid/ which of the following must be true%
(A) The capsid must ha'e a deep *canyon+ on each of its faces.
(B) The antibody must be specific to the molecular structure of the particular
capsid.
(C) The capsid must separate from its nucleic acid before binding to an antibody.
() The antibody must bind to a particular cell(surface receptor before it can bind
to a rhino'irus.
(#) The antibody must first enter a cell containing the particular rhino'irus.
SECTION B
Damonds, an occasona component of rare gneous rocks caed amprotes
and kmbertes, have never been dated satsfactory. However, some damonds
contan mnute ncusons of scate mneras, commony ovne, pyroxene, and
garnet. These mneras can be dated by radoactve decay technques because of
the very sma quanttes of radoactve trace eements they, n turn, contan.
Usuay, t s possbe to concude that the ncusons are oder than ther damond
hosts, but wth tte ndcaton of the tme nterva nvoved. Sometmes, however,
the crysta form of the scate ncusons s observed to resembe more cosey the
nterna structure of damond than that of other scate mneras. It s not known
how rare ths resembance s, or whether t s most often seen n ncusons of
scates such as garnet, whose crystaography s generay somewhat smar to
that of damond; but when present, the resembance s regarded as compeng
evdence that the damonds and ncusons are truy cogenetc.
066 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1-. The author implies that silicate inclusions were most often formed
(A) with small diamonds inside of them
(B) with trace elements deri'ed from their host minerals
(C) by the radioacti'e decay of rare igneous rocks
() at an earlier period than were their host minerals
(#) from the crystalli!ation of rare igneous material
16. According to the passage/ the age of silicate minerals included in diamonds can
be determined due to a feature of the
(A) trace elements in the diamond hosts
(B) trace elements in the rock surrounding the diamonds
(C) trace elements in the silicate minerals
() silicate minerals4 crystal structure
(#) host diamonds4 crystal structure
1,. The author states that which of the following generally has a crystal structure
similar to that of diamond%
(A) Kamproite
(B) Mimberlite
(C) 8li'ine
() @yro$ene
(#) Barnet
25. The main purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain why it has not been possible to determine the age of diamonds
(B) e$plain how it might be possible to date some diamonds
(C) compare two alternati'e approaches to determining the age of diamonds
() compare a method of dating diamonds with a method used to date certain
silicate minerals
(#) compare the age of diamonds with that of certain silicate minerals contained
within them
Dscusson of the assmaton of Puerto Rcans n the Unted States has
focused on two factors: soca standng and the oss of natona cuture. In genera,
excessve stress s paced on one factor or the other, dependng on whether the
commentator s North Amercan or Puerto Rcan. Many North Amercan soca
scentsts, such as Oscar Handn, |oseph Ftzpatrck, and Oscar Lews, consder
Puerto Rcans as the most recent n a ong ne of ethnc entrants to occupy the
owest rung on the soca adder. Such a "socodemographc" approach tends to
regard assmaton as a bengn process, takng for granted ncreased economc
advantage and nevtabe cutura ntegraton, n a supposedy egataran context.
However, ths approach fas to take nto account the coona nature of the Puerto
GRE 06,
Rcan case, wth ths group, unke ther European predecessors, comng from a
naton potcay subordnated to the Unted States. Even the "radca" crtques of
ths manstream research mode, such as the crtque deveoped n -ivided
ociety, attach the ssue of ethnc assmaton too mechancay to factors of
economc and soca mobty and are thus unabe to umnate the cutura
subordnaton of Puerto Rcans as a coona mnorty.
In contrast, the "coonast" approach of sand-based wrters such as Eduardo
Seda-Bona, Manue Madonado-Dens, and Lus Neves-Facon tends to vew
assmaton as the forced oss of natona cuture n an unequa contest wth
mposed foregn vaues. There s, of course, a strong tradton of cutura
accommodaton among other Puerto Rcan thnkers. The wrtngs of Eugeno
Fernandez Mendez ceary exempfy ths tradton, and many supporters of Puerto
Rcos commonweath status share the same unversazng orentaton. But the
Puerto Rcan nteectuas who have wrtten most about the assmaton process n
the Unted States a advance cutura natonast vews, advocatng the
preservaton of mnorty cutura dstnctons and re|ectng what they see as the
sub|ugaton of coona natonates.
Ths cutura and potca emphass s approprate, but the coonast thnkers
msdrect t, overookng the cass reatons at work n both Puerto Rcan and North
Amercan hstory. They pose the cash of natona cutures as an absoute poarty,
wth each cuture understood as statc and undfferentated. Yet both the Puerto
Rcan and North Amercan tradtons have been sub|ect to constant chaenge
from cutura forces wthn ther own socetes, forces that may move toward each
other n ways that cannot be wrtten off as mere "assmaton." Consder, for
exampe, the ndgenous and Afro-Carbbean tradtons n Puerto Rcan cuture and
how they nfuence and are nfuenced by other Carbbean cutures and Back
cutures n the Unted States. The eements of coercon and nequaty, so centra
to cutura contact accordng to the coonast framework pay no roe n ths knd
of convergence of racay and ethncay dfferent eements of the same soca
cass.
21. The author4s main purpose is to
(A) critici!e the emphasis on social standing in discussions of the assimilation of
@uerto =icans in the :nited ;tates
(B) support the thesis that assimilation has not been a benign process for @uerto
=icans
(C) defend a 'iew of the assimilation of @uerto =icans that emphasi!es the
preser'ation of national culture
() indicate deficiencies in two schools of thought on the assimilation of @uerto
=icans in the :nited ;tates
(#) re<ect the attempt to formulate a general framework for discussion of the
assimilation of @uerto =icans in the :nited ;tates
0,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. According to the passage/ cultural accommodation is promoted by
(A) #duardo ;eda(Bonilla
(B) ?anuel ?aldonado(enis
(C) the author of !i$ided Society
() the ma<ority of social scientists writing on immigration
(#) many supporters of @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a writer such as #ugenio >ernande!
?ende! would most likely agree with which of the following statements
concerning members of minority ethnic groups%
(A) 3t is necessary for the members of such groups to adapt to the culture of the
ma<ority.
(B) The members of such groups generally encounter a culture that is static and
undifferentiated.
(C) ;ocial mobility is the most important feature of the e$perience of members of
such groups.
() ;ocial scientists should emphasi!e the cultural and political aspects of the
e$perience of members of such groups.
(#) The assimilation of members of such groups re"uires the forced abandonment
of their authentic national roots.
20. The author implies that the @uerto =ican writers who ha'e written most about
assimilation do 98T do which of the following%
(A) =egard assimilation as benign.
(B) =esist cultural integration.
(C) escribe in detail the process of assimilation.
() Take into account the colonial nature of the @uerto =ican case.
(#) Critici!e supporters of @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *colonialist+ approach is so called
because its practitioners
(A) support @uerto =ico4s commonwealth status
(B) ha'e a strong tradition of cultural accommodation
(C) emphasi!e the class relations at work in both @uerto =ican and 9orth
American history
() pose the clash of national cultures as an absolute polarity in which each
culture is understood as static and undifferentiated
(#) regard the political relation of @uerto =ico to the :nited ;tates as a significant
factor in the e$perience of @uerto =icans
22. The author regards the emphasis by island(based writers on the cultural and
political dimensions of assimilation as
GRE 0,1
(A) ironic
(B) dangerous
(C) fitting but misdirected
() illuminating but easily misunderstood
(#) peculiar but benign
2-. The e$ample discussed in lines 11(10 is intended by the author to illustrate a
(A) strength of the sociodemographic approach
(B) strength of the *colonialist+ approach
(C) weakness of the sociodemographic approach
() weakness of the *colonialist+ approach
(#) weakness of the cultural(accommodationist approach
No. 9-3
SECTION A
Cassca physcs defnes the vacuum as a state of absence: a vacuum s sad
to exst n a regon of space f there s nothng n t. In the quantum fed theores
that descrbe the physcs of eementary partces, the vacuum becomes somewhat
more compcated. Even n empty space, partces can appear spontaneousy as a
resut of fuctuatons of the vacuum. For exampe, an eectron and a postron, or
anteectron, can be created out of the vod. Partces created n ths way have
ony a feetng exstence; they are annhated amost as soon as they appear, and
ther presence can never be detected drecty. They are caed vrtua partces n
order to dstngush them from rea partces, whose fetmes are not constraned
n the same way, and whch can be detected. Thus t s st possbe to defne that
vacuum as a space that has no rea partces n t.
One mght expect that the vacuum woud aways be the state of owest
possbe energy for a gven regon of space. If an area s ntay empty and a rea
partce s put nto t, the tota energy, t seems, shoud be rased by at east the
energy equvaent of the mass of the added partce. A surprsng resut of some
recent theoretca nvestgatons s that ths assumpton s not nvaraby true.
There are condtons under whch the ntroducton of a rea partce of fnte mass
nto an empty regon of space can reduce the tota energy. If the reducton n
energy s great enough, an eectron and a postron w be spontaneousy created.
Under these condtons the eectron and postron are not a resut of vacuum
fuctuatons but are rea partces, whch exst ndefntey and can be detected. In
other words, under these condtons the vacuum s an unstabe state and can
decay nto a state of ower energy; .e., one n whch rea partces are created.
The essenta condton for the decay of the vacuum s the presence of an
0,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
ntense eectrc fed. As a resut of the decay of the vacuum, the space permeated
by such a fed can be sad to acqure an eectrc charge, and t can be caed a
charged vacuum. The partces that materaze n the space make the charge
manfest. An eectrc fed of suffcent ntensty to create a charged vacuum s
key to be found n ony one pace: n the mmedate vcnty of a superheavy
atomc nuceus, one wth about twce as many protons as the heavest natura
nuce known. A nuceus that arge cannot be stabe, but t mght be possbe to
assembe one next to a vacuum for ong enough to observe the decay of the
vacuum. Experments attemptng to acheve ths are now under way.
1-. &hich of the following titles best describes the passage as a whole%
(A) The CacuumE 3ts >luctuations and ecay
(B) The CacuumE 3ts Creation and 3nstability
(C) The CacuumE A ;tate of Absence
() @articles That ?ateriali!e in the Cacuum
(#) Classical @hysics and the Cacuum
16. According to the passage/ the assumption that the introduction of a real particle
into a 'acuum raises the total energy of that region of space has been cast into
doubt by which of the following%
(A) >indings from laboratory e$periments
(B) >indings from obser'ational field e$periments
(C) Accidental obser'ations made during other e$periments
() isco'ery of se'eral erroneous propositions in accepted theories
(#) @redictions based on theoretical work
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that scientists are currently making efforts to
obser'e which of the following e'ents%
(A) The decay of a 'acuum in the presence of 'irtual particles
(B) The decay of a 'acuum ne$t to a superhea'y atomic nucleus
(C) The creation of a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to an intense electric field
() The creation of a 'irtual electron and a 'irtual positron as a result of
fluctuations of a 'acuum
(#) The creation of a charged 'acuum in which only real electrons can be created
in the 'acuum4s region of space
25. @hysicists4 recent in'estigations of the decay of the 'acuum/ as described in the
passage/ most closely resemble which of the following hypothetical e'ents in
other disciplines%
(A) 8n the basis of data gathered in a carefully controlled laboratory e$periment/
a chemist predicts and then demonstrates the physical properties of a newly
synthesi!ed polymer.
GRE 0,.
(B) 8n the basis of manipulations of macroeconomic theory/ an economist
predicts that/ contrary to accepted economic theory/ inflation and
unemployment will both decline under conditions of rapid economic growth.
(C) 8n the basis of a rereading of the te$ts of Aane Austen4s no'els/ a literary
critic suggests that/ contrary to accepted literary interpretations. Austen4s
plots were actually metaphors for political e'ents in early nineteenth(century
#ngland.
() 8n the basis of data gathered in carefully planned obser'ations of se'eral
species of birds/ a biologist proposes a modification in the accepted theory
of interspecies competition.
(#) 8n the basis of a study of obser'ations incidentally recorded in
ethnographers4 descriptions of non(&estern societies/ an anthropologist
proposes a new theory of kinship relations.
21. According to the passage/ the author considers the reduction of energy in an
empty region of space to which a real particle has been added to be
(A) a well(known process
(B) a fre"uent occurrence
(C) a fleeting aberration
() an unimportant e'ent
(#) an une$pected outcome
22. According to the passage/ 'irtual particles differ from real particles in which of
the following ways%
3. Cirtual particles ha'e e$tremely short lifetimes.
33. Cirtual particles are created in an intense electric field.
333. Cirtual particles cannot be detected directly.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 3 and 333 only
2.. The author4s assertions concerning the conditions that lead to the decay of the
'acuum would be most weakened if which of the following occurred%
(A) ;cientists created an electric field ne$t to a 'acuum/ but found that the
electric field was not intense enough to create a charged 'acuum.
(B) ;cientists assembled a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to a 'acuum/ but
found that no 'irtual particles were created in the 'acuum4s region of space.
(C) ;cientists assembled a superhea'y atomic nucleus ne$t to a 'acuum/ but
found that they could not then detect any real particles in the 'acuum4s
0,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
region of space.
() ;cientists introduced a 'irtual electron and a 'irtual positron into a 'acuum4s
region of space/ but found that the 'acuum did not then fluctuate.
(#) ;cientists introduced a real electron and a real positron into a 'acuum4s region
of space/ but found that the total energy of the space increased by the energy
e"ui'alent of the mass of the particles.
Smone de Beauvors work greaty nfuenced Betty Fredans-Indeed, made
t possbe. Why, then, was t Fredan who became the prophet of womens
emancpaton n the Unted States? Potca condtons, as we as a certan ant-
nteectua bas, prepared Amercans and the Amercan meda to better receve
Fredans deradcazed and hghy pragmatc The Feminine (ystique, pubshed n
1963, than Beauvors theoretca readng of womens stuaton n The econd
e3. In 1953 when The econd e3 frst appeared n transaton n the Unted
States, the country had entered the sent, fearfu fortress of the antcommunst
McCarthy years (1950-1954), and Beauvor was suspected of Marxst sympathes.
Even The +ation, a generay bera magazne, warned ts readers aganst "certan
potca eanngs" of the author. Open acknowedgement of the exstence of
womens oppresson was too radca for the Unted States n the fftes, and
Beauvors concuson, that change n womens economc condton, though
nsuffcent by tsef, "remans the basc factor" n mprovng womens stuaton,
was partcuary unacceptabe.
20. According to the passage/ one difference between The Fe-inine *ystique and
The Second Se, is that >riedan4s book
(A) re<ects the idea that women are oppressed
(B) pro'ides a primarily theoretical analysis of women4s li'es
(C) does not reflect the political beliefs of its author
() suggests that women4s economic condition has no impact on their status
(#) concentrates on the practical aspects of the "uestions of women4s
emancipation
21. The author "uotes from The Nation most probably in order to
(A) modify an earlier assertion
(B) point out a possible e$ception to her argument
(C) illustrate her central point
() clarify the meaning of a term
(#) cite an e$pert opinion
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is not a factor in
the e$planation of why The Fe-inine *ystique was recei'ed more positi'ely in
the :nited ;tates than was The Second Se,%
(A) By 1,2. political conditions in the :nited ;tates had changed.
GRE 0,1
(B) >riedan4s book was less intellectual and abstract than Beau'oir4s.
(C) =eaders did not recogni!e the powerful influence of Beau'oir4s book on
>riedan4s ideas.
() >riedan4s approach to the issue of women4s emancipation was less radical
than Beau'oir4s.
(#) American readers were more willing to consider the problem of the
oppression of women in the si$ties than they had been in the fifties.
2-. According to the passage/ Beau'oir4s book asserted that the status of women
(A) is the outcome of political oppression
(B) is inherently tied to their economic condition
(C) can be best impro'ed under a communist go'ernment
() is a theoretical/ rather than a pragmatic/ issue
(#) is a critical area of discussion in ?ar$ist economic theory
SECTION B
One of the questons of nterest n the study of the evouton of spders s
whether the weavng of orb webs evoved ony once or severa tmes. About haf
the 35,000 known knds of spders make webs; a thrd of the web weavers make
orb webs. Snce most orb weavers beong ether to the Aranedae or the
Uobordae fames, the orgn of the orb web can be determned ony by
ascertanng whether the fames are reated.
Recent taxonomc anayss of ndvduas from both fames ndcates that the
fames evoved from dfferent ancestors, thereby contradctng Wehes theory.
Ths theory postuates that the fames must be reated, based on the assumpton
that compex behavor, such as web budng, coud evove ony once. Accordng to
Kuman, web structure s the ony characterstc that suggests a reatonshp
between fames. The fames dffer n appearance, structure of body har, and
arrangement of eyes. Ony Uobords ack venom gands. Further dentfcaton and
study of characterstc features w undoubtedy answer the queston of the
evouton of the orb web.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) settle the "uestion of whether orb webs e'ol'ed once or more than once
(B) describe scientific speculation concerning an issue related to the e'olution of
orb webs
(C) analy!e the differences between the characteristic features of spiders in the
Araneidae and :loboridae families
() "uestion the methods used by earlier in'estigators of the habits of spiders
(#) demonstrate that Araneidae spiders are not related to :loboridae spiders
0,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that all orb(wea'ing spiders belong to types of
spiders that
(A) lack 'enom glands
(B) are included either in the :loboridae or Araneidae families
(C) share few characteristic features with other spider types
() comprise less than a third of all known types of spiders
(#) are more recently e'ol'ed than other types of spiders
1,. According to the passage/ members of the Araneidae family can be distinguished
from members of the :loboridae family by all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) the presence of 'enom glands
(B) the type of web they spin
(C) the structure of their body hair
() the arrangement of their eyes
(#) their appearance
25. &hich of the following statements/ if true/ most weakens &iehle4s theory that
comple$ beha'ior could e'ol'e only once%
(A) )orses/ introduced to the 9ew &orld by the ;paniards/ thri'ed under di'erse
climatic conditions.
(B) @lants of the @almaceae family/ descendants of a common ancestor/ e'ol'ed
uni"ue seed forms e'en though the plants occupy similar habitats throughout
the world.
(C) All mammals are descended from a small/ rodentlike animal whose physical
characteristics in some form are found in all its descendants.
() @lants in the Cactaceae and #uphorbiaceae families/ although they often look
alike and ha'e de'eloped similar mechanisms to meet the rigors of the
desert/ e'ol'ed independently.
(#) The Cuban anole/ which was recently introduced in the >lorida wilds/ is
"uickly replacing the nati'e >lorida chameleon because the anole has no
competitors.
"Popuar art" has a number of meanngs, mpossbe to defne wth any
precson, whch range from fokore to |unk. The poes are cear enough, but the
mdde tends to bur. The Hoywood Western of the 1930s, for exampe, has
eements of fokore, but s coser to |unk than to hgh art or fok art. There can be
great trash, |ust as there s bad hgh art. The muscas of George Gershwn are
great popuar art, never asprng to hgh art. Schubert and Brahms, however, used
eements of popuar musc-fok themes-n works ceary ntended as hgh art.
The case of Verd s a dfferent one: he took a popuar genre-bourgeos
meodrama set to musc (an accurate defnton of nneteenth-century opera)-
and, wthout aterng ts fundamenta nature, transmuted t nto hgh art. Ths
GRE 0,-
remans one of the greatest achevements n musc, and one that cannot be fuy
apprecated wthout recognzng the essenta trashness of the genre.
As an exampe of such a transmutaton, consder what Verd made of the
typca potca eements of nneteenth-century opera. Generay n the pots of
these operas, a hero or herone-usuay portrayed ony as an ndvdua,
unfettered by cass-s caught between the mmora corrupton of the arstocracy
and the doctrnare rgdty or secret greed of the eaders of the proetarat. Verd
transforms ths nave and unkey formuaton wth musc of extraordnary energy
and rhythmc vtaty, musc more subte than t seems at frst hearng. There are
scenes and aras that st sound ke cas to arms and were ceary understood as
such when they were frst performed. Such peces end an mmedacy to the
otherwse veed potca message of these operas and ca up feengs beyond
those of the opera tsef.
Or consder Verds treatment of character. Before Verd, there were rarey any
characters at a n musca drama, ony a seres of stuatons whch aowed the
sngers to express a seres of emotona states. Any attempt to fnd coherent
psychoogca portraya n these operas s mspaced ngenuty. The ony
coherence was the sngers voca technque: when the cast changed, new aras
were amost aways substtuted, generay adapted from other operas. Verds
characters, on the other hand, have genune consstency and ntegrty, even f, n
many cases, the consstency s that of pasteboard meodrama. The ntegrty of the
character s acheved through the musc: once he had become estabshed, Verd
dd not rewrte hs musc for dfferent sngers or countenance ateratons or
substtutons of somebody eses aras n one of hs operas, as every eghteenth-
century composer had done. When he revsed an opera, t was ony for dramatc
economy and effectveness.
21. The author refers to ;chubert and Brahms in order to suggest
(A) that their achie'ements are no less substantial than those of Cerdi
(B) that their works are e$amples of great trash
(C) the e$tent to which ;chubert and Brahms influenced the later compositions of
Cerdi
() a contrast between the con'entions of nineteenth(century opera and those of
other musical forms
(#) that popular music could be employed in compositions intended as high art
22. According to the passage/ the immediacy of the political message in Cerdi4s
operas stems from the
(A) 'itality and subtlety of the music
(B) audience4s familiarity with earlier operas
(C) portrayal of heightened emotional states
() indi'idual talents of the singers
0,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) 'erisimilitude of the characters
2.. According to the passage/ all of the following characteri!e musical drama before
Cerdi #DC#@TE
(A) arias tailored to a particular singer4s ability
(B) adaptation of music from other operas
(C) psychological inconsistency in the portrayal of characters
() e$pression of emotional states in a series of dramatic situations
(#) music used for the purpose of defining a character
20. 3t can be inferred that the author regards Cerdi4s re'isions to his operas with
(A) regret that the original music and te$ts were altered
(B) concern that many of the re'isions altered the plots of the original work
(C) appro'al for the intentions that moti'ated the re'isions
() pu!!lement/ since the re'isions seem largely insignificant
(#) enthusiasm/ since the re'isions were aimed at reducing the con'entionality of
the operas4 plots
21. According to the passage/ one of Cerdi4s achie'ements within the framework of
nineteenth(century opera and its con'entions was to
(A) limit the e$tent to which singers influenced the musical compositions and
performance of his operas
(B) use his operas primarily as forums to protest both the moral corruption and
dogmatic rigidity of the political leaders of his time
(C) portray psychologically comple$ characters shaped by the political
en'ironment surrounding them
() incorporate elements of folklore into both the music and plots of his operas
(#) introduce political elements into an art form that had traditionally a'oided
political content
22. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the first paragraph of the
passage to the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t pro'ides a group of specific e$amples from which generali!ations are
drawn later in the passage.
(B) 3t leads to an assertion that is supported by e$amples later in the passage.
(C) 3t defines terms and relationships that are challenged in an argument later in
the passage.
() 3t briefly compares and contrasts se'eral achie'ements that are e$amined in
detail later in the passage.
(#) 3t e$plains a method of <udging a work of art/ a method that is used later in
the passage.
GRE 0,,
2-. 3t can be inferred that the author regards the independence from social class of the
heroes and heroines of nineteenth(century opera as
(A) an ideali!ed but fundamentally accurate portrayal of bourgeois life
(B) a plot con'ention with no real connection to political reality
(C) a plot refinement uni"ue to Cerdi
() a symbolic representation of the position of the bourgeoisie relati'e to the
aristocracy and the proletariat
(#) a con'ention largely seen as irrele'ant by audiences
No. 9-4
SECTION A
(The artce from whch the passage was taken appeared n 1982.)
Theorsts are dvded concernng the orgn of the Moon. Some hypothesze
that the Moon was formed n the same way as were the panets n the nner soar
system (Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Earth)-from panet-formng materas n the
presoar nebua. But, unke the cores of the nner panets, the Moons core
contans tte or no ron, whe the typca panet-formng materas were qute rch
n ron. Other theorsts propose that the Moon was rpped out of the Earths rocky
mante by the Earths coson wth another arge ceesta body after much of the
Earths ron fe to ts core. One probem wth the coson hypothess s the
queston of how a satete formed n ths way coud have setted nto the neary
crcuar orbt that the Moon has today. Fortunatey, the coson hypothess s
testabe. If t s true, the manterocks of the Moon and the Earth shoud be the
same geochemcay.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present two hypotheses concerning the origin of the ?oon
(B) discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the collision hypothesis concerning
the origin of the ?oon
(C) propose that hypotheses concerning the ?oon4s origin be tested
() argue that the ?oon could not ha'e been formed out of the typical planet(
forming materials of the presolar nebula
(#) describe one reason why the ?oon4s geochemical makeup should resemble
that of the #arth
16. According to the passage/ ?ars and the #arth are similar in which of the
following ways%
3. Their satellites were formed by collisions with other celestial bodies.
33. Their cores contain iron.
155 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
333. They were formed from the presolar nebula.
(A) 333 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. The author implies that a nearly circular orbit is unlikely for a satellite that
(A) circles one of the inner planets
(B) is deficient in iron
(C) is different from its planet geochemically
() was formed by a collision between two celestial bodies
(#) was formed out of the planet(forming materials in the presolar nebula
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be most likely to make it difficult to 'erify
the collision hypothesis in the manner suggested by the author%
(A) The ?oon4s core and mantlerock are almost inacti'e geologically.
(B) The mantlerock of the #arth has changed in composition since the formation
of the ?oon/ while the mantlerock of the ?oon has remained chemically
inert.
(C) ?uch of the #arth4s iron fell to the #arth4s core long before the formation of
the ?oon/ after which the #arth4s mantlerock remained unchanged.
() Certain of the #arth4s elements/ such as platinum/ gold/ and iridium/ followed
iron to the #arth4s core.
(#) The mantlerock of the ?oon contains elements such as platinum/ gold/ and
iridium.
Surprsngy enough, modern hstorans have rarey nterested themseves n
the hstory of the Amercan South n the perod before the South began to become
sef-conscousy and dstnctvey "Southern"-the decades after 1815.
Consequenty, the cutura hstory of Brtans North Amercan empre n the
seventeenth and eghteenth centures has been wrtten amost as f the Southern
coones had never exsted. The Amercan cuture that emerged durng the
Coona and Revoutonary eras has been depcted as havng been smpy an
extenson of New Engand Purtan cuture. However, Professor Davs has recenty
argued that the South stood apart from the rest of Amercan socety durng ths
eary perod, foowng ts own unque pattern of cutura deveopment. The case
for Southern dstnctveness rests upon two reated premses: frst, that the
cutura smartes among the fve Southern coones were far more mpressve
than the dfferences, and second, that what made those coones ake aso made
them dfferent from the other coones. The frst, for whch Davs offers an
enormous amount of evdence, can be accepted wthout ma|or reservatons; the
GRE 151
second s far more probematc.
What makes the second premse probematc s the use of the Purtan coones
as a bass for comparson. Oute propery, Davs decres the excessve nfuence
ascrbed by hstorans to the Purtans n the formaton of Amercan cuture. Yet
Davs nadvertenty adds weght to such ascrptons by usng the Purtans as the
standard aganst whch to assess the achevements and contrbutons of Southern
coonas. Throughout, Davs focuses on the mportant, and undenabe,
dfferences between the Southern and Purtan coones n motves for and patterns
of eary settement, n atttudes toward nature and Natve Amercans, and n the
degree of receptvty to metropotan cutura nfuences.
However, recent schoarshp has strongy suggested that those aspects of
eary New Engand cuture that seem to have been most dstncty Purtan, such as
the strong regous orentaton and the communa mpuse, were not even typca
of New Engand as a whoe, but were argey confned to the two coones of
Massachusetts and Connectcut. Thus, what n contrast to the Purtan coones
appears to Davs to be pecuary Southern-acqustveness, a strong nterest n
potcs and the aw, and a tendency to cutvate metropotan cutura modes-
was not ony more typcay Engsh than the cutura patterns exhbted by Purtan
Massachusetts and Connectcut, but aso amost certany characterstc of most
other eary modern Brtsh coones from Barbados north to Rhode Isand and New
Hampshre. Wthn the arger framework of Amercan coona fe, then, not the
Southern but the Purtan coones appear to have been dstnctve, and even they
seem to have been rapdy assmatng to the domnant cutura patterns by the
ate Coona perod.
21. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) refuting a claim about the influence of @uritan culture on the early American
;outh
(B) refuting a thesis about the distincti'eness of the culture of the early American
;outh
(C) refuting the two premises that underlie a'is4 discussion of the culture of the
American ;outh in the period before 1611
() challenging the hypothesis that early American culture was homogeneous in
nature
(#) challenging the contention that the American ;outh made greater
contributions to early American culture than @uritan 9ew #ngland did
22. The passage implies that the attitudes toward 9ati'e Americans that pre'ailed in
the ;outhern colonies
(A) were in conflict with the cosmopolitan outlook of the ;outh
(B) deri'ed from ;outherners4 strong interest in the law
(C) were modeled after those that pre'ailed in the 9orth
152 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() differed from those that pre'ailed in the @uritan colonies
(#) de'eloped as a response to attitudes that pre'ailed in ?assachusetts and
Connecticut
2.. According to the author/ the depiction of American culture during the Colonial
and =e'olutionary eras as an e$tension of 9ew #ngland @uritan culture reflects
the
(A) fact that historians ha'e o'erestimated the importance of the @uritans in the
de'elopment of American culture
(B) fact that early American culture was deeply influenced by the strong religious
orientation of the colonists
(C) failure to recogni!e important and undeniable cultural differences between
9ew )ampshire and =hode 3sland on the one hand and the ;outhern
colonies on the other
() e$tent to which ?assachusetts and Connecticut ser'ed as cultural models for
the other American colonies
(#) e$tent to which colonial America resisted assimilating cultural patterns that
were typically #nglish
20. The author of the passage is in agreement with which of the following elements
of a'is4 book%
3. a'is4 claim that ac"uisiti'eness was a characteristic uni"ue to the ;outh
during the Colonial period
33. a'is4 argument that there were significant differences between @uritan and
;outhern culture during the Colonial period
333. a'is4 thesis that the ;outhern colonies shared a common culture
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would find a'is4 second
premise (lines 16(25) more plausible if it were true that
(A) @uritan culture had displayed the tendency characteristic of the ;outh to
culti'ate metropolitan cultural models
(B) @uritan culture had been dominant in all the non(;outhern colonies during the
se'enteenth and eighteen centuries
(C) the communal impulse and a strong religious orientation had been more
pre'alent in the ;outh
() the 'arious cultural patterns of the ;outhern colonies had more closely
resembled each other
GRE 15.
(#) the cultural patterns characteristic of most early modern British colonies had
also been characteristic of the @uritan colonies
22. The passage suggests that by the late Colonial period the tendency to culti'ate
metropolitan cultural models was a cultural pattern that was
(A) dying out as @uritan influence began to grow
(B) self(consciously and distincti'ely ;outhern
(C) spreading to ?assachusetts and Connecticut
() more characteristic of the ;outhern colonies than of #ngland
(#) beginning to spread to =hode 3sland and 9ew )ampshire
2-. &hich of the following statements could most logically follow the last sentence
of the passage%
(A) Thus/ had more attention been paid to the e'idence/ a'is would not ha'e
been tempted to argue that the culture of the ;outh di'erged greatly from
@uritan culture in the se'enteenth century.
(B) Thus/ con'ergence/ not di'ergence/ seems to ha'e characteri!ed the cultural
de'elopment of the American colonies in the eighteenth century.
(C) Thus/ without the cultural di'ersity represented by the America ;outh/ the
culture of colonial America would certainly ha'e been homogeneous in
nature.
() Thus/ the contribution of ;outhern colonials to American culture was
certainly o'ershadowed by that of the @uritans.
(#) Thus/ the culture of America during the Colonial period was far more
sensiti'e to outside influences than historians are accustomed to
acknowledge.
SECTION B
For some tme scentsts have beeved that choestero pays a ma|or roe n
heart dsease because peope wth fama hyperchoesteroema, a genetc
defect, have sx to eght tmes the norma eve of choestero n ther bood and
they nvaraby deveop heart dsease. These peope ack ce-surface receptors for
ow-densty poprotens (LDLs), whch are the fundamenta carrers of bood
choestero to the body ces that use choestero. Wthout an adequate number of
ce-surface receptors to remove LDLs from the bood, the choestero-carryng
LDLs reman n the bood, ncreasng bood choestero eves. Scentsts aso
notced that peope wth fama hyperchoesteroema appear to produce more
LDLs than norma ndvduas. How, scentsts wondered, coud a genetc mutaton
that causes a sowdown n the remova of LDLs from the bood aso resut n an
ncrease n the synthess of ths choestero-carryng proten?
Snce scentsts coud not experment on human body tssue, ther knowedge
of fama hyperchoesteroema was severey mted. However, a breakthrough
150 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
came n the aboratores of Yosho Watanabe of Kobe Unversty n |apan n 1980.
Watanabe notced that a mae rabbt n hs coony had ten tmes the norma
concentraton of choestero n ts bood. By approprate breedng, Watanabe
obtaned a stran of rabbts that had very hgh choestero eves. These rabbts
spontaneousy deveoped heart dsease. To hs surprse, Watanabe further found
that the rabbts, ke humans wth fama hyperchoesteroema, acked LDL
receptors. Thus, scentsts coud study these Watanabe rabbts to gan a better
understandng of fama hyperchoesteroema n humans.
Pror to the breakthrough at Kobe Unversty, t was known that LDLs are
secreted from the ver n the form of a precursor, caed very ow-densty
poprotens (VLDLs), whch carry trgycerdes as we as reatvey sma amounts
of choestero. The trgycerdes are removed from the VLDLs by fatty and other
tssues. What remans s a remnant partce that must be removed from the bood.
What scentsts earned by studyng the Watanabe rabbts s that the remova of
the VLDL remnant requres the LDL receptor. Normay, the ma|orty of the VLDL
remnants go to the ver where they bnd to LDL receptors and are degraded. In
the Watanabe rabbt, due to a ack of LDL receptors on ver ces, the VLDL
remnants reman n the bood and are eventuay converted to LDLs. The LDL
receptors thus have a dua effect n controng LDL eves. They are necessary to
prevent oversynthess of LDLs from VLDL remnants and they are necessary for
the norma remova of LDLs from the bood. Wth ths knowedge, scentsts are
now we on the way toward deveopng drugs that dramatcay ower choestero
eves n peope affcted wth certan forms of fama hyperchoesteroema.
1-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) presenting a hypothesis and describing compelling e'idence in support of it
(B) raising a "uestion and describing an important disco'ery that led to an answer
(C) showing that a certain genetically caused disease can be treated effecti'ely
with drugs
() e$plaining what causes the genetic mutation that leads to heart disease
(#) discussing the importance of research on animals for the study of human
disease
16. &hich of the following drugs/ if de'eloped/ would most likely be an e$ample of
the kind of drug mentioned in line 1.%
(A) A drug that stimulates the production of CKK remnants
(B) A drug that stimulates the production of KK receptors on the li'er
(C) A drug that stimulates the production of an en!yme needed for cholesterol
production
() A drug that suppresses the production of body cells that use cholesterol
(#) A drug that pre'ents triglycerides from attaching to CKK4s
1,. The passage supplies information to answer which of the following "uestions%
GRE 151
(A) &hich body cells are the primary users of cholesterol%
(B) )ow did scientists disco'er that KK4s are secreted from the li'er in the form
of a precursor%
(C) &here in the body are CKK remnants degraded%
() &hich body tissues produce triglycerides%
(#) &hat techni"ues are used to determine the presence or absence of cell(surface
receptors%
25. According to the passage/ by studying the &atanabe rabbits scientists learned that
(A) CKK remnants are remo'ed from the blood by KK receptors in the li'er
(B) KK4s are secreted from the li'er in the form of precursors called CKK4s
(C) CKK remnant particles contain small amounts of cholesterol
() triglycerides are remo'ed from CKK4s by fatty tissues
(#) KK receptors remo'e KK4s from the blood
21. The de'elopment of drug treatments for some forms of familial
hypercholesterolemia is regarded by the author as
(A) possible/ but not 'ery important
(B) interesting/ but too costly to be practical
(C) promising/ but many years off
() e$tremely unlikely
(#) highly probable
22. The passage implies that if the &atanabe rabbits had had as many KK receptors
on their li'ers as do normal rabbits/ the &atanabe rabbits would ha'e been
(A) less likely than normal rabbits to de'elop heart disease
(B) less likely than normal rabbits to de'elop high concentrations of cholesterol
in their blood
(C) less useful than they actually were to scientists in the study of familial
hypercholesterolemia in humans
() unable to secrete CKK4s from their li'ers
(#) immune to drugs that lower cholesterol le'els in people with certain forms of
familial hypercholesterolemia
2.. The passage implies that &atanabe rabbits differ from normal rabbits in which of
the following ways%
(A) &atanabe rabbits ha'e more KK receptors than do normal rabbits.
(B) The blood of &atanabe rabbits contains more CKK remnants than does the
blood of normal rabbits.
(C) &atanabe rabbits ha'e fewer fatty tissues than do normal rabbits.
() &atanabe rabbits secrete lower le'els of CKK4s than do normal rabbits.
152 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) The blood of &atanabe rabbits contains fewer KK4s than does the blood of
normal rabbits.
(The artce from whch ths passage was taken appeared n 1981.)
When speakng of Romare Bearden, one s tempted to say, "A great Back
Amercan artst." The sub|ect matter of Beardens coages s certany Back.
Portrayas of the fok of Meckenburg County, North Carona, whom he remembers
from eary chdhood, of the |azz muscans and tenement roofs of hs Harem
days, of Pttsburgh steeworkers, and hs reconstructon of cassca Greek myths
n the guse of the ancent Back kngdom of Benn, attest to ths. In natura
harmony wth ths choce of sub|ect matter are the soca sensbtes of the artst,
who remans actve today wth the Cnque Gaery n Manhattan, whch he heped
found and whch s devoted to showng the work of mnorty artsts.
Then why not ca Bearden a Back Amercan artst? Because utmatey ths
categorzaton s too narrow. "What stands up n the end s structure," Bearden
says. "What I try to do s ampfy. If I were |ust creatng a pcture of a farm woman
from back home, t woud have meanng to her and peope there. But art ampfes
tsef to somethng unversa."
20. According to the passage/ all of the following are depicted in Bearden4s collages
#DC#@TE
(A) workers in @ittsburgh4s steel mills
(B) scenes set in the ancient kingdom of Benin
(C) people Bearden knew as a child
() traditional representations of the classical heroes of Breek mythology
(#) the <a!! musicians of the )arlem Bearden used to know
21. The author suggests that Bearden should not be called a Black American artist
because
(A) there are many collages by Bearden in which the sub<ect matter is not Black
(B) Bearden4s work reflects the Black American e$perience in a highly indi'idual
style
(C) through the structure of Bearden4s art his Black sub<ects come to represent all
of humankind
() Bearden4s true significance lies not so much in his own work as in his efforts
to help other minority artists
(#) much of Bearden4s work uses the ancient Black kingdom of Benin for its
setting
22. Bearden4s social sensibilities and the sub<ect matter of his collages are mentioned
by the author in order to e$plain
(A) why one might be tempted to call Bearden a Black American artist
(B) why Bearden cannot be readily categori!ed
GRE 15-
(C) why Bearden4s appeal is thought by many to be ultimately uni'ersal
() how deeply an artist4s artistic creations are influenced by he artist4s social
conscience
(#) what makes Bearden uni"ue among contemporary Black American artists
2-. The author of the passage is chiefly concerned with
(A) discussing Bearden4s philosophy of art
(B) assessing the significance of the ethnic element in Bearden4s work
(C) acknowledging Bearden4s success in gi'ing artistic e$pression to the Black
American e$perience
() pointing out Bearden4s helpfulness to other minority artists
(#) tracing Bearden4s progress toward artistic maturity
No. 9-5
SECTION A
Zoopankton, tny anmas adapted to an exstence n the ocean, have evoved
cever mechansms for obtanng ther food, mnscue phytopankton (pant
pankton). A very specazed feedng adaptaton n zoopankton s that of the
tadpoeke appendcuaran who ves n a wanut-szed (or smaer) baoon of
mucus equpped wth fters that capture and concentrate phytopankton. The
baoon, a transparent structure that vares n desgn accordng to the type of
appendcuaran n habtng t, aso protects the anma and heps to keep t afoat.
Water contanng phytopankton s pumped by the appendcuarans muscuar ta
nto the baoons ncurrent fters, passes through the feedng fter where the
appendcuaran sucks the food nto ts mouth, and then goes through an ext
passage. Found n a the oceans of the word, ncudng the Arctc Ocean,
appendcuarans tend to reman near the waters surface where the densty of
phytopankton s greatest.
1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of
appendicularians%
(A) They are e$clusi'ely carni'orous.
(B) They ha'e more than one method of obtaining food.
(C) They can tolerate frigid water.
() They can disguise themsel'es by secreting mucus.
(#) They are more sensiti'e to light than are other !ooplankton.
16. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining how appendicularians obtain food
(B) e$amining the flotation methods of appendicularians
156 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) mapping the distribution of appendicularians around the world
() describing how appendicularians differ from other !ooplankton
(#) comparing the 'arious types of balloons formed by appendicularians
1,. According to the passage/ all of the following are descripti'e of appendicularians
#DC#@TE
(A) tailed
(B) 'egetarian
(C) small(si!ed
() single(celled
(#) ocean(dwelling
25. The passage suggests that appendicularians tend to remain in surface waters
because they
(A) prefer the warmer water near the surface
(B) are unable to secrete mucus at the lower le'els of the ocean
(C) use the contrast of light and shadow at the surface to hide from predators
() li'e in balloons that cannot withstand he water pressure deeper in the ocean
(#) eat food that grows more profusely near the surface
Students of Unted States hstory, seekng to dentfy the crcumstances that
encouraged the emergence of femnst movements, have thoroughy nvestgated
the md-nneteenth-century Amercan economc and soca condtons that
affected the status of women. These hstorans, however, have anayzed ess fuy
the deveopment of specfcay femnst deas and actvtes durng the same
perod. Furthermore, the deoogca orgns of femnsm n the Unted States have
been obscured because, even when hstorans dd take nto account those
femnst deas and actvtes occurrng wthn the Unted States, they faed to
recognze that femnsm was then a truy nternatona movement actuay
centered n Europe. Amercan femnst actvsts who have been descrbed as
"sotary" and "ndvdua theorsts" were n reaty connected to a movement-
utopan socasm-whch was aready popuarzng femnst deas n Europe durng
the two decades that cumnated n the frst womens rghts conference hed at
Seneca Fas, New York, n 1848. Thus, a compete understandng of the orgns
and deveopment of nneteenth-century femnsm n the Unted States requres
that the geographca focus be wdened to ncude Europe and that the detaed
study aready made of soca condtons be expanded to ncude the deoogca
deveopment of femnsm.
The earest and most popuar of the utopan socasts were the Sant-
Smonans. The specfcay femnst part of Sant-Smonansm has, however, been
ess studed than the groups contrbuton to eary socasm. Ths s regrettabe on
two counts. By 1832 femnsm was the centra concern of Sant-Smonansm and
entrey absorbed ts adherents energy; hence, by gnorng ts femnsm,
GRE 15,
European hstorans have msunderstood Sant-Smonansm. Moreover, snce
many femnst deas can be traced to Sant-Smonansm, European hstorans
apprecaton of ater femnsm n France and the Unted States remaned mted.
Sant-Smons foowers, many of whom were women, based ther femnsm on
an nterpretaton of hs pro|ect to reorganze the gobe by repacng brute force
wth the rue of sprtua powers. The new word order woud be rued together by
a mae, to represent refecton, and a femae, to represent sentment. Ths
compementarty refects the fact that, whe the Sant-Smonans dd not re|ect
the beef that there were nnate dfferences between men and women, they
nevertheess foresaw an equay mportant soca and potca roe for both sexes
n ther utopa.
Ony a few Sant-Smonans opposed a defnton of sexua equaty based on
gender dstncton. Ths mnorty beeved that ndvduas of both sexes were born
smar n capacty and character, and they ascrbed mae-femae dfferences to
socazaton and educaton. The envsoned resut of both currents of thought,
however, was that women woud enter pubc fe n the new age and that sexua
equaty woud reward men as we as women wth an mproved way of fe.
21. 3t can be inferred that the author considers those historians who describe early
feminists in the :nited ;tates as *solitary+ to be
(A) insufficiently familiar with the international origins of nineteenth(century
American feminist thought
(B) o'erly concerned with the regional di'ersity of feminist ideas in the period
before 1606
(C) not focused narrowly enough in their geographical scope
() insufficiently aware of the ideological conse"uences of the ;eneca >alls
conference
(#) insufficiently concerned with the social conditions out of which feminism
de'eloped
22. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the ;eneca >alls
conference on women4s rights%
(A) 3t was primarily a product of nineteenth(century ;aint(;imonian feminist
thought.
(B) 3t was the work of American acti'ists who were independent of feminists
abroad.
(C) 3t was the culminating achie'ement of the utopian socialist mo'ement.
() 3t was a manifestation of an international mo'ement for social change and
feminism.
(#) 3t was the final manifestation of the women4s rights mo'ement in the :nited
;tates in the nineteenth century.
2.. The author4s attitude toward most #uropean historians who ha'e studied the
115 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
;aint(;imonians is primarily one of
(A) appro'al of the specific focus of their research
(B) disappro'al of their lack of attention to the issue that absorbed most of the
;aint(;imonians4 energy after 16.2
(C) appro'al of their general focus on social conditions
() disappro'al of their lack of attention to links between the ;aint(;imonians
and their American counterparts
(#) disagreement with their interpretation of the ;aint(;imonian belief in se$ual
e"uality
20. The author mentions all of the following as characteristic of the ;aint(;imonians
#DC#@TE
(A) The group included many women among its members.
(B) The group belie'ed in a world that would be characteri!ed by se$ual e"uality.
(C) The group was among the earliest #uropean socialist groups.
() ?ost members belie'ed that women should enter public life.
(#) ?ost members belie'ed that women and men were inherently similar in
ability and character.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the ;aint(;imonians en'isioned a utopian
society ha'ing which of the following characteristics%
(A) 3t would be worldwide.
(B) 3t would emphasi!e dogmatic religious principles.
(C) 3t would most influence the :nited ;tates.
() 3t would ha'e armies composed of women rather than of men.
(#) 3t would continue to de'elop new feminist ideas.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that study of ;aint(
;imonianism is necessary for historians of American feminism because such
study
(A) would clarify the ideological origins of those feminist ideas that influenced
American feminism
(B) would increase understanding of a mo'ement that deeply influenced the
utopian socialism of early American feminists
(C) would focus attention on the most important aspect of ;aint(;imonian
thought before 16.2
() promises to offer insight into a mo'ement that was a direct outgrowth of the
;eneca >alls conference of 1606
(#) could increase understanding of those ideals that absorbed most of the energy
of the earliest American feminists
2-. According to the passage/ which of the following would be the most accurate
GRE 111
description of the society en'isioned by most ;aint(;imonians%
(A) A society in which women were highly regarded for their e$tensi'e education
(B) A society in which the two genders played complementary roles and had
e"ual status
(C) A society in which women did not enter public life
() A social order in which a body of men and women would rule together on the
basis of their spiritual power
(#) A social order in which distinctions between male and female would not e$ist
and all would share e"ually in political power
SECTION B
Hstorcay, a cornerstone of cassca emprcsm has been the noton that
every true generazaton must be confrmabe by specfc observatons. In
cassca emprcsm, the truth of "A bas are red," for exampe, s assessed by
nspectng bas; any observaton of a non red ba refutes unequvocay the
proposed generazaton.
For W. V. O. Oune, however, ths consttutes an overy "narrow" concepton of
emprcsm. "A bas are red," he mantans, forms one strand wthn an entre
web of statements (our knowedge); ndvdua observatons can be referred ony
to ths web as a whoe. As new observatons are coected, he expans, they must
be ntegrated nto the web. Probems occur ony f a contradcton deveops
between a new observaton, say, "That ba s bue," and the preexstng
statements. In that case, he argues, any statement or combnaton of statements
(not merey the "offendng" generazaton, as n cassca emprcsm) can be
atered to acheve the fundamenta requrement, a system free of contradctons,
even f, n some cases, the ateraton conssts of abeng the new observaton a
"haucnaton."
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with presenting
(A) criticisms of Nuine4s 'iews on the proper conceptuali!ation of empiricism
(B) e'idence to support Nuine4s claims about the problems inherent in classical
empiricism
(C) an account of Nuine4s counterproposal to one of the traditional assumptions
of classical empiricism
() an o'er'iew of classical empiricism and its contributions to Nuine4s alternate
understanding of empiricism
(#) a history of classical empiricism and Nuine4s reser'ations about it
16. According to Nuine4s conception of empiricism/ if a new obser'ation were to
contradict some statement already within our system of knowledge/ which of the
following would be true%
112 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) The new obser'ation would be re<ected as untrue.
(B) Both the obser'ation and the statement in our system that it contradicted
would be discarded.
(C) 9ew obser'ations would be added to our web of statements in order to
e$pand our system of knowledge.
() The obser'ation or some part of our web of statements would need to be
ad<usted to resol'e the contradiction.
(#) An entirely new field of knowledge would be created.
1,. As described in the passage/ Nuine4s specific argument against classical
empiricism would be most strengthened if he did which of the following%
(A) @ro'ided e'idence that many obser'ations are actually hallucinations.
(B) #$plained why new obser'ations often in'alidate pree$isting generali!ations.
(C) Challenged the mechanism by which specific generali!ations are deri'ed
from collections of particular obser'ations.
() ?entioned other critics of classical empiricism and the substance of their
approaches.
(#) Ba'e an e$ample of a specific generali!ation that has not been in'alidated
despite a contrary obser'ation.
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Nuine considers classical empiricism to
be *o'erly Fnarrow4 + (lines -(6) for which of the following reasons%
3. Classical empiricism re"uires that our system of generali!ations be free of
contradictions.
33. Classical empiricism demands that in the case of a contradiction between an
indi'idual obser'ation and a generali!ation/ the generali!ation must be
abandoned.
333. Classical empiricism asserts that e'ery obser'ation will either confirm an
e$isting generali!ation or initiate a new generali!ation.
(A) 33 only
(B) 3 and 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Unt recenty astronomers have been puzzed by the fate of red gant and
supergant stars. When the core of a gant star whose mass surpasses 1.4 tmes
the present mass of our Sun (M
O
) exhausts ts nucear fue, t s unabe to support
ts own weght and coapses nto a tny neutron star. The gravtatona energy
reeased durng ths mposon of the core bows off the remander of the star n a
ggantc exposon, or a supernova. Snce around 50 percent of a stars are
beeved to begn ther ves wth masses greater than 1.4M
O
, we mght expect
GRE 11.
that one out of every two stars woud de as a supernova. But n fact, ony one
star n thrty des such a voent death. The rest expre much more peacefuy as
panetary nebuas. Apparenty most massve stars manage to ose suffcent
matera that ther masses drop beow the crtca vaue of 1.4 M
O
before they
exhaust ther nucear fue.
Evdence supportng ths vew comes from observatons of IRC+10216, a
pusatng gant star ocated 700 ght-years away from Earth. A huge rate of mass
oss (1 M
O
every 10,000 years) has been deduced from nfrared observatons of
ammona (NH
3
) moecues ocated n the crcumstear coud around IRC+10216.
Recent mcrowave observatons of carbon monoxde (CO) moecues ndcate a
smar rate of mass oss and demonstrate that the escapng matera extends
outward from the star for a dstance of at east one ght-year. Because we know
the sze of the coud around IRC+10216 and can use our observatons of ether
NH
3
or CO to measure the outfow veocty, we can cacuate an age for the
crcumstear coud. IRC+10216 has apparenty expeed, n the form of moecues
and dust grans, a mass equa to that of our entre Sun wthn the past ten
thousand years. Ths mpes that some stars can shed huge amounts of matter
very qucky and thus may never expre as supernovas. Theoretca modes as we
as statstcs on supernovas and panetary nebuas suggest that stars that begn
ther ves wth masses around 6 M
O
shed suffcent matera to drop beow the
crtca vaue of 1.4 M
O
. IRC+10216, for exampe, shoud do ths n a mere 50,000
years from ts brth, ony an nstant n the fe of a star.
But what pace does IRC+10216 have n stear evouton? Astronomers
suggest that stars ke IRC+10216 are actuay "protopanetary nebuas"-od
gant stars whose dense cores have amost but not qute rd themseves of the
fuffy enveopes of gas around them. Once the star has ost the entre enveope,
ts exposed core becomes the centra star of the panetary nebua and heats and
onzes the ast vestges of the enveope as t fows away nto space. Ths
confguraton s a fu-fedged panetary nebua, ong famar to optca
astronomers.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) offer a method of calculating the age of circumstellar clouds
(B) describe the conditions that result in a star4s e$piring as a superno'a
(C) discuss new e'idence concerning the composition of planetary nebulas
() e$plain why fewer stars than predicted e$pire as superno'as
(#) sur'ey conflicting theories concerning the composition of circumstellar
clouds
22. The passage implies that at the beginning of the life of 3=CS15212/ its mass was
appro$imately
(A) -.5 ?
O
(B) 2.5 ?
O
110 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) 1.5 ?
O
() 1.0 ?
O
(#) 1.5 ?
O
2.. The 'iew to which line 16 refers ser'es to
(A) reconcile seemingly contradictory facts
(B) undermine a pre'iously held theory
(C) take into account data pre'iously held to be insignificant
() resol'e a contro'ersy
(#) "uestion new methods of gathering data
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author assumes which of the
following in the discussion of the rate at which 3=CS15212 loses mass%
(A) The circumstellar cloud surrounding 3=CS15212 consists only of C8 and
9)
.
molecules.
(B) The circumstellar cloud surrounding 3=CS15212 consists of material e$pelled
from that star.
(C) The age of a star is e"ual to that of its circumstellar cloud.
() The rate at which 3=CS15212 loses mass 'aries significantly from year to
year.
(#) ;tars with a mass greater than 2 ?
O
lose mass at a rate faster than stars with a
mass less than 2 ?
O
do.
21. According to information pro'ided by the passage/ which of the following stars
would astronomers most likely describe as a planetary nebula%
(A) A star that began its life with a mass of 1.1 ?
O
/ has e$hausted its nuclear fuel/
and has a core that is 'isible to astronomers
(B) A star that began its life with a mass of 2 ?
O
/ lost mass at a rate of 1 ?
O
per
15/555 years/ and e$hausted its nuclear fuel in 05/555 years
(C) A star that has e$hausted its nuclear fuel/ has a mass of 1.2 ?
O
/ and is
surrounded by a circumstellar cloud that obscures its core from 'iew
() A star that began its life with a mass greater than 2 ?
O
/ has <ust recently
e$hausted its nuclear fuel/ and is in the process of releasing massi'e amounts
of gra'itational energy
(#) A star that began its life with a mass of 1.1 ?
O
/ has yet to e$haust its nuclear
fuel/ and e$hibits a rate of mass loss similar to that of 3=CS15212
22. &hich of the following statements would be most likely to follow the last
sentence of the passage%
(A) ;uperno'as are not necessarily the most spectacular e'ents that astronomers
ha'e occasion to obser'e.
(B) Apparently/ stars that ha'e a mass of greater than 2 ?
O
are somewhat rare.
GRE 111
(C) =ecent studies of C8 and 9)
.
in the circumstellar clouds of stars similar to
3=CS15212 ha'e led astronomers to belie'e that the formation of planetary
nebulas precedes the de'elopment of superno'as.
() 3t appears/ then/ that 3=CS15212 actually represents an intermediate step in
the e'olution of a giant star into a planetary nebula.
(#) Astronomers ha'e yet to de'elop a consistently accurate method for
measuring the rate at which a star e$hausts its nuclear fuel.
2-. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the content of the passage%
(A) 9ew ?ethods of Calculating the Age of Circumstellar Clouds
(B) 9ew #'idence Concerning the Composition of @lanetary 9ebulas
(C) @rotoplanetary 9ebulaE A =arely 8bser'ed @henomenon
() @lanetary 9ebulasE An #nigma to Astronomers
(#) The iminution of a ;tar4s ?assE A Crucial >actor in ;tellar #'olution
No. 9-6
SECTION A
(Ths passage s from an artce pubshed n 1973)
The recent change to a-vounteer armed forces n the Unted States w
eventuay produce a gradua ncrease n the proporton of women n the armed
forces and n the varety of womens assgnments, but probaby not the dramatc
gans for women that mght have been expected. Ths s so even though the
armed forces operate n an ethos of nsttutona change orented toward
occupatona equaty and under the federa sancton of equa pay for equa work.
The dffcuty s that women are unkey to be traned for any drect combat
operatons. A sgnfcant porton of the arger socety remans uncomfortabe as
yet wth extendng equaty n ths drecton. Therefore, for women n the mtary,
the search for equaty w st be based on functona equvaence, not dentty or
even smarty of task. Opportuntes seem certan to arse. The growng emphass
on deterrence s bound to offer ncreasng scope for women to become nvoved n
nove types of noncombat mtary assgnments.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) present an o'er'iew of the different types of assignments a'ailable to women
in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces
(B) present a reasoned prognosis of the status of women in the new :nited ;tates
all('olunteer armed forces
(C) present the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces as a model case of
e"ual employment policies in action
() analy!e reforms in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces
112 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
necessitated by the increasing number of women in the military
(#) analy!e the use of functional e"ui'alence as a substitute for occupational
e"uality in the new :nited ;tates all('olunteer armed forces
16. According to the passage/ despite the :nited ;tates armed forces4 commitment to
occupational e"uality for women in the military/ certain other factors preclude
women4s
(A) recei'ing e"ual pay for e"ual work
(B) ha'ing access to positions of responsibility at most le'els
(C) drawing assignments from a wider range of assignments than before
() benefiting from opportunities arising from new noncombat functions
(#) being assigned all of the military tasks that are assigned to men
1,. The passage implies that which of the following is a factor conduci'e to a more
e"uitable representation of women in the :nited ;tates armed forces than has
e$isted in the past%
(A) The all('olunteer character of the present armed forces
(B) The past ser'ice records of women who had assignments functionally
e"ui'alent to men4s assignments
(C) The le'el of awareness on the part of the larger society of military issues
() A decline in the proportion of deterrence oriented noncombat assignments
(#) =estricti'e past policies go'erning the military assignments open to women
25. The *dramatic gains for women+ (line 1) and the attitude/ as described in lines
11(12/ of a *significant portion of the larger society+ are logically related to each
other inasmuch as the author puts forward the latter as
(A) a public response to achie'ement of the former
(B) the ma<or reason for absence of the former
(C) a precondition for any prospect of achie'ing the former
() a catalyst for a further e$tension of the former
(#) a reason for some of the former being lost again
Of the thousands of specmens of meteortes found on Earth and known to
scence, ony about 100 are gneous; that s, they have undergone metng by
vocanc acton at some tme snce the panets were frst formed. These gneous
meteortes are known as achondrtes because they ack chondrues-sma stony
spherues found n the thousands of meteortes (caed "chondrtes") composed
prmary of unatered mneras that condensed from dust and gas at the orgn of
the soar system. Achondrtes are the ony known sampes of vocanc rocks
orgnatng outsde the Earth-Moon system. Most are thought to have been
dsodged by nterbody mpact from asterods, wth dameters of from 10 to 500
kometers, n soar orbt between Mars and |upter.
GRE 11-
Shergotttes, the name gven to three anomaous achondrtes so far
dscovered on Earth, present scentsts wth a genune engma. Shergotttes
crystazed from moten rock ess than 1.1 bon years ago (some 3.5 bon
years ater than typca achondrtes) and were presumaby e|ected nto space
when an ob|ect mpacted on a body smar n chemca composton to Earth.
Whe most meteortes appear to derve from comparatvey sma bodes,
shergotttes exhbt propertes that ndcate that ther source was a arge panet,
concevaby Mars. In order to account for such an unkey source, some unusua
factor must be nvoked, because the mpact needed to acceerate a fragment of
rock to escape the gravtatona fed of a body even as sma as the Moon s so
great that no meteortes of unar orgn have been dscovered.
Whe some scentsts specuate that shergotttes derve from Io (a vocancay
actve moon of |upter), recent measurements suggest that snce Ios surface s
rch n sufur and sodum, the chemca composton of ts vocanc products woud
probaby be unke that of the shergotttes. Moreover, any fragments dsodged
from Io by nterbody mpact woud be unkey to escape the gravtatona pu of
|upter.
The ony other ogca source of shergotttes s Mars. Space-probe photographs
ndcate the exstence of gant vocanoes on the Martan surface. From the sma
number of mpact craters that appear on Martan ava fows, one can estmate
that the panet was vocancay actve as recenty as a haf-bon years ago-and
may be actve today. The great ob|ecton to the Martan orgn of shergotttes s
the absence of unar meteortes on Earth. An mpact capabe of e|ectng a
fragment of the Martan surface nto an Earth-ntersectng orbt s even ess
probabe than such an event on the Moon, n vew of the Moons smaer sze and
coser proxmty to Earth. A recent study suggests, however, that permafrost ces
beow the surface of Mars may have atered the effects of mpact on t. If the ces
had been rapdy vaporzed by an mpactng ob|ect, the expandng gases mght
have heped the e|ected fragments reach escape veocty. Fnay, anayses
performed by space probes show a remarkabe chemca smarty between
Martan so and the shergotttes.
21. The passage implies which of the following about shergottites%
3. They are products of 'olcanic acti'ity.
33. They deri'e from a planet larger than #arth.
333. They come from a planetary body with a chemical composition similar to
that of 3o.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
116 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. According to the passage/ a meteorite disco'ered on #arth is unlikely to ha'e
come from a large planet for which of the following reasons%
(A) There are fewer large planets in the solar system than there are asteroids.
(B) ?ost large planets ha'e been 'olcanically inacti'e for more than a billion
years.
(C) The gra'itational pull of a large planet would probably prohibit fragments
from escaping its orbit.
() There are no chondrites occurring naturally on #arth and probably none on
other large planets.
(#) 3nterbody impact is much rarer on large than on small planets because of the
density of the atmosphere on large planets.
2.. The passage suggests that the age of shergottites is probably
(A) still entirely undetermined
(B) less than that of most other achondrites
(C) about ..1 billion years
() the same as that of typical achondrites
(#) greater than that of the #arth
20. According to the passage/ the presence of chondrules in a meteorite indicates that
the meteorite
(A) has probably come from ?ars
(B) is older than the solar system itself
(C) has not been melted since the solar system formed
() is certainly less than 0 billion years old
(#) is a small fragment of an asteroid
21. The passage pro'ides information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat is the precise age of the solar system%
(B) )ow did shergottites get their name%
(C) &hat are the chemical properties shared by shergottites and ?artian soils%
() )ow 'olcanically acti'e is the planet Aupiter%
(#) &hat is a ma<or feature of the ?artian surface%
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that each of the following is a consideration in
determining whether a particular planet is a possible source of shergottites that
ha'e been disco'ered on #arth #DC#@T the
(A) planet4s si!e
(B) planet4s distance from #arth
(C) strength of the planet4s field of gra'ity
() pro$imity of the planet to its moons
GRE 11,
(#) chemical composition of the planet4s surface
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most meteorites found on #arth contain
which of the following%
(A) Crystals
(B) Chondrules
(C) ?etals
() ;odium
(#) ;ulfur
SECTION B
The transpantaton of organs from one ndvdua to another normay nvoves
two ma|or probems: (1) organ re|ecton s key uness the transpantaton
antgens of both ndvduas are neary dentca, and (2) the ntroducton of any
unmatched transpantaton antgens nduces the deveopment by the recpent of
donor-specfc ymphocytes that w produce voent re|ecton of further
transpantatons from that donor. However, we have found that among many
strans of rats these "norma" rues of transpantaton are not obeyed by ver
transpants. Not ony are ver transpants never re|ected, but they even nduce a
state of donor-specfc unresponsveness n whch subsequent transpants of other
organs, such as skn, from that donor are accepted permanenty. Our hypothess s
that (1) many strans of rats smpy cannot mount a suffcenty vgorous
destructve mmune-response (usng ymphocytes) to outstrp the vers reatvey
great capacty to protect tsef from mmune-response damage and that (2) the
systemc unresponsveness observed s due to concentraton of the recpents
donor-specfc ymphocytes at the ste of the ver transpant.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to treat the accepted generali!ations about
organ transplantation in which of the following ways%
(A) #$plicate their main features
(B) ;uggest an alternati'e to them
(C) #$amine their 'irtues and limitations
() Critici!e the ma<or e'idence used to support them
(#) @resent findings that "ualify them
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that an important
difference among strains of rats is the
(A) si!e of their li'ers
(B) constitution of their skin
(C) strength of their immune(response reactions
() sensiti'ity of their antigens
125 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) adaptability of their lymphocytes
1,. According to the hypothesis of the author/ after a successful li'er transplant/ the
reason that rats do not re<ect further transplants of other organs from the same
donor is that the
(A) transplantation antigens of the donor and the recipient become matched
(B) lymphocytes of the recipient are weakened by the acti'ity of the transplanted
li'er
(C) subse"uently transplanted organ is able to repair the damage caused by the
recipient4s immune(response reaction
() transplanted li'er continues to be the primary locus for the recipient4s
immune(response reaction
(#) recipient is unable to manufacture the lymphocytes necessary for the immune(
response reaction
25. &hich of the following new findings about strains of rats that do not normally
re<ect li'er transplants/ if true/ would support the authors4 hypothesis%
3. ;tomach transplants are accepted by the recipients in all cases.
33. 3ncreasing the strength of the recipient4s immune(response reaction can
induce li'er(transplant re<ection.
333. 8rgans from any other donor can be transplanted without re<ection after li'er
transplantation.
3C. @re'enting lymphocytes from being concentrated at the li'er transplant
produces acceptance of skin transplants.
(A) 33 only
(B) 3 and 333 only
(C) 33 and 3C only
() 3/ 33/ and 333 only
(#) 3/ 333/ and 3C only
Practcay speakng, the artstc maturng of the cnema was the snge-
handed achevement of Davd W. Grffth (1875-1948). Before Grffth,
photography n dramatc fms conssted of tte more than pacng the actors
before a statonary camera and showng them n fu ength as they woud have
appeared on stage. From the begnnng of hs career as a drector, however,
Grffth, because of hs ove of Vctoran pantng, empoyed composton. He
conceved of the camera mage as havng a foreground and a rear ground, as we
as the mdde dstance preferred by most drectors. By 1910 he was usng cose-
ups to revea sgnfcant detas of the scene or of the actng and extreme ong
shots to acheve a sense of spectace and dstance. Hs apprecaton of the
cameras possbtes produced nove dramatc effects. By spttng an event nto
fragments and recordng each from the most sutabe camera poston, he coud
sgnfcanty vary the emphass from camera shot to camera shot.
GRE 121
Grffth aso acheved dramatc effects by means of creatve edtng. By
|uxtaposng mages and varyng the speed and rhythm of ther presentaton, he
coud contro the dramatc ntensty of the events as the story progressed. Despte
the reuctance of hs producers, who feared that the pubc woud not be abe to
foow a pot that was made up of such |uxtaposed mages, Grffth perssted, and
expermented as we wth other eements of cnematc syntax that have become
standard ever snce. These ncuded the fashback, permttng broad psychoogca
and emotona exporaton as we as narratve that was not chronoogca, and the
crosscut between two parae actons to heghten suspense and exctement. In
thus expotng fuy the possbtes of edtng, Grffth transposed devces of the
Vctoran nove to fm and gave fm mastery of tme as we as space.
Besdes deveopng the cnemas anguage, Grffth mmensey broadened ts
range and treatment of sub|ects. Hs eary output was remarkaby ecectc: t
ncuded not ony the standard comedes, meodramas, westerns, and thrers, but
aso such novetes as adaptatons from Brownng and Tennyson, and treatments
of soca ssues. As hs successes mounted, hs ambtons grew, and wth them the
whoe of Amercan cnema. When he remade Enoch "rden n 1911, he nssted
that a sub|ect of such mportance coud not be treated n the then conventona
ength of one ree. Grffths ntroducton of the Amercan-made mutree pcture
began an mmense revouton. Two years ater, !udith of Bethulia, an eaborate
hstorcophosophca spectace, reached the unprecedented ength of four rees,
or one hours runnng tme. From our contemporary vewpont, the pretensons of
ths fm may seem a trfe udcrous, but at the tme t provoked endess debate
and dscusson and gave a new nteectua respectabty to the cnema.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the importance of Briffith to the de'elopment of the cinema
(B) describe the impact on cinema of the flashback and other editing inno'ations
(C) deplore the state of American cinema before the ad'ent of Briffith
() analy!e the changes in the cinema wrought by the introduction of the
multireel film
(#) document Briffith4s impact on the choice of sub<ect matter in American films
22. The author suggests that Briffith4s film inno'ations had a direct effect on all of
the following #DC#@TE
(A) film editing
(B) camera work
(C) scene composing
() sound editing
(#) directing
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that before 1,15 the normal running time of a
film was
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) 11 minutes or less
(B) between 11 and .5 minutes
(C) between .5 and 01 minutes
() between 01 minutes and 1 hour
(#) 1 hour or more
20. The author asserts that Briffith introduced all of the following into American
cinema #DC#@TE
(A) consideration of social issues
(B) adaptations from Tennyson
(C) the flashback and other editing techni"ues
() photographic approaches inspired by Cictorian painting
(#) dramatic plots suggested by Cictorian theater
21. The author suggests that Briffith4s contributions to the cinema had which of the
following results%
3. Kiterary works/ especially Cictorian no'els/ became popular sources for film
sub<ects.
33. Audience appreciation of other film directors4 e$perimentations with
cinematic synta$ was increased.
333. ?any of the artistic limitations thought to be inherent in filmmaking were
shown to be really none$istent.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Briffith would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements%
(A) The good director will attempt to e$plore new ideas as "uickly as possible.
(B) The most important element contributing to a film4s success is the ability of
the actors.
(C) The camera must be considered an integral and acti'e element in the creation
of a film.
() The cinema should emphasi!e serious and sober e$aminations of fundamental
human problems.
(#) The proper composition of scenes in a film is more important than the details
of their editing.
2-. The author4s attitude toward photography in the cinema before Briffith can best
GRE 12.
be described as
(A) sympathetic
(B) nostalgic
(C) amused
() condescending
(#) hostile
GRE RC
1990 04
SECTION A
Because of ts accuracy n outnng the Earths subsurface, the sesmc-
refecton method remans the most mportant too n the search for petroeum
reserves. In fed practce, a subsurface s mapped by arrangng a seres of wave-
tran sources, such as sma dynamte exposons, n a grd pattern. As each source
s actvated, t generates a wave tran that moves downward at a speed
determned unquey by the rocks eastc characterstcs. As rock nterfaces are
crossed, the eastc characterstcs encountered generay change abrupty, whch
causes part of the energy to be refected back to the surface, where t s recorded
by sesmc nstruments. The sesmc records must be processed to correct for
postona dfferences between the source and the recever, for unreated wave
trans, and for mutpe refectons from the rock nterfaces. Then the data
acqured at each of the specfc source ocatons are combned to generate a
physca profe of the subsurface, whch can eventuay be used to seect targets
for drng.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing an important techni"ue
(B) discussing a new method
(C) in'estigating a contro'ersial procedure
() announcing a significant disco'ery
(#) promoting a no'el application
16. According to the passage/ in the seismic(reflection method all of the following
ha'e a significant effect on the signal detected by the seismic instruments
#DC#@T the
(A) presence of unrelated wa'e trains
(B) placement of the seismic instruments
(C) number of sources in the grid pattern
() nature of the reflecti'ity of the rock interfaces
120 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) properties of rocks through which the wa'e train has tra'eled
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the seismic(reflection method would be
likely to yield an inaccurate physical profile of the subsurface in which of the
following circumstances%
(A) 3f the speed at which the wa'e train mo'ed downward changed
(B) 3f the recei'er were not positioned directly at the wa'e(train source
(C) 3f the rock on one side of a rock interface had similar elastic characteristics to
those of the rock on the other side
() 3f the seismic records obtained for the different sources in a grid were highly
similar to each other
(#) 3f there were no petroleum deposits beneath the area defined by the grid of
wa'e(train sources
25. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A method is critici!ed/ and an alternati'e is suggested.
(B) An illustration is e$amined/ and some errors are e$posed.
(C) An assertion is made/ and a procedure is outlined.
() A series of e$amples is presented/ and a conclusion is drawn.
(#) A hypothesis is ad'anced/ and supporting e'idence is supplied.
Modern archaeoogca fnds can st contrbute much to the study of ancent
terature. For exampe, forty years ago a survey of the eary Greek dramatst
Aeschyus pays woud have started wth The u##liant ,omen. Many factors
nterna to the pay, but perhaps most especay the promnence of the chorus
(whch n ths pay has the man roe), ed schoars to consder t one of Aeschyus
earer works. The consensus was that here was a drama truy refectng an eary
stage n the evouton of tragedy out of chora yrc. The pay was dated as eary
as the 490s B.C., n any event, we before Aeschyus pay The Persians of 472
B.C. Then, n 1952, a fragment of papyrus found at Oxyrhynchus was pubshed
statng the offca crcumstances and resuts of a dramatc contest. The fragment
announced that Aeschyus won frst prze wth hs Danad tetraogy, of whch The
u##liant ,omen s the openng pay, and defeated Sophoces n the process.
Sophoces dd not compete n any dramatc contest before 468 B.C., when he won
hs frst vctory. Hence, except by speca peadng (e. g., that the tetraogy was
composed eary n Aeschyus career but not produced unt the 460s B.C.), the
Danad tetraogy must be put after 468 B.C. In addton, a few etters n the
fragment suggest the name Archedemdes, archon n 463 B.C., thus perhaps tyng
the pays to that precse date, amost exacty hafway between Aeschyus even
"gainst The$es of 467 B.C. and hs 4resteia.
The mpcaton of the papyrus admnstered a severe shock to the vast
ma|orty of cassca schoars, who had confdenty asserted that not ony the roe
of the chorus but aso anguage, metrcs, and characterzaton a ponted to an
GRE 121
eary date. The dscovery has resuted n no ess than a tota reevauaton of every
chronoogca crteron that has been apped to or derved from Aeschyus pays.
The actvty has been brsk, and a new creed has now spread. The promnence of
the chorus n The u##liant ,omen now s seen not as a sgn of prmtvsm but as
anaogous to the massve chora songs of the 4resteia. Statstcs have been
formuated, or reformuated, to show that stystcay The u##liant ,omen does
actuay occupy a poston after The Persians and even "gainst The$es& whch
now become the "prmtve" pays, and before the 4resteia. Whe the new
doctrne seems amost certany correct, the one papyrus fragment rases the
specter that another may be unearthed, showng, for nstance, that t was a
posthumous producton of the Danad tetraogy whch bested Sophoces, and
throwng the date once more nto utter confuson. Ths s unkey to happen, but t
warns us that perhaps the most sautary feature of the papyrus scrap s ts
message of the extreme dffcuty of cassfyng and categorzng rgdy the
deveopment of a creatve artst.
21. The author of the passage focuses primarily on
(A) discussing a series of modern archaeological finds and their impact on the
study of Breek literature
(B) recounting the effect of one archaeological find on modern ideas concerning a
particular author4s work
(C) gi'ing a definiti'e and coherent account of the chronology of a particular
author4s work
() illustrating the many 'arieties of difficulties in'ol'ed in establishing facts
concerning ancient literature
(#) determining the e$act 'alue of archaeological finds in relation to the history
of ancient literature
22. &ith respect to the study of ancient literature/ which of the following statements
best e$presses the author4s main point concerning modern archaeological finds%
(A) They can profoundly alter accepted 'iews of ancient literary works/ and can
encourage fle$ibility in the way scholars look at the creati'e de'elopment of
any artist.
(B) They can be se'erely shocking and can ha'e a re'i'ifying effect on the study
of ancient literature/ which has recently suffered from a lack of interest on
the part of scholars.
(C) They can raise more "uestions than they answer and can be unreliable sources
of information.
() They generally confirm scholars4 ideas about ancient literary works and allow
them to dispense with inferences drawn from the works4 internal structure.
(#) They often undermine scholarly consensus in certain areas and create utter
confusion concerning an author4s work.
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2.. According to the passage/ in the absence of definite knowledge concerning the
dates of composition of ancient literary works/ literary historians do which of the
following when trying to establish the chronology of an author4s work%
(A) ?ake assumptions about a single work4s date of composition if such
assumptions would not seriously affect interpretations of other works by the
same author.
(B) raw inferences concerning the date of a work4s composition based on
e'idence internal to that work and on the author4s other works.
(C) 3gnore the date of a work4s composition which is supplied by archaeological
research when literary factors internal to the work contradict that date.
() =efrain from speculation concerning a work4s date of composition unless
archaeological finds produce information concerning it.
(#) #stimate the date of a work4s composition without attempting to relate it to
the author4s de'elopment as an artist.
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following plays or groups of
plays is considered the latest in the date of its composition%
(A) The @ersians
(B) The anaid tetralogy
(C) The 0resteia
() ;e'en Against Thebes
(#) The ;uppliant &omen
21. &ith which of the following statements regarding the chronological criteria
mentioned in line ..(.0 would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) ;uch criteria/ whether applied to or deri'ed from the plays/ should only be
used to confirm already e$isting knowledge.
(B) ;uch criteria/ although deri'ed from reliable e$ternal and internal e'idence/
should be changed continually to a'oid rigidity in thinking.
(C) ;uch criteria/ based on statistical analysis/ are inherently more reliable than
those of forty years ago.
() ;uch criteria/ e'en when unsupported by e$ternal e'idence/ can resol'e most
"uestions.
(#) ;uch criteria/ based on often ambiguous internal e'idence/ can lead to
erroneous reconstructions of the chronology of an author4s work.
22. The author4s attitude toward the *acti'ity+ mentioned in line .1 and its
conse"uences can best be described as one of
(A) amused tolerance
(B) mocking en'y
(C) gra'e doubt
GRE 12-
() angry disappro'al
(#) unrestrained enthusiasm
2-. The allusion to the hypothetical papyrus fragment in line 01(0, does which of the
following%
(A) ;upports an argument concerning the date of The Suppliant Wo-en.
(B) =efutes the 'iews of the ma<ority of scholars concerning the 8$yrhynchus
papyrus find.
(C) @redicts the future results of archaeological research proposed in the passage.
() :ndermines the 'alidity of the currently accepted chronology of Aeschylus4
works.
(#) Nualifies the author4s agreement with the *new creed+ de'eloped since the
8$yrhynchus papyrus find.
SECTION B
Schoars often fa to see that musc payed an mportant roe n the
preservaton of Afrcan cuture n the Unted States. They correcty note that
savery strpped some cutura eements from Back peope-ther potca and
economc systems-but they underestmate the sgnfcance of musc n
sustanng other Afrcan cutura vaues. Afrcan musc, unke the musc of some
other cutures, was based on a tota vson of fe n whch musc was not an
soated soca doman. In Afrcan cuture musc was pervasve, servng not ony
regon, but a phases of fe, ncudng brth, death, work, and pay. The methods
that a communty devses to perpetuate tsef come nto beng to preserve
aspects of the cutura egacy that that communty perceves as essenta. Musc,
ke art n genera, was so nextrcaby a part of Afrcan cuture that t became a
cruca means of preservng the cuture durng and after the dsocatons of
savery.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) analy!e the impact that sla'ery had on African political and economic
systems
(B) re'iew the attempt of recent scholarship to study the influence of African
music on other music
(C) correct the failure of some scholars to appreciate the significance of music in
African culture
() sur'ey the ways by which people attempt to preser'e their culture against the
effects of oppression
(#) compare the relati'e importance of music with that of other art forms in
culture
16. 3n line ,/ the phrase *isolated social domain+ refers to
126 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) African music in relation to contemporary culture as a whole
(B) music as it may be percei'ed in non(African cultures
(C) a feature of African music that aided in transmitting African cultural 'alues
() an aspect of the African cultural legacy
(#) the influence of music on contemporary culture
1,. &hich of the following statements concerning the function of African music can
be inferred from the passage%
(A) 3t preser'ed cultural 'alues because it was thoroughly integrated into the li'es
of the people.
(B) 3t was more important in the de'elopment of African religious life than in
other areas of culture.
(C) 3t was de'eloped in response to the loss of political and economic systems.
() 3ts per'asi'eness in African culture hindered its effecti'eness in minimi!ing
the impact of sla'ery.
(#) 3ts isolation from the economic domains of life enabled it to sur'i'e the
destructi'e impact of sla'ery.
25. According to the author/ scholars would err in drawing which of the following
conclusions%
3. ;la'ery stripped the sla'es of their political and economic systems.
33. African music was similar to all other traditions of music in that it originated
in a total 'ision of life.
333. ?usic was a crucial part of the African cultural legacy.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
Tradtonay, ponaton by wnd has been vewed as a reproductve process
marked by random events n whch the vagares of the wnd are compensated for
by the generaton of vast quanttes of poen, so that the utmate producton of
new seeds s assured at the expense of producng much more poen than s
actuay used. Because the potenta hazards poen grans are sub|ect to as they
are transported over ong dstances are enormous, wnd-ponated pants have, n
the vew above, compensated for the ensung oss of poen through happenstance
by vrtue of producng an amount of poen that s one to three orders of
magntude greater than the amount produced by speces ponated by nsects.
However, a number of features that are characterstc of wnd-ponated
pants reduce poen waste. For exampe, many wnd-ponated speces fa to
reease poen when wnd speeds are ow or when humd condtons preva.
GRE 12,
Recent studes suggest another way n whch speces compensate for the
neffcency of wnd ponaton. These studes suggest that speces frequenty take
advantage of the physcs of poen moton by generatng specfc aerodynamc
envronments wthn the mmedate vcnty of ther femae reproductve organs. It
s the morphoogy of these organs that dctates the pattern of arfow dsturbances
through whch poen must trave. The speed and drecton of the arfow
dsturbances can combne wth the physca propertes of a speces poen to
produce a speces-specfc pattern of poen coson on the surfaces of femae
reproductve organs. Provded that these surfaces are strategcay ocated, the
consequences of ths combnaton can sgnfcanty ncrease the poen-capture
effcency of a femae reproductve organ.
A crtca queston that remans to be answered s whether the morphoogca
attrbutes of the femae reproductve organs of wnd-ponated speces are
evoutonary adaptatons to wnd ponaton or are merey fortutous. A compete
resouton of the queston s as yet mpossbe snce adaptaton must be evauated
for each speces wthn ts own unque functona context. However, t must be
sad that, whe evdence of such evoutonary adaptatons does exst n some
speces, one must be carefu about attrbutng morphoogy to adaptaton. For
exampe, the spra arrangement of scae-bract compexes on ovue-bearng pne
cones, where the femae reproductve organs of confers are ocated, s mportant
to the producton of arfow patterns that spra over the cones surfaces, thereby
passng arborne poen from one scae to the next. However, these patterns
cannot be vewed as an adaptaton to wnd ponaton because the spra
arrangement occurs n a number of non-wnd-ponated pant neages and s
regarded as a characterstc of vascuar pants, of whch confers are ony one
knd, as a whoe. Therefore, the spra arrangement s not key to be the resut of
a drect adaptaton to wnd ponaton.
21. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) the current debate on whether the morphological attributes of wind(pollinated
plants are e'olutionary adaptations
(B) the kinds of airflow patterns that permit wind(pollinated plants to capture
pollen most efficiently
(C) the ways in which the reproducti'e processes of wind(pollinated plants are
controlled by random e'ents
() a recently proposed e$planation of a way in which wind(pollinated plants
reduce pollen waste
(#) a specific morphological attribute that permits one species of wind(pollinated
plant to capture pollen
22. The author suggests that e$planations of wind pollination that emphasi!e the
production of 'ast "uantities of pollen to compensate for the randomness of the
pollination process are
1.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) debatable and misleading
(B) ingenious and con'incing
(C) accurate but incomplete
() intriguing but contro'ersial
(#) plausible but un'erifiable
2.. According to the passage/ the *aerodynamic en'ironments+ mentioned in line 2./
when they are produced/ are primarily determined by the
(A) presence of insects near the plant
(B) physical properties of the plant4s pollen
(C) shape of the plant4s female reproducti'e organs
() amount of pollen generated by the plant
(#) number of seeds produced by the plant
20. According to the passage/ true statements about the release of pollen by wind(
pollinated plants include which of the following%
3. The release can be affected by certain en'ironmental factors.
33. The amount of pollen released increases on a rainy day.
333. @ollen is sometimes not released by plants when there is little wind.
(A) 33 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
21. The passage suggests that the recent studies cited in lines 1,(21 ha'e not done
which of the following%
(A) ?ade any distinctions between different species of wind(pollinated plants.
(B) Considered the physical properties of the pollen that is produced by wind(
pollinated plants.
(C) 3ndicated the general range within which plant(generated airflow disturbances
are apt to occur.
() 3ncluded in'estigations of the physics of pollen motion and its relationship to
the efficient capture of pollen by the female reproducti'e organs of wind(
pollinated plants.
(#) emonstrated that the morphological attributes of the female reproducti'e
organs of wind(pollinated plants are usually e'olutionary adaptations to
wind pollination.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the claim that the spiral arrangement of
scale(bract comple$es on an o'ule(bearing pine cone is an adaptation to wind
GRE 1.1
pollination would be more con'incing if which of the following were true%
(A) ;uch an arrangement occurred only in wind(pollinated plants.
(B) ;uch an arrangement occurred in 'ascular plants as a whole.
(C) ;uch an arrangement could be shown to be beneficial to pollen release.
() The number of bracts could be shown to ha'e increased o'er time.
(#) The airflow patterns o'er the cone4s surfaces could be shown to be produced
by such arrangements.
2-. &hich of the following/ if known/ is likely to ha'e been the kind of e'idence
used to support the 'iew described in the first paragraph%
(A) &ind speeds need not be 'ery low for wind(pollinated plants to fail to release
pollen.
(B) The female reproducti'e organs of plants often ha'e a sticky surface that
allows them to trap airborne pollen systematically.
(C) Brasses/ as well as conifers/ generate specific aerodynamic en'ironments
within the immediate 'icinity of their reproducti'e organs.
() =ain showers often wash airborne pollen out of the air before it e'er reaches
an appropriate plant.
(#) The density and si!e of an airborne pollen grain are of e"ual importance in
determining whether that grain will be captured by a plant.
1990 10
SECTION A
It has been known for many decades that the appearance of sunspots s
roughy perodc, wth an average cyce of eeven years. Moreover, the ncdence
of soar fares and the fux of soar cosmc rays, utravoet radaton, and x-
radaton a vary drecty wth the sunspot cyce. But after more than a century of
nvestgaton, the reaton of these and other phenomena, known coectvey as
the soar-actvty cyce, to terrestra weather and cmate remans uncear. For
exampe, the sunspot cyce and the aed magnetc-poarty cyce have been
nked to perodctes dscerned n records of such varabes as ranfa,
temperature, and wnds. Invaraby, however, the reaton s weak, and commony
of dubous statstca sgnfcance.
Effects of soar varabty over onger terms have aso been sought. The
absence of recorded sunspot actvty n the notes kept by European observers n
the ate seventeenth and eary eghteenth centures has ed some schoars to
postuate a bref cessaton of sunspot actvty at that tme (a perod caed the
Maunder mnmum). The Maunder mnmum has been nked to a span of unusua
cod n Europe extendng from the sxteenth to the eary nneteenth centures. The
reaty of the Maunder mnmum has yet to be estabshed, however, especay
1.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
snce the records that Chnese naked-eye observers of soar actvty made at that
tme appear to contradct t. Scentsts have aso sought evdence of ong-term
soar perodctes by examnng ndrect cmatoogca data, such as foss records
of the thckness of ancent tree rngs. These studes, however, faed to nk
unequvocay terrestra cmate and the soar-actvty cyce, or even to confrm
the cyces past exstence.
If consstent and reabe geoogca or archaeoogca evdence tracng the
soar-actvty cyce n the dstant past coud be found, t mght aso resove an
mportant ssue n soar physcs: how to mode soar actvty. Currenty, there are
two modes of soar actvty. The frst supposes that the Suns nterna motons
(caused by rotaton and convecton) nteract wth ts arge-scae magnetc fed to
produce a dynamo, a devce n whch mechanca energy s converted nto the
energy of a magnetc fed. In short, the Suns arge-scae magnetc fed s taken
to be sef-sustanng, so that the soar-actvty cyce t drves woud be mantaned
wth tte overa change for perhaps bons of years. The aternatve expanaton
supposes that the Suns arge-scae magnetc fed s a remnant of the fed the
Sun acqured when t formed, and s not sustaned aganst decay. In ths mode,
the soar mechansm dependent on the Suns magnetc fed runs down more
qucky. Thus, the characterstcs of the soar-actvty cyce coud be expected to
change over a ong perod of tme. Modern soar observatons span too short a
tme to revea whether present cycca soar actvty s a ong-ved feature of the
Sun, or merey a transent phenomenon.
1-. The author focuses primarily on
(A) presenting two competing scientific theories concerning solar acti'ity and
e'aluating geological e'idence often cited to support them
(B) gi'ing a brief o'er'iew of some recent scientific de'elopments in solar
physics and assessing their impact on future climatological research
(C) discussing the difficulties in'ol'ed in linking terrestrial phenomena with solar
acti'ity and indicating how resol'ing that issue could ha'e an impact on our
understanding of solar physics
() pointing out the futility of a certain line of scientific in"uiry into the
terrestrial effects of solar acti'ity and recommending its abandonment in
fa'or of purely physics(oriented research
(#) outlining the specific reasons why a problem in solar physics has not yet been
sol'ed and faulting the o'erly theoretical approach of modern physicists
16. &hich of the following statements about the two models of solar acti'ity/ as they
are described in lines .-(11/ is accurate%
(A) 3n both models cyclical solar acti'ity is regarded as a long(li'ed feature of the
;un/ persisting with little change o'er billions of years.
(B) 3n both models the solar(acti'ity cycle is hypothesi!ed as being dependent on
the large(scale solar magnetic field.
GRE 1..
(C) 3n one model the ;un4s magnetic field is thought to play a role in causing
solar acti'ity/ whereas in the other model it is not.
() 3n one model solar acti'ity is presumed to be unrelated to terrestrial
phenomena/ whereas in the other model solar acti'ity is thought to ha'e
obser'able effects on the #arth.
(#) 3n one model cycles of solar acti'ity with periodicities longer than a few
decades are considered to be impossible/ whereas in the other model such
cycles are predicted.
1,. According to the passage/ late se'enteenth and early eighteenth(century Chinese
records are important for which of the following reasons%
(A) They suggest that the data on which the ?aunder minimum was predicated
were incorrect.
(B) They suggest that the ?aunder minimum cannot be related to climate.
(C) They suggest that the ?aunder minimum might be 'alid only for #urope.
() They establish the e$istence of a span of unusually cold weather worldwide at
the time of the ?aunder minimum.
(#) They establish that solar acti'ity at the time of the ?aunder minimum did not
significantly 'ary from its present pattern.
25. The author implies which of the following about currently a'ailable geological
and archaeological e'idence concerning the solar(acti'ity cycle%
(A) 3t best supports the model of solar acti'ity described in lines .-(01.
(B) 3t best supports the model of solar acti'ity described in lines 01(12.
(C) 3t is insufficient to confirm either model of solar acti'ity described in the third
paragraph.
() 3t contradicts both models of solar acti'ity as they are presented in the third
paragraph.
(#) 3t dispro'es the theory that terrestrial weather and solar acti'ity are linked in
some way.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the argument in fa'or of the model
described in lines .-(01 would be strengthened if which of the following were
found to be true%
(A) #pisodes of intense 'olcanic eruptions in the distant past occurred in cycles
ha'ing 'ery long periodicities.
(B) At the present time the global le'el of thunderstorm acti'ity increases and
decreases in cycles with periodicities of appro$imately 11 years.
(C) 3n the distant past cyclical climatic changes had periodicities of longer than
255 years.
() 3n the last century the length of the sunspot cycle has been known to 'ary by
as much as 2 years from its a'erage periodicity of 11 years.
1.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) )undreds of millions of years ago/ solar(acti'ity cycles displayed the same
periodicities as do present(day solar(acti'ity cycles.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Chinese obser'ations of the ;un during
the late se'enteenth and early eighteenth centuries
(A) are ambiguous because most sunspots cannot be seen with the naked eye
(B) probably were made under the same weather conditions as those made in
#urope
(C) are more reliable than #uropean obser'ations made during this period
() record some sunspot acti'ity during this period
(#) ha'e been employed by scientists seeking to argue that a change in solar
acti'ity occurred during this period
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that studies attempting to use tree(ring
thickness to locate possible links between solar periodicity and terrestrial climate
are based on which of the following assumptions%
(A) The solar(acti'ity cycle e$isted in its present form during the time period in
which the tree rings grew.
(B) The biological mechanisms causing tree growth are unaffected by short(term
weather patterns.
(C) A'erage tree(ring thickness 'aries from species to species.
() Tree(ring thicknesses reflect changes in terrestrial climate.
(#) Both terrestrial climate and the solar(acti'ity cycle randomly affect tree(ring
thickness.
The common beef of some ngusts that each anguage s a perfect vehce
for the thoughts of the naton speakng t s n some ways the exact counterpart of
the convcton of the Manchester schoo of economcs that suppy and demand w
reguate everythng for the best. |ust as economsts were bnd to the numerous
cases n whch the aw of suppy and demand eft actua wants unsatsfed, so aso
many ngusts are deaf to those nstances n whch the very nature of a anguage
cas forth msunderstandngs n everyday conversaton, and n whch,
consequenty, a word has to be modfed or defned n order to present the dea
ntended by the speaker: "He took hs stck-no, not |ohns, but hs own." No
anguage s perfect, and f we admt ths truth, we must aso admt that t s not
unreasonabe to nvestgate the reatve merts of dfferent anguages or of
dfferent detas n anguages.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) analy!e an interesting feature of the #nglish language
(B) refute a belief held by some linguists
(C) show that economic theory is rele'ant to linguistic study
() illustrate the confusion that can result from the improper use of language
GRE 1.1
(#) suggest a way in which languages can be made more nearly perfect
21. The misunderstanding presented by the author in lines 1.(10 is similar to which
of the following%
3. D uses the word *you+ to refer to a group/ but H thinks that D is referring to
one person only.
33. D mistakenly uses the word *anomaly+ to refer to a typical e$ample/ but H
knows that *anomaly+ means *e$ception.+
333. D uses the word *bachelor+ to mean *unmarried man/+ but H mistakenly
thinks that bachelor means *unmarried woman.+
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
22. 3n presenting the argument/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) gi'e an e$ample
(B) draw a conclusion
(C) make a generali!ation
() make a comparison
(#) present a parado$
2-. &hich of the following contributes to the misunderstanding described by the
author in lines 1.(10%
(A) 3t is unclear whom the speaker of the sentence is addressing.
(B) 3t is unclear to whom the word *his+ refers the first time it is used.
(C) 3t is unclear to whom the word *his+ refers the second time it is used.
() The meaning of *took+ is ambiguous.
(#) 3t is unclear to whom *)e+ refers.
SECTION B
It s frequenty assumed that the mechanzaton of work has a revoutonary
effect on the ves of the peope who operate the new machnes and on the
socety nto whch the machnes have been ntroduced. For exampe, t has been
suggested that the empoyment of women n ndustry took them out of the
househod, ther tradtona sphere, and fundamentay atered ther poston n
socety. In the nneteenth century, when women began to enter factores, |ues
Smon, a French potcan, warned that by dong so, women woud gve up ther
femnnty. Fredrch Enges, however, predcted that women woud be berated
from the "soca, ega, and economc subordnaton" of the famy by technoogca
1.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
deveopments that made possbe the recrutment of "the whoe femae sex nto
pubc ndustry." Observers thus dffered concernng the soca desrabty of
mechanzatons effects, but they agreed that t woud transform womens ves.
Hstorans, partcuary those nvestgatng the hstory of women, now
serousy queston ths assumpton of transformng power. They concude that
such dramatc technoogca nnovatons as the spnnng |enny, the sewng
machne, the typewrter, and the vacuum ceaner have not resuted n equay
dramatc soca changes n womens economc poston or n the prevang
evauaton of womens work. The empoyment of young women n texte ms
durng the Industra Revouton was argey an extenson of an oder pattern of
empoyment of young, snge women as domestcs. It was not the change n offce
technoogy, but rather the separaton of secretara work, prevousy seen as an
apprentceshp for begnnng managers, from admnstratve work that n the
1880s created a new cass of "dead-end" |obs, thenceforth consdered "womens
work." The ncrease n the numbers of marred women empoyed outsde the
home n the twenteth century had ess to do wth the mechanzaton of
housework and an ncrease n esure tme for these women than t dd wth ther
own economc necessty and wth hgh marrage rates that shrank the avaabe
poo of snge women workers, prevousy, n many cases, the ony women
empoyers woud hre.
Womens work has changed consderaby n the past 200 years, movng from
the househod to the offce or the factory, and ater becomng mosty whte-coar
nstead of bue-coar work. Fundamentay, however, the condtons under whch
women work have changed tte snce before the Industra Revouton: the
segregaton of occupatons by gender, ower pay for women as a group, |obs that
requre reatvey ow eves of sk and offer women tte opportunty for
advancement a persst, whe womens househod abor remans demandng.
Recent hstorca nvestgaton has ed to a ma|or revson of the noton that
technoogy s aways nherenty revoutonary n ts effects on socety.
Mechanzaton may even have sowed any change n the tradtona poston of
women both n the abor market and n the home.
1-. &hich of the following statements best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) The effects of the mechani!ation of women4s work ha'e not borne out the
fre"uently held assumption that new technology is inherently re'olutionary.
(B) =ecent studies ha'e shown that mechani!ation re'olutioni!es a society4s
traditional 'alues and the customary roles of its members.
(C) ?echani!ation has caused the nature of women4s work to change since the
3ndustrial =e'olution.
() The mechani!ation of work creates whole new classes of <obs that did not
pre'iously e$ist.
(#) The mechani!ation of women4s work/ while e$tremely re'olutionary it its
effects/ has not/ on the whole/ had the deleterious effects that some critics
GRE 1.-
had feared.
16. The author mentions all of the following in'entions as e$amples of dramatic
technological inno'ations #DC#@T the
(A) sewing machine
(B) 'acuum cleaner
(C) typewriter
() telephone
(#) spinning <enny
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ before the 3ndustrial =e'olution/ the
ma<ority of women4s work was done in which of the following settings%
(A) Te$tile mills
(B) @ri'ate households
(C) 8ffices
() >actories
(#) ;mall shops
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would consider which of the
following to be an indication of a fundamental alteration in the conditions of
women4s work%
(A) ;tatistics showing that the ma<ority of women now occupy white(collar
positions
(B) 3nter'iews with married men indicating that they are now doing some
household tasks
(C) ;ur'eys of the labor market documenting the recent creation of a new class of
<obs in electronics in which women workers outnumber men four to one
() Census results showing that working women4s wages and salaries are/ on the
a'erage/ as high as those of working men
(#) #nrollment figures from uni'ersities demonstrating that increasing numbers
of young women are choosing to continue their education beyond the
undergraduate le'el
21. The passage states that/ before the twentieth century/ which of the following was
true of many employers%
(A) They did not employ women in factories.
(B) They tended to employ single rather than married women.
(C) They employed women in only those <obs that were related to women4s
traditional household work.
() They resisted technological inno'ations that would radically change women4s
roles in the family.
(#) They hired women only when "ualified men were not a'ailable to fill the
1.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
open positions.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably belie'es which
of the following to be true concerning those historians who study the history of
women%
(A) Their work pro'ides insights important to those e$amining social phenomena
affecting the li'es of both se$es.
(B) Their work can only be used cautiously by scholars in other disciplines.
(C) Because they concentrate only on the role of women in the workplace/ they
draw more reliable conclusions than do other historians.
() &hile highly interesting/ their work has not had an impact on most historians4
current assumptions concerning the re'olutionary effect of technology in the
workplace.
(#) They oppose the further mechani!ation of work/ which/ according to their
findings/ tends to perpetuate e$isting ine"ualities in society.
2.. &hich of the following best describes the function of the concluding sentence of
the passage%
(A) 3t sums up the general points concerning the mechani!ation of work made in
the passage as a whole.
(B) 3t draws a conclusion concerning the effects of the mechani!ation of work
which goes beyond the e'idence presented in the passage as a whole.
(C) 3t restates the point concerning technology made in the sentence immediately
preceding it.
() 3t "ualifies the author4s agreement with scholars who argue for a ma<or
re'ision in the assessment of the impact of mechani!ation on society.
(#) 3t suggests a compromise between two seemingly contradictory 'iews
concerning the effects of mechani!ation on society.
(Ths passage s excerpted from an artce that was pubshed n 1982.)
Warm-booded anmas have eaborate physoogca contros to mantan
constant body temperature (n humans, 37). Why then durng sckness shoud
temperature rse, apparenty ncreasng stress on the nfected organsm? It has
ong been known that the eve of serum ron n anmas fas durng nfecton.
Garbad frst suggested a reatonshp between fever and ron. He found that
mcroba synthess of sderophores-substances that bnd ron-n bactera of the
genus almonella decned at envronmenta temperatures above 37 and
stopped at 40.3. Thus, fever woud make t more dffcut for an nfectng
bacterum to acqure ron and thus to mutpy. Cod-booded anmas were used to
test ths hypothess because ther body temperature can be controed n the
aboratory. Kuger reported that of guanas nfected wth the potentay etha
bacterum ". hydro#hilia, more survved at temperatures of 42 than at 37,
even though heathy anmas prefer the ower temperature. When anmas at 42
GRE 1.,
were n|ected wth an ron souton, however, mortaty rates ncreased
sgnfcanty. Research to determne whether smar phenomena occur n warm-
booded anmas s sorey needed.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with attempts to determine
(A) the role of siderophores in the synthesis of serum iron
(B) new treatments for infections that are caused by A2 hydrophilia
(C) the function of fe'er in warm(blooded animals
() the mechanisms that ensure constant body temperature
(#) iron utili!ation in cold(blooded animals
21. According to the passage/ Baribaldi determined which of the following%
(A) That serum iron is produced through microbial synthesis.
(B) That microbial synthesis of siderophores in warm(blooded animals is more
efficient at higher temperatures.
(C) That only iron bound to other substances can be used by bacteria.
() That there is a relationship between the synthesis of siderophores in bacteria
of the genus Sal-onella and en'ironmental temperature.
(#) That bacteria of the genus Sal-onella re"uire iron as a nutrient.
22. &hich of the following can be inferred about warm(blooded animals solely on
the basis of information in the passage%
(A) The body temperatures of warm(blooded animals cannot be easily controlled
in the laboratory.
(B) &arm(blooded animals re"uire more iron in periods of stress than they do at
other times.
(C) &arm(blooded animals are more comfortable at an en'ironmental
temperature of .- than they are at a temperature of 02.
() 3n warm(blooded animals/ bacteria are responsible for the production of
siderophores/ which/ in turn/ make iron a'ailable to the animal.
(#) 3n warm(blooded animals/ infections that lead to fe'er are usually traceable to
bacteria.
2-. 3f it were to be determined that *similar phenomena occur in warm(blooded
animals+ (lines 21(22)/ which of the following/ assuming each is possible/ is
likely to be the most effecti'e treatment for warm(blooded animals with bacterial
infections%
(A) Administering a medication that lowers the animals4 body temperature
(B) 3n<ecting the animals with an iron solution
(C) Administering a medication that makes serum iron una'ailable to bacteria
() @ro'iding the animals with reduced(iron diets
(#) Meeping the animals in an en'ironment with temperatures higher than .-
105 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1991 02
SECTION A
As Gbert Whte, Darwn, and others observed ong ago, a speces appear to
have the nnate capacty to ncrease ther numbers from generaton to generaton.
The task for ecoogsts s to untange the envronmenta and boogca factors that
hod ths ntrnsc capacty for popuaton growth n check over the ong run. The
great varety of dynamc behavors exhbted by dfferent popuatons makes ths
task more dffcut: some popuatons reman roughy constant from year to year;
others exhbt reguar cyces of abundance and scarcty; st others vary wdy,
wth outbreaks and crashes that are n some cases pany correated wth the
weather, and n other cases not.
To mpose some order on ths kaedoscope of patterns, one schoo of thought
proposes dvdng popuatons nto two groups. These ecoogsts post that the
reatvey steady popuatons have "densty-dependent" growth parameters; that
s, rates of brth, death, and mgraton whch depend strongy on popuaton
densty. The hghy varyng popuatons have "densty-ndependent" growth
parameters, wth vta rates buffeted by envronmenta events; these rates
fuctuate n a way that s whoy ndependent of popuaton densty.
Ths dchotomy has ts uses, but t can cause probems f taken too teray.
For one thng, no popuaton can be drven entrey by densty-ndependent factors
a the tme. No matter how severey or unpredctaby brth, death and mgraton
rates may be fuctuatng around ther ong-term averages, f there were no
densty-dependent effects, the popuaton woud, n the ong run, ether ncrease
or decrease wthout bound (barrng a mrace by whch gans and osses canceed
exacty). Put another way, t may be that on average 99 percent of a deaths n a
popuaton arse from densty-ndependent causes, and ony one percent from
factors varyng wth densty. The factors makng up the one percent may seem
unmportant, and ther cause may be correspondngy hard to determne. Yet,
whether recognzed or not, they w usuay determne the ong-term average
popuaton densty.
In order to understand the nature of the ecoogsts nvestgaton, we may
thnk of the densty-dependent effects on growth parameters as the "sgna"
ecoogsts are tryng to soate and nterpret, one that tends to make the
popuaton ncrease from reatvey ow vaues or decrease from reatvey hgh
ones, whe the densty-ndependent effects act to produce "nose" n the
popuaton dynamcs. For popuatons that reman reatvey constant, or that
oscate around repeated cyces, the sgna can be fary easy characterzed and
ts effects descrbed, even though the causatve boogca mechansm may
reman unknown. For rreguary fuctuatng popuatons, we are key to have too
few observatons to have any hope of extractng the sgna from the overwhemng
GRE 101
nose. But t now seems cear that a popuatons are reguated by a mxture of
densty-dependent and densty-ndependent effects n varyng proportons.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) discussing two categories of factors that control population growth and
assessing their relati'e importance
(B) describing how growth rates in natural populations fluctuate o'er time and
e$plaining why these changes occur
(C) proposing a hypothesis concerning population si!es and suggesting ways to
test it
() posing a fundamental "uestion about en'ironmental factors in population
growth and presenting some currently accepted answers
(#) refuting a commonly accepted theory about population density and offering a
new alternati'e
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the dichotomy
discussed in the second paragraph to be
(A) applicable only to erratically fluctuating populations
(B) useful/ but only if its limitations are recogni!ed
(C) dangerously misleading in most circumstances
() a complete and sufficient way to account for obser'ed phenomena
(#) conceptually 'alid/ but too confusing to apply on a practical basis
1,. &hich of the following statements can be inferred from the last paragraph%
(A) >or irregularly fluctuating populations/ doubling the number of obser'ations
made will probably result in the isolation of density(dependent effects.
(B) ensity(dependent effects on population dynamics do not occur as fre"uently
as do density(independent effects.
(C) At present/ ecologists do not understand any of the underlying causes of the
density(dependent effects they obser'e in population dynamics.
() ensity(dependent effects on growth parameters are thought to be caused by
some sort of biochemical *signaling+ that ecologists hope e'entually to
understand.
(#) 3t is sometimes possible to infer the e$istence of a density(dependent factor
controlling population growth without understanding its causati'e
mechanism.
25. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about
density(dependent factors in population growth%
(A) They ultimately account for long(term population le'els.
(B) They ha'e little to do with long(term population dynamics.
(C) They are always more easily isolated and described than those that are
102 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
density(independent.
() They include random en'ironmental e'ents.
(#) They contradict current ecological assumptions about population dynamics.
21. According to the passage/ all of the following beha'iors ha'e been e$hibited by
different populations #DC#@TE
(A) roughly constant population le'els from year to year
(B) regular cycles of increases and decreases in numbers
(C) erratic increases in numbers correlated with the weather
() unchecked increases in numbers o'er many generations
(#) sudden declines in numbers from time to time
22. The discussion concerning population in lines 20(05 ser'es primarily to
(A) demonstrate the difficulties ecologists face in studying density(dependent
factors limiting population growth
(B) ad'ocate more rigorous study of density(dependent factors in population
growth
(C) pro'e that the death rates of any population are ne'er entirely density(
independent
() gi'e an e$ample of how death rates function to limit population densities in
typical populations
(#) underline the importance of e'en small density(dependent factors in
regulating long(term population densities
2.. 3n the passage/ the author does all of the following #DC#@TE
(A) cite the 'iews of other biologists
(B) define a basic problem that the passage addresses
(C) present conceptual categories used by other biologists
() describe the results of a particular study
(#) draw a conclusion
In *aisin in the un, Lorrane Hansberry does not re|ect ntegraton or the
economc and mora promse of the Amercan dream; rather, she remans oya to
ths dream whe ookng, reastcay, at ts ncompete reazaton. Once we
recognze ths dua vson, we can accept the pays ronc nuances as deberate
soca commentares by Hansberry rather than as the "unntentona" rony that
Bgsby attrbutes to the work. Indeed a curousy persstent refusa to credt
Hansberry wth a capacty for ntentona rony has ed some crtcs to nterpret the
pays thematc confcts as mere confuson, contradcton, or ecectcsm. Isaacs,
for exampe, cannot easy reconce Hansberrys ntense concern for her race wth
her dea of human reconcaton. But the pays compex vew of Back sef-
esteem and human sodarty as compatbe s no more "contradctory" than Du
GRE 10.
Bos famous, we-consdered dea of ethnc sef-awareness coexstng wth
human unty, or Fanons emphass on an dea nternatonasm that aso
accommodates natona denttes and roes.
20. The author4s primary purpose in this passage is to
(A) e$plain some critics4 refusal to consider "aisin in the Sun a deliberately ironic
play
(B) suggest that ironic nuances ally "aisin in the Sun with u Bois4 and >anon4s
writings
(C) analy!e the fundamental dramatic conflicts in "aisin in the Sun
() <ustify the inclusion of contradictory elements in "aisin in the Sun
(#) affirm the thematic coherence underlying "aisin in the Sun
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which of the following
about )ansberry4s use of irony in "aisin in the Sun%
(A) 3t deri'es from )ansberry4s eclectic approach to dramatic structure.
(B) 3t is <ustified by )ansberry4s loyalty to a fa'orable depiction of American life.
(C) 3t is influenced by the themes of works by u Bois and >anon.
() 3t is more consistent with )ansberry4s concern for Black Americans than with
her ideal of human reconciliation.
(#) 3t reflects )ansberry4s reser'ations about the e$tent to which the American
dream has been reali!ed.
22. 3n which of the following does the author of the passage reinforce his criticism of
responses such as 3saacs4 to "aisin in the Sun%
(A) The statement that )ansberry is *loyal+ (line .) to the American dream
(B) The description of )ansberry4s concern for Black Americans as *intense+
(line 1.)
(C) The assertion that )ansberry is concerned with *human solidarity+ (line 11)
() The description of u Bois4 ideal as *well(considered+ (line 1-)
(#) The description of >anon4s internationalism as *ideal+ (line 1,)
2-. The author of the passage would probably consider which of the following
<udgments to be most similar to the reasoning of critics described in lines 6(12%
(A) The world is certainly flatI therefore/ the person proposing to sail around it is
un"uestionably foolhardy.
(B) =adioacti'ity cannot be directly percei'edI therefore/ a scientist could not
possibly control it in a laboratory.
(C) The painter of this picture could not intend it to be funny/ therefore/ its humor
must result from a lack of skill.
() Traditional social mores are beneficial to cultureI therefore/ anyone who
de'iates from them acts destructi'ely.
100 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) >ilmmakers who produce documentaries deal e$clusi'ely with factsI
therefore/ a filmmaker who reinterprets particular e'ents is misleading us.
SECTION B
Some recent hstorans have argued that fe n the Brtsh coones n Amerca
from approxmatey 1763 to 1789 was marked by nterna confcts among
coonsts. Inhertors of some of the vewponts of eary twenteth-century
Progressve hstorans such as Beard and Becker, these recent hstorans have put
forward arguments that deserve evauaton.
The knd of confct most emphaszed by these hstorans s cass confct. Yet
wth the Revoutonary War domnatng these years, how does one dstngush
cass confct wthn that arger confct? Certany not by the sde a person
supported. Athough many of these hstorans have accepted the earer
assumpton that Loyasts represented an upper cass, new evdence ndcates that
Loyasts, ke rebes, were drawn from a socoeconomc casses. (It s nonetheess
probaby true that a arger percentage of the we-to-do |oned the Loyasts than
|oned the rebes.) Lookng at the rebe sde, we fnd tte evdence for the
contenton that ower-cass rebes were n confct wth upper-cass rebes. Indeed,
the war effort aganst Brtan tended to suppress cass confcts. Where t dd not,
the dsputng rebes of one or another cass usuay became Loyasts. Loyasm
thus operated as a safety vave to remove socoeconomc dscontent that exsted
among the rebes. Dsputes occurred, of course, among those who remaned on
the rebe sde, but the extraordnary soca mobty of eghteenth-century
Amercan socety (wth the obvous excepton of saves) usuay prevented such
dsputes from hardenng aong cass nes. Soca structure was n fact so fud-
though recent statstcs suggest a narrowng of economc opportunty as the atter
haf of the century progressed-that to tak about soca casses at a requres the
use of oose economc categores such as rch, poor, and mdde cass, or
eghteenth-century desgnatons ke "the better sort." Despte these vague
categores, one shoud not cam unequvocay that hostty between
recognzabe casses cannot be egtmatey observed. Outsde of New York,
however, there were very few nstances of openy expressed cass antagonsm.
Havng sad ths, however, one must add that there s much evdence to
support the further cam of recent hstorans that sectona confcts were
common between 1763 and 1789. The "Paxton Boys" ncdent and the Reguator
movement are representatve exampes of the wdespread, and |ustfed,
dscontent of western setters aganst coona or state governments domnated by
eastern nterests. Athough undertones of cass confct exsted beneath such
hostty, the opposton was prmary geographca. Sectona confct-whch aso
exsted between North and South-deserves further nvestgaton.
In summary, hstorans must be carefu about the knd of confct they
emphasze n eghteenth-century Amerca. Yet those who stress the achevement
GRE 101
of a genera consensus among the coonsts cannot fuy understand that
consensus wthout understandng the confcts that had to be overcome or
repressed n order to reach t.
1-. The author considers the contentions made by the recent historians discussed in
the passage to be
(A) potentially 'erifiable
(B) partially <ustified
(C) logically contradictory
() ingenious but flawed
(#) capricious and unsupported
16. The author most likely refers to *historians such as Beard and Becker+ (lines 1(2)
in order to
(A) isolate the two historians whose work is most representati'e of the 'iewpoints
of @rogressi'e historians
(B) emphasi!e the need to find connections between recent historical writing and
the work of earlier historians
(C) make a case for the importance of the 'iews of the @rogressi'e historians
concerning eighteenth(century American life
() suggest that @rogressi'e historians were the first to disco'er the particular
internal conflicts in eighteenth(century American life mentioned in the
passage
(#) point out historians whose 'iews of history anticipated some of the 'iews of
the recent historians mentioned in the passage
1,. According to the passage/ Koyalism during the American =e'olutionary &ar
ser'ed the function of
(A) eliminating the disputes that e$isted among those colonists who supported the
rebel cause
(B) drawing upper/ as opposed to lower/ socioeconomic classes away from the
rebel cause
(C) tolerating the kinds of socioeconomic discontent that were not allowed to
e$ist on the rebel side
() channeling conflict that e$isted within a socioeconomic class into the war
effort against the rebel cause
(#) absorbing members of socioeconomic groups on the rebel side who felt
themsel'es in contention with members of other socioeconomic groups
25. The passage suggests that the author would be likely to agree with which of the
following statements about the social structure of eighteenth(century American
society%
102 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3. 3t allowed greater economic opportunity than it did social mobility.
33. 3t permitted greater economic opportunity prior to 1-15 than after 1-15.
333. 3t did not contain rigidly defined socioeconomic di'isions.
3C. 3t pre'ented economic disputes from arising among members of the society.
(A) 3 and 3C only
(B) 33 and 333 only
(C) 333 and 3C only
() 3/ 33/ and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ 333/ and 3C
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements regarding socioeconomic class and
support for the rebel and Koyalist causes during the American =e'olutionary
&ar%
(A) 3dentifying a person4s socioeconomic class is the least accurate method of
ascertaining which side that person supported.
(B) 3dentifying a person as a member of the rebel or of the Koyalist side does not
necessarily re'eal that person4s particular socioeconomic class.
(C) Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes/ although there were fewer disputes among socioeconomic classes on
the Koyalist side.
() Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes/ although the Koyalist side was made up primarily of members of the
upper classes.
(#) Both the rebel and the Koyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes/ although many upper(class rebels e'entually <oined the Koyalists.
22. The author suggests which of the following about the representati'eness of
colonial or state go'ernments in America from 1-2. to 1-6,%
(A) The go'ernments inade"uately represented the interests of people in western
regions.
(B) The go'ernments more often represented class interests than sectional
interests.
(C) The go'ernments were less representati'e than they had been before 1-2..
() The go'ernments were dominated by the interests of people of an upper
socioeconomic class.
(#) The go'ernments of the northern colonies were less representati'e than were
the go'ernments of the southern colonies.
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about
sectional conflicts in America between 1-2. and 1-6,%
GRE 10-
(A) These conflicts were instigated by eastern interests against western settlers.
(B) These conflicts were the most serious kind of conflict in America.
(C) The conflicts e'entually led to openly e$pressed class antagonism.
() These conflicts contained an element of class hostility.
(#) These conflicts were moti'ated by class conflicts.
Snce 1953, many expermenta attempts to synthesze the chemca
consttuents of fe under "prmtve Earth condtons" have been performed, but
none of these experments has produced anythng approachng the compexty of
the smpest organsm. They have demonstrated, however, that a varety of the
compex moecues currenty makng up vng organsms coud have been present
n the eary ocean and atmosphere, wth ony one mtaton: such moecues are
syntheszed far ess ready when oxygen-contanng compounds domnate the
atmosphere. Therefore some scentsts postuate that the Earths earest
atmosphere, unke that of today, was domnated by hydrogen, methane, and
ammona.
From these studes, scentsts have concuded that the surface of the prmtve
Earth was covered wth oceans contanng the moecues fundamenta to fe.
Athough, at present, scentsts cannot expan how these reatvey sma
moecues combned to produce arger, more compex moecues, some scentsts
have precptousy ventured hypotheses that attempt to expan the deveopment,
from ager moecues, of the earest sef-dupcatng organsms.
20. According to the passage/ which of the following can be inferred about the
process by which the chemical constituents of life were synthesi!ed under
primiti'e #arth conditions%
(A) The synthesis is unlikely to occur under current atmospheric conditions.
(B) The synthesis is common in modern laboratories.
(C) The synthesis occurs more readily in the atmosphere than in the ocean.
() The synthesis easily produces the most comple$ organic molecules.
(#) The synthesis is accelerated by the presence of o$ygen(containing
compounds.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) point out that theories about how life de'eloped on #arth ha'e changed little
since 1,1.
(B) warn of increasing le'els of hydrogen/ methane/ and ammonia in the #arth4s
atmosphere
(C) describe the de'elopment since 1,1. of some scientists4 understanding of
how life began on #arth
() demonstrate that the synthesis of life in the laboratory is too difficult for
modern technology
106 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) describe how primiti'e atmospheric conditions produced the comple$
molecules of li'ing organisms
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *some scientists+ assume which of the
following concerning *larger/ more comple$ molecules+ (line 25)%
(A) The earliest atmosphere was formed primarily of these molecules.
(B) Chemical processes in'ol'ing these molecules proceeded much more slowly
under primiti'e #arth conditions.
(C) The presence of these molecules would necessarily precede the e$istence of
simple organisms.
() #$perimental techni"ues will ne'er be sufficiently sophisticated to produce in
the laboratory simple organisms from these chemical constituents.
(#) #$planations could easily be de'eloped to e$plain how simple molecules
combined to form these more comple$ ones.
2-. The author4s reaction to the attempts that ha'e been made to e$plain the
de'elopment of the first self(duplication organisms can best be described as one
of
(A) enthusiasm
(B) e$pectation
(C) dismay
() skepticism
(#) antipathy
1991 04
SECTION A
Isadora Duncans mastery wrtngs on the dance revea the depth of her
determnaton to create a yrc form of the art whch was free of characterzaton,
storyteng, and the theatrca exhbton of sks. She wshed to dscard the
tradtona methods and estabshed vocabuares of such dance forms as baet
and to expore the nterna sources of human expressveness. She shunned body
ornamentaton and strove to use ony the natura movements of her body,
undstorted by acrobatc exaggeraton and stmuated ony by nterna compuson.
In her rectas Duncan danced to the musc of Beethoven, Wagner, and Guck,
among others, but, contrary to popuar beef, she made no attempt to vsuaze or
to nterpret the musc; rather, she smpy reed on t to provde the nspraton for
expressng nner feengs through movement. She dd not regard ths use of musc
as dea, however, beevng that she woud someday dspense wth musc entrey.
That day never came.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with uncan4s
GRE 10,
(A) masterful lyricism as e$pressed in her writings on the dance
(B) concerted efforts to subdue the natural mo'ements of the dance
(C) belated recognition that she could not actually fulfill all of her ideals for the
dance
() basic standards for the dance form that she wished to create and perform
(#) continuous responsi'eness to a popular misconception about the nature of her
new art form
16. The author implies that uncan relied on music in her recitals in order to
(A) interpret musical works solely by means of natural body mo'ements
(B) foster the illusion that music ser'es as an inspiration for the dance
(C) inspire the e$pression of inner feeling when she danced
() 'alidate the public belief that music inspires the e$pression of feeling through
mo'ement
(#) counter the public belief that she made no attempt to 'isuali!e music
1,. According to the passage/ uncan intended to de'elop an art form that would do
all of the following #DC#@T
(A) a'oid the use of standard ballet techni"ues
(B) re'itali!e an earlier established 'ocabulary
(C) draw on internal sources of human e$pressi'eness
() create intended effects without the use of acrobatic e$aggeration
(#) deri'e inspiration solely from inner feelings
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following endea'ors is
K#A;T compatible with uncan4s ideals for the dance%
(A) :sing music to stimulate the inspiration to dance
(B) Attempting to free an art form of both characteri!ation and storytelling
(C) ?inimi!ing the theatrical e$hibition of skills
() Being inspired to e$press inner feeling through mo'ement
(#) Creating a lyric art form by drawing on inner personal resources
The recent, apparenty successfu, predcton by mathematca modes of an
appearance of E Nno-the warm ocean current that perodcay deveops aong
the Pacfc coast of South Amerca-has excted researchers. |acob B|erknes
ponted out over 20 years ago how wnds mght create ether abnormay warm or
abnormay cod water n the eastern equatora Pacfc. Nonetheess, unt the
deveopment of the modes no one coud expan why condtons shoud reguary
shft from one to the other, as happens n the perodc oscatons between
appearances of the warm E Nno and the cod so-caed ant-E Nno. The answer,
at east f the current mode that nks the behavor of the ocean to that of the
atmosphere s correct, s to be found n the ocean.
115 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
It has ong been known that durng an E Nno, two condtons exst: (1)
unusuay warm water extends aong the eastern Pacfc, prncpay aong the
coasts of Ecuador and Peru, and (2) wnds bow from the west nto the warmer ar
rsng over the warm water n the east. These wnds tend to create a feedback
mechansm by drvng the warmer surface water nto a "pe" that bocks the
norma upweng of deeper, cod water n the east and further warms the eastern
water, thus strengthenng the wnd st more. The contrbuton of the mode s to
show that the wnds of an E Nno, whch rase sea eve n the east,
smutaneousy send a sgna to the west owerng sea eve. Accordng to the
mode, that sgna s generated as a negatve Rossby wave, a wave of depressed,
or negatve, sea eve, that moves westward parae to the equator at 25 to 85
kometers per day. Takng months to traverse the Pacfc, Rossby waves march to
the western boundary of the Pacfc basn, whch s modeed as a smooth wa but
n reaty conssts of qute rreguar sand chans, such as the Phppnes and
Indonesa.
When the waves meet the western boundary, they are refected, and the
mode predcts that Rossby waves w be broken nto numerous coasta Kevn
waves carryng the same negatve sea-eve sgna. These eventuay shoot toward
the equator, and then head eastward aong the equator propeed by the rotaton
of the Earth at a speed of about 250 kometers per day. When enough Kevn
waves of suffcent amptude arrve from the western Pacfc, ther negatve sea-
eve sgna overcomes the feedback mechansm tendng to rase the sea eve,
and they begn to drve the system nto the opposte cod mode. Ths produces a
gradua shft n wnds, one that w eventuay send postve sea-eve Rossby
waves westward, waves that w eventuay return as cod cyce-endng postve
Kevn waves, begnnng another warmng cyce.
21. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to
(A) introduce a new e$planation of a physical phenomenon
(B) e$plain the difference between two related physical phenomena
(C) illustrate the limitations of applying mathematics to complicated physical
phenomena
() indicate the direction that research into a particular physical phenomenon
should take
(#) clarify the differences between an old e$planation of a physical phenomenon
and a new model of it
22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%
(A) A theory is presented and critici!ed.
(B) A model is described and e'aluated.
(C) A result is reported and its importance e$plained.
() A phenomenon is noted and its significance debated.
GRE 111
(#) A hypothesis is introduced and contrary e'idence presented.
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following features is characteristic of an
#l 9ino%
(A) Cold coastal water near @eru
(B) &inds blowing from the west
(C) =andom occurrence
() &orldwide effects
(#) ;hort duration
20. According to the model presented in the passage/ which of the following
normally signals the disappearance of an #l 9ino%
(A) The arri'al in the eastern @acific of negati'e sea(le'el Mel'in wa'es.
(B) A shift in the direction of the winds produced by the start of an anti(#l 9ino
elsewhere in the @acific.
(C) The reflection of Mel'in wa'es after they reach the eastern boundary of the
@acific/ along #cuador and @eru.
() An increase in the speed at which negati'e =ossby wa'es cross the @acific.
(#) The creation of a reser'oir of colder/ deep ocean water trapped under the pile
of warmer/ surface ocean water.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would result fairly
immediately from the cessation of the winds of an #l 9ino%
3. 9egati'e =ossby wa'es would cease to be generated in the eastern @acific.
33. The sea le'el in the eastern @acific would fall.
333. The surface water in the eastern @acific would again be cooled by being
mi$ed with deep water.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the 'alidity of
the model of #l 9ino that is presented in the passage%
(A) uring some years #l 9ino e$tends significantly farther along the coasts of
#cuador and @eru than during other years.
(B) uring periods of unusually cool temperatures along the eastern @acific/ an #l
9ino is much colder than normal.
(C) The normal upwelling of cold water in the eastern @acific depends much
more on the local characteristics of the ocean than on atmospheric
112 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
conditions.
() The 'ariations in the time it takes =ossby wa'es to cross the @acific depend
on the power of the winds that the wa'es encounter.
(#) The western boundary of the @acific basin is so irregular that it impedes most
coastal Mel'in wa'es from heading eastward.
2-. The passage best supports the conclusion that during an anti(#l 9ino the fastest(
mo'ing signal wa'es are
(A) negati'e =ossby wa'es mo'ing east along the e"uator
(B) positi'e =ossby wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator
(C) negati'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator
() positi'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing west along the e"uator
(#) positi'e Mel'in wa'es mo'ing east along the e"uator
SECTION B
Hstorans have ony recenty begun to note the ncrease n demand for uxury
goods and servces that took pace n eghteenth-century Engand. McKendrck has
expored the Wedgwood frms remarkabe success n marketng uxury pottery;
Pumb has wrtten about the proferaton of provnca theaters, musca festvas,
and chdrens toys and books. Whe the fact of ths consumer revouton s hardy
n doubt, three key questons reman: Who were the consumers? What were ther
motves? And what were the effects of the new demand for uxures?
An answer to the frst of these has been dffcut to obtan. Athough t has
been possbe to nfer from the goods and servces actuay produced what
manufactures and servcng trades thought ther customers wanted, ony a study
of reevant persona documents wrtten by actua consumers w provde a precse
pcture of who wanted what. We st need to know how arge ths consumer
market was and how far down the soca scae the consumer demand for uxury
goods penetrated. Wth regard to ths ast queston, we mght note n passng that
Thompson, whe rghty restorng aborng peope to the stage of eghteenth-
century Engsh hstory, has probaby exaggerated the opposton of these peope
to the nroads of captast consumersm n genera; for exampe, aborng peope
n eghteenth-century Engand ready shfted from home-brewed beer to
standardzed beer produced by huge, heavy captazed urban breweres.
To answer the queston of why consumers became so eager to buy, some
hstorans have ponted to the abty of manufacturers to advertse n a reatvey
uncensored press. Ths, however, hardy seems a suffcent answer. McKendrck
favors a Veben mode of conspcuous consumpton stmuated by competton for
status. The "mddng sort" bought goods and servces because they wanted to
foow fashons set by the rch. Agan, we may wonder whether ths expanaton s
suffcent. Do not peope en|oy buyng thngs as a form of sef-gratfcaton? If so,
GRE 11.
consumersm coud be seen as a product of the rse of new concepts of
ndvduasm and materasm, but not necessary of the frenzy for conspcuous
competton.
Fnay, what were the consequences of ths consumer demand for uxures?
McKendrck cams that t goes a ong way toward expanng the comng of the
Industra Revouton. But does t? What, for exampe, does the producton of hgh-
quaty pottery and toys have to do wth the deveopment of ron manufacture or
texte ms? It s perfecty possbe to have the psychoogy and reaty of a
consumer socety wthout a heavy ndustra sector.
That future exporaton of these key questons s undoubtedy necessary
shoud not, however, dmnsh the force of the concuson of recent studes: the
nsatabe demand n eghteenth-century Engand for frvoous as we as usefu
goods and servces foreshadows our own word.
1-. 3n the first paragraph/ the author mentions ?cMendrick and @lumb most probably
in order to
(A) contrast their 'iews on the sub<ect of lu$ury consumerism in eighteenth(
century #ngland
(B) indicate the inade"uacy of historiographical approaches to eighteenth(century
#nglish history
(C) gi'e e$amples of historians who ha'e helped to establish the fact of growing
consumerism in eighteenth(century #ngland
() support the contention that key "uestions about eighteenth(century
consumerism remain to be answered
(#) compare one historian4s interest in lu$ury goods such as pottery to another
historian4s interest in lu$ury ser'ices such as musical festi'als
16. &hich of the following items/ if preser'ed from eighteenth(century #ngland/
would pro'ide an e$ample of the kind of documents mentioned in lines 12(1-%
(A) A written agreement between a supplier of raw materials and a supplier of
lu$ury goods
(B) A diary that mentions lu$ury goods and ser'ices purchased by its author
(C) A theater ticket stamped with the date and name of a particular play
() A payroll record from a company that produced lu$ury goods such as pottery
(#) A newspaper ad'ertisement describing lu$ury goods and ser'ices a'ailable at
a seaside resort
1,. According to the passage/ Thompson attributes to laboring people in eighteenth(
century #ngland which of the following attitudes toward capitalist consumerism%
(A) #nthusiasm
(B) Curiosity
(C) Ambi'alence
110 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() ;tubbornness
(#) )ostility
25. 3n the third paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) contrasting two theses and offering a compromise
(B) "uestioning two e$planations and proposing a possible alternati'e to them
(C) paraphrasing the work of two historians and "uestioning their assumptions
() e$amining two theories and endorsing one o'er the other
(#) raising se'eral "uestions but implying that they cannot be answered
21. According to the passage/ a Ceblen model of conspicuous consumption has been
used to
(A) in'estigate the e$tent of the demand for lu$ury goods among social classes in
eighteenth(century #ngland
(B) classify the kinds of lu$ury goods desired by eighteenth(century consumers
(C) e$plain the moti'ation of eighteenth(century consumers to buy lu$ury goods
() establish the e$tent to which the tastes of rich consumers were shaped by the
middle classes in eighteenth(century #ngland
(#) compare lu$ury consumerism in eighteenth(century #ngland with such
consumerism in the twentieth century
22. According to the passage/ eighteenth(century #ngland and the contemporary
world of the passage4s readers are
(A) dissimilar in the e$tent to which lu$ury consumerism could be said to be
widespread among the social classes
(B) dissimilar in their definitions of lu$ury goods and ser'ices
(C) dissimilar in the e$tent to which lu$ury goods could be said to be a stimulant
of industrial de'elopment
() similar in their strong demand for a 'ariety of goods and ser'ices
(#) similar in the e$tent to which a middle class could be identified as imitating
the habits of a wealthier class
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most probably agree
with which of the following statements about the relationship between the
3ndustrial =e'olution and the demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices in
eighteenth(century #ngland%
(A) The growing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices was a ma<or factor in the
coming of the 3ndustrial =e'olution.
(B) The 3ndustrial =e'olution e$ploited the already e$isting demand for lu$ury
goods and ser'ices.
(C) Although the demand for lu$ury goods may ha'e helped bring about the
3ndustrial =e'olution/ the demand for lu$ury ser'ices did not.
GRE 111
() There is no reason to belie'e that the 3ndustrial =e'olution was directly
dri'en by a growing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices.
(#) The increasing demand for lu$ury goods and ser'ices was a cultural
phenomenon that has been conclusi'ely demonstrated to ha'e been separate
from the coming of the 3ndustrial =e'olution.
Researchers are fndng that n many ways an ndvdua bacterum s more
anaogous to a component ce of a mutceuar organsm than t s to a free-
vng, autonomous organsm. "na$aena, a freshwater bactera, s a case n pont.
Among photosynthetc bactera, "na$aena s unusua: t s capabe of both
photosynthess and ntrogen fxaton. Wthn a snge ce, these two bochemca
processes are ncompatbe: oxygen produced durng photosynthess, nactvates
the ntrogenase requred for ntrogen fxaton. In "na$aena communtes,
however, these processes can coexst. When fxed ntrogen compounds are
abundant, "na$aena s strcty photosynthetc and ts ces are a ake. When
ntrogen eves are ow, however, specazed ces caed heterocysts are produced
whch ack chorophy (necessary for photosynthess) but whch can fx ntrogen
by convertng ntrogen gas nto a usabe form. Submcroscopc channes deveop
whch connect the heterocyst ces wth the photosynthetc ones and whch are
used for transferrng ceuar products between the two knds of "na$aena ces.
20. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of bacteria
that engage in photosynthesis%
(A) They e'entually become two autonomous cells.
(B) They cannot normally also engage in nitrogen fi$ation.
(C) 8$ygen normally inacti'ates them.
() Cellular products are constantly transferred between such bacteria.
(#) They normally lack chlorophyll.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that cell differentiation within Anabaena is
regulated by the
(A) amount of o$ygen Anabaena cells produce
(B) season of the year
(C) amount of fi$ed nitrogen compounds a'ailable
() number of microscopic channels uniting Anabaena cells
(#) amount of chlorophyll in Anabaena cells
22. The passage supports which of the following inferences about heterocysts%
(A) )eterocysts do not produce o$ygen.
(B) 9itrogen gas inacti'ates heterocysts.
(C) Chlorophyll increases the producti'ity of heterocysts.
() )eterocysts allow nitrogen fi$ation and photosynthesis to occur in the same
cell.
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(#) )eterocysts are more important for Anabaenas functioning than are
photosynthetic cells.
2-. The author uses the e$ample of Anabaena to illustrate the
(A) uni"ueness of bacteria among unicellular organisms
(B) inade"uacy of an e$isting 'iew of bacteria
(C) ability of unicellular organisms to engage in photosynthesis
() 'ariability of a freshwater bacteria
(#) difficulty of in'estigating e'en the simplest unicellular organisms
1991 10
SECTION A
Aded by the recent abty to anayze sampes of ar trapped n gacers,
scentsts now have a cearer dea of the reatonshp between atmospherc
composton and goba temperature change over the past 160,000 years. In
partcuar, determnaton of atmospherc composton durng perods of gaca
expanson and retreat (coong and warmng) s possbe usng data from the 2,000
meter Vostok ce core dred n Antarctca. The technque nvoved s smar to
that used n anayzng cores of marne sedments, where the rato of the two
common sotopes of oxygen,
18
O and
16
O, accuratey refects past temperature
changes. Isotopc anayss of oxygen n the Vostok core suggests mean goba
temperature fuctuatons of up to 10 degrees centgrade over the past 160,000
years.
Data from the Vostok core aso ndcate that the amount of carbon doxde has
fuctuated wth temperature over the same perod: the hgher the temperature,
the hgher the concentraton of carbon doxde and the ower the temperature, the
ower the concentraton. Athough change n carbon doxde content cosey
foows change n temperature durng perods of degacaton, t apparenty ags
behnd temperature durng perods of coong. The correaton of carbon doxde
wth temperature, of course, does not estabsh whether changes n atmospherc
composton caused the warmng and coong trends or were caused by ther.
The correaton between carbon doxde and temperature throughout the
Vostok record s consstent and predctabe. The absoute temperature changes,
however, are from 5 to 14 tmes greater than woud be expected on the bass of
carbon doxdes own abty to absorb nfrared radaton, or radant heat. Ths
reacton suggests that, qute asde from changes n heat-trappng gases,
commony known as greenhouse gases, certan postve feedbacks are aso
ampfyng the temperature change. Such feedbacks mght nvove ce on and and
sea, couds, or water vapor, whch aso absorb radant heat.
Other data from the Vostok core show that methane gas aso correates
GRE 11-
cosey wth temperature and carbon doxde. The methane concentraton neary
doubed, for exampe, between the peak of the penutmate gaca perod and the
foowng ntergaca perod. Wthn the present ntergaca perod t has more
than doubed n |ust the past 300 years and s rsng rapdy. Athough the
concentraton of atmospherc methane s more than two orders of magntude
ower than that of carbon doxde, t cannot be gnored: the radatve propertes of
methane make t 20 tmes more effectve, moecue for moecue, than carbon
doxde n absorbng radant heat. On the bass of a smuaton mode that
cmatoogca researchers have deveoped, methane appears to have been about
25 percent as mportant as carbon doxde n the warmng that took pace durng
the most recent gaca retreat 8,000 to 10,000 years ago.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) interpret data
(B) e$plain research methodology
(C) e'aluate a conclusion
() suggest a new techni"ue
(#) attack a theory
16. According to the passage/ which of the following statements about methane is
true%
(A) ?ethane is found in marine sediments.
(B) ?ethane is more effecti'e than carbon dio$ide in absorbing radiant heat.
(C) The #arth4s atmosphere now contains more than twice as much methane as it
does carbon dio$ide.
() The higher the concentration of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere/ the
lower the concentration of methane.
(#) ?ost of the global warming that has occurred during the past 15 years has
been associated with increased methane concentration.
1,. According to the passage/ which of the following statements best describes the
relationship between carbon dio$ide and global temperature%
(A) Carbon dio$ide le'els change immediately in response to changes in
temperature.
(B) Carbon dio$ide le'els correlate with global temperature during cooling
periods only.
(C) 8nce carbon dio$ide le'els increase/ they remain high regardless of changes
in global temperature.
() Carbon dio$ide le'els increase more "uickly than global temperature does.
(#) uring cooling periods/ carbon dio$ide le'els initially remain high and then
decline.
25. The author mentions *certain positi'e feedbacks+ (lines .1(.2) in order to
116 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
indicate that
(A) increased concentration of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere is
responsible for global temperature increase
(B) some climate simulation models ha'e produced useful information
(C) greenhouse gases alone do not account for global temperature increase
() 'ariables that benefit life are causing global temperature to increase
(#) beneficial substances that are not heat(trapping gases and that contribute to
global temperature increase ha'e been found in the Costok ice core
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a long(term decrease in the concentration
of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere would
(A) increase methane concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere
(B) accompany a period of glaciation
(C) encourage the formation of more o$ygen isotopes in the #arth4s atmosphere
() promote the formation of more water in the #arth4s global en'ironment
(#) increase the amount of infrared radiation absorbed by the #arth4s atmosphere
22. The passage suggests that when the methane concentration in the #arth4s
atmosphere decreases/ which of the following also happens%
(A) Blaciers melt faster.
(B) The concentration of carbon dio$ide increases.
(C) The mean global temperature decreases.
() Carbon dio$ide absorbs more radiant beat.
(#) ?ore clouds form in the #arth4s atmosphere.
2.. 3n the fourth paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) restating the main idea of the passage
(B) using research findings to de'elop a simulation model
(C) outlining the direction of future reser'es
() pro'iding an additional e$ample of a phenomenon
(#) introducing a conflicting hypothesis
In The ,omen of (e3ico City& 5678-59:6, Syva Marna Arrom argues that the
status of women n Mexco Cty mproved durng the nneteenth century. Accordng
to Arrom, househods headed by femaes and nstances of women workng outsde
the home were much more common than schoars have estmated; efforts by the
Mexcan government to encourage femae educaton resuted n ncreased femae
teracy; and nfuenta mae wrters wrote peces advocatng educaton,
empoyment, and ncreased famy responsbtes for women, whe deporng
womens potca and marta nequaty. Menton of the fact that the cv codes of
1870 and 1884 sgnfcanty advanced womens rghts woud have further
strengthened Arroms argument.
GRE 11,
Arrom does not dscuss whether womens mproved status counteracted the
effects on women of nstabty n the Mexcan economy durng the nneteenth
century. However, ths s not so much a weakness n her work as t s the
nevtabe resut of schoars negect of ths perod. Indeed, such gaps n Mexcan
hstory are precsey what make Arroms poneerng study an mportant addton to
Latn Amercan womens hstory.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following%
(A) =e'iewing a historical study of the status of women in ?e$ico City during
the nineteenth century
(B) Analy!ing the effects of economic instability on the status of women in
?e$ico during the nineteenth century
(C) Ad'ancing a thesis e$plaining why women4s status in ?e$ico City impro'ed
during the nineteenth century
() =e<ecting the thesis that the status of women in ?e$ico City during the
nineteenth century actually impro'ed
(#) @raising an author for a pioneering attempt to bridge significant gaps in
?e$ico4s economic history prior to 1-,5
21. According to the author of the passage/ Arrom4s study can be characteri!ed as *an
important addition to Katin American women4s history+ (lines 21(22) because it
(A) offers a radical thesis concerning the status of women4s ci'il rights in
?e$ican society during the nineteenth century
(B) relies on a new method of historical analysis that has not pre'iously been
applied to Katin American history
(C) focuses only on the status of women in ?e$ican society
() addresses a period in ?e$ican history that scholars ha'e to some e$tent
neglected
(#) is the first study to recogni!e the role of the ?e$ican go'ernment in
encouraging women4s education
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Arrom would agree with which of the
following assertions%
(A) #fforts by the ?e$ican go'ernment to encourage education for women
during the nineteenth century were hampered by the economic instability of
that period.
(B) The most significant ad'ances in the rights of ?e$ican women during the
nineteenth century occurred prior to 161-.
(C) 3mpro'ements in the status of women in ?e$ico City during the nineteenth
century were accompanied by similar impro'ements in the status of women
in other large Katin American cities.
() ;cholars ha'e in the past accorded the most significance to nineteenth(
125 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
century ?e$ican literature that supported the status "uo in women4s political
and marital rights.
(#) ;cholars ha'e in the past underestimated the number of households headed by
females in ?e$ico City.
2-. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward Arrom4s work%
(A) :ncritical appro'al
(B) #nthusiasm tempered by minor reser'ations
(C) @raise for her thesis/ despite skepticism regarding the sources of her e'idence
() =eluctant acceptance/ despite lingering doubts regarding the accuracy of her
thesis
(#) =e<ection/ despite admiration for her attempt to break new ground in a
hitherto neglected field
SECTION B
Present-day phosophers usuay envson ther dscpne as an endeavor that
has been, snce antquty, dstnct from and superor to any partcuar nteectua
dscpne, such as theoogy or scence. Such phosophca concerns as the mnd-
body probem or, more generay, the nature of human knowedge, they beeve,
are basc human questons whose tentatve phosophca soutons have served as
the necessary foundatons on whch a other nteectua specuaton has rested.
The bass for ths vew, however, es n a serous msnterpretaton of the past,
a pro|ecton of modern concerns onto past events. The dea of an autonomous
dscpne caed "phosophy," dstnct from and sttng n |udgment on such
pursuts as theoogy and scence turns out, on cose examnaton, to be of qute
recent orgn. When, n the seventeenth century, Descartes and Hobbes re|ected
medeva phosophy, they dd not thnk of themseves, as modern phosophers
do, as proposng a new and better phosophy, but rather as furtherng "the
warfare between scence and theoogy." They were fghtng, abet dscreety, to
open the nteectua word to the new scence and to berate nteectua fe from
eccesastca phosophy and envsoned ther work as contrbutng to the growth,
not of phosophy, but of research n mathematcs and physcs. Ths nk between
phosophca nterests and scentfc practce perssted unt the nneteenth
century, when decne n eccesastca power over schoarshp and changes n the
nature of scence provoked the fna separaton of phosophy from both.
The demarcaton of phosophy from scence was factated by the
deveopment n the eary nneteenth century of a new noton, that phosophys
core nterest shoud be epstemoogy, the genera expanaton of what t means to
know somethng. Modern phosophers now trace that noton back at east to
Descartes and Spnoza, but t was not expcty artcuated unt the ate
eghteenth century, by Kant, and dd not become but nto the structure of
academc nsttutons and the standard sef-descrptons of phosophy professors
GRE 121
unt the ate nneteenth century. Wthout the dea of epstemoogy, the survva of
phosophy n an age of modern scence s hard to magne. Metaphyscs,
phosophys tradtona core-consdered as the most genera descrpton of how
the heavens and the earth are put together-had been rendered amost
competey meanngess by the spectacuar progress of physcs. Kant, however, by
focusng phosophy on the probem of knowedge, managed to repace
metaphyscs wth epstemoogy, and thus to transform the noton of phosophy as
"queen of scences" nto the new noton of phosophy as a separate, foundatona
dscpne. Phosophy became "prmary" no onger n the sense of "hghest" but n
the sense of "underyng". After Kant, phosophers were abe to renterpret
seventeenth-and eghteenth-century thnkers as attemptng to dscover "How s
our knowedge possbe?" and to pro|ect ths queston back even on the ancents.
1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the author4s main point%
(A) @hilosophy4s o'erriding interest in basic human "uestions is a legacy
primarily of the work of Mant.
(B) @hilosophy was deeply in'ol'ed in the se'enteenth(century warfare between
science and religion.
(C) The set of problems of primary importance to philosophers has remained
relati'ely constant since anti"uity.
() The status of philosophy as an independent intellectual pursuit is a relati'ely
recent de'elopment.
(#) The role of philosophy in guiding intellectual speculation has gradually been
usurped by science.
16. According to the passage/ present(day philosophers belie'e that the mind(body
problem is an issue that
(A) has implications primarily for philosophers
(B) may be affected by recent ad'ances in science
(C) has shaped recent work in epistemology
() has little rele'ance to present(day philosophy
(#) has ser'ed as a basis for intellectual speculation since anti"uity
1,. According to the author/ philosophy became distinct from science and theology
during the
(A) ancient period
(B) medie'al period
(C) se'enteenth century
() nineteenth century
(#) twentieth century
25. The author suggests that escartes4 support for the new science of the
se'enteenth century can be characteri!ed as
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) pragmatic and hypocritical
(B) cautious and inconsistent
(C) daring and opportunistic
() intense but fleeting
(#) strong but prudent
21. The author of the passage implies which of the following in discussing the
de'elopment of philosophy during the nineteenth century%
(A) 9ineteenth(century philosophy took science as its model for understanding
the bases of knowledge.
(B) The role of academic institutions in shaping metaphysical philosophy grew
enormously during the nineteenth century.
(C) 9ineteenth(century philosophers carried out a program of in'estigation
e$plicitly laid out by escartes and ;pino!a.
() Mant had an o'erwhelming impact on the direction of nineteenth(century
philosophy.
(#) 9ineteenth(century philosophy made ma<or ad'ances in understanding the
nature of knowledge.
22. &ith which of the following statements concerning the writing of history would
the author of the passage be most likely to agree%
(A) )istory should not emphasi!e the role played by ideas o'er the role played by
indi'iduals.
(B) )istory should not be distorted by attributing present(day consciousness to
historical figures.
(C) )istory should not be focused primarily on those past e'ents most rele'ant to
the present.
() )istory should be concerned with describing those aspects of the past that
differ most from those of the present.
(#) )istory should be e$amined for the lessons it can pro'ide in understanding
current problems.
2.. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to
(A) compare two competing models
(B) analy!e a difficult theory
(C) present new e'idence for a theory
() correct an erroneous belief by describing its origins
(#) resol'e a long(standing theoretical contro'ersy
Boogsts have ong mantaned that two groups of pnnpeds, sea ons and
waruses, are descended from a terrestra bearke anma, whereas the remanng
group, seas, shares an ancestor wth weases. But the recent dscovery of
GRE 12.
detaed smartes n the skeeta structure of the fppers n a three groups
undermnes the attempt to expan away superfca resembance as due to
convergent evouton-the ndependent deveopment of smartes between
unreated groups n response to smar envronmenta pressures. Fppers may
ndeed be a necessary response to aquatc fe; turtes, whaes, and dugongs aso
have them. But the common detaed desgn found among the pnnpeds probaby
ndcates a common ancestor. Moreover, waruses and seas drve themseves
through the water wth thrusts of ther hnd fppers, but sea ons use ther front
fppers. If anatomca smarty n the fppers resuted from smar envronmenta
pressures, as posted by the convergent evouton theory, one woud expect
waruses and seas, but not seas and sea ons, to have smar fppers.
20. According to the passage/ it has been recently disco'ered that
(A) there are detailed skeletal similarities in the flippers of pinnipeds
(B) sea lions/ seals/ and walruses are all pinnipeds
(C) pinnipeds are descended from animals that once li'ed on land
() animals without common ancestors sometimes e'ol'e in similar ways
(#) animals that ha'e flippers do not all use them in the same way
21. The author implies that which of the following was part of the long(standing 'iew
concerning pinnipeds%
(A) @innipeds are all descended from a terrestrial bearlike animal.
(B) @innipeds share a common ancestor with turtles/ whales/ and dugongs.
(C) ;imilarities among pinnipeds are due to their all ha'ing had to adapt to
a"uatic life.
() There are detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all
pinnipeds.
(#) Con'ergent e'olution cannot account for the similarities among pinnipeds.
22. The author implies which of the following about the fact that turtles/ whales/ and
dugongs all ha'e flippers%
(A) 3t can be e$plained by the hypothesis that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs are
'ery closely related.
(B) 3t can be e$plained by the idea of con'ergent e'olution.
(C) 3t suggests that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs e'ol'ed in separate parts of the
world.
() 3t undermines the 'iew that turtles/ whales/ and dugongs are all descended
from terrestrial ancestors.
(#) 3t is the primary difference between turtles/ whales/ and dugongs/ on the one
hand/ and pinnipeds/ on the other.
2-. 3n presenting the argument in the passage/ the author does which of the
following%
120 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) Contends that key terms in an opposing 'iew ha'e been improperly used.
(B) Contends that opponents ha'e purposely obscured important e'idence.
(C) ;hows that two theories thought to be in conflict are actually complementary.
() ;hows that ad'ocates of a theory ha'e not always stated their 'iew in the
same manner.
(#) ;hows that an implication of a theory is contradicted by the facts.
1992 02
SECTION A
The more that s dscovered about the ntrcate organzaton of the nervous
system, the more t seems remarkabe that genes can successfuy specfy the
deveopment of that system. Human genes contan too tte nformaton even to
specfy whch hemsphere of the bran each of a humans 10
11
neurons shoud
occupy, et aone the hundreds of connectons that each neuron makes. For such
reasons, we can assume that there must be an mportant random factor n neura
deveopment, and n partcuar, that errors must and do occur n the deveopment
of a norma brans.
The most vvd expresson of such errors occurs n genetcay dentca
(sogenc) organsms. Even when reared under the same condtons, sogenc
organsms are rarey exact copes of one another, and ther dfferences have
reveaed much about the random varatons that resut from an organsms mted
suppy of genetc nformaton. In sogenc Daphnae, for exampe, even though the
poston, sze, and branchng pattern of each optc neuron are remarkaby
constant, there s some varabty n connectvty, and the number of synapses
vares greaty. Ths varabty s probaby the resut of random scatter beyond the
resouton of genetc contro and s best termed "mprecson," snce ts converse,
the degree of custerng about a mean, s conventonay, caed "precson."
Imprecson shoud be dstngushed from deveopmenta mstakes: wrongy
mgrated neurons, ncorrect connectons, and the ke. To use a computer anaogy,
mnor roundng-off errors occur unversay and are anaogous to mprecson, but
occasonay a bnary dgt s ncorrecty transmtted, perhaps runng a cacuaton,
and ths ncorrect transmsson s anaogous to a deveopmenta mstake. Thus,
mprecson s a form of naccuracy nherent wthn the mts of desgn, but
mstakes are forms of gross fabty.
Both mprecson and gross fabty can pausby be bamed on the
nsuffcency of genetc nformaton, snce ether coud be reduced by addng more
nformaton. It s unversay accepted among nformaton theorsts that codes and
anguages can be made mstake-resstant by ncorporatng redundancy. However,
snce the amount of space avaabe n any nformaton system s mted,
ncreased redundancy resuts n decreased precson. For exampe, n when wrtten
GRE 121
ncorrecty n Engsh, "three pont oen four two, "can be understood correcty
even though a typographca error has occurred. More precson coud be ganed,
however, f those 24 spaces were fed wth Arabc numeras; then n coud be
expressed to 23 sgnfcant dgts, athough any error woud sgnfcanty change
the meanng. There exsts a trade-off, the more precsey a system s specfed,
usng a gven mted amount of nformaton, the greater the danger of gross
mstakes. The overa scheme by whch genetc nformaton s ratoned out n
organsms, therefore, must nvove a compromse between two confctng
prortes: precson and the avodance of gross mstakes.
1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) Although studies of isogenic organisms ha'e shown that all organisms are
sub<ect to de'elopmental 'ariations/ there is still scientific debate o'er the
e$act causes of these 'ariations.
(B) Because of limitations on the amount of information contained in the genes of
organisms/ de'eloping ner'ous systems are sub<ect to two basic kinds of
error/ the likelihood of one of which is reduced only when the likelihood of
the other is increased.
(C) The comple$ity of an organism4s genetic information means that much of the
unusual 'ariation that occurs among organisms can best be e$plained as the
result of de'elopmental mistakes.
() 9ew findings about the nature of the genetic control of neural de'elopment
support the work of some scientists who argue that the computer is an
e$tremely useful model for understanding the ner'ous system.
(#) The ma<or disco'ery made by scientists studying the genetic control of neural
de'elopment is that both imprecision and gross de'elopmental error can be
traced to specific types of mutations in specific genes.
16. According to the passage/ one of the reasons it has been assumed that there is an
important random element in human neural de'elopment is that
(A) genes cannot specify certain types of de'elopmental processes as well as they
can others
(B) the intricacy of the ner'ous system allows small de'elopmental errors to
occur without harmful effects
(C) the amount of information contained in the genes is less than the amount
necessary to specify the location of the neurons
() the number of neurons in the human brain 'aries greatly from indi'idual to
indi'idual
(#) it is theoretically impossible for an organism to protect itself completely from
gross de'elopmental mistakes
1,. The author suggests which of the following about the findings of information
theorists%
122 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) Their findings pro'ocati'ely challenge the standard e$planation of
redundancy in genes.
(B) Their findings pro'ide useful insights into understanding the rationing of
genetic information.
(C) Their findings help to e$plain why imprecision can occur in neural
de'elopment but not why gross mistakes can occur.
() Their findings suggest that genes may be able to specify neural de'elopment
more accurately than had pre'iously been thought.
(#) Their findings support the work of those who use computer operations as
models for understanding genetic control.
25. According to the passage/ of the following aspects of the optic neurons of
isogenic aphniae/ which 'aries the most%
(A) ;i!e
(B) Connecti'ity
(C) @osition
() Branching pattern
(#) 9umber of synapses
21. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first paragraph%
(A) A specific case is presented/ its details are analy!ed/ and a conclusion is
drawn from it.
(B) A disco'ery is announced/ its most significant application is discussed/ and
possibilities for the future are suggested.
(C) A generali!ation is made/ specific situations in which it is applicable are
noted/ and problems with it are suggested.
() An obser'ation is made/ specifics are pro'ided to support it/ and a
generali!ation is deri'ed.
(#) A hypothesis is presented/ its implications are clarified/ and applications of it
are discussed.
22. The author uses all of the following to clarify the distinction between imprecision
and gross mistake in neural de'elopment #DC#@T
(A) classification of borderline phenomena
(B) a description of the relationship between the phenomena denoted by each
term
(C) specific e$amples of the phenomena denoted by each term
() an e$planation of at least one of the key terms in'ol'ed
(#) analogies to other types of phenomena
2.. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the genetic
information of aphniae%
GRE 12-
3. There is probably some degree of redundancy in the information controlling
neural de'elopment.
33. ?ost of the information for neural de'elopment stored in the genes is used
to specify the positions of the optic neurons.
333. There is sufficient information to preclude the occurrence of gross mistakes
during neural de'elopment.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 33 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
In a recent study, Davd Cressy examnes two centra questons concernng
Engsh mmgraton to New Engand n the 1630s: what knds of peope
mmgrated and why? Usng contemporary terary evdence, shppng sts, and
customs records, Cressy fnds that most adut mmgrants were sked n farmng
or crafts, were terate, and were organzed n fames. Each of these
characterstcs sharpy dstngushes the 21,000 peope who eft for New Engand
n the 1630s from most of the approxmatey 377,000 Engsh peope who had
mmgratng to Amerca by 1700.
Wth respect to ther reasons for mmgratng, Cressy does not deny the
frequenty noted fact that some of the mmgrants of the 1630s, most notaby the
organzers and cergy, advanced regous expanatons for departure, but he fnds
that such expanatons usuay assumed prmacy ony n retrospect. When he
moves beyond the prncpa actors, he fnds that regous expanatons were ess
frequenty offered and he concudes that most peope mmgrated because they
were recruted by promses of matera mprovement.
20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) summari!ing the findings of an in'estigation
(B) analy!ing a method of argument
(C) e'aluating a point of 'iew
() hypothesi!ing about a set of circumstances
(#) establishing categories
21. According to the passage/ Cressy would agree with which of the following
statements about the organi!ers among the #nglish immigrants to 9ew #ngland
in the 12.54s%
3. ?ost of them were clergy.
33. ;ome of them offered a religious e$planation for their immigration.
333. They did not offer any reasons for their immigration until some time after
they had immigrated.
126 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
3C. They were more likely than the a'erage immigrant to be moti'ated by
material considerations.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 33 and 333 only
() 3/ 333/ and 3C only
(#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only
22. According to the passage/ Cressy has made which of the following claims about
what moti'ated #nglish immigrants to go to 9ew #ngland in the 12.54s%
(A) They were moti'ated by religious considerations alone.
(B) They were moti'ated by economic considerations alone.
(C) They were moti'ated by religious and economic considerations e"ually.
() They were moti'ated more often by economic than by religious
considerations.
(#) They were moti'ated more often by religious than by economic
considerations.
2-. The passage suggests that the ma<ority of those #nglish people who had
immigrated to America by the late se'enteenth century were
(A) clergy
(B) young children
(C) organi!ed in families
() skilled in crafts
(#) illiterate
SECTION B
Is the terary crtc ke the poet, respondng creatvey, ntutvey,
sub|ectvey to the wrtten word as the poet responds to human experence? Or s
the crtc more ke a scentst, foowng a seres of demonstrabe, verfabe steps,
usng an ob|ectve method of anayss?
For the woman who s a practtoner of femnst terary crtcsm, the
sub|ectvty versus ob|ectvty, or crtc-as-artst-or-scentst, debate has speca
sgnfcance; for her, the queston s not ony academc, but potca as we, and
her defnton w court speca rsks whchever sde of the ssue t favors. If she
defnes femnst crtcsm as ob|ectve and scentfc-a vad, verfabe,
nteectua method that anyone, whether man or woman, can perform-the
defnton not ony precudes the crtc-as-artst approach, but may aso mpede
accompshment of the uttaran potca ob|ectves of those who seek to change
the academc estabshment and ts thnkng, especay about sex roes. If she
defnes femnst crtcsm as creatve and ntutve, prveged as art, then her work
GRE 12,
becomes vunerabe to the pre|udces of stereotypc deas about the ways n whch
women thnk, and w be dsmssed by much of the academc estabshment.
Because of these pre|udces, women who use an ntutve approach n ther
crtcsm may fnd themseves charged wth nabty to be anaytca, to be
ob|ectve, or to thnk crtcay. Whereas men may be free to cam the roe of
crtc-as-artst, women run dfferent professona rsks when they choose ntuton
and prvate experence as crtca method and defense.
These questons are potca n the sense that the debate over them w
nevtaby be ess an exporaton of abstract matters n a sprt of dsnterested
nqury than an academc power strugge n whch the careers and professona
fortunes of many women schoars-ony now enterng the academc professon n
substanta numbers-w be at stake, and wth them the chances for a dstnctve
contrbuton to humanstc understandng, a contrbuton that mght be an
mportant nfuence aganst sexsm n our socety.
As ong as the academc estabshment contnues to regard ob|ectve anayss
as "mascune" and an ntutve approach as "femnne," the theoretcan must
steer a decate phosophca course between the two. If she wshes to construct a
theory of femnst crtcsm, she woud be we advsed to pace t wthn the
framework of a genera theory of the crtca process that s nether purey
ob|ectve nor purey ntutve. Her theory s then more key to be compared and
contrasted wth other theores of crtcsm wth some degree of dspassonate
dstance.
1-. &hich of the following titles best summari!es the content of the passage%
(A) )ow Theories of Kiterary Criticism Can Best Be :sed
(B) @roblems Confronting &omen &ho Are >eminist Kiterary Critics
(C) A )istorical o'er'iew of >eminist literary Criticism
() A 9ew Theory of Kiterary Criticism
(#) Kiterary CriticismE Art or ;cience%
16. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es which of the following about women
who are literary critics%
3. They can make a uni"ue contribution to society.
33. They must de'elop a new theory of the critical process.
333. Their criticisms of literature should be entirely ob<ecti'e.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
1,. The author specifically mentions all of the following as difficulties that
1-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
particularly affect women who are theoreticians of feminist literary criticism
#DC#@T the
(A) tendency of a predominantly male academic establishment to form
preconceptions about women
(B) limitations that are imposed when criticism is defined as ob<ecti'e and
scientific
(C) likelihood that the work of a woman theoretician who claims the pri'ilege of
art will be 'iewed with pre<udice by some academics
() inescapability of power struggles between women in the academic profession
and the academic establishment
(#) tendency of members of the academic establishment to treat all forms of
feminist literary theory with hostility
25. According to the author/ the debate mentioned in the passage has special
significance for the woman who is a theoretician of feminist literary criticism for
which of the following reasons%
(A) There are large numbers of capable women working within the academic
establishment.
(B) There are a few powerful feminist critics who ha'e been recogni!ed by the
academic establishment.
(C) Kike other critics/ most women who are literary critics define criticism as
either scientific or artistic.
() &omen who are literary critics face professional risks different from those
faced by men who are literary critics.
(#) &omen who are literary critics are more likely to participate in the debate
than are men who are literary critics.
21. &hich of the following is presented by the author in support of the suggestion
that there is stereotypic thinking among members of the academic establishment%
(A) A distincti'ely feminist contribution to humanistic understanding could work
against the influence of se$ism among members of the academic
establishment.
(B) &omen who define criticism as artistic may be seen by the academic
establishment as being incapable of critical thinking.
(C) The debate o'er the role of the literary critic is often seen as a political one.
() &omen scholars are only now entering academia in substantial numbers.
(#) The woman who is a critic is forced to construct a theory of literary criticism.
22. &hich of the following is most likely to be one of the *utilitarian political
ob<ecti'es+ mentioned by the author in line 12%
(A) To forge a new theory of literary criticism
(B) To pursue truth in a disinterested manner
GRE 1-1
(C) To demonstrate that women are interested in literary criticism that can be
'iewed either sub<ecti'ely or ob<ecti'ely
() To con'ince the academic establishment to re'ise the ways in which it
assesses women scholars4 professional "ualities
(#) To dissuade women who are literary critics from taking a sub<ecti'e approach
to literary criticism
2.. 3t can be inferred that the author would define as *political+ (line .5) "uestions
that
(A) are contested largely through contentions o'er power
(B) are primarily academic in nature and open to abstract analysis
(C) are not in themsel'es important
() cannot be resol'ed without e$tensi'e debate
(#) will be debated by both men and women
|Ths passage was excerpted from an artce pubshed n 1979.|
Ouantum mechancs s a hghy successfu theory: t suppes methods for
accuratey cacuatng the resuts of dverse experments, especay wth mnute
partces. The predctons of quantum mechancs, however, gve ony the
probabty of an event, not a determnstc statement of whether or not the event
w occur. Because of ths probabsm, Ensten remaned strongy dssatsfed wth
the theory throughout hs fe, though he dd not mantan that quantum
mechancs s wrong. Rather, he hed that t s ncompete: n quantum mechancs
the moton of a partce must be descrbed n terms of probabtes, he argued,
ony because some parameters that determne the moton have not been
specfed. If these hypothetca "hdden parameters" were known, a fuy
determnstc tra|ectory coud be defned. Sgnfcanty, ths hdden-parameter
quantum theory eads to expermenta predctons dfferent from those of
tradtona quantum mechancs. Enstens deas have been tested by experments
performed snce hs death, and as most of these experments support tradtona
quantum mechancs, Enstens approach s amost certany erroneous.
20. The author regards the idea that traditional "uantum mechanics is incomplete
with
(A) appro'al
(B) surprise
(C) indifference
() apprehension
(#) skepticism
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s conclusion that #instein4s
approach is *erroneous+ (line 22) might ha'e to be modified because
(A) it is theoretically possible to generate plausible theories with hidden
1-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
parameters within them
(B) some e$perimental tests of #instein4s theory do not disconfirm the hidden(
parameter theory of "uantum mechanics
(C) it is possible for a theory to ha'e hidden parameters and yet be probabilistic
() traditional "uantum mechanics has not yet been used to analy!e all of the
phenomena to which it could be applied
(#) there are too many possible hidden parameters to de'elop meaningful tests of
hidden(parameter theories
22. According to the passage/ #instein posed ob<ections to the
(A) e$istence of hidden parameters in "uantum theory
(B) probabilistic nature of "uantum mechanics
(C) idea that "uantum mechanics is incomplete
() results of e$periments testing "uantum theory
(#) importance accorded "uantum mechanics in physics
2-. The passage suggests that which of the following would ha'e resulted if the
e$periments mentioned in lines 16(25 had not supported the predictions of
traditional "uantum mechanics%
(A) #instein/ had he been ali'e/ would ha'e re'ised his approach to "uantum
mechanics.
(B) )idden(parameter theories would ha'e been considered inaccurate
descriptions of real(world phenomena.
(C) A deterministic description of the motion of a particle might still be
considered possible.
() Nuantum mechanics would ha'e ceased to attract the attention of physicists.
(#) #instein/ had he been ali'e/ would ha'e abandoned attempts to specify the
hidden parameters that describe motion.
1992 04
SECTION A
The 1960s wtnessed two profound soca movements: the cv rghts
movement and the movement protestng the war n Vetnam. Athough they
overapped n tme, they were argey dstnct. For a bref moment n 1967,
however, t appeared that the two movements mght unte under the eadershp of
Martn Luther Kng, |r.
Kngs roe n the antwar movement appears to requre tte expanaton,
snce he was the foremost advocate of nonvoence of hs tme. But Kngs stance
on the Vetnam War cannot be expaned n terms of pacfsm aone. After a, he
GRE 1-.
was somethng of a atecomer to the antwar movement, even though by 1965 he
was convnced that the roe of the Unted States n the war was ndefensbe. Why
then the two years that passed before he transated hs prvate msgvngs nto
pubc dssent? Perhaps he beeved that he coud not crtcze Amercan foregn
pocy wthout endangerng the support for cv rghts that he had won from the
federa government.
1-. According to the passage/ the delay referred to in lines 12(11 is perhaps
attributable to which of the following%
(A) Ming4s ambi'alence concerning the role of the :nited ;tates in the war in
Cietnam
(B) Ming4s attempts to consolidate support for his leadership within the ci'il
rights mo'ement
(C) Ming4s desire to keep the leadership of the ci'il rights mo'ement distinct from
that of the antiwar mo'ement
() Ming4s desire to draw support for the ci'il rights mo'ement from the
leadership of the antiwar mo'ement
(#) Ming4s reluctance to <eopardi!e federal support for the ci'il rights mo'ement
16. The author supports the claim that *Ming4s stance on the Cietnam &ar cannot be
e$plained in terms of pacifism alone+ (lines 15(12) by implying which of the
following%
(A) There is little e'idence that Ming was e'er a student of pacifist doctrine.
(B) Ming/ despite pacifist sympathies/ was not con'inced that the policy of the
federal go'ernment in Cietnam was wrong.
(C) Ming4s belief in non'iolence was formulated in terms of domestic policy
rather than in terms of international issues.
() )ad Ming4s actions been based on pacifism alone/ he would ha'e <oined the
antiwar mo'ement earlier than he actually did.
(#) 8pponents of :nited ;tates foreign policy within the federal go'ernment
con'inced Ming of their need for support.
1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the mo'ement
opposing the war in Cietnam%
(A) 3t preceded the ci'il rights mo'ement.
(B) 3t began in 1,21.
(C) 3t was supported by many who otherwise opposed public dissent.
() 3t drew support from most ci'il rights leaders.
(#) 3t was well underway by 1,2-.
25. &hich of the following best describes the passage%
(A) 3t discusses an apparent inconsistency and suggests a reason for it.
1-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) 3t outlines a se"uence of historical e'ents.
(C) 3t shows why a commonly held 'iew is inaccurate.
() 3t e'aluates an e$planation and finally accepts that e$planation.
(#) 3t contrasts two 'iews of an issue.
What causes a hex n nature to appear wth ether a dextra ("rght-handed,"
or cockwse) twst or a snstra ("eft-handed," or countercockwse) twst s one of
the most ntrgung puzzes n the scence of form. Most spra-shaped sna
speces are predomnanty dextra. But at one tme, handedness (twst drecton of
the she) was equay dstrbuted wthn some sna speces that have become
predomnanty dextra or, n a few speces, predomnanty snstra. What
mechansms, contro handedness and keep eft-handedness rare?
It woud seem unkey that evouton shoud dscrmnate aganst snstra
snas f snstra and dextra snas are exact mrror mages, for any dsadvantage
that a snstra twst n tsef coud confer on ts possessor s amost nconcevabe.
But eft- and rght-handed snas are not actuay true mrror mages of one
another. Ther shapes are notceaby dfferent. Snstra rarty mght, then, be a
consequence of possbe dsadvantages conferred by these other concomtant
structura features. In addton, perhaps eft- and rght-handed snas cannot mate
wth each other, havng ncompatbe twst drectons. Presumaby an ndvdua of
the rarer form woud have reatve dffcuty n fndng a mate of the same hand,
thus keepng the rare form rare or creatng geographcay separated rght-and
eft-handed popuatons.
But ths evoutonary mechansm combnng dssymmetry, anatomy, and
chance does not provde an adequate expanaton of why rght-handedness shoud
have become predomnant. It does not expan, for exampe, why the nfrequent
unons between snas of opposng hands produce fewer offsprng of the rarer than
the commoner form n speces where each parent contrbutes equay to
handedness. Nor does t expan why, n a speces where one parent determnes
handedness, a brood s not excusvey rght- or eft-handed when the offsprng
woud have the same genetc predsposton. In the European pond sna 'ymnaea
#eregra, a predomnanty dextra speces whose handedness s maternay
determned, a brood mght be expected to be excusvey rght or eft-handed-
and ths often occurs. However, some broods possess a few snas of the opposng
hand, and n predomnanty snstra broods, the ncdence of dextraty s
surprsngy hgh.
Here, the evoutonary theory must defer to a theory based on an expct
deveopmenta mechansm that can favor ether rght or eft-handedness. In the
case of 'ymnaea #eregra, studes ndcate that a dextra gene s expressed durng
egg formaton; .e., before egg fertzaton, the gene produces a proten, found n
the cytopasm of the egg, that contros the pattern of ce dvson and thus
handedness. In experments, an n|ecton of cytopasm from dextra eggs changes
the pattern of snstra eggs, but an n|ecton from snstra eggs does not nfuence
GRE 1-1
dextra eggs. One expanaton for the dfferng effects s that a 'ymnaea #eregra
eggs begn eft-handed but most swtch to beng rght-handed. Thus, the path to a
souton to the puzze of handedness n a snas appears to be as twsted as the
hex tsef.
21. &hich of the following would ser'e as an e$ample of *concomitant structural
features+ (line 1,) that might disad'antage a snail of the rarer form%
(A) A shell and body that are an e$act mirror image of a snail of the commoner
form
(B) A smaller population of the snails of the rarer form
(C) A chip or fracture in the shell caused by an ob<ect falling on it
() A pattern on the shell that better camouflages it
(#) A smaller shell opening that restricts mobility and ingestion relati'e to that of
a snail of the commoner form
22. The second paragraph of the passage is primarily concerned with offering
possible reasons why
(A) it is unlikely that e'olutionary mechanisms could discriminate against
sinistral snails
(B) sinistrality is relati'ely uncommon among snail species
(C) de$tral and sinistral populations of a snail species tend to intermingle
() a theory based on a de'elopmental mechanism inade"uately accounts for the
predominance of de$trality across snail species
(#) de$tral snails breed more readily than sinistral snails/ e'en within
predominantly sinistral populations
2.. 3n describing the *e'olutionary mechanism+ (line 2-)/ the author mentions which
of the following%
(A) The fa'orable conditions for nurturing new offspring
(B) The 'ariable en'ironmental conditions that affect sur'i'al of adult snails
(C) The a'ailability of potential mates for breeding
() The structural identity of offspring to parents of the same hand
(#) The fre"uency of unions between snails of different species
20. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of y-naea peregra%
(A) )andedness within the species was at one time e"ually distributed between
left and right.
(B) :nder laboratory conditions/ de$tral eggs from y-naea peregra can be
artificially induced to de'elop into sinistral snails.
(C) Broods of y-naea peregra are/ without 'ariation/ e$clusi'ely sinistral or
de$tral.
() )andedness in y-naea peregra offspring is determined by only one of the
1-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
parents.
(#) Beographic factors ha'e played a larger role than has genetics in the
e'olution of the species.
21. The passage implies that in y-naea peregra/ there will generally be
(A) more offspring of the nondominant hand in broods where handedness is
determined after/ rather than before/ fertili!ation
(B) a sinistral gene that produces a protein in the cytoplasm of the egg cell
(C) fewer sinistral offspring in de$tral broods than de$tral offspring in sinistral
broods
() e"ual numbers of e$clusi'ely left(and right(handed broods
(#) an increasing occurrence of left(handedness in successi'e broods
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a predominantly sinistral snail species
might stay predominantly sinistral for each of the following reasons #DC#@T for
(A) a de'elopmental mechanism that affects the cell(di'ision pattern of snails
(B) structural features that ad'antage de$tral snails of the species
(C) a relati'ely small number of snails of the same hand for de$tral snails of the
species to mate with
() anatomical incompatibility that pre'ents mating between snails of opposing
hands within the species
(#) geographic separation of sinistral and de$tral populations
2-. &hich of the following accurately describes the relationship between the
e'olutionary and de'elopmental theories discussed in the passage%
(A) Although the two theories reach the same conclusion/ each is based on
different assumptions.
(B) They present contradictory e$planations of the same phenomenon.
(C) The second theory accounts for certain phenomena that the first cannot
e$plain.
() The second theory demonstrates why the first is 'alid only for 'ery unusual/
special cases.
(#) They are identical and interchangeable in that the second theory merely
restates the first in less technical terms.
SECTION B
Recenty some scentsts have concuded that meteortes found on Earth and
ong beeved to have a Martan orgn mght actuay have been basted free of
Marss gravty by the mpact on Mars of other meteortes. Ths concuson has ed
to another queston: whether meteorte mpacts on Earth have smary drven
rocks from ths panet to Mars.
GRE 1--
Accordng to astronomer S. A. Phnney, kckng a rock hard enough to free t
from Earths gravty woud requre a meteorte capabe of makng a crater more
than 60 mes across. Moreover, even f Earth rocks were freed by meteorte
mpact, Marss orbt s much arger than Earths, so Phnney estmates that the
probabty of these rocks httng Mars s about one-tenth as great as that of Marss
rocks httng Earth. To demonstrate ths estmate, Phnney used a computer to
cacuate where 1,000 hypothetca partces woud go f e|ected from Earth n
random drectons. He found that 17 of the 1,000 partces woud ht Mars.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) presenting an argument to support a particular hypothesis
(B) suggesting an answer to a theoretical "uestion
(C) "uestioning the assumptions of a research pro<ect
() critici!ing e$perimental results
(#) e$plaining the origin of certain scientific data
16. According to the passage/ which of the following e'ents may ha'e initiated the
process that led to the presence on #arth of meteorites from ?ars%
(A) A meteorite struck the #arth with tremendous 'elocity.
(B) A meteorite collided with ?ars.
(C) Appro$imately 1/555 rocks were e<ected from ?ars.
() The orbits of #arth and ?ars brought the planets to their closest points.
(#) =ocks from a meteorite impact broke free of #arth4s gra'ity.
1,. The passage suggests that which of the following is true concerning the
probability that a rock/ if e<ected from ?ars/ will hit the #arth%
(A) The probability is increased when particles are e<ected from ?ars in random
directions.
(B) The probability is increased by the presence of large craters on the surface of
?ars.
(C) The probability is decreased when ?ars4s orbit brings the planet close to
#arth.
() The probability is greater than the probability that a rock from #arth will hit
?ars.
(#) The probability is less than the probability that a rock from #arth will escape
#arth4s gra'ity.
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would cast most doubt on @hinney4s estimate of
the probability of #arth rocks hitting ?ars%
(A) =ather than going in random directions/ about 21 percent of all particles
e<ected from #arth go in the same direction into space.
(B) Appro$imately 155 meteorites large enough to make a noticeable crater hit
1-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
the #arth each year.
(C) 9o rocks of #arth origin ha'e been detected on ?ars.
() The 'elocity of rocks escaping from #arth4s gra'ity is lower than the 'elocity
of meteorites hitting the #arth.
(#) 9o craters more than 25 miles across ha'e been found on ?ars.
A "scentstc" vew of anguage was domnant among phosophers and
ngusts who affected to deveop a scentfc anayss of human thought and
behavor n the eary part of ths century. Under the force of ths vew, t was
perhaps nevtabe that the art of rhetorc shoud pass from the status of beng
regarded as of questonabe worth (because athough t mght be both a source of
peasure and a means to urge peope to rght acton, t mght aso be a means to
dstort truth and a source of msguded acton) to the status of beng whoy
condemned. If peope are regarded ony as machnes guded by ogc, as they
were by these "scentstc" thnkers, rhetorc s key to be hed n ow regard; for
the most obvous truth about rhetorc s that t speaks to the whoe person. It
presents ts arguments frst to the person as a ratona beng, because persuasve
dscourse, f honesty conceved, aways has a bass n reasonng. Logca
argument s the pot, as t were, of any speech or essay that s respectfuy
ntended to persuade peope. Yet t s a characterzng feature of rhetorc that t
goes beyond ths and appeas to the parts of our nature that are nvoved n
feeng, desrng, actng, and sufferng. It recas reevant nstances of the
emotona reactons of peope to crcumstances-rea or fctona-that are smar
to our own crcumstances. Such s the purpose of both hstorca accounts and
fabes n persuasve dscourse: they ndcate teray or symbocay how peope
may react emotonay, wth hope or fear, to partcuar crcumstances. A speech
attemptng to persuade peope can acheve tte uness t takes nto account the
aspect of ther beng reated to such hopes and fears.
Rhetorc, then, s addressed to human bengs vng at partcuar tmes and n
partcuar paces. From the pont of vew of rhetorc, we are not merey ogca
thnkng machnes, creatures abstracted from tme and space. The study of
rhetorc shoud therefore be consdered the most humanstc of the humantes,
snce rhetorc s not drected ony to our ratona seves. It takes nto account what
the "scentstc" vew eaves out. If t s a weakness to harbor feengs, then
rhetorc may be thought of as deang n weakness. But those who re|ect the dea
of rhetorc because they beeve t deas n es and who at the same tme hope to
move peope to acton, must ether be ars themseves or be very nave; pure
ogc has never been a motvatng force uness t has been subordnated to human
purposes, feengs, and desres, and thereby ceased to be pure ogc.
21. According to the passage/ to re<ect rhetoric and still hope to persuade people is
(A) an aim of most speakers and writers
(B) an indication either of dishonesty or of credulity
GRE 1-,
(C) a way of displaying distrust of the audience4s moti'es
() a characteristic of most humanistic discourse
(#) a way of a'oiding e$cessi'ely abstract reasoning
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in the late nineteenth century rhetoric was
regarded as
(A) the only necessary element of persuasi'e discourse
(B) a dubious art in at least two ways
(C) an outmoded and tedious amplification of logic
() an open offense to the rational mind
(#) the most important of the humanistic studies
2.. The passage suggests that the disparagement of rhetoric by some people can be
traced to their
(A) reaction against science
(B) lack of training in logic
(C) desire to persuade people as completely as possible
() misunderstanding of the use of the term *scientistic+
(#) 'iew of human moti'ation
20. The passage suggests that a speech that attempts to persuade people to act is
likely to fail if it does 98T
(A) distort the truth a little to make it more acceptable to the audience
(B) appeal to the self(interest as well as the humanitarianism of the audience
(C) address listeners4 emotions as well as their intellects
() concede the logic of other points of 'iew
(#) show how an immediately desirable action is consistent with timeless
principles
21. The passage suggests that to consider people as *thinking machines+ (line .-) is
to consider them as
(A) beings separated from a historical conte$t
(B) replaceable parts of a larger social machine
(C) more comple$ than other animals
() liars rather than honest people
(#) infallible in their reasoning
22. &hich of the following persuasi'e de'ices is 98T used in the passage%
(A) A sample of an actual speech deli'ered by an orator
(B) The contrast of different points of 'iew
(C) The repetition of key ideas and e$pressions
165 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() An analogy that seeks to e$plain logical argument
(#) #'aluati'e or <udgmental words
2-. &hich of the following best states the author4s main point about logical
argument%
(A) 3t is a sterile/ abstract discipline/ of little use in real life.
(B) 3t is an essential element of persuasi'e discourse/ but only one such element.
(C) 3t is an important means of persuading people to act against their desires.
() 3t is the lowest order of discourse because it is the least imaginati'e.
(#) 3t is essential to persuasi'e discourse because it deals with uni'ersal truths.
1992 10
SECTION A
Hank Morgan, the hero of Mark Twans " Connecticut ;ankee in 0ing "rthurs
Court& s a nneteenth-century master mechanc who mysterousy awakenng n
sxth-century Brtan, aunches what he hopes w be a peacefu revouton to
transform Arthuran Brtan nto an ndustrazed modern democracy. The nove,
wrtten as a spoof of Thomas Maorys (orte d "rthur, a popuar coecton of
ffteenth-century egends about sxth-century Brtan, has been made nto three
upbeat moves and two musca comedes. None of these transatons to screen
and stage, however, dramatze the anarchy at the concuson of " Connecticut
;ankee, whch ends wth the voent overthrow of Morgans three-year-od
progressve order and hs return to the nneteenth century, where he apparenty
commts sucde after beng abeed a unatc for hs ncoherent babbngs about
drawbrdges and battements. The Amercan pubc, athough en|oyng Twans
humor, evdenty re|ected hs cyncsm about technoogca advancement and
change through peacefu revouton as antthetca to the Unted States doctrne of
progress.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is a true statement about the
reception of A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court by the American
public%
(A) The public had too strong a belief in the doctrine of progress to accept the
cynicism demonstrated at the conclusion of Twain4s no'el.
(B) Twain4s no'el recei'ed little public recognition until the work was adapted
for motion pictures and plays.
(C) Although the public en<oyed Twain4s humor/ his use of both si$th(century and
nineteenth(century characters confused many people.
() The public has continued to en<oy Twain4s story/ but the last part of the no'el
seems too 'iolent to American minds.
GRE 161
(#) Because of the cynicism at the end of the book/ the public re<ected Twain4s
work in fa'or of the work of Thomas ?alory.
16. The author uses the e$amples of *three upbeat mo'ies and two musical
comedies+ (lines ,(15) primarily in order to demonstrate that
(A) well(written no'els like A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court/
regardless of their tone or theme/ can be translated to the stage and screen
(B) the American public has traditionally been more interested in watching plays
and mo'ies than in reading no'els like A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing
Arthurs Court
(C) Twain4s o'erall message in A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court is
one that had a profound impact on the American public
() Twain4s A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court has been a more
popular 'ersion of the Arthurian legends than has ?alory4s *orte d Arthur
(#) A Connecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthurs Court has been accepted as an
en<oyable and humorous tale in 'ersions that ha'e omitted the anarchy at the
no'el4s conclusion
1,. The author of the passage characteri!es Thomas ?alory4s *orte d Arthur as
which of the following%
(A) The best(known and most authoritati'e collection of Arthurian tales written in
the #nglish language
(B) A collection of legends that ha'e been used as the basis for three mo'ies and
two musical comedies
(C) A historical account of Ming Arthur/ the si$th(century king of Britain
() A collection of legends about si$th(century Britain that ha'e e$isted since at
least the fifteenth century
(#) The no'el about the life of Ming Arthur that inspired Twain4s cynicism about
nineteenth(century notions of progress
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ?ark Twain would most probably ha'e
belie'ed in which of the following statements about societal change%
(A) =e'olutions/ in order to be successful in changing society/ ha'e to be carried
out without 'iolence.
(B) Technological ad'ancements are limited in their ability to change society and
will likely bring liabilities along with any potential benefits.
(C) The belief in the unmitigated benefits of societal change is antithetical to the
American doctrine of progress.
() The political system of si$th(century Britain was more conduci'e to societal
change than was the political system of nineteenth(century America.
(#) Technological ad'ances and peaceful re'olutions/ although sometimes
accompanied by unintended 'iolence and resistance to societal change/
162 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
e'entually lead to a more progressi'e order.
The ntensve work of materas scentsts and sod-state physcsts has gven
rse to a cass of sods known as amorphous metac aoys, or gassy metas.
There s a growng nterest among theoretca and apped researchers ake n the
structura propertes of these materas.
When a moten meta or metac aoy s cooed to a sod, a crystane
structure s formed that depends on the partcuar aoy composton. In contrast,
moten nonmetac gass-formng materas, when cooed, do not assume a
crystane structure, but nstead retan a structure somewhat ke that of the qud
-an amorphous structure. At room temperature, the natura ong-term tendency
for both types of materas s to assume the crystane structure. The dfference
between the two s n the knetcs or rate of formaton of the crystane structure,
whch s controed by factors such as the nature of the chemca bondng and the
ease wth whch atoms move reatve to each other. Thus, n metas, the knetcs
favors rapd formaton of a crystane structure, whereas n nonmetac gasses
the rate of formaton s so sow that amost any coong rate s suffcent to resut
n an amorphous structure. For gassy metas to be formed, the moten meta
must be cooed extremey rapdy so that crystazaton s suppressed.
The structure of gassy metas s thought to be smar to that of qud metas.
One of the frst attempts to mode the structure of a qud was that by the ate |.
D. Berna of the Unversty of London, who packed hard spheres nto a rubber
vesse n such a way as to obtan the maxmum possbe densty. The resutng
dense, random-packed structure was the bass for many attempts to mode the
structure of gassy metas. Cacuatons of the densty of aoys based on Berna-
type modes of the aoys meta component agreed fary we wth the
expermentay determned vaues from measurements on aoys consstng of a
nobe meta together wth a metaod, such as aoys of paadum and scon, or
aoys consstng of ron, phosphorus, and carbon, athough sma dscrepances
remaned. One dfference between rea aoys and the hard spheres used n Berna
modes s that the components of an aoy have dfferent szes, so that modes
based on two szes of spheres are more approprate for a bnary aoy, for
exampe. The smaer metaod atoms of the aoy mght ft nto hoes n the
dense, random-packed structure of the arger meta atoms.
One of the most promsng propertes of gassy metas s ther hgh strength
combned wth hgh maeabty. In usua crystane materas, one fnds an
nverse reaton between the two propertes, whereas for many practca
appcatons smutaneous presence of both propertes s desrabe. One resdua
obstace to practca appcatons that s key to be overcome s the fact that
gassy metas w crystaze at reatvey ow temperatures when heated sghty.
21. The author is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) crystalline solids and their beha'ior at different temperatures
(B) molten materials and the kinetics of the formation of their crystalline structure
GRE 16.
(C) glassy metals and their structural characteristics
() metallic alloys and problems in determining their density
(#) amorphous materials and their practical utili!ation
22. The author implies that the rate at which the molten materials discussed in the
passage are cooled is a determinant of the
(A) chemical composition of the resulting solids
(B) strength of the chemical bonds that are formed
(C) kinetics of the materials4 crystalline structure
() structure the materials assume
(#) stability of the materials4 crystalline structure
2.. The author4s speculation about the appropriateness of models using spheres of
two si!es for binary alloys would be strongly supported if models using spheres
of two si!es yielded
(A) 'alues for density identical to 'alues yielded by one(sphere models using the
smaller spheres only
(B) 'alues for density agreeing nearly perfectly with e$perimentally determined
'alues
(C) 'alues for density agreeing nearly perfectly with 'alues yielded by models
using spheres of three si!es
() significantly different 'alues for density depending on the si!e ratio between
the two kinds of spheres used
(#) the same 'alues for density as the 'alues for appropriately chosen models that
use only medium(si!ed spheres
20. The author4s attitude toward the prospects for the economic utili!ation of glassy
metals is one of
(A) disinterest
(B) impatience
(C) optimism
() apprehension
(#) skepticism
21. According to the passage/ which of the following determines the crystalline
structure of a metallic alloy%
(A) At what rate the molten alloy is cooled
(B) )ow rapid the rate of formation of the crystalline phase is
(C) )ow the different(si!ed atoms fit into a dense/ random(packed structure
() &hat the alloy consists of and in what ratios
(#) At what temperature the molten alloy becomes solid
160 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. &hich of the following best describes the relationship between the structure of
li"uid metals and the structure of glassy metals/ as it is presented in the passage%
(A) The latter is an illustrati'e e$ample of the former.
(B) The latter is a large(scale 'ersion of the former.
(C) The former is a structural elaboration of the latter.
() The former pro'ides an instructi'e contrast to the latter.
(#) The former is a fair appro$imation of the latter.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ theoretically/ molten nonmetallic glasses
assume a crystalline structure rather than an amorphous structure only if they are
cooled
(A) 'ery e'enly/ regardless of the rate
(B) rapidly/ followed by gentle heating
(C) e$tremely slowly
() to room temperature
(#) to e$tremely low temperatures
SECTION B
In a perfecty free and open market economy, the type of empoyer-
government or prvate-shoud have tte or no mpact on the earnngs
dfferentas between women and men. However, f there s dscrmnaton aganst
one sex, t s unkey that the degree of dscrmnaton by government and prvate
empoyers w be the same. Dfferences n the degree of dscrmnaton woud
resut n earnngs dfferentas assocated wth the type of empoyer. Gven the
nature of government and prvate empoyers, t seems most key that
dscrmnaton by prvate empoyers woud be greater. Thus, one woud expect
that, f women are beng dscrmnated aganst, government empoyment woud
have a postve effect on womens earnngs as compared wth ther earnngs from
prvate empoyment. The resuts of a study by Fuchs support ths assumpton.
Fuchss resuts suggest that the earnngs of women n an ndustry composed
entrey of government empoyers woud be 14. 6 percent greater than the
earnngs of women n an ndustry composed excusvey of prvate empoyees,
other thngs beng equa.
In addton, both Fuchs and Sanborn have suggested that the effect of
dscrmnaton by consumers on the earnngs of sef-empoyed women may be
greater than the effect of ether government or prvate empoyer dscrmnaton
on the earnngs of women empoyees. To test ths hypothess, Brown seected a
arge sampe of Whte mae and femae workers from the 1970 Census and
dvded them nto three categores: prvate empoyees, government empoyees,
and sef-empoyed. (Back workers were excuded from the sampe to avod
pckng up earnngs dfferentas that were the resut of raca dspartes.) Browns
GRE 161
research desgn controed for educaton, abor-force partcpaton, mobty,
motvaton, and age n order to emnate these factors as expanatons of the
studys resuts. Browns resuts suggest that men and women are not treated the
same by empoyers and consumers. For men, sef-empoyment s the hghest
earnngs category, wth prvate empoyment next, and government owest. For
women, ths order s reversed.
One can nfer from Browns resuts that consumers dscrmnate aganst sef-
empoyed women. In addton, sef-empoyed women may have more dffcuty
than men n gettng good empoyees and may encounter dscrmnaton from
suppers and from fnanca nsttutons.
Browns resuts are ceary consstent wth Fuchs argument that
dscrmnaton by consumers has a greater mpact on the earnngs of women than
does dscrmnaton by ether government or prvate empoyers. Aso, the fact that
women do better workng for government than for prvate empoyers mpes that
prvate empoyers are dscrmnatng aganst women. The resuts do not prove
that government does not dscrmnate aganst women. They do, however,
demonstrate that f government s dscrmnatng aganst women, ts
dscrmnaton s not havng as much effect on womens earnngs as s
dscrmnaton n the prvate sector.
1-. The passage mentions all of the following as difficulties that self(employed
women may encounter #DC#@TE
(A) discrimination from suppliers
(B) discrimination from consumers
(C) discrimination from financial institutions
() problems in obtaining good employees
(#) problems in obtaining go'ernment assistance
16. The author would be most likely to agree with which of the following conclusions
about discrimination against women by pri'ate employers and by go'ernment
employers%
(A) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ with e"ual
effects on women4s earnings.
(B) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ but the
discrimination by pri'ate employers has a greater effect on women4s
earnings.
(C) Both pri'ate employers and go'ernment employers discriminate/ but the
discrimination by go'ernment employers has a greater effect on women4s
earnings.
() @ri'ate employers discriminateI it is possible that go'ernment employers
discriminate.
(#) @ri'ate employers discriminateI go'ernment employers do not discriminate.
162 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
1,. A study of the practices of financial institutions that re'ealed no discrimination
against self(employed women would tend to contradict which of the following%
(A) ;ome tentati'e results of >uchs4s study
(B) ;ome e$plicit results of Brown4s study
(C) A suggestion made by the author
() >uchs4s hypothesis
(#) ;anborn4s hypothesis
25. According to Brown4s study/ women4s earnings categories occur in which or the
following orders/ from highest earnings to lowest earnings%
(A) Bo'ernment employment/ self(employment/ pri'ate employment
(B) Bo'ernment employment/ pri'ate employment/ self(employment
(C) @ri'ate employment/ self(employment/ go'ernment employment
() @ri'ate employment/ go'ernment employment/ self(employment
(#) ;elf(employment/ pri'ate employment/ go'ernment employment
21. The passage e$plicitly answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) &hy were Black workers e$cluded from the sample used in Brown4s study%
(B) &hy do pri'ate employers illuminate more against women than do
go'ernment employers%
(C) &hy do self(employed women ha'e more difficulty than men in hiring high(
"uality employees%
() &hy do suppliers discriminate against self(employed women%
(#) Are Black women and Black men treated similarly by employers and
consumers%
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the statements in the last paragraph are
most probably which of the following%
(A) Brown4s elaboration of his research results
(B) Brown4s tentati'e inference from his data
(C) Brown4s conclusions/ based on common(sense reasoning
() The author4s conclusions/ based on >uchs4s and Brown4s results
(#) The author4s criticisms of >uchs4s argument/ based on Brown4s results
2.. &hich of the following titles best describes the content of the passage as a
whole%
(A) The 9ecessity for #arnings ifferentials in a >ree ?arket #conomy
(B) &hy iscrimination Against #mployed &omen by Bo'ernment #mployers
and @ri'ate #mployers iffers from iscrimination Against ;elf(#mployed
&omen by Consumers
(C) )ow iscrimination Affects &omen4s Choice of Type of #mployment
GRE 16-
() The =elati'e #ffect of @ri'ate #mployer iscrimination on ?en4s #arnings
as Compared to &omen4s #arnings
(#) The =elati'e #ffect of iscrimination by Bo'ernment #mployers/ @ri'ate
#mployers/ and Consumers on &omen4s #arnings
The success of fuorde n combatng denta decay s we estabshed and,
wthout a doubt, socay benefca. However, fuordes toxc propertes have been
known for a century. In humans excessve ntake (for aduts, over 4 mgrams per
day) over many years can ead to skeeta fuoross, a we-defned skeeta
dsorder, and n some pant speces, fuorde s more toxc than ozone, sufur
doxde, or pestcdes.
Some mportant questons reman. For exampe, the precse ower mt at
whch the fuorde content of bone becomes toxc s st undetermned. And whe
fuorde ntake from water and ar can be evauated reatvey easy, t s much
harder to estmate how much a gven popuaton ngests from foodstuffs because
of the wde varatons n ndvdua eatng habts and n fuorde concentratons n
foodstuffs. These dffcutes suggest that we shoud by wary of ndscrmnatey
usng fuorde, even n the form of fuorde-contanng denta products.
20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing and categori!ing
(B) comparing and contrasting
(C) synthesi!ing and predicting
() describing and cautioning
(#) summari!ing and reinterpreting
21. The passage suggests that it would be easier to calculate fluoride intake from food
if
(A) ade"uate diets were a'ailable for most people.
(B) indi'idual eating habits were more uniform
(C) the fluoride content of food was more 'aried
() more people were aware of the fluoride content of food
(#) methods for measuring the fluoride content of food were more generally
agreed on
22. 8ne function of the second paragraph of the passage is to
(A) raise doubts about fluoride4s to$icity
(B) introduce the issue of fluoride4s to$icity
(C) differentiate a to$ic from a nonto$ic amount of fluoride
() indicate that necessary knowledge of fluoride remains incomplete
(#) discuss the foodstuffs that are most likely to contain significant
concentrations of fluoride
166 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2-. The passage suggests which of the following about the effect of fluoride on
humans%
(A) The effect is more easily measured than is the effect of e$posure to pesticides.
(B) The effect of fluoride intake from water and air is relati'ely difficult to
monitor.
(C) 3n general the effect is not likely to be as harmful as the effect of e$posure to
sulfur dio$ide.
() An intake of 0 milligrams o'er a long period of time usually leads to a
skeletal disorder in humans.
(#) An intake of slightly more than 0 milligrams for only a few months is not
likely to be life(threatening.
1993 02
SECTION A
It s now estabshed that the Mky Way s far more extended and of much
greater mass than was htherto thought. However, a that s vsbe of the
consttuents of the Mky Ways corona (outer edge), where much of the gaaxys
mass must be ocated, s a tny fracton of the coronas mass. Thus, most of the
Mky Ways outyng matter must be dark.
Why? Three facts are saent. Frst, dwarf gaaxes and gobuar custers, nto
whch most of the stars of the Mky Ways corona are probaby bound, consst
many of od stars. Second, od stars are not hghy umnous. Thrd, no one has
detected n the corona the couds of gaseous matter such as hydrogen and carbon
monoxde that are characterstc of the brght parts of a gaaxy. At present,
therefore, the best expanaton-though st qute tentatve-for the darkness of
the corona s that the corona s composed many of od, burned-out stars.
1-. The passage as a whole is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing a current debate
(B) critici!ing a well(established theory
(C) showing how new facts support a pre'iously dismissed hypothesis
() stating a conclusion and adducing e'idence that may <ustify it
(#) contrasting two types of phenomena and showing how they are related
16. According to the passage/ a bright part of a gala$y typically includes
(A) dwarf gala$ies and clusters of stars
(B) a balanced mi$ture of old and new stars
(C) a large portion of the gala$y4s mass
() part of the corona of the gala$y
GRE 16,
(#) gases such as hydrogen and carbon mono$ide
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ compared with what they now think/
until fairly recently astronomers belie'ed that the ?ilky &ay
(A) was much darker
(B) was much smaller
(C) was mo'ing much more slowly
() had a much larger corona
(#) had much less gaseous matter
25. The passage presents which of the following as incontro'ertible%
3. The low luminosity of old stars
33. The absence of clouds of gaseous matter from the corona of the ?ilky &ay
333. The predominance of globular clusters and dwarf gala$ies in the corona of
the ?ilky &ay
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
One of the prncpa themes of Wazers crtque of bera captasm s that t
s nsuffcenty egataran. Wazers case aganst the economc nequaty
generated by captasm and n favor of "a radca redstrbuton of weath" s
presented n a wdey cted essay entted "In Defense of Equaty."
The most strkng feature of Wazers crtque s that, far from re|ectng the
prncpe of reward accordng to mert, Wazer nssts on ts vadty. Peope who
exce shoud receve the superor benefts approprate to ther exceence. But
peope exhbt a great varety of quates-"ntegence, physca strength, agty
and grace, artstc creatvty, mechanca sk, eadershp, endurance, memory,
psychoogca nsght, the capacty for hard work-even mora strength, senstvty,
the abty to express compasson." Each deserves ts proper recompense, and
hence a proper dstrbuton of matera goods shoud refect human dfferences as
measured on a these dfferent scaes. Yet, under captasm, the abty to make
money ("the green thumb of bourgeos socety") enabes ts possessor to acqure
amost "every other sort of soca good," such as the respect and esteem of
others.
The centerpece of Wazers argument s the nvocaton of a quotaton from
Pascas Pensees, whch concudes: "Tyranny s the wsh to obtan by one means
what can ony be had by another." Pasca beeves that we owe dfferent dutes to
dfferent quates. So we mght say that nfatuaton s the proper response to
charm, and awe the proper response to strength. In ths ght, Wazer
1,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
characterzes captasm as the tyranny of money (or of the abty to make t). And
Wazer advocates as the means of emnatng ths tyranny and of restorng
genune equaty "the aboton of the power of money outsde ts sphere." What
Wazer envsons s a socety n whch weath s no onger convertbe nto soca
goods wth whch t has no ntrnsc connecton.
Wazers argument s a puzzng one. After a, why shoud those quates
unreated to the producton of matera goods be rewarded wth matera goods? Is
t not tyrannca, n Pascas sense, to nsst that those who exce n "senstvty" or
"the abty to express compasson" mert equa weath wth those who exce n
quates (such as "the capacty for hard work") essenta n producng weath? Yet
Wazers argument, however defcent, does pont to one of the most serous
weaknesses of captasm-namey, that t brngs to predomnant postons n a
socety peope who, no matter how egtmatey they have earned ther matera
rewards, often ack those other quates that evoke affecton or admraton. Some
even argue pausby that ths weakness may be rremedabe: n any socety that,
ke a captast socety, seeks to become ever weather n matera terms
dsproportonate rewards are bound to fow to the peope who are nstrumenta n
producng the ncrease n ts weath.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) argue that &al!er4s criti"ue of liberal capitalism is the cornerstone of
&al!er4s thinking
(B) identify and to deprecate the origins of the intellectual tradition championed
by &al!er
(C) present more clearly than does the essay *3n efense of #"uality+ the
distincti'e features of &al!er4s politico(economic theories
() demonstrate that &al!er4s criti"ue of liberal capitalism is neither original nor
persuasi'e
(#) outline and to e$amine critically &al!er4s position on economic e"uality
22. The author mentions all of the following as issues addressed by &al!er #DC#@TE
(A) proper recompense for indi'idual e$cellence
(B) proper interpretation of *economic e"uality+
(C) proper le'el of a society4s wealth
() grounds for calling capitalism *the tyranny of money+
(#) e$changeability of money for social goods
2.. The argumentation in the passage turns importantly on the "uestion of what
should be the proper relation between
(A) *liberal capitalism+ (line 2) and *bourgeois society+ (lines 25(21)
(B) *reward+ (line 6) and *recompense+ (line 1-)
(C) *sensiti'ity+ (line 11) and *the ability to e$press compassion+ (lines 11(12)
GRE 1,1
() *distribution of material goods+ (lines 1-(16) and *redistribution of wealth+
(lines 0(1)
(#) *social goods+ (line .-) and *material goods+ (line 01)
20. The passage pro'ides sufficient information to answer which of the following
"uestions%
(A) &hat weight in relation to other "ualities should a "uality like sensiti'ity
ha'e/ according to &al!er/ in determining the proper distribution of goods%
(B) &hich "uality does &al!er deem too highly 'alued under liberal capitalism%
(C) &hich are the social goods that are/ according to &al!er/ outside the reach of
the power of money%
() &hat practical steps does &al!er suggest be taken to relie'e the economic
ine"uality generated by capitalism%
(#) &hat deficiencies in &al!er4s own argument does &al!er acknowledge%
21. The author implies that &al!er4s interpretation of the principle of reward
according to merit is distincti'e for its
(A) insistence on ma$imi!ing e'eryone4s rewards
(B) emphasis on e"uality
(C) pro'en 'alidity
() broad conception of what constitutes merit
(#) broad conception of what constitutes a reward
22. The author4s interpretation of the principle that *we owe different duties to
different "ualities+ (lines 26(2,) suggests that which of the following would most
probably be the duty paired with the "uality of 'eracity%
(A) ignity
(B) Trust
(C) Affection
() 8bedience
(#) 3ntegrity
2-. The author implies that sensiti'ity is not a "uality that
(A) is essential in producing wealth
(B) wealthy people lack
(C) can be sensibly measured on a scale
() characteri!es tyrannical people
(#) is owed a duty in @ascal4s sense
SECTION B
The outpourng of contemporary Amercan Indan terature n the ast two
1,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
decades, often caed the Natve Amercan Renassance, represents for many the
frst opportunty to experence Natve Amercan poetry. The apprecaton of
tradtona ora Amercan Indan terature has been mted, hampered by poor
transatons and by the dffcuty, even n the rare cuturay senstve and
aesthetcay satsfyng transaton, of competey conveyng the orgnas verse
structure, tone, and syntax.
By wrtng n Engsh and expermentng wth European terary forms,
contemporary Amercan Indan wrters have broadened ther potenta audence,
whe ceary retanng many essenta characterstcs of ther ancestra ora
tradtons. For exampe, Putzer-przewnnng author N. Scott Momadays poetry
often treats art and mortaty n a manner that recas Brtsh romantc poetry,
whe hs poetc response to the power of natura forces recas Cherokee ora
terature. In the same way, hs noves, an art form European n orgn, dspay an
eoquence that echoes the oratorca grandeur of the great nneteenth-century
Amercan Indan chefs.
1-. According to the passage/ ?omaday4s poetry shares which of the following with
British romantic poetry%
(A) Cerse structure
(B) 8ratorical techni"ues
(C) ?anner of treating certain themes
() :se of certain syntactical constructions
(#) @atterns of rhythm and rhyme
16. &hich of the following is most likely one of the reasons that the author mentions
the work of 9. ;cott ?omaday%
(A) To illustrate how the author belie'es that members of the 9ati'e American
=enaissance ha'e broadened their potential audience
(B) To emphasi!e the similarities between ?omaday4s writings and their
#uropean literary models
(C) To demonstrate the contemporary appeal of traditional 9ati'e American oral
literature
() To suggest that contemporary American 3ndian writers ha'e sacrificed
traditional 'alues for popular literary success
(#) To imply the continuing popularity of translations of oral American 3ndian
literature
1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about written
translations of oral 9ati'e American poetry%
(A) They were less widely read than are the works of contemporary 9ati'e
American poets writing in #nglish.
(B) They were often made by writers who were intimately familiar with both
GRE 1,.
#nglish and 9ati'e American languages.
(C) They often ga'e their readers aesthetic satisfaction/ despite their inaccuracies.
() They usually lacked comple$ 'erse structure.
(#) They were o'erly dependent on #uropean literary models.
25. The passage suggests which of the following about American 3ndian poets before
the 9ati'e American =enaissance%
(A) Art and mortality were rarely the sub<ects of their poetry.
(B) Their oratorical grandeur reached its peak in the nineteenth century.
(C) They occasionally translated their own poetry.
() They seldom wrote poetry in #nglish.
(#) They emphasi!ed structure/ tone/ and synta$ rather than literary form.
Recent fndngs suggest that vsua sgnas are fed nto at east three separate
processng systems n the bran, each wth ts own dstnct functon. One system
appears to process nformaton about shape percepton; a second, nformaton
about coor; a thrd, nformaton about movement, ocaton, and spata
organzaton. An understandng of the functons and capabtes of these three
systems can shed ght on how artsts manpuate materas to create surprsng
vsua effects.
It s possbe to summarze the functons of the three subsystems of the vsua
system as foows. The parvo system carres hghy detaed nformaton about
statonary ob|ects and about borders that are formed by contrastng coors. It does
not, however, carry nformaton about specfc coors. Because much of the
nformaton about the shape of ob|ects can be represented by ther borders, we
suspect that ths system s mportant n shape percepton. The bob system
processes nformaton about coors, but not about movement, shape
dscrmnaton, or depth. The magno system carres nformaton about movement
and depth. It s good at detectng moton but poor at scrutnzng statonary
mages. In addton t appears to be coorbnd; t s unabe to perceve borders
that are vsbe ony on the bass of coor contrast.
Ces n the parvo system can dstngush between two coors at any reatve
brghtness of the two. Ces n the coor-bnd magno system, on the other hand,
are anaogous to a back-and-whte photograph n the way they functon: they
sgna nformaton about the brghtness of surfaces but not about ther coors. For
any par of coors there s a partcuar brghtness rato at whch two coors, for
exampe red and green, w appear as the same shade of gray n a back-and-
whte photograph, hence any border between them w vansh. Smary at some
reatve red-to-green brghtness eve, the red and green w appear dentca to
the magno system. The red and green are then caed equumnant. A border
between two equumnant coors has coor contrast but no umnance contrast.
Many artsts have seemed to be emprcay aware of these underyng
1,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
prncpes and have used them to maxmze partcuar effects. Some of the
pecuar effects of Op Art, for exampe, probaby arse from coor combnatons
that are strong actvators of the parvo system but are weak stmu for the magno
system. An ob|ect that s equumnant wth ts background ooks vbrant and
unstabe. The reason s that the parvo system can sgna the ob|ects shape but
the magno system cannot see ts borders and therefore cannot sgna ether the
movement or the poston of the ob|ect. Hence t seems to |ump around, drft, or
vbrate on the canvas.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing subsystems of the 'isual system and showing their rele'ance to art
(B) comparing three theories on how the 'isual system analy!es images in a work
of art
(C) e$plaining how artists use color contrasts to create particular 'isual effects
() e$plaining how the 'isual system distinguishes among different colors
(#) describing functions of the first three phases of the 'isual system
22. &hich of the following would create 'isual effects most similar to those
discussed in lines 0.(06%
(A) A watercolor in which colors are applied imprecisely to outlined shapes
(B) A painting in which different shades of the same color are used to obscure the
boundaries between ob<ects
(C) A black(and(white sketch in which shading is used to con'ey a sense of depth
() An ad'ertisement in which key words are at the same le'el of brightness as a
background of contrasting color
(#) A design in which two different shades of gray are <u$taposed to heighten the
contrast between them
2.. The passage pro'ides information about which of the following%
(A) &hy the same system can process information about mo'ement and location
(B) &hy the par'o system is considered to be responsible for shape perception
(C) &hy the blob system can process information about colors but not mo'ement
() The mechanism that enables the blob system to distinguish between
stationary ob<ects
(#) The mechanism that enables the magno system to carry information about
shape discrimination
20. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the 'isual system%
(A) 3t processes 'isual signals in three consecuti'e stages.
(B) 3t processes 'isual signals through separate processing systems in the brain.
(C) 3t consists of only three separate systems.
() 3t consists of a single hierarchical system rather than a multipartite system.
GRE 1,1
(#) 3t consists of separate system with high o'erlap in processing functions.
21. The author mentions a *black(and(white photograph+ (line 2,) most probably in
order to e$plain
(A) how the par'o system distinguishes between different shapes and colors
(B) how the magno system uses luminosity to identify borders between ob<ects
(C) the mechanism that makes the magno system color(blind
() why the magno system is capable of percei'ing mo'ing images
(#) the brightness ratio at which colors become indistinguishable to the par'o
system
22. The author uses all of the following in the discussion in the third paragraph
#DC#@TE
(A) an e$ample
(B) definition of terms
(C) contrast
() a rhetorical "uestion
(#) analogy
2-. The passage suggests which of the following about the magno system%
(A) 3t percei'es borders on the basis of luminance contrast.
(B) 3t percei'es shapes on the basis of color contrast.
(C) 3t is better at percei'ing stationary ob<ects than it is at detecting mo'ement.
() 3t can detect motion but it cannot signal the position of an ob<ect.
(#) 3t is better at processing information about mo'ement than it is at processing
information about depth.
1993 04
SECTION A
Athough, recent years have seen substanta reductons n noxous poutants
from ndvdua motor vehces, the number of such vehces has been steady
ncreasng consequenty, more than 100 ctes n the Unted States st have eves
of carbon monoxde, partcuate matter, and ozone (generated by photochemca
reactons wth hydrocarbons from vehce exhaust) that exceed egay estabshed
mts. There s a growng reazaton that the ony effectve way to acheve further
reductons n vehce emssons-short of a massve shft away from the prvate
automobe-s to repace conventona dese fue and gasone wth ceaner-
burnng fues such as compressed natura gas, quefed petroeum gas, ethano,
or methano.
A of these aternatves are carbon-based fues whose moecues are smaer
1,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
and smper than those of gasone. These moecues burn more ceany than
gasone, n part because they have fewer, f and, carbon-carbon bonds, and the
hydrocarbons they do emt are ess key to generate ozone. The combuston of
arger moecues, whch have mutpe carbon-carbon bonds, nvoves a more
compex seres of reactons. These reactons ncrease the probabty of
ncompete combuston and are more key to reease uncombusted and
photochemcay actve hydrocarbon compounds nto the atmosphere. On the
other hand, aternatve fues do have drawbacks. Compressed natura gas woud
requre that vehces have a set of heavy fue tanks-a serous abty n terms of
performance and fue effcency-and quefed petroeum gas faces fundamenta
mts on suppy.
Ethano and methano, on the other hand, have mportant advantages over
other carbon-based aternatve fues: they have a hgher energy content per
voume and woud requre mnma changes n the exstng network for dstrbutng
motor fue. Ethano s commony used as a gasone suppement, but t s currenty
about twce as expensve as methano, the ow cost of whch s one of ts
attractve features. Methanos most attractve feature, however, s that t can
reduce by about 90 percent the vehce emssons that form ozone, the most
serous urban ar poutant.
Lke any aternatve fue, methano has ts crtcs. Yet much of the crtcsm s
based on the use of "gasone cone" vehces that do not ncorporate even the
smpest desgn mprovements that are made possbe wth the use of methano. It
s true, for exampe, that a gven voume of methano provdes ony about one-haf
of the energy that gasone and dese fue do; other thngs beng equa, the fue
tank woud have to be somewhat arger and heaver. However, snce methano-
fueed vehces coud be desgned to be much more effcent than "gasone cone"
vehces fueed wth methano, they woud need comparatvey ess fue. Vehces
ncorporatng ony the smpest of the engne mprovements that methano makes
feasbe woud st contrbute to an mmedate essenng of urban ar pouton.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) countering a flawed argument that dismisses a possible solution to a problem
(B) reconciling contradictory points of 'iew about the nature of a problem
(C) identifying the strengths of possible solutions to a problem
() discussing a problem and arguing in fa'or of one solution to it
(#) outlining a plan of action to sol'e a problem and discussing the obstacles
blocking that plan
16. According to the passage/ incomplete combustion is more likely to occur with
gasoline than with an alternati'e fuel because
(A) the combustion of gasoline releases photochemically acti'e hydrocarbons
(B) the combustion of gasoline in'ol'es an intricate series of reactions
GRE 1,-
(C) gasoline molecules ha'e a simple molecular structure
() gasoline is composed of small molecules.
(#) gasoline is a carbon(based fuel
1,. The passage suggests which of the following about air pollution%
(A) >urther attempts to reduce emissions from gasoline(fueled 'ehicles will not
help lower urban air(pollution le'els.
(B) Attempts to reduce the pollutants that an indi'idual gasoline(fueled 'ehicle
emits ha'e been largely unsuccessful.
(C) >ew serious attempts ha'e been made to reduce the amount of pollutants
emitted by gasoline(fueled 'ehicles.
() @ollutants emitted by gasoline(fueled 'ehicles are not the most critical source
of urban air pollution.
(#) =eductions in pollutants emitted by indi'idual 'ehicles ha'e been offset by
increases in pollution from sources other than gasoline(fueled 'ehicles.
25. which of the following most closely parallels the situation described in the first
sentence of the passage%
(A) Although a town reduces its public ser'ices in order to a'oid a ta$ increase/
the town4s ta$ rate e$ceeds that of other towns in the surrounding area.
(B) Although a state passes strict laws to limit the type of to$ic material that can
be disposed of in public landfills/ illegal dumping continues to increase.
(C) Although a town4s citi!ens reduce their indi'idual use of water/ the town4s
water supplies continue to dwindle because of a steady increase in the total
population of the town.
() Although a country attempts to increase the sale of domestic goods by adding
a ta$ to the price of imported goods/ the sale of imported goods within the
country continues to increase.
(#) Although a country reduces the speed limit on its national highways/ the
number of fatalities caused by automobile accidents continues to increase.
21. The author describes which of the following as the most appealing feature of
methanol%
(A) 3t is substantially less e$pensi'e than ethanol.
(B) 3t could be pro'ided to consumers through the e$isting motor fuel distribution
system.
(C) 3t has a higher energy content than other alternati'e fuels.
() 3ts use would make design impro'ements in indi'idual 'ehicles feasible.
(#) 3ts use would substantially reduce o!one le'els.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a 'ehicle specifically designed to use
methanol for fuel would
1,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) be somewhat lighter in total body weight than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled
with gasoline
(B) be more e$pensi'e to operate than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled with gasoline
(C) ha'e a larger and more powerful engine than a con'entional 'ehicle fueled
with gasoline
() ha'e a larger and hea'ier fuel tank than a *gasoline clone+ 'ehicle fueled
with methanol
(#) a'erage more miles per gallon than a *gasoline clone+ 'ehicle fueled with
methanol
2.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage most likely regards the criticism
of methanol in the last paragraph as
(A) flawed because of the assumptions on which it is based
(B) inapplicable because of an inconsistency in the critics4 arguments
(C) misguided because of its e$clusi'ely technological focus
() inaccurate because it ignores consumers4 concerns
(#) in'alid because it reflects the personal bias of the critics
Paue Marshas Brown .irl& Brownstones (1959) was a andmark n the
depcton of femae characters n Back Amercan terature. Marsha avoded the
oppressed and tragc herone n confct wth Whte socety that had been typca
of the protest noves of the eary twenteth century. Lke her mmedate
predecessors, Zora Neae Hurston and Gwendoyn Brooks, she focused her nove
on an ordnary Back womans search for dentty wthn the context of a Back
communty. But Marsha extended the anayss of Back femae characters begun
by Hurston and Brooks by depctng her herones deveopment n terms of the
reatonshp between her Barbadan Amercan parents, and by exporng how mae
and femae roes were defned by ther mmgrant cuture, whch n turn was
nfuenced by the materasm of Whte Amerca. By pacng characters wthn a
wder cutura context, Marsha attacked raca and sexua stereotypes and paved
the way for exporatons of race, cass, and gender n the noves of the 1970s.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) comparing the works of three Black American authors
(B) describing common themes in Black American literature
(C) discussing an important work in Black American literature
() pro'iding insights about Black American literature in the early twentieth
century
(#) pro'iding historical information about the writing of Black American no'els
in the second half the twentieth century
21. According to the passage/ )urston/ Brooks/ and ?arshall are alike in that they
(A) did not e$amine the effects of &hite culture on their characters4 li'es
GRE 1,,
(B) were hea'ily influenced by the protest no'els of the early twentieth century
(C) used Black communities as the settings for their no'els
() wrote primarily about the difficulties their characters encountered in &hite
culture
(#) wrote e$clusi'ely about female characters and the e$periences of women
22. The author4s description of the way in which ?arshall depicts her heroine4s
de'elopment is most probably intended to
(A) continue the discussion of similarities in the works of Brooks/ )urston/ and
?arshall
(B) describe the specific racial and se$ual stereotypes that ?arshall attacked
(C) contrast the characters in ?arshall4s no'els with those in later works
() show how ?arshall e$tends the portrayal of character initiated by her
predecessors
(#) compare themes in ?arshall4s early work with themes in her later no'els
2-. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would describe %ro(n #irl1
%ro(nstones as being
(A) completely different from no'els written before 1,1,
(B) highly influenced by no'els written in the early twentieth century
(C) similar to the protest no'els that preceded it
() important in the late 1,154s but dated today
(#) an important influence on no'els written in the 1,-54s
SECTION B
Many phosophers dsagree over the defnton of moraty, but most
dsputants fa nto one of two categores: egocentrcs, who defne moraty as the
pursut of sef-fufment, and sococentrcs, who defne moraty as an ndvduas
obgatons to socety. Where does the truth e? Fortunatey, the stem of the word
"moraty" provdes some cues. The word "mores" orgnay referred to the
customs of preterate cutures. Mores, whch emboded each cutures dea
prncpes for governng every ctzen, were deveoped n the beef that the
foundaton of a communty es n the cutvaton of ndvdua powers to be paced
n servce to the communty. These mores were concerned wth such sks as food-
gatherng and warfare as we as an ndvduas reatonshps wth others. Thus, I
submt, "moraty" must be concerned wth what s honored by the communty at
arge. However, sef-fufment s mportant to moraty because unfufed
ctzens, no matter how vrtuous, cannot perform the dutes moraty assgns
them.
1-. The primary purpose of this passage is to
255 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) summari!e an argument
(B) resol'e a dispute
(C) trace a word4s origin
() pro'e a hypothesis
(#) initiate a debate
16. According to the passage/ mores in preliterate cultures concerned such skills as
warfare and food(gathering because these skills were
(A) characteristic of an indi'idual4s self(fulfillment
(B) e$amples of a culture4s traditions
(C) manifestations of an indi'idual4s ideals
() demonstrations of an indi'idual4s contributions to the community
(#) e$amples of a community4s go'erning principles
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which of the following statements regarding sociocentrics and egocentrics%
(A) The position of the sociocentrics is stronger than that of the egocentrics.
(B) The positions of the egocentrics and sociocentrics are of e"ual merit.
(C) There is no merit in the position of the egocentrics.
() 9either position contributes 'ery much to an understanding of the definition
of morality.
(#) The dispute between the egocentrics and sociocentrics is based on tri'ial
issues.
25. &ith which of the following statements regarding the relationship between the
indi'idual and morality would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) >ailure in social obligations is the price of success in indi'idual endea'ors.
(B) The unfulfilled citi!en cannot fulfill his moral obligations to the community.
(C) ?orality is unconcerned with conflicts among citi!ens.
() The unfulfilled citi!en is without 'irtue.
(#) &ealth harms a citi!en4s moral standing in the community.
(Ths passage was wrtten n 1975.)
The compcatons frequenty accompanyng dabetes, such as mparment of
vson and of kdney functon, are now thought to resut from the ack of
contnuous contro of bood gucose concentratons. The heathy pancreas, n
response to ncreases n bood gucose concentraton, reeases sma quanttes of
nsun throughout the day and thereby mantans the concentraton wthn
physoogca mts (normogycema). But the dabetc generay receves ony one
arge dose day. The dabetcs bood gucose concentraton can thus fuctuate
greaty durng the nterva between doses, and t has been suggested that the
compcatons resut from the perods of hgh concentratons of bood gucose
GRE 251
(hypergycema). Many nvestgators thus beeve that restoraton of
normogycema mght hat the progresson of such compcatons and perhaps
even reverse them.
There are three prmary technques that have been nvestgated for
restoraton of normogycema. They are: transpantaton of whoe, heathy
pancreases; transpantaton of sets of Langerhans, that porton of the pancreas
that actuay secretes nsun; and mpantaton of artfca pancreases. There has,
n fact, been a great dea of success n the deveopment of these technques and
each seems, on the whoe, promsng. Nonetheess, t w undoubtedy be many
years before any one of them s accepted as a treatment for dabetes.
To many peope, the obvous approach woud seem to be smpy to transpant
pancreases from cadavers n the same manner that kdneys and other organs are
routney transpanted. That was the ratonae n 1966 when the frst recorded
pancreas transpant was performed. Between 1966 and 1975, there were forty-sx
pancreas transpants n forty-fve other patents n the Unted States and fve
other countres. But ony one of these patents s st ave wth a functonng
graft, and surgeons have found that the procedure s not as smpe as they once
thought.
The survvng patent has requred no nsun snce the operaton. Another
patent survved 638 days wthout requrng nsun. And one patent survved a
transpantaton for more than a year, but ded when he chose not to take the
mmunosuppressve drugs. These resuts, though meager, suggest that the
procedure has the potenta for success.
The rest of the patents, however, ether re|ected the transpant or ded wthn
a short perod. There does not appear to be any technca probem wth the
procedure. Rather, most of the patents were aready so severey debtated by
the compcatons of dabetes that they coud not wthstand the surgery and the
mmunosuppressve regmen requred to prevent re|ecton. More than haf of the
patents, furthermore, aso requred a kdney transpant. Most nvestgators now
agree that the smutaneous transpantaton of both organs s too great a shock to
the patent and greaty ncreases the tota rsk.
21. &hich of the following best states one of the main conclusions of the passage%
(A) Although the techni"ues for pancreas transplants appear to be theoretically
correct/ there are problems that must be sol'ed before the operation can be
used as a treatment for diabetes.
(B) Although the techni"ues for pancreas transplants are still being de'eloped/ the
e$perimental results show that the operation will be a successful treatment
for diabetes in the near future.
(C) Although pancreas transplants are reliable/ many diabetics are reluctant to
undergo the operation because of the side effects of immunosuppressi'e
drugs.
252 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() Although pancreas transplants alone are not generally successful/ the
operation can be used in con<unction with other procedures to treat diabetes.
(#) Although pancreas transplants ha'e not been successful in treating diabetes/
research indicates that other procedures may soon be de'eloped.
22. According to the passage/ widely spaced doses of insulin can cause.
(A) re'ersal of normal kidney function
(B) delay in the onset of diabetes
(C) radical changes in the concentration of blood glucose
() restoration of normoglycemia
(#) marked 'ariations in the islets of Kangerhans
2.. According to the passage/ a periodic high concentration of blood glucose in
diabetics is a possible cause of
(A) deterioration of the pancreas
(B) damage to the eyes and kidneys
(C) re<ection of transplanted organs
() inade"uate secretion of insulin
(#) increased production of blood cells
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one of the important contributing causes
of the failure of most pancreas transplants has been the
(A) reluctance of patients to cooperate with physicians
(B) imperfect techni"ues used in the operations
(C) scarcity of immunosuppressi'e drugs
() una'ailability or healthy pancreases
(#) weakened condition of the patients
21. The author pro'ides information that would answer which of the following
"uestions%
3. &hat is hyperglycemia%
33. &hat is one cause of hyperglycemia%
333. &hat are some of the organs that can be ad'ersely affected by
hyperglycemia%
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 333 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
22. 8n the basis of the information in the passage/ which of the following can be
GRE 25.
inferred about the islets of Kangerhans%
3. They are important for the normal control of blood glucose concentration.
33. They can be transplanted independently of other pancreatic cells.
333. They regulate immunosuppressi'e reactions.
(A) 3 only
(B) 333 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33/ and 333
2-. The passage suggests that the author considers the data concerning the success of
pancreas transplants to be
(A) in'alid
(B) indirect
(C) inaccurate
() insufficient
(#) inappropriate
SECTION C
In February 1848 the peope of Pars rose n revot aganst the consttutona
monarchy of Lous-Phppe. Despte the exstence of exceent narratve accounts,
the February Days, as ths revot s caed, have been argey gnored by soca
hstorans of the past two decades. For each of the three other ma|or nsurrectons
n nneteenth-century Pars-|uy 1830, |une 1848, and May 1871-there exsts at
east a sketch of partcpants backgrounds and an anayss, more or ess rgorous,
of the reasons for the occurrence of the uprsngs. Ony n the case of the February
Revouton do we ack a usefu descrpton of partcpants that mght characterze
t n the ght of what soca hstory has taught us about the process of
revoutonary mobzaton.
Two reasons for ths reatve negect seem obvous. Frst, the nsurrecton of
February has been overshadowed by that of |une. The February Revouton
overthrew a regme, to be sure, but met wth so tte resstance that t faed to
generate any rea sense of hstorca drama. Its successor, on the other hand,
appeared to pt key socoeconomc groups n a fe-or-death strugge and was
wdey seen by contemporary observers as markng a hstorca departure.
Through ther nterpretatons, whch exert a contnung nfuence on our
understandng of the revoutonary process, the mpact of the events of |une has
been magnfed, whe, as an unntended consequence, the sgnfcance of the
February nsurrecton has been dmnshed. Second, ke other "successfu"
nsurrectons, the events of February faed to generate the most desrabe knds
of hstorca records. Athough the |une nsurrecton of 1848 and the Pars
250 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Commune of 1871 woud be consdered watersheds of nneteenth-century French
hstory by any standard, they aso present the soca hstoran wth a sgna
advantage: these faed nsurrectons created a mass of nvauabe documentaton
as a by-product of authortes efforts to search out and punsh the rebes.
Oute dfferent s the outcome of successfu nsurrectons ke those of |uy
1830 and February 1848. Experences are retod, but partcpants typcay resume
ther day routnes wthout ever recordng ther actvtes. Those who payed
saent roes may become the ob|ects of hghy embeshed verba accounts or n
rare cases, of ceebratory artces n contemporary perodcas. And t s true that
the pubcy acknowedged eaders of an uprsng frequenty wrte memors.
However, such documents are key to be hghy unreabe, unrepresentatve, and
unsystematcay preserved, especay when compared to the detaed |udca
dossers prepared for everyone arrested foowng a faed nsurrecton. As a
consequence, t may prove dffcut or mpossbe to estabsh for a successfu
revouton a comprehensve and trustworthy pcture of those who partcpated, or
to answer even the most basc questons one mght pose concernng the soca
orgns of the nsurgents.
1-. According to the passage/ *a useful description of participants+ (lines 11(12)
e$ists for which of the following insurrections of nineteenth(century >rance%
3. The Auly 3nsurrection of 16.5
33. The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606
333. The Aune insurrection of 1606
3C. The ?ay insurrection of 16-1
(A) 3 and 333 only
(B) 33 and 3C only
(C) 3/ 33/ and 333 only
() 3/ 333/ and 3C only
(#) 33/ 333/ and 3C only
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that support for the ob<ecti'es of the >ebruary
=e'olution was
(A) negligible
(B) misguided
(C) fanatical
() spontaneous
(#) widespread
1,. &hich of the following/ best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph%
(A) The thesis of the passage is stated and supporting e'idence systematically
presented.
(B) Two 'iews regarding the thesis presented in the first paragraph are compared
GRE 251
and contrasted.
(C) #'idence refuting the thesis presented in the first paragraph is systematically
presented.
() The thesis presented in the first paragraph is systematically supported.
(#) The thesis presented in the first paragraph is further defined and a conclusion
drawn.
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author considers which of the
following essential for understanding a re'olutionary mobili!ation%
(A) A comprehensi'e theory of re'olution that can be applied to the ma<or
insurrections of the nineteenth century
(B) Awareness of the e'ents necessary for a re'olution to be successful
(C) Access to narrati'es and memoirs written by eyewitnesses of a gi'en
re'olution
() The historical perspecti'e pro'ided by the passage of a considerable amount
of time
(#) Mnowledge of the socioeconomic backgrounds of a re'olution4s participants
21. &hich of the following can be inferred about the *detailed <udicial dossiers+
referred to in line 0,%
(A) 3nformation contained in the dossiers sheds light on the social origins of a
re'olution4s participants.
(B) The dossiers closely resemble the narrati'es written by the re'olution4s
leaders in their personal memoirs.
(C) The information that such dossiers contain is untrustworthy and
unrepresentati'e of a re'olution4s participants.
() ;ocial historians prefer to a'oid such dossiers whene'er possible because
they are e$cessi'ely detailed.
(#) The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606 produced more of these dossiers than did
the Aune insurrection.
22. &hich of the following is the most logical ob<ection to the claim made in lines
.6(.,%
(A) The >ebruary =e'olution of 1606 is much less significant than the Auly
insurrection of 16.5.
(B) The backgrounds and moti'ations of participants in the Auly insurrection of
16.5 ha'e been identified/ howe'er cursorily.
(C) #'en less is known about the Auly insurrection of 16.5 than about the
>ebruary =e'olution of 1606.
() )istorical records made during the Auly insurrection of 16.5 are less reliable
than those made during the ?ay insurrection of 16-1.
252 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) The importance of the Auly insurrection of 16.5 has been magnified at the
e$pense of the significance of the >ebruary =e'olution of 1606.
2.. &ith which of the following statements regarding re'olution would the author
most likely agree%
(A) =e'olutionary mobili!ation re"uires a great deal of planning by people
representing disaffected groups.
(B) The ob<ecti'es of the >ebruary =e'olution were more radical than those of
the Aune insurrection.
(C) The process of re'olutionary mobili!ation 'aries greatly from one re'olution
to the ne$t.
() =e'olutions 'ary greatly in the usefulness of the historical records that they
produce.
(#) As knowledge of the >ebruary =e'olution increases/ chances are good that its
importance will e'entually eclipse that of the Aune insurrection.
One advantage of breedng Afrcan bees wth other bee types (Afrcanzaton)
may be resstance to the parastc mte <arroa =aco$soni& a ma|or threat to
modern beekeepng. In parts of Europe, ths mte s devastatng honeybees and
kng many coones despte preventve measures by beekeepers. But n Braz
<arroa =aco$soni has been present n Afrcanzed bees snce 1972 wthout the oss
of a snge coony, even though beekeepers there undertook no preventve
measures. The mtes ay eggs wthn the brood ces of mmature bees, and
deveopng mtes feed on the hemoymph (bood) of bee pupae. But fewer mtes
reproduce n Afrcanzed bees than n European bees. Some researchers pont out
that ths resstance may be reated to the Afrcanzed worker bees shorter
deveopment perod, whch prevents some mtes from reachng maturty. Recenty
the mte has become a serous probem n coones of European bees n North
Amerca. Afrcanzaton of these bees may be the best safeguard aganst ths
paraste.
20. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of the honeybee
colonies described in line 0(2%
(A) Their life e$pectancy/ when free of disease/ was shorter than that of #uropean
bee colonies in 9orth America.
(B) They were not Africani!ed.
(C) Their life cycle did not accommodate the feeding habits of )arroa 5acobsoni2
() They responded well to measures to control )arroa 5acobsoni.
(#) They were managed using methods that were more modern than those
employed in Bra!il.
21. The author cites all of the following as e'idence that Africani!ed bees4 resistance
to )arroa 5acobsoni is superior to that of #uropean bees #DC#@TE
(A) >ewer )arroa 5acobsoni mites reproduce in Africani!ed bees.
GRE 25-
(B) )arroa 5acobsoni is killing many bee colonies in #urope.
(C) Beekeepers in Bra!il ha'e not used pre'enti'e measures to protect their
colonies.
() Bra!ilian bee colonies ha'e endured )arroa 5acobsoni since 1,-2.
(#) At least some #uropean bee colonies ha'e been sa'ed by pre'enti'e
measures.
22. According to the passage/ research suggests that one possible reason the
Africani!ed bees in Bra!il ha'e successfully resisted )arroa 5acobsoni is that
(A) the life cycle of the Africani!ed bee may limit the )arroa 5acobsoni mite4s
opportunity to reach full de'elopment
(B) the Africani!ed bees may ha'e had an opportunity to de'elop a chemical
resistance to )arroa 5acobsoni
(C) the location of bee colonies in Bra!il may pro'ide a natural deterrent to
)arroa 5acobsoni
() )arroa 5acobsoni may be relati'ely new to Bra!il and may not ha'e had time
to become widespread
(#) beekeepers may ha'e de'eloped effecti'e control techni"ues for )arroa
5acobsoni
2-. The author4s argument regarding the resistance of Africani!ed bees to )arroa
5acobsoni would be most weakened if which of the following were true%
(A) The bees in Bra!il were resistant before being Africani!ed.
(B) The number of bee colonies in 9orth American increased dramatically
whereas the number in Bra!il remained unchanged.
(C) ?ites found in #uropean bees reproduce at a faster rate than mites of identical
species found in the bees in Bra!il.
() Africani!ed bees retain many of the characteristics of #uropean bees.
(#) Bee colonies in #urope continue to produce greater "uantities of honey than
do those in Bra!il.
1993 10
SECTION A
Natona character s not formay consdered by soca scentsts n dscussng
economc and soca deveopment today. They beeve that peope dffer and that
these dfferences shoud be taken nto account somehow, but they have as yet
dscovered no way to ncude such varabes n ther forma modes of economc
and soca deveopment. The dffcuty es n the nature of the data that
supposedy defne dfferent natona characters. Anthropoogsts and others are on
much frmer ground when they attempt to descrbe the cutura norms for a sma
256 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
homogeneous trbe or vage than when they undertake the formdabe task of
dscoverng the norms that exst n a compex modern naton-state composed of
many dsparate groups. The stuaton s further compcated by the nature of
|udgments about character, snce such |udgments are overy dependent on
mpressons and snce, furthermore, mpressons are usuay stated n quatatve
terms, t s mpossbe to make a reabe comparson between the natona
characters of two countres.
1-. The author4s main point in the passage is that national character
(A) is too elusi'e to merit attention by anthropologists and other social scientists
(B) is of greater interest to social scientists today than it has been in the past
(C) is still too difficult to describe with the precision re"uired by many social
scientists
() has become increasingly irrele'ant because of the comple$ity of modern life
(#) can be described more accurately by anthropologists than by other social
scientists
16. Bi'en the information in the passage/ which of the following is 98T true of
modern nation(states%
(A) They are comple$.
(B) They are heterogeneous.
(C) They are of interest to social scientists.
() They lack cultural norms.
(#) They differ from one another in terms of national character.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the social scientists mentioned in lines 1(-
would agree with which of the following statements%
3. 3t is e$tremely difficult to create models that account for both economic and
social de'elopment.
33. ?odels of economic and social de'elopment would be impro'ed by the
inclusion of ade"uate descriptions of national character.
333. 3t is important to supplement formal models of economic and social
de'elopment with "ualitati'e impressions of national character.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
25. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A problem is presented and reasons for its e$istence are supplied.
(B) A contro'ersial 'iew is presented and e'idence for its 'alidity is supplied.
GRE 25,
(C) A hypothesis is presented and possible means of 'erifying it are suggested.
() A recent de'elopment is described and then analy!ed.
(#) A dispute is summari!ed and one side defended.
One of the smpest and best known knds of crysta s the onc sat, of whch
a typca exampe s sodum chorde or ordnary tabe sat. The fundamenta
components of an onc sat are ons: atoms or moecues that have become
eectrcay charged by ganng or osng one or more eectrons. In formng sodum
chorde, for exampe, sodum atoms gve up an eectron (thereby becomng
postvey charged) and chorne atoms gan an eectron (thereby becomng
negatvey charged). The ons are attracted to one another by ther opposte
charges, and they stack together compacty, ke tghty packed spheres.
Recenty, scentsts at Mchgan State Unversty created a new knd of crysta
caed an eectrde. In eectrdes, the anons (negatve ons) are competey
repaced by eectrons, whch are trapped n naturay formed cavtes wthn a
framework of reguary stacked catons (postve ons). Eectrdes are the frst
exampes of onc sats n whch a these anonc stes are occuped soey by
eectrons.
Unke other types of anons, anonc eectrons do not behave as f they were
smpe charged spheres. In partcuar, because of ther ow mass and ther
tendency to nteract wth one another over great dstances, they cannot be
"pnned down" to any one ocaton. Instead, they wander cose to and among the
atoms nng the cavty and nteract wth eectrons n nearby cavtes, perhaps
changng paces wth them.
The propertes of an eectrde depend argey on the dstance between the
cavtes that hod trapped eectrons. When the trapped eectrons are far apart,
they do not nteract strongy, and so behave somewhat ke an array of soated
negatve charges. When they are coser together, they begn to dspay propertes
assocated wth arge ensembes of dentca partces. When they are st coser,
the ensembe propertes domnate and the eectrons "deocaze": they are no
onger tghty bound wthn ndvdua cavtes but are more or ess free to pass
through the spaces wthn the frame-work of postve ons.
By syntheszng eectrdes from a varety of materas, one can vary the
geometry of the anonc cavtes and ther reaton to the surroundng catons. The
resutng propertes may make t possbe for eectrdes to become a bass for
economcay usefu new materas and devces. For nstance, because the
eectrons n some eectrdes are very weaky bound, these crystas coud be
effectve as photosenstve detectors, n whch an mpngng photon berates an
eectron, resutng n a sma eectrc current. The same weak bndng coud aso
make eectrdes usefu n soar-energy converters and as cathodes n batteres.
One obstace s the tendency of eectrdes to decompose through reacton wth ar
and water. Researchers are seekng ways to ncrease ther stabty.
215 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
21. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) a way to isolate electrons
(B) the characteristics of a new kind of crystal
(C) the structure of an ionic salt
() commercial uses for electrides
(#) the properties of ions
22. 3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) introducing a 'ariant on the standard atomic theory
(B) describing how chlorine atoms can become negati'ely charged
(C) describing some early research at ?ichigan ;tate :ni'ersity
() presenting the identifying properties of an electride
(#) pro'iding background for the technical discussion to follow
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the differences between the beha'ior of
anionic electrons and normal anions result from which of the following features
of electrons/ as compared to normal anions%
3. The much lower mass of electrons
33. The much greater tendency of electrons to interact with one another o'er
large distances
333. The much greater likelihood of electrons to remain trapped in naturally
formed anionic ca'ities
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 33 and 333 only
20. According to the passage/ the defining characteristic of an electride is which of
the following%
(A) 3ts positi'e ions are of particularly low mass.
(B) 3ts ions possess identical electrical charges.
(C) 3t contains a framework of regularly stacked ions.
() 3ts ions demonstrate strong mutual attraction.
(#) 3ts negati'e ions consist solely of electrons.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that anions beha'ing as *simple charged
spheres+ (line 22) could be e$pected to
(A) readily lose electrons and become positi'ely charged
(B) mo'e freely in and out of their ca'ities
GRE 211
(C) respond to photons by liberating electrons
() stack with other anions to create a regular framework
(#) remain fi$ed relati'e to their cations
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that an electride beha'es most like a normal
ionic crystal when the electride has which of the following features%
(A) The anionic ca'ities are widely separated.
(B) All of the trapped electrons are able to delocali!e.
(C) The trapped electrons are liberated by impinging photons.
() The ions are tightly packed together.
(#) ?ost of the cations ha'e lost their electrical charge.
2-. &ith which of the following statements regarding electrides would the author
most likely agree%
(A) They ha'e pro'en themsel'es to be of great commercial 'alue.
(B) Their future commercial 'alue is promising but uncertain.
(C) They are interesting but of no practical 'alue.
() They ha'e commercial 'alue mainly in solar(energy applications.
(#) Their principal importance will lie in scientific research.
SECTION B
Typcay the queen honeybee s mother to a the bees n a hve; after matng
wth severa mae drones from other coones, she ays fertzed eggs that deveop
nto a-femae worker bees and ays unfertzed eggs that become a-mae
drones. When a queen des, workers often ay unfertzed eggs that hatch nto
drones. Yet workers rarey reproduce whe a queen regns.
Accordng to natura seecton theory, a worker woud enhance her ftness-or
abty to propagate her genes-by hatchng her own eggs n addton to or n
pace of the queens. But a typca workers ftness woud be dmnshed f other
workers sons, who have ess genetc matera n common wth the worker,
suppanted the queens sons (the workers brothers). Researchers, testng the
hypothess that workers usuay somehow bock each others attempts to
reproduce, put unfertzed eggs ad by workers and by the queen nto a hve.
Other workers qucky devoured the workers eggs whe eavng the queens eggs
aone.
1-. The author refers to the e$periment described in lines 12(1, in order to
(A) e$plain how worker bees are pre'ented from mating with drones
(B) e$plain how worker bees hatch and nurture the "ueen4s young
(C) demonstrate the uni'ersality of natural selection
() show that worker bees are capable of thwarting each other4s attempts to
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
reproduce
(#) pro'ide a model of daily life in a typical honeybee hi'e
16. The inner workings in a honeybee hi'e that regulate reproduction/ as they are
described in the passage/ are most similar to which of the following types of
human societies%
(A) A totalitarian society in which citi!ens4 *policing+ of each other4s actions
helps to maintain the status "uo.
(B) A pacifist state in which the indi'iduals are strongly opposed to the use of
'iolence or aggression to settle disputes.
(C) A democratic society in which the 'oice of the ma<ority rules.
() A parliamentary society in which a few members/ organi!ed as a cabinet
wield e$ecuti'e power.
(#) An anarchic state in which order and stable social structures are lacking.
1,. The passage best supports which of the following inferences about the fitness of
honeybees%
(A) =eproduction diminishes any indi'idual honeybee4s fitness.
(B) An indi'idual worker4s fitness can be maintained without the indi'idual
herself reproducing.
(C) A hierarchy of stronger and weaker indi'iduals among the worker bees
determines which indi'iduals will reproduce when a "ueen dies.
() &hile a "ueen reigns/ the fitness of the worker bees is increased and that of
the drones is diminished.
(#) >itness encourages worker bees to hatch honeybee eggs without regard for the
relatedness of the young to the *parent.+
25. The passage suggests which of the following about the eggs laid by worker bees%
(A) 8ne of the eggs hatches into the ne$t "ueen.
(B) The eggs are in'ariably destroyed by other worker bees.
(C) #ach worker tries to hide her eggs from the other worker bees.
() The eggs hatch only if the worker has mated with a drone from another hi'e.
(#) The eggs are less likely to be harmed by other workers if the "ueen is dead.
In the feds of Deano, Caforna, n 1965, Lus Vadez started the Teatro
Campesno (Farmworkers Theater), and wth t ntated the renassance of
Mexcan Amercan theater. The Teatro Campesno had an avowedy potca
purpose: to ray cam#esinos (farmworkers) n support of the farm workers strke
then beng organzed by Cesar Chavez. Vadez dramatc presentatons, caed
actos& spoke to a cam#esino audence and addressed topcs and themes drecty
reated to the strke. Vadez eary actos were composed of a seres of scenes
about the strke experence acted by cam#esino vounteers. Hs ater actos were
presented by a newy consttuted professona company, st caed the Teatro
GRE 21.
Campesno, and addressed such themes as the mpact of the Vetnam War on
Mexcan Amercans and the dangers of assmaton, themes reevant to urban
Mexcan Amercans as we as to cam#esinos. A Vadez actos contaned eements
of song and dance, reed tte on stage effects or props, and featured the use of
masks. These dramatc eements, aong wth an ntensey soca or potca
purpose and the use of a mxture of Spansh, Engsh, and Mexcan Amercan
daects n the daogues, whch reastcay capture the favor of Mexcan
Amercan conversaton, are st characterstc both of the acto and of most other
forms of Mexcan Amercan theater today.
Innovatve as t s, the acto owes much to the theater tradtons of other
perods and regons. Lke eary Spansh Amercan regous dramas, secuar fok
dramas, and the Mexcan car#as of a somewhat ater perod, actos are usuay
performed outdoors by traveng groups of payers or by oca theater groups. The
mprovsed comc satre of the actos s often attrbuted to Vadez study of the
Itaan commedia dell arte of the sxteenth century, athough some crtcs see t
as a drect refecton of the comc and mprovsatona quates of the more
contemporary and oca car#as of Mexcan theater. The Itaan nfuence s key,
whatever Vadez mmedate source: the Mexcan car#as themseves are sad to
have orgnated from the theater peces of a sxteenth-century Spansh wrter
nspred by encounters wth Itaan commedia dell arte troupes on tour n Span.
The Engsh-anguage theater has provded eements as we: Vadez hmsef has
acknowedged hs debt to the agtprop socast theater that appeared n the
Unted States durng the 1920s and 1930s. In partcuar, hs actos contan the
same assortment of semaegorca characters and the same bend of musc,
chorus, and daogue found n some of the agtprop peces, as we as the same
ferce sprt of soca and potca crtque. Fnay, many of Vadez ater theater
peces freey ncorporate characters, pots and symbos drawn from the
ndgenous myths and rtuas of the pre-Hspanc peopes of Latn Amerca. In fact,
no other art form ustrates more ceary the depth and compexty of the Mexcan
Amercan hertage tsef than does the acto of Lus Vadez and the Teatro
Campesno.
21. According to the passage/ the original impetus behind the establishment of the
Teatro Campesino was which of the following%
(A) To help urban ?e$ican Americans understand the problems confronting
striking ca-pesinos in California
(B) To promote an attitude of pride in the depth and richness of the ?e$ican
American heritage among striking ca-pesinos
(C) To pro'ide striking campesinos an opportunity to use their creati'e talents to
e$press their political opinions
() To allow its founder to e$press his personal support of the ca-pesinos strike
effort
(#) To mobili!e ca-pesinos to support the farm workers4 strike in California
210 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
22. The author cites all of the following as probable influences on Calde!4
de'elopment of the acto #DC#@T the
(A) theater of si$teenth(century 3taly
(B) carpas of ?e$ico
(C) drama of classical Breece
() #nglish(language theater of the :nited ;tates
(#) myths and rituals of pre()ispanic America
2.. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of the later actos of the
Teatro Campesino%
(A) They were more politically effecti'e than were earlier actos.
(B) They were presented primarily outdoors/ whereas earlier actos were presented
inside theaters.
(C) They used a greater mi$ture of dialects than did the earlier actos.
() They addressed a broader audience than did the earlier actos.
(#) They differed from earlier actos in that they contained fewer impro'isational
elements.
20. &hich of the following best describes the author4s e'aluation of the 'iews of the
critics cited in lines .2(.,%
(A) Their 'iews/ if correct/ do not preclude the e$istence of an 3talian influence
on the acto.
(B) Their 'iews are unlikely to be correct/ gi'en the differences e$isting between
?e$ican and ?e$ican American theater.
(C) Their 'iews concerning the ?e$ican carpas are essentially correct/ but they
lack familiarity with the acto2
() Their 'iews are probably more correct than the 'iews of those who ha'e
attributed the comic and impro'isational elements of the acto to earlier
sources.
(#) Their 'iews betray a lack of familiarity with the co--edia dell arte.
21. The passage suggests that which of the following e$plains the characteristic use
of a mi$ture of ;panish/ #nglish/ and ?e$ican American dialects in the works of
?e$ican American playwrights%
(A) ?e$ican American playwrights wish to include in their works elements
drawn from the traditions and history of pre()ispanic America.
(B) ?e$ican American playwrights try to guarantee that their works are fully
understood by the broadest possible audience/ including those who may
speak only one language.
(C) ;uch a linguistic mi$ faithfully reflects the linguistic di'ersity of ?e$ican
American culture/ and is easily understood by most ?e$ican Americans.
GRE 211
() ?any ?e$ican American playwrights are "uite familiar with both the
;panish(language and the #nglish(language theater traditions.
(#) ?any different languages are still spoken within the confines of the :nited
;tates/ although #nglish is still the most common first language of its
citi!ens.
22. According to the passage/ which of the following elements characteristic of the
acto are also found in some agitprop theater pieces%
(A) The use of masks
(B) Comic impro'isation
(C) An outdoor setting
() ?inimal use of comple$ stage effects or props
(#) An assortment of semiallegorical characters
2-. &hich of the following/ if true/ most strengthens the author4s argument
concerning the debt of the acto to the theater traditions of other periods and
regions%
(A) ?any popular forms of theater rely hea'ily on impro'isation.
(B) @lays resembling the acto in structure were written in the 1,-54s by &est
African playwrights who are interested in dramati!ing the richness of their
own cultures.
(C) The use of masks has/ at one time or another/ been characteristic of the
theater traditions of almost all cultures/ e'en those most isolated from
outside influences.
() uring a strike/ it is common for union members to present musical skits
dramati!ing the 'alues of solidarity and resistance.
(#) Before 1,21 Kuis Calde! had attended many performances of traditional
?e$ican theater groups touring the western :nited ;tates.
1994 02
SECTION A
Anayzng the physcs of dance can add fundamentay to a dancers sk.
Athough dancers sedom see themseves totay n physca terms-as body mass
movng through space under the nfuence of we-known forces and obeyng
physca aws-nether can they afford to gnore the physcs of movement. For
exampe, no matter how much a dancer wshes to eap off the foor and then start
turnng, the aw of conservaton of anguar momentum absoutey prevents such a
movement.
Some movements nvovng prmary vertca or horzonta motons of the
body as a whoe, n whch rotatons can be gnored, can be studed usng smpe
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
equatons of near moton n three dmensons. However, rotatona motons
requre more compex approaches that nvove anayses of the way the bodys
mass s dstrbuted, the axes of rotaton nvoved n dfferent types of movement,
and the sources of the forces that produce the rotatona movement.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) initiate a debate o'er two approaches to analy!ing a field of study
(B) describe how one field of knowledge can be applied to another field
(C) point out the contradictions between two distinct theories
() define and elaborate on an accepted scientific principle
(#) discuss the application of a new theory within a new setting
16. The author mentions all of the following as contributing to an understanding of
the physics of dance #DC#@TE
(A) the law of conser'ation of angular momentum
(B) analyses of the way in which the body4s mass is distributed
(C) e"uations of linear motion in three dimensions
() analyses of the sources that produce rotational motions
(#) the technical terms for mo'ements such as leaps and turns
1,. The author implies that dancers can become more skilled by doing which of the
following%
(A) 3gnoring rotational mo'ements
(B) :nderstanding the forces that permit 'arious mo'ements
(C) ;ol'ing simple linear e"uations
() Kearning the technical terms utili!ed by choreographers
(#) Circum'enting the law of conser'ation of angular momentum
25. Analysis of which of the following would re"uire the kind of comple$ approach
described in lines 10(1,%
(A) A long leap across space
(B) A short <ump upward with a return to the same place
(C) A sustained and controlled turn in place
() ;hort/ rapid steps forward and then backward without turning
(#) Nuick sidesteps in a diagonal line
Human reatons have commanded peopes attenton from eary tmes. The
ways of peope have been recorded n nnumerabe myths, foktaes, noves,
poems, pays, and popuar or phosophca essays. Athough the fu sgnfcance
of a human reatonshp may not be drecty evdent, the compexty of feengs
and actons that can be understood at a gance s surprsngy great. For ths
reason psychoogy hods a unque poston among the scences. "Intutve"
GRE 21-
knowedge may be remarkaby penetratng and can sgnfcanty hep us
understand human behavor, whereas n the physca scences such commonsense
knowedge s reatvey prmtve. If we erased a knowedge of scentfc physcs
from our modem word, not ony woud we not have cars and teevson sets, we
mght even fnd that the ordnary person was unabe to cope wth the
fundamenta mechanca probems of pueys and evers. On the other hand f we
removed a knowedge of scentfc psychoogy from our word, probems n
nterpersona reatons mght easy be coped wth and soved much as before. We
woud st "know" how to avod dong somethng asked of us and how to get
someone to agree wth us; we woud st "know" when someone was angry and
when someone was peased. One coud even offer sensbe expanatons for the
"whys" of much of the sefs behavor and feengs. In other words, the ordnary
person has a great and profound understandng of the sef and of other peope
whch, though unformuated or ony vaguey conceved, enabes one to nteract
wth others n more or ess adaptve ways. Koher, n referrng to the ack of great
dscoveres n psychoogy as compared wth physcs, accounts for ths by sayng
that "peope were acquanted wth practcay a terrtores of menta fe a ong
tme before the foundng of scentfc psychoogy."
Paradoxcay, wth a ths natura, ntutve, commonsense capacty to grasp
human reatons, the scence of human reatons has been one of the ast to
deveop. Dfferent expanatons of ths paradox have been suggested. One s that
scence woud destroy the van and peasng usons peope have about
themseves; but we mght ask why peope have aways oved to read pessmstc,
debunkng wrtngs, from Eccesastes to Freud. It has aso been proposed that |ust
because we know so much about peope ntutvey, there has been ess ncentve
for studyng them scentfcay; why shoud one deveop a theory, carry out
systematc observatons, or make predctons about the obvous? In any case, the
fed of human reatons, wth ts vast terary documentaton but meager scentfc
treatment, s n great contrast to the fed of physc n whch there are reatvey
few nonscentfc books.
21. According to the passage/ it has been suggested that the science of human
relations was slow to de'elop because
(A) intuiti'e knowledge of human relations is deri'ed from philosophy
(B) early scientists were more interested in the physical world
(C) scientific studies of human relations appear to in'estigate the ob'ious
() the scientific method is difficult to apply to the study of human relations
(#) people generally seem to be more attracted to literary than to scientific
writings about human relations
22. The author4s statement that *@sychology holds a uni"ue position among the
sciences+ (lines 6(,) is supported by which of the following claims in the
passage%
216 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) The full meaning of a human relationship may not be ob'ious.
(B) Commonsense understanding of human relations can be incisi'e.
(C) 3ntuiti'e knowledge in the physical sciences is relati'ely ad'anced.
() ;ub<ecti'e bias is difficult to control in psychological research.
(#) @sychological facts are too imprecise to lead to great disco'eries.
2.. According to the passage/ an understanding of the self can be
(A) highly biased due to unconscious factors
(B) profound e'en when 'aguely concei'ed
(C) impro'ed by speciali!ed training
() irrele'ant for understanding human relations
(#) more reliable than knowledge about other people
20. 3t can be inferred that the author would most likely agree with which of the
following statements regarding people who li'ed before the ad'ent of scientific
psychology%
(A) Their understanding of human relations was "uite limited.
(B) They were uninterested in ac"uiring knowledge of the physical world.
(C) They misunderstood others more fre"uently than do people today.
() Their intuitions about human relations were reasonably sophisticated.
(#) They were more likely to hold pleasing illusions about themsel'es than are
people today.
21. The author implies that attempts to treat human relations scientifically ha'e thus
far been relati'ely
(A) unilluminating
(B) parado$ical
(C) pessimistic
() encouraging
(#) uninterpretable
22. The author refers to people who are attracted to *pessimistic/ debunking writings+
(line 00) in order to support which of the following ideas%
(A) 3nteresting books about human relations are typically pessimistic.
(B) @eople tend to ignore scientific e$planations of human relations.
(C) @eople rarely hold pleasing illusions about themsel'es.
() A scientific approach human relations would undermine the pleasing illusions
people hold of themsel'es.
(#) 3t is doubtful that the science of human relations de'eloped slowly because of
a desire to maintain pleasing illusions.
GRE 21,
2-. 3t can be inferred that the author assumes that commonsense knowledge of human
relations is
(A) e"ually well de'eloped among all adults within a gi'en society
(B) considerably more accurate in some societies than in others
(C) biased insofar as it is based on myths and folktales
() typically unrelated to an indi'idual4s interactions with other people
(#) usually sufficiently accurate to facilitate interactions with others
SECTION B
Athough a hstorca ack of access to forma Spansh-anguage educaton
ntay mted the opportuntes of some Chcanos to hone ther sks as wrters of
Spansh, ther bngua cuture ceary fostered an exuberant and compeng ora
tradton. It has thus generay been by way of the emphass on ora terary
creatvty that these Chcano wrters, whose Engsh-anguage works are
sometmes unnspred, deveoped the powerfu and arrestng anguage that
characterzed ther Spansh-anguage works. Ths Spansh-Engsh dfference s not
surprsng. When wrtng n Spansh, these authors stayed cose to the spoken
tradtons of ther communtes where pubcaton, support, and nstructve
response woud come qucky n oca or regona newspapers. Works n Engsh,
however, often requred the emnaton of nuance or cooquasm, the adopton
of a forma tone, and the ad|ustment of themes or deas to satsfy the dfferent
demands of natona pubcatons.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following%
(A) ebating the historical 'alue of a literary mo'ement
(B) escribing and accounting for a difference in literary styles
(C) #$plaining a publishing decision and e'aluating its results
() Analy!ing the e$pectations of a particular group of readers
(#) Classifying se'eral kinds of literary production
16. According to the author/ the Chicano oral e$perience contributed directly to
which of the following characteristics in the work of some Chicano writers%
(A) A sensiti'ity to and adeptness in using the spoken language
(B) A tendency to appear in national rather than regional publications
(C) A style reflecting the influence of ;panish language education
() A reliance on a rather formal style
(#) A capacity to appeal to a broad range of audiences
1,. &hich of the following best describes the function of the last two sentences of the
passage (lines 11(1,)%
(A) They e$pand on an ad'antage mentioned in the first sentence of the
225 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
passage(lines 1(1).
(B) They outline the conse"uences of a limitation discussed in the first sentence
of the passage (lines 1(1).
(C) They pro'ide e$plicit e$amples drawn from the oral and the written works
mentioned in the second sentence of the passage (lines 1(15).
() They e$plain the causes of a phenomenon mentioned in the third sentence of
the passage(lines 15(11).
(#) They limit the applicability of a generali!ation made in the third sentence of
the passage (lines 15(11).
25. The passage suggests that which of the following was probably characteristic of
the *national publications+ mentioned in line 1,%
(A) They primarily presented scholarly material of little interest to a general
audience.
(B) They sometimes published articles treating contro'ersial themes.
(C) They encouraged authors to feature local issues in articles in order to increase
circulation.
() They included a significant number of articles by minority authors.
(#) They took a stylistically formal approach to material of interest to a general
audience.
The two caws of the mature Amercan obster are decdedy dfferent from
each other. The crusher caw s short and stout; the cutter caw s ong and
sender. Such batera asymmetry, n whch the rght sde of the body s, n a
other respects, a mrror mage of the eft sde, s not unke handedness n
humans. But where the ma|orty of humans are rght-handed, n obsters the
crusher caw appears wth equa probabty on ether the rght or eft sde of the
body.
Batera asymmetry of the caws comes about graduay. In the |uvene fourth
and ffth stages of deveopment, the pared caws are symmetrca and cutterke.
Asymmetry begns to appear n the |uvene sxth stage of deveopment, and the
pared caws further dverge toward we-defned cutter and crusher caws durng
succeedng stages. An ntrgung aspect of ths deveopment was dscovered by
Vctor Emme. He found that f one of the pared caws s removed durng the
fourth or ffth stage, the ntact caw nvaraby becomes a crusher, whe the
regenerated caw becomes a cutter. Remova of a caw durng a ater |uvene
stage or durng aduthood, when asymmetry s present, does not ater the
asymmetry; the ntact and the regenerate caws retan ther orgna structures.
These observatons ndcate that the condtons that trgger dfferentaton
must operate n a random manner when the pared caws are ntact but n a
nonrandom manner when one of the caws s ost. One possbe expanaton s that
dfferenta use of the caws determnes ther asymmetry. Perhaps the caw that s
GRE 221
used more becomes the crusher. Ths woud expan why, when one of the caws s
mssng durng the fourth or ffth stage, the ntact caw aways becomes a crusher.
Wth two ntact caws, nta use of one caw mght prompt the anma to use t
more than the other throughout the |uvene fourth and ffth stages, causng t to
become a crusher.
To test ths hypothess, researchers rased obsters n the |uvene fourth and
ffth stages of deveopment n a aboratory envronment n whch the obsters
coud manpuate oyster chps. (Not concdentay, at ths stage of deveopment
obsters typcay change from a habtat where they drft passvey, to the ocean
foor where they have the opportunty to be more actve by burrowng n the
substrate.) Under these condtons, the obsters deveoped asymmetrc caws, haf
wth crusher caws on the eft, and haf wth crusher caws on the rght. In
contrast, when |uvene obsters were reared n a smooth tank wthout the oyster
chps, the ma|orty deveoped two cutter caws. Ths unusua confguraton of
symmetrca cutter caws dd not change when the obsters were subsequenty
paced n a manpuatabe envronment or when they ost and regenerated one or
both caws.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) drawing an analogy between asymmetry in lobsters and handedness in
humans
(B) de'eloping a method for predicting whether crusher claws in lobsters will
appear on the left or right side
(C) e$plaining differences between lobsters4 crusher claws and cutter claws
() discussing a possible e$planation for the way bilateral asymmetry is
determined in lobsters
(#) summari!ing the stages of de'elopment of the lobster
22. #ach of the following statements about the de'elopment of a lobster4s crusher
claw is supported by information in the passage #DC#@TE
(A) 3t can be stopped on one side and begun on the other after the <u'enile si$th
stage.
(B) 3t occurs gradually o'er a number of stages.
(C) 3t is initially apparent in the <u'enile si$th stage.
() 3t can occur e'en when a prospecti'e crusher claw is remo'ed in the <u'enile
si$th stage.
(#) 3t is less likely in the absence of a manipulatable en'ironment.
2.. &hich of the following e$perimental results/ if obser'ed/ would most clearly
contradict the findings of Cictor #mmel%
(A) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the fifth stage and a crusher claw
de'elops on the right side.
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the fourth stage and a crusher claw
de'elops on the left side.
(C) A left cutterlike claw is remo'ed in the si$th stage and a crusher claw
de'elops on the right side.
() Both cutterlike claws are remo'ed in the fifth stage and a crusher claw
de'elops on the left side.
(#) Both cutterlike claws are remo'ed in the fourth stage and a crusher claw
de'elops on the right side.
20. 3t can be inferred that of the two laboratory en'ironments mentioned in the
passage/ the one with oyster chips was designed to
(A) pro'e that the presence of oyster chips was not necessary for the de'elopment
of a crusher claw
(B) pro'e that the relati'e length of time that the lobsters were e$posed to the
oyster(chip en'ironment had little impact on the de'elopment of a crusher
claw
(C) eliminate the en'ironment as a possible influence in the de'elopment of a
crusher claw
() control on which side the crusher claw de'elops
(#) simulate the conditions that lobsters encounter in their natural en'ironment
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one difference between lobsters in the
earlier stages of de'elopment and those in the <u'enile fourth and fifth stages is
that lobsters in the early stages are
(A) likely to be less acti'e
(B) likely to be less symmetrical
(C) more likely to lose a claw
() more likely to replace a crusher claw with a cutter claw
(#) more likely to regenerate a lost claw
22. &hich of the following conditions does the passage suggest is a possible cause
for the failure of a lobster to de'elop a crusher claw%
(A) The loss of a claw during the third or earlier stage of de'elopment
(B) The loss of a claw during the fourth or fifth stage of de'elopment
(C) The loss of a claw during the si$th stage of de'elopment
() e'elopment in an en'ironment de'oid of material that can be manipulated
(#) e'elopment in an en'ironment that changes fre"uently throughout the stages
of de'elopment
2-. The author regards the idea that differentiation is triggered randomly when paired
claws remain intact as
(A) irrefutable considering the authoritati'e nature of #mmel4s obser'ations
GRE 22.
(B) likely in 'iew of present e'idence
(C) contradictory to con'entional thinking on lobster(claw differentiation
() purely speculati'e because it is based on scattered research and
e$perimentation
(#) unlikely because of apparent inconsistencies with theories on handedness in
humans
1994 04
SECTION A
Defenders of speca protectve abor egsaton for women often mantan
that emnatng such aws woud destroy the fruts of a century-ong strugge for
the protecton of women workers. Even a bref examnaton of the hstorc practce
of courts and empoyers woud show that the frut of such aws has been btter:
they are, n practce, more of a curse than a bessng.
Sex-defned protectve aws have often been based on stereotypca
assumptons concernng womens needs and abtes, and empoyers have
frequenty used them as ega excuses for dscrmnatng aganst women. After the
Second Word War, for exampe, busnesses and government sought to persuade
women to vacate |obs n factores, thus makng room n the abor force for
returnng veterans. The revva or passage of state aws mtng the day or
weeky work hours of women convenenty accompshed ths. Empoyers had ony
to decare that overtme hours were a necessary condton of empoyment or
promoton n ther factory, and women coud be qute egay fred, refused |obs, or
kept at ow wage eves, a n the name of "protectng" ther heath. By vadatng
such aws when they are chaenged by awsuts, the courts have couded over
the years n estabshng dfferent, ess advantageous empoyment terms for
women than for men, thus reducng womens compettveness on the |ob market.
At the same tme, even the most we-ntentoned awmakers, courts, and
empoyers have often been bnd to the rea needs of women. The awmakers and
the courts contnue to permt empoyers to offer empoyee heath nsurance pans
that cover a known human medca dsabtes except those reatng to
pregnancy and chdbrth.
Fnay, abor aws protectng ony speca groups are often neffectve at
protectng the workers who are actuay n the workpace. Some chemcas, for
exampe, pose reproductve rsks for women of chdbearng years; manufacturers
usng the chemcas compy wth aws protectng women aganst these hazards by
refusng to hre them. Thus the sex-defned egsaton protects the hypothetca
femae worker, but has no effect whatever on the safety of any actua empoyee.
The heath rsks to mae empoyees n such ndustres cannot be neggbe, snce
chemcas toxc enough to cause brth defects n fetuses or sterty n women are
220 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
presumaby harmfu to the human metabosm. Protectve aws amed at changng
producton materas or technques n order to reduce such hazards woud beneft
a empoyees wthout dscrmnatng aganst any.
In sum, protectve abor aws for women are dscrmnatory and do not meet
ther ntended purpose. Legsators shoud recognze that women are n the work
force to stay, and that ther needs-good heath care, a decent wage, and a safe
workpace-are the needs of a workers. Laws that gnore these facts voate
womens rghts for equa protecton n empoyment.
1-. According to the author/ which of the following resulted from the passage or
re'i'al of state laws limiting the work hours of women workers%
(A) &omen workers were compelled to lea'e their <obs in factories.
(B) ?any employers had difficulty in pro'iding <obs for returning 'eterans.
(C) ?any employers found it hard to attract women workers.
() The health of most women factory workers impro'ed.
(#) #mployment practices that addressed the real needs of women workers
became common.
16. The author places the word *protecting+ in "uotation marks in line 21 most likely
in order to suggest that
(A) she is "uoting the actual wording of the laws in "uestion
(B) the protecti'e nature of the laws in "uestion should not be o'erlooked
(C) protecting the health of workers is important to those who support protecti'e
labor laws
() the laws in "uestion were really used to the detriment of women workers/
despite being o'ertly protecti'e in intent
(#) the health of workers is not in need of protection/ e'en in <obs where many
hours of o'ertime work are re"uired
1,. The passage suggests that which of the following is a shortcoming of protecti'e
labor laws that single out a particular group of workers for protection%
(A) ;uch laws are often too weak to be effecti'e at protecting the group in
"uestion.
(B) ;uch laws are usually drafted by legislators who/ do not ha'e the best
interests of workers at heart.
(C) ;uch laws e$ert no pressure on employers to eliminate ha!ards in the
workplace.
() Compliance with such laws is often costly for employers and pro'okes
lawsuits by employees claiming discrimination.
(#) #mployer compliance with such laws results in increased tension among
workers on the <ob/ because such laws unfairly pri'ilege one group of
employees o'er another.
GRE 221
25. According to the first paragraph of the passage/ the author considers which of the
following to be most helpful in determining the 'alue of special protecti'e labor
legislation for women%
(A) A comparati'e study of patterns of work(related illnesses in states that had
such laws and in states that did not
(B) An estimate of how many women workers are in fa'or of such laws
(C) An analysis of the cost to employers of complying with such laws
() A consideration of what intentions the ad'ocates of such laws really had
concerning women workers
(#) An e$amination of the actual effects that such laws ha'e had in the past on
women workers
21. The main point of the passage is that special protecti'e labor laws for women
workers are
(A) unnecessary because most workers are well protected by e$isting labor laws
(B) harmful to the economic interests of women workers while offering them
little or no actual protection
(C) not worth preser'ing e'en though they do represent a hard(won legacy of the
labor mo'ement
() contro'ersial because male workers recei'e less protection than they re"uire
(#) inade"uate in that they often do not pre'ent employers from e$posing women
workers to many health ha!ards
22. The author implies that which of the following is characteristic of many
employee health insurance plans%
(A) They co'er all the common medical conditions affecting men/ but only some
of those affecting women.
(B) They lack the special pro'isions for women workers that proposed special
labor laws for women would pro'ide.
(C) They pay the medical costs associated with pregnancy and childbirth only for
the spouses of male employees/ not for female employees.
() They meet minimum legal re"uirements/ but do not ade"uately safeguard the
health of either male or female employees.
(#) They ha'e recently been impro'ed as a result of the passage of new labor
laws/ but continue to e$clude co'erage of certain uncommon medical
conditions affecting women.
2.. According to the passage/ special labor laws protecting women workers tend
generally to ha'e which of the following effects%
(A) They tend to modify the stereotypes employees often hold concerning
women.
(B) They increase the ad'antage to employers of hiring men instead of women/
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
making it less likely that women will be hired.
(C) They decrease the likelihood that employers will offer more protection to
women workers than that which is absolutely re"uired by law.
() They increase the tendency of employers to deny health insurance and
disability plans to women workers.
(#) They ha'e little impact of any kind on women workers/ since typically 'ery
few women are employed in those classes of <obs co'ered by the laws.
Whe t s true that vng organsms are profoundy affected by ther
envronment, t s equay mportant to remember that many organsms are aso
capabe of aterng ther habtat sgnfcanty, sometmes mtng ther own
growth. The nfuence of the boogca component of an ecosystem s often
greater n fresh waters that n marne or terrestra systems, because of the sma
sze of many freshwater bodes. Many of the mportant effects of organsms are
reated to ther physoogy, especay growth and respraton. By ther growth
many speces can depete essenta nutrents wthn the system, thus mtng ther
own growth or that of other speces. Lund has demonstrated that n Lake
Wndermere the aga "sterionella s unabe to grow n condtons that t tsef has
created. Once a year, n the sprng, ths pant starts to grow rapdy n the ake,
usng up so much sca from the water that by ate sprng there s no onger
enough to mantan ts own growth. The popuaton decreases dramatcay as a
resut.
20. &hich of the following is an e$ample of the type of organism described in lines
2(1%
(A) A kind of ant that feeds on the sweet <uice e$uded by the twigs of a species of
thorn tree that grows in dry areas.
(B) A kind of fish that/ after growing to maturity in the ocean/ returns to fresh
water.
(C) A kind of flower that has markings distinctly perceptible in ultra'iolet light to
the species of bee that pollinates the flower.
() A kind of tree with seeds that germinate readily only in a sunny spot and then
de'elop into mature trees that shade the area below them.
(#) A kind of butterfly/ itself nonpoisonous/ with the same markings as a kind of
butterfly that birds refuse to eat because it is poisonous.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the followings is true about
Asterionella plants in Kake &indermere%
(A) They are not present e$cept in early spring.
(B) They contribute silica to the waters as they grow.
(C) They are food for other organisms.
() They form a silica(rich layer on the lake bottom.
(#) Their growth peaks in the spring.
GRE 22-
22. The passage indicates that organisms fre"uently ha'e the strongest effects on
their en'ironment in
(A) oceans/ since oceans contain the largest organisms li'ing on #arth
(B) oceans/ since oceans pro'ide habitats for many different kinds of species
(C) freshwater bodies/ since such effects become pronounced in relati'ely small
spaces
() freshwater lakes/ since nutrients in freshwater lakes are present only in small
amounts
(#) land areas/ since there e$ist ma<or influences of climate on the kinds of small
organisms supported in land areas
2-. The primary topic of the passage is the way in which
(A) organisms are affected by the amount of nutrients a'ailable
(B) organisms can change their own surroundings
(C) elements of freshwater habitats impede the growth of small organisms
() the reproduction of organisms is controlled by factors in the en'ironment
(#) plant matter in a gi'en locale can increase up to a limit
SECTION B
It s ther senstve response to human crcumstance that accounts for the
persstence of certan unversa deas. Rabb Mer, a second-century schoar,
admonshed hs dscpes to ook not at the ptcher but at ts contents because, he
stated, "Many a new ptcher has been found to be fu of od wne." Ths was hs
way of emphaszng the mportance of the dstncton between form and dea, and
of stressng that the ntegrty of an dea s more mportant than the form of ts
expresson.
Creatve deas not ony produce ther own nstruments of survva as tme and
crcumstances demand, but permt the substtuton of new forms for od under the
pressure of changed crcumstances. For exampe democracy, as an dea,
orgnated n ancent Greece and was carred from there to Western Europe and
the Amercas. But t dd not retan the ancent Greek form: t passed through
severa reformng processes and exsts today n many countres. Democratc
governments dffer n form because democracy s n prncpe dynamc and has
therefore responded to oca needs.
1-. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) illustrating the importance of a historical figure
(B) discussing an important characteristic of human ideas
(C) describing the history of the growth of democracy
() contrasting ancient and modern 'iews of the importance of creati'e ideas
(#) e'aluating the contribution of ancient Breece to modern go'ernment
226 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
16. According to the passage/ democracy is an e$ample of
(A) a human circumstance that has molded creati'e ideas
(B) an instrument of sur'i'al that has altered its original form
(C) an attribute of a creati'e idea that has allowed that idea to persist
() a creati'e idea that has persisted because of its adaptability
(#) a reforming process that has culminated in the creation of modern
go'ernments
1,. The *new pitcher+ mentioned in line 2 is the e"ui'alent of which of the following
elements in the author4s discussion of democracy (lines 11(22)%
(A) Ancient Breece
(B) The idea of democracy
(C) A modern democratic go'ernment
() A dynamic principle
(#) The Breek form of democracy
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would disagree most with
which of the following assertions%
(A) Changing circumstances sometimes gi'e rise to original ideas.
(B) Creati'e ideas ha'e uni'ersal applications.
(C) Changing human needs influence uni'ersal ideas.
() emocratic institutions are appropriate in the modern world.
(#) An idea must be e$pressed in a traditional way.
Before 1965 many scentsts pctured the crcuaton of the oceans water
mass as consstng of arge, sow-movng currents, such as the Guf Stream. That
vew, based on 100 years of observatons made around the gobe, produced ony
a rough approxmaton of the true crcuaton. But n the 1950s and the 1960s,
researchers began to empoy newy deveoped technques and equpment,
ncudng subsurface foats that move wth ocean currents and emt dentfcaton
sgnas, and ocean-current meters that record data for months at fxed ocatons n
the ocean. These nstruments dscosed an unexpected eve of varabty n the
deep ocean. Rather than beng characterzed by smooth, arge-scae currents that
change seasonay (f at a), the seas are domnated by what oceanographers ca
mesoscae feds: fuctuatng, energetc fows whose veocty can reach ten tmes
the mean veocty of the ma|or currents.
Mesoscae phenomena-the oceanc anaogue of weather systems-often
extend to dstances of 100 kometers and persst for 100 days (weather systems
generay extend about 1,000 kometers and ast 3 to 5 days n any gven area).
More than 90 percent of the knetc energy of the entre ocean may be accounted
for by mesoscae varabty rather than by arge-scae currents. Mesoscae
phenomena may, n fact, pay a sgnfcant roe n oceanc mxng, ar-sea
GRE 22,
nteractons, and occasona-but far-reachng-cmatc events such as E Nno,
the atmospherc-oceanc dsturbance n the equatora Pacfc that affects goba
weather patterns.
Unfortunatey, t s not feasbe to use conventona technques to measure
mesoscae feds. To measure them propery, montorng equpment woud have to
be ad out on a grd at ntervas of at most 50 kometers, wth sensors at each
grd pont owered deep n the ocean and kept there for many months. Because
usng these technques woud be prohbtvey expensve and tme-consumng, t
was proposed n 1979 that tomography be adapted to measurng the physca
propertes of the ocean. In medca tomography x-rays map the human bodys
densty varatons (and hence nterna organs); the nformaton from the x-rays,
transmtted through the body aong many dfferent paths, s recombned to form
three-dmensona mages of the bodys nteror. It s prmary ths mutpcatve
ncrease n data obtaned from the mutpath transmsson of sgnas that accounts
for oceanographers attracton to tomography: t aows the measurement of vast
areas wth reatvey few nstruments. Researchers reasoned that ow-frequency
sound waves, because they are so we descrbed mathematcay and because
even sma perturbatons n emtted sound waves can be detected, coud be
transmtted through the ocean over many dfferent paths and that the propertes
of the oceans nteror-ts temperature, santy, densty, and speed of currents-
coud be deduced on the bass of how the ocean atered the sgnas. Ther nta
tras were hghy successfu, and ocean acoustc tomography was born.
21. According to the passage/ scientists are able to use ocean acoustic tomography to
deduce the properties of the ocean4s interior in part because
(A) low(fre"uency sound wa'es are well described mathematically
(B) mesoscale phenomena are so large as to be easily detectable
(C) information from sound wa'es can be recombined more easily than
information from $(rays
() tomography is better suited to measuring mesoscale phenomena than to
measuring small(scale systems
(#) density 'ariations in the ocean are mathematically predictable
22. The passage suggests that medical tomography operates on the principle that
(A) $(rays are superior to sound wa'es for producing three(dimensional images
(B) sound wa'es are altered as they pass through regions of 'arying density
(C) images of the body4s interior can be produced by analy!ing a single $(ray
transmission through the body
() the 'arying densities within the human body allow $(rays to map the internal
organs
(#) information from $(rays and sound wa'es can be combined to produce a
highly detailed image of the body4s interior
2.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2.. &hich of the following is most similar to medical tomography as it is described
in the passage%
(A) The use of ocean(current meters to determine the direction and 'elocity of the
ocean4s mesoscale fields
(B) The use of earth"uake shockwa'e data collected at se'eral different locations
and combined to create a three(dimensional image of the #arth4s interior
(C) The use of a grid(point sensory system to map global weather patterns
() The use of subsurface floats to map large(scale circulation in the ocean
(#) The use of computer technology to halt the progress of a particular disease
within the human body4s internal organs
20. The author mentions #l 9ino (line 2-) primarily in order to emphasi!e which of
the following points%
(A) The brief duration of weather patterns
(B) The 'ariability of mesoscale phenomena
(C) The difficulty of measuring the ocean4s large(scale currents
() The effecti'eness of low(fre"uency sound wa'es in mapping the ocean
(#) The possible impact of mesoscale fields on weather conditions
21. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph of
the passage%
(A) A theory is proposed/ considered/ and then attended.
(B) 8pposing 'iews are presented/ elaborated/ and then reconciled.
(C) A problem is described/ then a solution is discussed and its effecti'eness is
affirmed.
() An argument is ad'anced/ then refuted/ and an alternati'e is suggested.
(#) A hypothesis is presented/ "ualified/ and then reaffirmed.
22. The passage suggests that which of the following would be true if the ocean4s
circulation consisted primarily of large/ slow(mo'ing currents%
(A) The influence of mesoscale fields on global weather patterns would remain
the same.
(B) Karge(scale currents would e$hibit more 'ariability than is actually obser'ed.
(C) The ma<ority of the ocean4s kinetic energy would be deri'ed from mesoscale
fields.
() Atmospheric(oceanic disturbances such as #l 9ino would occur more often.
(#) Con'entional measuring techni"ues would be a feasible method of studying
the physical properties of the ocean.
2-. &hich of the following/ if presented as the first sentence of a succeeding
paragraph/ would most logically continue the discussion presented in the
passage%
GRE 2.1
(A) Timekeeping in medical tomography must be precise because the changes in
tra'el time caused by density fluctuations are slight.
(B) To understand how ocean acoustic tomography works/ it is necessary to know
how sound tra'els in the ocean.
(C) ;hips are another possibility/ but they would need to stop e'ery 15 kilometers
to lower measuring instruments.
() These 'ariations amount to only about 2 to . percent of the a'erage speed of
sound in water/ which is about 1/ 155 meters per second.
(#) The de'ice used in medical tomography emits a specially coded signal/ easily
distinguishable from background noise.
1994 10
SECTION A
The Fourteenth Amendment to the Unted States Consttuton, ratfed n 1868,
prohbts state governments from denyng ctzens the "equa protecton of the
aws." Athough precsey what the framers of the amendment meant by ths
equa protecton cause remans uncear, a nterpreters agree that the framers
mmedate ob|ectve was to provde a consttutona warrant for the Cv Rghts
Act of 1866, whch guaranteed the ctzenshp of a persons born n the Unted
States and sub|ect to Unted States |ursdcton. Ths decaraton, whch was
echoed n the text of the Fourteenth Amendment, was desgned prmary to
counter the Supreme Courts rung n -red cott v. andford that Back peope n
the Unted States coud be dened ctzenshp. The act was vetoed by Presdent
Andrew |ohnson, who argued that the Thrteenth Amendment, whch aboshed
savery, dd not provde Congress wth the authorty to extend ctzenshp and
equa protecton to the freed saves. Athough Congress prompty overrode
|ohnsons veto, supporters of the act sought to ensure ts consttutona
foundatons wth the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The broad anguage of the amendment strongy suggests that ts framers
were proposng to wrte nto the Consttuton not a aundry st of specfc cv
rghts but a prncpe of equa ctzenshp that forbds organzed socety from
treatng any ndvdua as a member of an nferor cass. Yet for the frst eght
decades of the amendments exstence, the Supreme Courts nterpretaton of the
amendment betrayed ths dea of equaty. In the Civil *ights Cases of 1883, for
exampe, the Court nvented the "state acton" mtaton, whch asserts that
"prvate" decsons by owners of pubc accommodatons and other commerca
busnesses to segregate ther factes are nsuated from the reach of the
Fourteenth Amendments guarantee of equa protecton under the aw.
After the Second Word War, a |udca cmate more hosptabe to equa
protecton cams cumnated n the Supreme Courts rung n Brown v. Board of
2.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Education that racay segregated schoos voated the equa protecton cause of
the Fourteenth Amendment. Two doctrnes embraced by the Supreme Court
durng ths perod extended the amendments reach. Frst, the Court requred
especay strct scrutny of egsaton that empoyed a "suspect cassfcaton,"
meanng dscrmnaton aganst a group on grounds that coud be construed as
raca. Ths doctrne has broadened the appcaton of the Fourteenth Amendment
to other, nonraca forms of dscrmnaton, for whe some |ustces have refused to
fnd any egsatve cassfcaton other than race to be consttutonay dsfavored,
most have been receptve to arguments that at east some nonraca
dscrmnatons, sexua dscrmnaton n partcuar, are "suspect" and deserve ths
heghtened scrutny by the courts. Second, the Court reaxed the state acton
mtaton on the Fourteenth Amendment, brngng new forms of prvate conduct
wthn the amendments reach.
1-. &hich of the following best describes the main idea of the passage%
(A) By presenting a list of specific rights/ framers of the >ourteenth Amendment
were attempting to pro'ide a constitutional basis for broad <udicial
protection of the principle of e"ual citi!enship.
(B) 8nly after the ;upreme Court adopted the suspect classification approach to
re'iewing potentially discriminatory legislation was the applicability of the
>ourteenth Amendment e$tended to include se$ual discrimination.
(C) 9ot until after the ;econd &orld &ar did the ;upreme Court begin to
interpret the >ourteenth Amendment in a manner consistent with the
principle of e"ual citi!enship that it e$presses.
() 3nterpreters of the >ourteenth Amendment ha'e yet to reach consensus with
regard to what its framers meant by the e"ual protection clause.
(#) Although the reluctance of <udges to e$tend the reach of the >ourteenth
Amendment to nonracial discrimination has betrayed the principle of e"ual
citi!enship/ the ;upreme Court4s use of the state action limitation to insulate
pri'ate acti'ity from the amendment4s reach has been more harmful.
16. The passage suggests that the principal effect of the state action limitation was to
(A) allow some discriminatory practices to continue unimpeded by the >ourteenth
Amendment
(B) influence the ;upreme Court4s ruling in %ro(n $1 %oard o+ Education
(C) pro'ide e$panded guidelines describing prohibited actions
() prohibit states from enacting laws that 'iolated the intent of the Ci'il =ights
Act of 1622
(#) shift to state go'ernments the responsibility for enforcement of laws
prohibiting discriminatory practices
1,. The author4s position regarding the intent of the framers of the >ourteenth
Amendment would be most seriously undermined if which of the following were
GRE 2..
true%
(A) The framers had anticipated state action limitations as they are described in
the passage.
(B) The framers had merely sought to pre'ent discriminatory acts by federal
officials.
(C) The framers were concerned that the Ci'il =ights Act of 1622 would be
o'erturned by the ;upreme Court.
() The framers were aware that the phrase *e"ual protection of the laws+ had
broad implications.
(#) The framers belie'ed that racial as well as non(racial forms of discrimination
were unacceptable.
25. According to the passage/ the original proponents of the >ourteenth Amendment
were primarily concerned with
(A) detailing the rights afforded by the principle of e"ual citi!enship
(B) pro'iding support in the Constitution for e"ual protection for all citi!ens of
the :nited ;tates
(C) closing a loophole that could be used to deny indi'iduals the right to sue for
enforcement of their ci'il rights
() asserting that the ci'il rights protected by the Constitution included nonracial
discrimination as well as racial discrimination
(#) granting state go'ernments broader discretion in interpreting the Ci'il =ights
Act of 1622
21. The author implies that the >ourteenth Amendment might not ha'e been enacted
if
(A) Congress4 authority with regard to legislating ci'il rights had not been
challenged
(B) the framers had anticipated the ;upreme Court4s ruling in %ro(n $2 %oard o+
Education
(C) the framers had belie'ed that it would be used in deciding cases of
discrimination in'ol'ing non(racial groups
() most state go'ernments had been willing to protect citi!ens4 ci'il rights
(#) its essential elements had not been implicit in the Thirteenth Amendment
22. According to the passage/ which of the following most accurately indicates the
se"uence of the e'ents listed below%
3. Ci'il =ights Act of 1622
33. red ;cott '. ;andford
333. >ourteenth Amendment
3C. Ceto by @resident Aohnson
2.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) 3/ 33/ 333/ 3C
(B) 3/ 3C/ 33/ 333
(C) 3/ 3C/ 333/ 33
() 33/ 3/ 3C/ 333
(#) 333/ 33/ 3/ 3C
2.. &hich of the following can be inferred about the second of the two doctrines
referred to in lines .,(01 of the passage%
(A) 3t caused some <ustices to rule that all types of discrimination are prohibited
by the Constitution.
(B) 3t shifted the focus of the ;upreme Court from racial to nonracial
discrimination.
(C) 3t narrowed the concern of the ;upreme Court to legislation that employed a
suspect classification.
() 3t caused legislators who were writing new legislation to re<ect language that
could be construed as permitting racial discrimination.
(#) 3t made it more difficult for commercial businesses to practice racial
discrimination.
The Earths magnetc fed s generated as the moten ron of the Earths outer
core revoves around ts sod nner core. When surges n the moten ron occur,
magnetc tempests are created. At the Earths surface, these tempests can be
detected by changes n the strength of the Earths magnetc fed. For reasons not
fuy understood, the fed tsef reverses perodcay every mon years or so.
Durng the past mon years, for nstance, the magnetc north poe has mgrated
between the Antarctc and the Arctc.
Ceary, geophyscsts who seek to expan and forecast changes n the fed
must understand what happens n the outer core. Unke meteoroogsts, however,
they cannot rey on observatons made n ther own fetmes. Whereas
atmospherc storms arse n a matter of hours and ast for days, magnetc
tempests deveop over decades and persst for centures. Fortunatey scentsts
have been recordng changes n the Earths magnetc fed for more than 300
years.
20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing a complicated scientific phenomenon and its impact on the #arth4s
surface features
(B) describing a natural phenomenon and the challenges its study presents to
researchers
(C) discussing a scientific field of research and the gaps in researchers4
methodological approaches to it
() comparing two distinct fields of physical science and the different research
GRE 2.1
methods employed in each
(#) proposing an e$planation for a geophysical phenomenon and an e$periment
that could help confirm that e$planation
21. The passage suggests which of the following about surges in the #arth4s outer
core%
(A) They occur cyclically e'ery few decades.
(B) They can be predicted by changes in the #arth4s inner core.
(C) They are detected through indirect means.
() They are linked to disturbances in the #arth4s atmosphere.
(#) They last for periods of about 1 million years.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that geophysicists seeking to e$plain magnetic
tempests ought to conduct research on the #arth4s outer core because the #arth4s
outer core
(A) is more fully understood than the #arth4s magnetic field
(B) is more easily obser'ed than the #arth4s magnetic field
(C) has been the sub<ect of e$tensi'e scientific obser'ation for .55 years
() is in'ol'ed in generating the #arth4s magnetic field
(#) reflects changes in the inner core caused by magnetic tempests
2-. 3n the second paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) stating a limitation that helps determine a research methodology
(B) making a comparati'e analysis of two different research methodologies
(C) assessing the amount of empirical data in the field of physical science
() suggesting an optimistic way of 'iewing a widely feared phenomenon
(#) describing a fundamental issue and discussing its future impact on society
SECTION B
The defoaton of mons of acres of trees by massve nfestatons of gypsy
moth caterpars s a recurrng phenomenon n the northeastern Unted States. In
studyng these outbreaks, scentsts have dscovered that affected trees fght back
by reeasng toxc chemcas, many phenos, nto ther foage. These noxous
substances mt caterpars growth and reduce the number of eggs that femae
moths ay. Phenos aso make the eggs smaer, whch reduces the growth of the
foowng years caterpars. Because the number of eggs a femae moth produces
s drecty reated to her sze, and because her sze s determned entrey by her
feedng success as a caterpar, the trees defensve mechansm has an mpact on
moth fecundty.
The gypsy moth s aso sub|ect to attack by the nuceopoyhedross vrus, or
wt dsease, a partcuary mportant ker of the caterpars n outbreak years.
2.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Caterpars contract wt dsease when they eat a eaf to whch the vrus, encased
n a proten gobue, has become attached. Once ngested by a caterpar, the
proten gobue dssoves, reeasng thousands of vruses, or vrons, that after
about two weeks mutpy enough to f the entre body cavty. When the
caterpar des, the vrons are reeased to the outsde, encased n a new proten
gobue syntheszed from the caterpars tssues and ready to be pcked up by
other caterpars.
Knowng that phenos, ncudng tannns, often act by assocatng wth and
aterng the actvty of protens, researchers focused on the effects on caterpars
of ngestng the vrus and eaves together. They found that on tannn-rch oak
eaves, the vrus s consderaby ess effectve at kng caterpars than when t s
on aspen eaves, whch are ower n phenos. In genera, the more concentrated
the phenos n tree eaves, the ess deady the vrus. Thus, whe hghy
concentrated phenos n tree eaves reduce the caterpar popuaton by mtng
the sze of caterpars and, consequenty, the sze of the femaes egg custer,
these same chemcas aso hep caterpars survve by dsabng the wt vrus.
Forest stands of red oaks, wth ther tannn-rch foage, may even provde
caterpars wth safe havens from dsease. In stands domnated by trees such as
aspen, however, ncpent gypsy moth outbreaks are qucky suppressed by vra
epdemcs.
Further research has shown that caterpars become vrtuay mmune to the
wt vrus as the trees on whch they feed respond to ncreasng defoaton. The
trees own defenses rase the threshod of caterpar vunerabty to the dsease,
aowng popuatons to grow denser wthout becomng more susceptbe to
nfecton. For these reasons, the benefts to the caterpars of ngestng phenos
appear to outwegh the costs. Gven the presence of the vrus, the trees
defensve tactc apparenty has backfred.
1-. &hich of the following statements best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) =ecurring outbreaks of infestation by gypsy moth caterpillars ha'e had a
de'astating impact on trees in the northeastern :nited ;tates.
(B) A mechanism used by trees to combat the threat from gypsy moth caterpillars
has actually made some trees more 'ulnerable to that threat.
(C) Although deadly to gypsy moth caterpillars/ wilt disease has failed to
significantly affect the population density of the caterpillars.
() The tree species with the highest le'els of phenols in their foliage are the
most successful in defending themsel'es against gypsy moth caterpillars.
(#) 3n their efforts to de'elop new methods for controlling gypsy moth
caterpillars/ researchers ha'e focused on the effects of phenols in tree lea'es
on the insects4 growth and reproduction.
16. 3n lines 12(10/ the phrase *the trees4 defensi'e mechanism has an impact on moth
fecundity+ refers to which of the following phenomena%
GRE 2.-
(A) >emale moths that ingest phenols are more susceptible to wilt 'irus/ which
causes them to lay smaller eggs.
(B) )ighly concentrated phenols in tree lea'es limit caterpillars4 food supply/
thereby reducing the gypsy moth population.
(C) @henols attack the protein globule that protects moth egg clusters/ making
them 'ulnerable to wilt 'irus and lowering their sur'i'al rate.
() @henols in oak lea'es dri'e gypsy moths into forest stands dominated by
aspens/ where they succumb to 'iral epidemics.
(#) The consumption of phenols by caterpillars results in undersi!ed female
gypsy moths/ which tend to produce small egg clusters.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that wilt disease 'irions depend for their
sur'i'al on
(A) protein synthesi!ed from the tissues of a host caterpillar
(B) aspen lea'es with high concentrations of phenols
(C) tannin(rich oak lea'es
() nutrients that they synthesi!e from gypsy moth egg clusters
(#) a rising threshold of caterpillar 'ulnerability to wilt disease
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly demonstrate the operation of
the trees4 defensi'e mechanism as it is described in the first paragraph of the
passage%
(A) Caterpillars feeding on red oaks that were more than 15 percent defoliated
grew to be only two(thirds the si!e of those feeding on trees with relati'ely
intact foliage.
(B) 8ak lea'es in areas unaffected by gypsy moths were found to ha'e higher
le'els of tannin on a'erage than aspen lea'es in areas infested with gypsy
moths.
(C) The sur'i'al rate of gypsy moth caterpillars e$posed to the wilt 'irus was 05
percent higher for those that fed on aspen lea'es than for those that ate oak
lea'es.
() >emale gypsy moths produced an a'erage of 21 percent fewer eggs in areas
where the wilt 'irus flourished than did moths in areas that were free of the
'irus.
(#) Bypsy moth egg clusters deposited on oak trees were found to ha'e relati'ely
large indi'idual eggs compared to those deposited on aspen trees.
21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the
passage%
(A) 3t resol'es a contradiction between the ideas presented in the first and second
paragraphs.
(B) 3t introduces research data to support the theory outlined in the second
2.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
paragraph.
(C) 3t draws a conclusion from conflicting e'idence presented in the first two
paragraphs.
() 3t shows how phenomena described in the first and second paragraphs act in
combination.
(#) 3t elaborates on the thesis introduced in the first paragraph after a digression
in the second paragraph.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that gypsy moth caterpillars become immune
to the wilt 'irus as a result of
(A) consuming a wide range of nutrients from a 'ariety of leaf types
(B) feeding on lea'es that contain high le'els of phenols
(C) producing fewer offspring/ which fa'ors the sur'i'al of the hardiest
indi'iduals
() ingesting the 'irus together with lea'es that do not contain tannin
(#) growing population density/ which outstrips the ability of the 'irus to multiply
and spread
2.. &hich of the following statements about gypsy moth caterpillars is supported by
information presented in the passage%
(A) &ilt disease is more likely to strike small gypsy moth caterpillars than large
ones.
(B) The concentration of phenols in tree lea'es increases as the gypsy moth
caterpillar population dies off.
(C) >emale gypsy moth caterpillars stop growing after they ingest lea'es
containing phenols.
() iffering concentrations of phenols in lea'es ha'e differing effects on the
ability of the wilt 'irus to kill gypsy moth caterpillars.
(#) The longer a gypsy moth population is e$posed to wilt disease/ the greater the
likelihood that the gypsy moth caterpillars will become immune to the 'irus.
The sweep of narratve n A. N. Wsons bography of C. S. Lews s mpressve
and there s much that s acute and we argued. But much n ths work s careess
and unworthy of ts author. Wson, a novest and an accompshed bographer,
has faed to do what any wrter on such a sub|ect as Lews ought to do, namey
work out a coherent vew of how the varous terary works by the sub|ect are to
be descrbed and commented on. Decsons have to be made on what to ook at n
deta and what to pass by wth |ust a menton. Wson has not thought ths
probem out. For nstance, Till ,e %ave Faces, Lews treatment of the Eros and
Psyche story and one of hs best-executed and most movng works, s merey
mentoned by Wson, though t umnates Lews sprtua deveopment, whereas
Lews mnor work Pilgrims *egress s ooked at n consderabe deta.
GRE 2.,
20. The author of the passage implies that &ilson4s e$amination of Pilgri-s "egress
(A) is not as coherent as his treatment of Till We &a$e Faces
(B) would ha'e been more appropriate in a separate treatise because of the scope
of Pilgri-s =egress
(C) demonstrates how &ilson4s narrow focus ignores the general themes of
Kewis4 works
() was more e$tensi'e than warranted because of the relati'e unimportance of
Pilgri-s "egress
(#) was disproportionately long relati'e to the amount of effort Kewis de'oted to
writing Pilgri-s "egress
21. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following statements regarding Till We &a$e Faces%
(A) 3t is an impro'ement o'er the #ros and @syche story on which it is based.
(B) 3t illustrated Kewis4 attempt to in'ol'e his readers emotionally in the story of
#ros and @syche.
(C) 3t was more highly regarded by &ilson than by Kewis himself.
() 3t is one of the outstanding literary achie'ements of Kewis4 career.
(#) 3t is probably one of the most popular of Kewis4 works.
22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) An e'aluation is made/ and aspects of the e'aluation are e$panded on with
supporting e'idence.
(B) A theory is proposed/ and supporting e$amples are pro'ided.
(C) A position is e$amined/ analy!ed/ and re<ected.
() A contradiction is described/ then the points of contention are e'aluated and
reconciled.
(#) 8pposing 'iews are presented and e'aluated/ then modifications are
ad'ocated.
2-. &hich of the following best describes the content of the passage%
(A) A criti"ue of A. 9. &ilson as a biographer
(B) An e'aluation of the significance of se'eral works by C. ;. Kewis
(C) An appraisal of a biography by A. 9. &ilson
() A ranking of the elements necessary for a well(structured biography
(#) A proposal for e'aluating the literary merits of the works of C. ;. Kewis
1995 04
SECTION A
205 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
Infuenced by the vew of some twenteth-century femnsts that womens
poston wthn the famy s one of the centra factors determnng womens soca
poston, some hstorans have underestmated the sgnfcance of the woman
suffrage movement. These hstorans contend that nneteenth-century suffragst
was ess radca and, hence, ess mportant than, for exampe, the mora reform
movement or domestc femnsm-two nneteenth-century movements n whch
women strugged for more power and autonomy wthn the famy. True, by
emphaszng these strugges, such hstorans have broadened the conventona
vew of nneteenth-century femnsm, but they do a hstorca dsservce to
suffragsm. Nneteenth-century femnsts and ant-femnst ake perceved the
suffragsts demand for enfranchsement as the most radca eement n womens
protest, n part because suffragsts were demandng power that was not based on
the nsttuton of the famy, womens tradtona sphere. When evauatng
nneteenth-century femnsm as a soca force, contemporary hstorans shoud
consder the perceptons of actua partcpants n the hstorca events.
1-. The author asserts that the historians discussed in the passage ha'e
(A) influenced feminist theorists who concentrate on the family
(B) honored the perceptions of the women who participated in the women
suffrage mo'ement
(C) treated feminism as a social force rather than as an intellectual tradition
() paid little attention to feminist mo'ements
(#) e$panded the con'entional 'iew of nineteenth(century feminism
16. The author of the passage asserts that some twentieth(century feminists ha'e
influenced some historians 'iew of the
(A) significance of the woman suffrage mo'ement
(B) importance to society of the family as an institution
(C) degree to which feminism changed nineteenth(century society
() philosophical traditions on which contemporary feminism is based
(#) public response to domestic feminism in the nineteenth century
1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following was true of
nineteenth(century feminists%
(A) Those who participated in the moral reform mo'ement were moti'ated
primarily by a desire to reconcile their pri'ate li'es with their public
positions.
(B) Those who ad'ocated domestic feminism/ although less 'isible than the
suffragists/ were in some ways the more radical of the two groups.
(C) Those who participated in the woman suffrage mo'ement sought social roles
for women that were not defined by women4s familial roles.
() Those who ad'ocated domestic feminism regarded the gaining of more
GRE 201
autonomy within the family as a step toward more participation in public
life.
(#) Those who participated in the nineteenth(century moral reform mo'ement
stood midway between the positions of domestic feminism and suffragism.
25. The author implies that which of the following is true of the historians discussed
in the passage%
(A) They argue that nineteenth(century feminism was not as significant a social
force as twentieth(century feminism has been.
(B) They rely too greatly on the perceptions of the actual participants in the
e'ents they study.
(C) Their assessment of the relati'e success of nineteenth(century domestic
feminism does not ade"uately take into account the effects of antifeminist
rhetoric.
() Their assessment of the significance of nineteenth(century suffragism differs
considerably from that of nineteenth(century feminists.
(#) They de'ote too much attention to nineteenth(century suffragism at the
e$pense of more radical mo'ements that emerged shortly after the turn of the
century.
Many ob|ects n day use have ceary been nfuenced by scence, but ther
form and functon, ther dmensons and appearance, were determned by
technoogsts, artsans, desgners, nventors, and engneers-usng non-scentfc
modes of thought. Many features and quates of the ob|ects that a technoogst
thnks about cannot be reduced to unambguous verba descrptons; they are
deat wth n the mnd by a vsua, nonverba process. In the deveopment of
Western technoogy, t has been non-verba thnkng, by and arge, that has fxed
the outnes and fed n the detas of our matera surroundngs. Pyramds,
cathedras, and rockets exst not because of geometry or thermodynamcs, but
because they were frst a pcture n the mnds of those who but them.
The creatve shapng process of a technoogsts mnd can be seen n neary
every artfact that exsts. For exampe, n desgnng a dese engne, a technoogst
mght mpress ndvdua ways of nonverba thnkng on the machne by
contnuay usng an ntutve sense of rghtness and ftness. What woud be the
shape of the combuston chamber? Where shoud the vaves be paced? Shoud t
have a ong or short pston? Such questons have a range of answers that are
supped by experence, by physca requrements, by mtatons of avaabe
space, and not east by a sense of form. Some decsons, such as wa thckness
and pn dameter, may depend on scentfc cacuatons, but the nonscentfc
component of desgn remans prmary.
Desgn courses, then, shoud be an essenta eement n engneerng currcua.
Nonverba thnkng, a centra mechansm n engneerng desgn, nvoves
perceptons, the stock-n-trade of the artst, not the scentst. Because perceptve
202 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
processes are not assumed to enta "hard thnkng," nonverba thought s
sometmes seen as a prmtve stage n the deveopment of cogntve processes
and nferor to verba or mathematca thought. But t s paradoxca that when the
staff of the %istoric "merican Engineering *ecord wshed to have drawngs made
of machnes and sometrc vews of ndustra processes for ts hstorca record of
Amercan engneerng, the ony coege students wth the requste abtes were
not engneerng students, but rather students attendng archtectura schoos.
If courses n desgn, whch n a strongy anaytca engneerng currcuum
provde the background requred for practca probem-sovng, are not provded,
we can expect to encounter sy but costy errors occurrng n advanced
engneerng systems. For exampe, eary modes of hgh-speed raroad cars
oaded wth sophstcated contros were unabe to operate n a snowstorm
because a fan sucked snow nto the eectrca system. Absurd random faures that
pague automatc contro systems are not merey trva aberratons; they are a
refecton of the chaos that resuts when desgn s assumed to be prmary a
probem n mathematcs.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) identifying the kinds of thinking that are used by technologists
(B) stressing the importance of non'erbal thinking in engineering design
(C) proposing a new role for nonscientific thinking in the de'elopment of
technology
() contrasting the goals of engineers with those of technologists
(#) critici!ing engineering schools for emphasi!ing science in engineering
curricula
22. 3t can be inferred that the author thinks engineering curricula are
(A) strengthened when they include courses in design
(B) weakened by the substitution of physical science courses for courses designed
to de'elop mathematical skills
(C) strong because non'erbal thinking is still emphasi!ed by most of the courses
() strong despite the errors that graduates of such curricula ha'e made in the
de'elopment of automatic control systems
(#) strong despite the absence of nonscientific modes of thinking
2.. &hich of the following statements best illustrates the main point of lines 1(26 of
the passage%
(A) &hen a machine like a rotary engine malfunctions/ it is the technologist who
is best e"uipped to repair it.
(B) #ach component of an automobile-for e$ample/ the engine or the fuel tank
-has a shape that has been scientifically determined to be best suited to that
component4s function.
GRE 20.
(C) A telephone is a comple$ instrument designed by technologists using only
non'erbal thought.
() The designer of a new refrigerator should consider the designs of other
refrigerators before deciding on its final form.
(#) The distincti'e features of a suspension bridge reflect its designer4s
conceptuali!ation as well as the physical re"uirements of its site.
20. &hich of the following statements would best ser'e as an introduction to the
passage%
(A) The assumption that the knowledge incorporated in technological
de'elopments must be deri'ed from science ignores the many non(scientific
decisions made by technologists.
(B) Analytical thought is no longer a 'ital component in the success of
technological de'elopment.
(C) As knowledge of technology has increased/ the tendency has been to lose
sight of the important role played by scientific thought in making decisions
about form/ arrangement/ and te$ture.
() A mo'ement in engineering colleges toward a technician4s degree reflects a
demand for graduates who ha'e the non'erbal reasoning ability that was
once common among engineers.
(#) A technologist thinking about a machine/ reasoning through the successi'e
steps in a dynamic process/ can actually turn the machine o'er mentally.
21. The author calls the predicament faced by the &istoric A-erican Engineering
"ecord *parado$ical+ (lines .2(.-) most probably because
(A) the publication needed drawings that its own staff could not make
(B) architectural schools offered but did not re"uire engineering design courses
for their students
(C) college students were "ualified to make the drawings while practicing
engineers were not
() the drawings needed were so complicated that e'en students in architectural
schools had difficulty making them
(#) engineering students were not trained to make the type of drawings needed to
record the de'elopment of their own discipline
22. According to the passage/ random failures in automatic control systems are *not
merely tri'ial aberrations+ (lines 1.) because
(A) automatic control systems are designed by engineers who ha'e little practical
e$perience in the field
(B) the failures are characteristic of systems designed by engineers relying too
hea'ily on concepts in mathematics
(C) the failures occur too often to be taken lightly
200 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() designers of automatic control systems ha'e too little training in the analysis
of mechanical difficulties
(#) designers of automatic control systems need more help from scientists who
ha'e a better understanding of the analytical problems to be sol'ed before
such systems can work efficiently
2-. The author uses the e$ample of the early models of high(speed railroad cars
primarily to
(A) weaken the argument that modern engineering systems ha'e ma<or defects
because of an absence of design courses in engineering curricula
(B) support the thesis that the number of errors in modern engineering systems is
likely to increase
(C) illustrate the idea that courses in design are the most effecti'e means for
reducing the cost of designing engineering systems
() support the contention that a lack of attention to the nonscientific aspects of
design results in poor conceptuali!ation by engineers
(#) weaken the proposition that mathematics is a necessary part of the study of
design
SECTION B
One expanaton for the tendency of anmas to be more vgant n smaer
groups than n arger ones assumes that the vgant behavor-ookng up, for
exampe-s amed at predators. If ndvduas on the edge of a group are more
vgant because they are at greater rsk of beng captured, then ndvduas on
average woud have to be more vgant n smaer groups, because the anmas on
the perphery of a group form a greater proporton of the whoe group as the sze
of the group dmnshes.
However, a dfferent expanaton s necessary n cases where the vgant
behavor s not drected at predators. |. Krebs has dscovered that great bue
herons ook up more often when n smaer focks than when n arger ones, soey
as a consequence of poor feedng condtons. Krebs hypotheszes that the herons
n smaer focks are watchng for herons that they mght foow to better feedng
poos, whch usuay attract arger numbers of the brds.
1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in species in which 'igilant beha'ior is
directed at predators/ the tendency of the animals to be more 'igilant in smaller
groups than in larger ones would most likely be minimi!ed if which of the
following were true%
(A) The 'igilance of animals on the periphery of a group always e$ceeded that of
animals located in its interior/ e'en when predators were not in the area.
(B) The risk of capture for indi'iduals in a group was the same/ whether they
were located in the interior of the group or on its periphery.
GRE 201
(C) Animals on the periphery of a group tended to be less capable of defending
themsel'es from attack by predators than animals located in the interior of
the group.
() Animals on the periphery of a group tended to bear marks that were more
distincti'e to predators than animals located in the interior of the group.
(#) Animals on the periphery of a group tended to ha'e shorter life spans than
animals located in the interior of the group.
16. &hich of the following best describes the relationship of the second paragraph to
the first%
(A) The second paragraph relies on different e'idence in drawing a conclusion
similar to that e$pressed in the first paragraph.
(B) The second paragraph pro'ides further elaboration on why an assertion made
at the end of the first paragraph pro'es to be true in most cases.
(C) The second paragraph pro'ides additional information in support of a
hypothesis stated in the first paragraph.
() The second paragraph pro'ides an e$ample of a case in which the assumption
described in the first paragraph is unwarranted.
(#) The second paragraph describes a phenomenon that has the same cause as the
phenomenon described in the first paragraph.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author of the passage would be most
likely to agree with which of the following assertions about 'igilant beha'ior%
(A) The larger the group of animals/ the higher the probability that indi'iduals in
the interior of the group will e$hibit 'igilant beha'ior.
(B) Cigilant beha'ior e$hibited by indi'iduals in small groups is more effecti'e at
warding off predators than the same beha'ior e$hibited by indi'iduals in
larger groups.
(C) Cigilant beha'ior is easier to analy!e in species that are preyed upon by many
different predators than in species that are preyed upon by relati'ely few of
them.
() The term *'igilant/+ when used in reference to the beha'ior of animals/ does
not refer e$clusi'ely to beha'ior aimed at a'oiding predators.
(#) The term *'igilant/+ when used in reference to the beha'ior of animals/
usually refers to beha'ior e$hibited by large groups of animals.
25. The passage pro'ides information in support of which of the following
assertions%
(A) The a'oidance of predators is more important to an animal4s sur'i'al than is
the "uest for food.
(B) Cigilant beha'ior aimed at predators is seldom more beneficial to groups of
animals than to indi'idual animals.
202 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) ifferent species of animals often de'elop different strategies for dealing with
predators.
() The si!e of a group of animals does not necessarily reflect its success in
finding food.
(#) ;imilar beha'ior in different species of animals does not necessarily ser'e the
same purpose.
The earest controverses about the reatonshp between photography and
art centered on whether photographys fdety to appearances and dependence
on a machne aowed t to be a fne art as dstnct from merey a practca art.
Throughout the nneteenth century, the defense of photography was dentca wth
the strugge to estabsh t as a fne art. Aganst the charge that photography was
a souess, mechanca copyng of reaty, photographers asserted that t was
nstead a prveged way of seeng, a revot aganst commonpace vson, and no
ess worthy an art than pantng.
Ironcay, now that photography s securey estabshed as a fne art, many
photographers fnd t pretentous or rreevant to abe t as such. Serous
photographers varousy cam to be fndng, recordng, mpartay observng,
wtnessng events, exporng themseves-anythng but makng works of art. In
the nneteenth century, photographys assocaton wth the rea word paced t n
an ambvaent reaton to art; ate n the twenteth century, an ambvaent reaton
exsts because of the Modernst hertage n art. That mportant photographers are
no onger wng to debate whether photography s or s not a fne art, except to
procam that ther own work s not nvoved wth art, shows the extent to whch
they smpy take for granted the concept of art mposed by the trumph of
Modernsm: the better the art, the more subversve t s of the tradtona ams of
art.
Photographers dscamers of any nterest n makng art te us more about
the harred status of the contemporary noton of art than about whether
photography s or s not art. For exampe, those photographers who suppose that,
by takng pctures, they are gettng away from the pretensons of art as
exempfed by pantng remnd us of those Abstract Expressonst panters who
magned they were gettng away from the nteectua austerty of cassca
Modernst pantng by concentratng on the physca act of pantng. Much of
photographys prestge today derves from the convergence of ts ams wth those
of recent art, partcuary wth the dsmssa of abstract art mpct n the
phenomenon of Pop pantng durng the 1960s. Apprecatng photographs s a
reef to sensbtes tred of the menta exertons demanded by abstract art.
Cassca Modernst pantng-that s, abstract art as deveoped n dfferent ways
by Pcasso, Kandnsky, and Matsse-presupposes hghy deveoped sks of
ookng and a famarty wth other pantngs and the hstory of art. Photography,
ke Pop pantng, reassures vewers that art s not hard; photography seems to be
more about ts sub|ects than about art.
GRE 20-
Photography, however, has deveoped a the anxetes and sef-conscousness
of a cassc Modernst art. Many professonas prvatey have begun to worry that
the promoton of photography as an actvty subversve of the tradtona
pretensons of art has gone so far that the pubc w forget that photography s a
dstnctve and exated actvty-n short, an art.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) defining the ?odernist attitude toward art
(B) e$plaining how photography emerged as a fine art after the contro'ersies of
the nineteenth century
(C) e$plaining the attitudes of serious contemporary photographers toward
photography as art and placing those attitudes in their historical conte$t
() defining the 'arious approaches that serious contemporary photographers
take toward their art and assessing the 'alue of each of those approaches
(#) identifying the ways that recent mo'ements in painting and sculpture ha'e
influenced the techni"ues employed by serious photographers
22. &hich of the following ad<ecti'es best describes *the concept of art imposed by
the triumph of ?odernism+ as the author represents it in lines 21(2-%
(A) 8b<ecti'e
(B) ?echanical
(C) ;uperficial
() ramatic
(#) @arado$ical
2.. The author introduces Abstract #$pressionist painters (lines .0) in order to
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of artists who/ like serious contemporary photographers/
disa'owed traditionally accepted aims of modern art
(B) call attention to artists whose works often bear a physical resemblance to the
works of serious contemporary photographers
(C) set forth an analogy between the Abstract #$pressionist painters and classical
?odernist painters
() pro'ide a contrast to @op artists and others who created works that e$emplify
the ?odernist heritage in art
(#) pro'ide an e$planation of why serious photography/ like other contemporary
'isual forms/ is not and should not pretend to be an art
20. According to the author/ the nineteenth(century defenders of photography
mentioned in the passage stressed that photography was
(A) a means of making people familiar with remote locales and unfamiliar things
(B) a technologically ad'anced acti'ity
(C) a de'ice for obser'ing the world impartially
206 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
() an art comparable to painting
(#) an art that would e'entually replace the traditional arts
21. According to the passage/ which of the following best e$plains the reaction of
serious contemporary photographers to the "uestion of whether photography is an
art%
(A) The photographers4 belief that their reliance on an impersonal machine to
produce their art re"uires the surrender of the authority of their personal
'ision
(B) The photographers4 fear that serious photography may not be accepted as an
art by the contemporary art public
(C) The influence of Abstract #$pressionist painting and @op Art on the sub<ect
matter of the modern photograph
() The photographers4 belief that the best art is sub'ersi'e of art as it has
pre'iously been defined
(#) The notorious difficulty of defining art in its relation to realistic
representation
22. According to the passage/ certain serious contemporary photographers e$pressly
make which of the following claims about their photographs%
(A) Their photographs could be created by almost anyone who had a camera and
the time to de'ote to the acti'ity.
(B) Their photographs are not e$amples of art but are e$amples of the
photographers4 impartial obser'ation of the world.
(C) Their photographs are important because of their sub<ects but not because of
the responses they e'oke in 'iewers.
() Their photographs e$hibit the same ageless principles of form and shading
that ha'e been used in painting.
(#) Their photographs represent a conscious glorification of the mechanical
aspects of twentieth(century life.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably considers
serious contemporary photography to be a
(A) contemporary art that is struggling to be accepted as fine art
(B) craft re"uiring sensiti'ity but by no means an art
(C) mechanical copying of reality
() modern art that displays the ?odernist tendency to try to sub'ert the
pre'ailing aims of art
(#) modern art that displays the tendency of all ?odernist art to become
increasingly formal and abstract
GRE 20,
1995 10
SECTION A
It s possbe for students to obtan advanced degrees n Engsh whe knowng
tte or nothng about tradtona schoary methods. The consequences of ths
negect of tradtona schoarshp are partcuary unfortunate for the study of
women wrters. If the canon-the st of authors whose works are most wdey
taught-s ever to ncude more women, schoars must be we traned n hstorca
schoarshp and textua edtng. Schoars who do not know how to read eary
manuscrpts, ocate rare books, estabsh a sequence of edtons, and so on are
bereft of cruca toos for revsng the canon.
To address such concerns, an expermenta verson of the tradtona schoary
methods course was desgned to rase students conscousness about the
usefuness of tradtona earnng for any modern crtc or theorst. To mnmze the
artfca aspects of the conventona course, the usua procedure of assgnng a
arge number of sma probems drawn from the entre range of hstorca perods
was abandoned, though ths procedure has the obvous advantage of at east
superfcay famarzng students wth a wde range of reference sources. Instead
students were engaged n a coectve effort to do orgna work on a negected
eghteenth-century wrter, Ezabeth Grffth, to gve them an authentc experence
of terary schoarshp and to nspre them to take responsbty for the quaty of
ther own work.
Grffths work presented a number of advantages for ths partcuar
pedagogca purpose. Frst, the body of extant schoarshp on Grffth was so tny
that t coud a be read n a day; thus students spent tte tme and effort
masterng the terature and had a cear fed for ther own dscoveres. Grffths
pay The Platonic ,ife exsts n three versons, enough to provde ustratons of
edtora ssues but not too many for begnnng students to manage. In addton,
because Grffth was successfu n the eghteenth century, as her contnued
productvty and favorabe revews demonstrate, her excuson from the canon and
vrtua dsappearance from terary hstory aso heped rase ssues concernng the
current canon.
The range of Grffths work meant that each student coud become the
words eadng authorty on a partcuar Grffth text. For exampe, a student
studyng Grffths ,ife in the *ight obtaned a frst edton of the pay and studed
t for some weeks. Ths student was sutaby shocked and outraged to fnd ts tte
transformed nto " ,ife in the +ight n Watts Bi$liotheca Britannica. Such
experences, nevtabe and common n workng on a wrter to whom so tte
attenton has been pad, serve to vaccnate the student-I hope for a fetme-
aganst creduous use of reference sources.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
215 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) re'ealing a commonly ignored deficiency
(B) proposing a return to traditional terminology
(C) describing an attempt to correct a shortcoming
() assessing the success of a new pedagogical approach
(#) predicting a change in a traditional teaching strategy
16. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage e$pects that the e$perience of the
student mentioned as ha'ing studied Wi+e in the "ight would ha'e which of the
following effects%
(A) 3t would lead the student to disregard information found in the %ibliotheca
%ritannica.
(B) 3t would teach the student to "uestion the accuracy of certain kinds of
information sources when studying neglected authors.
(C) 3t would teach the student to a'oid the use of reference sources in studying
neglected authors.
() 3t would help the student to understand the importance of first editions in
establishing the authorship of plays.
(#) 3t would enhance the student4s appreciation of the works of authors not
included in the canon.
1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following is a disad'antage
of the strategy employed in the e$perimental scholarly methods course%
(A) ;tudents were not gi'en an opportunity to study women writers outside the
canon.
(B) ;tudents4 original work would not be appreciated by recogni!ed scholars.
(C) Kittle scholarly work has been done on the work of #li!abeth Briffith.
() ?ost of the students in the course had had little opportunity to study
eighteenth(century literature.
(#) ;tudents were not gi'en an opportunity to encounter certain sources of
information that could pro'e useful in their future studies.
25. &hich of the following best states the *particular pedagogical purpose+
mentioned in line 26%
(A) To assist scholars in re'ising the canon of authors
(B) To minimi!e the tri'ial aspects of the traditional scholarly methods course
(C) To pro'ide students with information about Briffith4s work
() To encourage scholarly rigor in students4 own research
(#) To reestablish Briffith4s reputation as an author
21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in
relation to the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t summari!es the benefits that students can deri'e from the e$perimental
GRE 211
scholarly methods course.
(B) 3t pro'ides additional reasons why Briffith4s work raises issues ha'ing to do
with the canon of authors.
(C) 3t pro'ides an illustration of the immediate nature of the e$periences students
can deri'e from the e$perimental scholarly methods course.
() 3t contrasts the e$perience of a student in the e$perimental scholarly methods
course with the e$perience of a student in the traditional course.
(#) 3t pro'ides information that emphasi!es the suitability of Briffith4s work for
inclusion in the canon of authors.
22. 3t can be inferred that which of the following is most likely to be among the
*issues+ mentioned in line .6%
(A) &hy has the work of Briffith/ a woman writer who was popular in her own
century/ been e$cluded from the canon%
(B) 3n what ways did Briffith4s work reflect the political climate of the eighteenth
century%
(C) )ow was Briffith4s work recei'ed by literary critics during the eighteenth
century%
() )ow did the error in the title of Briffith4s play come to be made%
(#) )ow did critical reception of Briffith4s work affect the "uantity and "uality of
that work%
2.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage considers traditional scholarly
methods courses to be
(A) irrele'ant to the work of most students
(B) inconse"uential because of their narrow focus
(C) unconcerned about the accuracy of reference sources
() too superficial to establish important facts about authors
(#) too wide(ranging to appro$imate genuine scholarly acti'ity
Experments show that nsects can functon as ponators of cycads, rare,
pamke tropca pants. Furthermore, cycads removed from ther natve habtats-
and therefore from nsects natve to those habtats-are usuay nferte.
Nevertheess, anecdota reports of wnd ponaton n cycads cannot be gnored.
The structure of cycads mae cones s qute consstent wth the wnd dspersa of
poen, couds of whch are reeased from some of the arger cones. The mae cone
of Cycas circinalis, for exampe, sheds amost 100 cubc centmeters of poen,
most of whch s probaby dspersed by wnd. St, many mae cycad cones are
comparatvey sma and thus produce far ess poen. Furthermore, the structure
of most femae cycad cones seems nconsstent wth drect ponaton by wnd.
Ony n the Cycas genus are the femaes ovues accessbe to arborne poen,
snce ony n ths genus are the ovues surrounded by a oose aggregaton of
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
megasporophys rather than by a tght cone.
20. According to the passage/ the si!e of a male cycad cone directly influences which
of the following%
(A) The arrangement of the male cone4s structural elements
(B) The mechanism by which pollen is released from the male cone
(C) The degree to which the o'ules of female cycads are accessible to airborne
pollen
() The male cone4s attracti'eness to potential insect pollinators
(#) The amount of pollen produced by the male cone
21. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of the structure of cycad
cones%
(A) The structure of cycad cones pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence in fa'or of one
particular e$planation of cycad pollination.
(B) The structure of cycad cones pro'ides e'idence concerning what triggers the
first step in the pollination process.
(C) An irresol'able discrepancy e$ists between what the structure of most male
cycad cones suggests about cycad pollination and what the structure of most
female cones suggests about that process.
() The structure of male cycad cones rules out a possible mechanism for cycad
pollination that is suggested by the structure of most female cycad cones.
(#) The structure of male cycad cones is consistent with a certain means of cycad
pollination/ but that means is inconsistent with the structure of most female
cycad cones.
22. The e'idence in fa'or of insect pollination of cycads presented in lines 2(0 would
be more con'incing if which of the following were also true%
(A) 8nly a small 'ariety of cycad species can be successfully transplanted.
(B) Cycads can sometimes be pollinated by means other than wind or insects.
(C) 3nsects indigenous to regions to which cycads are transplanted sometimes
feed on cycads.
() &inds in the areas to which cycads are usually transplanted are similar to
winds in cycads4 nati'e habitats.
(#) The transplantation of cycads from one region to another usually in'ol'es the
accidental remo'al and introduction of insects as well.
2-. The passage suggests that which of the following is true of scientific
in'estigations of cycad pollination%
(A) They ha'e not yet produced any systematic e'idence of wind pollination in
cycads.
(B) They ha'e so far confirmed anecdotal reports concerning the wind pollination
GRE 21.
of cycads.
(C) They ha'e/ until recently/ produced little e'idence in fa'or of insect
pollination in cycads.
() They ha'e primarily been carried out using cycads transplanted from their
nati'e habitats.
(#) They ha'e usually concentrated on describing the physical characteristics of
the cycad reproducti'e system.
SECTION B
(Ths passage s adapted from an artce pubshed n 1981.)
The term "remote sensng" refers to the technques of measurement and
nterpretaton of phenomena from a dstance. Pror to the md-1960s the
nterpretaton of fm mages was the prmary means for remote sensng of the
Earths geoogc features. Wth the deveopment of the optomechanca scanner,
scentsts began to construct dgta mutspectra mages usng data beyond the
senstvty range of vsbe ght photography. These mages are constructed by
mechancay agnng pctora representatons of such phenomena as the
refecton of ght waves outsde the vsbe spectrum, the refracton of rado
waves, and the day changes n temperature n areas on the Earths surface.
Dgta mutspectra magng has now become the basc too n geoogc remote
sensng from satetes.
The advantage of dgta over photographc magng s evdent: the resutng
numerca data are precsey known, and dgta data are not sub|ect to the
vagares of dffcut-to-contro chemca processng. Wth dgta processng, t s
possbe to combne a arge number of spectra mages. The acquston of the frst
mutspectra dgta data set from the mutspectra scanner (MSS) aboard the
satete Landsat n 1972 consequenty attracted the attenton of the entre
geoogc communty. Landsat MSS data are now beng apped to a varety of
geoogc probems that are dffcut to sove by conventona methods aone. These
ncude specfc probems n mnera and energy resource exporaton and the
chartng of gacers and shaow seas.
A more fundamenta appcaton of remote sensng s to augment conventona
methods for geoogc mappng of arge areas. Regona maps present
compostona, structura, and chronoogca nformaton for reconstructng
geoogc evouton. Such reconstructons have mportant practca appcatons
because the condtons under whch rock unts and other structura features are
formed nfuence the occurrence of ore and petroeum deposts and affect the
thckness and ntegrty of the geoogc meda n whch the deposts are found.
Geoogc maps ncorporate a arge, vared body of specfc fed and aboratory
measurements, but the maps must be nterpretatve because fed measurements
are aways mted by rock exposure, accessbty and abor resources. Wth
210 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
remote-sensng technques t s possbe to obtan much geoogc nformaton
more effcenty than t can be obtaned on the ground. These technques aso
factate overa nterpretaton. Snce detaed geoogc mappng s generay
conducted n sma areas, the contnuty of regona features that have
ntermttent and varabe expressons s often not recognzed, but n the
comprehensve vews of Landsat mages these contnutes are apparent.
However, some crtca nformaton cannot be obtaned through remote sensng,
and severa characterstcs of the Landsat MSS mpose mtatons on the
acquston of dagnostc data. Some of these mtatons can be overcome by
desgnng satete systems specfcay for geoogc purposes; but, to be most
effectve, remote-sensng data must st be combned wth data from fed surveys
and aboratory tests, the technques of the earer twenteth century.
1-. By using the word *interpretati'e+ in line 05/ the author is indicating which of the
following%
(A) ;ome maps are based more on data from aerial photography than on data
from field operations.
(B) ;ome maps are based almost e$clusi'ely on laboratory measurements.
(C) ;ome maps are based on incomplete data from field obser'ations.
() ;ome maps show only large geologic features.
(#) ;ome maps can be three(dimensional.
16. &ith which of the following statements about geologic mapping would the author
be most likely to agree%
(A) Beologic mapping is basically an art and not a science.
(B) Beologic mapping has not changed significantly since the early 1,254s.
(C) Beologic mapping will ha'e limited practical applications until remote(
sensing systems are perfected.
() A de'elopmental milestone in geologic mapping was reached in 1,-2.
(#) &ithout the present 'ariety of remote(sensing techni"ues/ geologic mapping
could not be done.
1,. According to the passage/ measurements of which of the following can be
pro'ided by the optomechanical scanner but not by 'isible(light photography%
(A) The amount of 'isible light reflected from oceans
(B) The density of foliage in remote areas on the #arth4s surface
(C) aily temperature changes of areas on the #arth4s surface
() The degree of radioacti'ity emitted by e$posed rocks on the #arth4s surface
(#) Atmospheric conditions o'er large landmasses
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a ma<or disad'antage of photographic
imaging in geologic mapping is that such photography
GRE 211
(A) cannot be used at night
(B) cannot focus on the details of a geologic area
(C) must be chemically processed
() is always enhanced by digital reconstruction
(#) cannot reflect changes o'er e$tended periods of time
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Kandsat images differ from con'entional
geologic maps in that Kandsat images
(A) re'eal the e$act si!e of petroleum deposits and ore deposits
(B) indicate the continuity of features that might not otherwise be interpreted as
continuous
(C) predict the mo'ements of glaciers
() pro'ide highly accurate data about the occurrence of mineral deposits
(#) re'eal the integrity of the media in which petroleum deposits and ore deposits
are found
22. The passage pro'ides information about each of the following topics #DC#@TE
(A) the principal method of geologic remote sensing prior to the mid(1,254s
(B) some of the phenomena measured by digital multi(spectral images in remote
sensing
(C) some of the practical uses of regional geologic maps
() the kinds of problems that are difficult to sol'e solely through con'entional
methods of geologic mapping
(#) the specific limitations of the Kandsat multi(spectral scanner
2.. The passage suggests which of the following about the *con'entional methods+
mentioned in line 2,%
(A) They consist primarily of field sur'eys and laboratory measurements.
(B) They are not useful in pro'iding information necessary for reconstructing
geologic e'olution.
(C) They ha'e rarely been used by geologists since 1,-2.
() They are used primarily to gather compositional information about geologic
features.
(#) They are limited primarily because of difficulties in'ol'ed in interpreting film
images.
Athough the deveopment of new nfrastructure (such pubc factes as
power pants, schoos, and brdges) s usuay determned by governmenta
pannng, sometmes ths deveopment can be panned more fexby and
reastcay by prvate nvestors who antcpate proft from the coecton of user
fees. Such profts can contrbute to the fnancng of more nfrastructure f demand
proves great enough, whereas the reuctance of deveopers to nvest n such
212 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
pro|ects can sgna that addtona nfrastructure s not needed. Durng the
economc boom of the 1980s, for exampe, the state of Vrgna authorzed prvate
deveopers to bud a $300 mon to road. These deveopers obtaned the
needed rght-of-way from property owners, but by 1993 they st had not rased
the necessary fnancng. The unwngness of nvestors to fnance ths pro|ect
does not negate the vabty of prvatey fnanced roads; rather, t ustrates a
vrtue of prvate fnancng. If a road appears unkey to attract enough future
traffc to pay for the road, then t shoud not be but.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) build a case for increasing the de'elopment of new infrastructure
(B) ad'ocate an alternati'e to go'ernment financing of infrastructure
(C) e$plain the failure of a pri'ately financed 'enture
() suggest the types of infrastructure most appropriate for pri'ate financing
(#) argue against go'ernment restrictions on de'eloping new infrastructure
21. The passage implies that the *go'ernmental planning+ mentioned in line . may
lead to which of the following problems%
(A) 3mproper use of profits deri'ed from user fees
(B) :nduly slow de'elopment of necessary new infrastructure
(C) :nrealistic decisions about de'eloping new infrastructure
() 3ncorrect predictions about profits to be gained from user fees
(#) 8bstruction of pri'ate financing for the de'elopment of new infrastructure
22. According to the passage/ which of the following is true of the toll road
mentioned in line 12%
(A) After it was built/ it attracted too little traffic to pay for its construction.
(B) 3t was partially financed by the state of Cirginia.
(C) 3ts de'elopment was authori!ed during an economic boom.
() 3ts construction was contro'ersial among local residents.
(#) 3ts de'elopers were discouraged by go'ernmental restrictions on ac"uiring the
necessary land.
2-. The passage suggests that which of the following would occur if a pri'ately
financed bridge that pro'ed to be profitable failed after a number of years to meet
the demands of traffic%
(A) @ri'ate de'elopers who financed the bridge would rely on go'ernmental
authorities to de'elop new infrastructure.
(B) :ser fees would be increased so that usage would become more costly.
(C) Bo'ernmental authorities would be reluctant to rely on pri'ate contractors to
de'elop a new bridge.
() The success of the pro<ect would be <eopardi!ed by public dissatisfaction with
GRE 21-
the pro<ect4s ade"uacy.
(#) @rofits generated by user fees would be used to help finance the construction
of new infrastructure to alle'iate the traffic problem.
1996 04
SECTION A
As peope age, ther ces become ess effcent and ess abe to repace
damaged components. At the same tme ther tssues stffen. For exampe, the
ungs and the heart musce expand ess successfuy, the bood vesses become
ncreasngy rgd, and the gaments and tendons tghten.
Few nvestgators woud attrbute such dverse effects to a snge cause.
Nevertheess, researchers have dscovered that a process ong known to dscoor
and toughen foods may aso contrbute to age-reated mparment of both ces
and tssues. That process s nonenzymatc gycosyaton, whereby gucose
becomes attached to protens wthout the ad of enzymes. When enzymes attach
gucose to protens (enzymatc gycosyaton), they do so at a specfc ste on a
specfc proten moecue for a specfc purpose. In contrast, the nonenzymatc
process adds gucose haphazardy to any of severa stes aong any avaabe
peptde chan wthn a proten moecue.
Ths nonenzymatc gycosyaton of certan protens has been understood by
food chemsts for decades, athough few boogsts recognzed unt recenty that
the same steps coud take pace n the body. Nonenzymatc gycosyaton begns
when an adehyde group (CHO) of gucose and an amno group (NH
2
) of a proten
are attracted to each other. The moecues combne, formng what s caed a
Schff base wthn the proten. Ths combnaton s unstabe and qucky rearranges
tsef nto a staber, but st reversbe, substance known as an Amador product.
If a gven proten perssts n the body for months or years, some of ts
Amador products sowy dehydrate and rearrange themseves yet agan, nto new
gucose-derved structures. These can combne wth varous knds of moecues to
form rreversbe structures named advanced gycosyaton end products (AGEs).
Most AGEs are yeowsh brown and fuorescent and have specfc spectrographc
propertes. More mportant for the body, many are aso abe to cross-nk ad|acent
protens, partcuary ones that gve structure to tssues and organs. Athough no
one has yet satsfactory descrbed the orgn of a such brdges between
protens, many nvestgators agree that extensve cross-nkng of protens
probaby contrbutes to the stffenng and oss of eastcty characterstc of agng
tssues.
In an attempt to nk ths process wth the deveopment of cataracts (the
brownng and coudng of the ens of the eye as peope age), researchers studed
the effect of gucose on soutons of purfed crystan, the ma|or proten n the
216 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
ens of the eye. Gucose-free soutons remaned cear, but soutons wth gucose
caused the protens to form custers, suggestng that the moecues had become
cross-nked. The custers dffracted ght, makng the souton opaque. The
researchers aso dscovered that the pgmented cross-nks n human cataracts
have the brownsh coor and fuorescence characterstc of AGEs. These data
suggest that nonenzymatc gycosyaton of ens crystans may contrbute to
cataract formaton.
1-. &ith which of the following statements concerning the stiffening of aging tissues
would the author most likely agree%
(A) 3t is caused to a large degree by an increased rate of cell multiplication.
(B) 3t parado$ically both helps and hinders the longe'ity of proteins in the human
body.
(C) 3t can be counteracted in part by increased ingestion of glucose(free foods.
() 3t is e$acerbated by increased en!ymatic glycosylation.
(#) 3t probably in'ol'es the nonen!ymatic glycosylation of proteins.
16. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of the process
that discolors and toughens foods%
(A) 3t takes place more slowly than glycosylation in the human body.
(B) 3t re"uires a higher ratio of glucose to protein than glycosylation re"uires in
the human body.
(C) 3t does not re"uire the aid of en!ymes to attach glucose to protein.
() 3t proceeds more "uickly when the food proteins ha'e a molecular structure
similar to that of crystallin proteins.
(#) 3ts effecti'eness depends hea'ily on the amount of en'ironmental moisture.
1,. According to the passage/ which of the following is characteristic of en!ymatic
glycosylation of proteins%
(A) AB#4s are formed after a period of months or years.
(B) @roteins affected by the process are made unstable.
(C) Blucose attachment impairs and stiffens tissues.
() Blucose is attached to proteins for specific purposes.
(#) Amino groups combine with aldehyde groups to form ;chiff bases.
25. According to the passage/ which of the following statements is true of Amadori
products in proteins%
(A) They are more plentiful in a dehydrated en'ironment.
(B) They are created through en!ymatic glycosylation.
(C) They are composed entirely of glucose molecules.
() They are deri'ed from ;chiff bases.
(#) They are deri'ed from AB#4s.
GRE 21,
21. &hich of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the
passage (lines 1,(2,)%
(A) 3t offers e'idence that contradicts the findings described in the first two
paragraphs.
(B) 3t presents a specific e$ample of the process discussed in the first two
paragraphs.
(C) 3t e$plains a problem that the researchers mentioned in the second paragraph
ha'e yet to sol'e.
() 3t e'aluates the research disco'eries described in the pre'ious paragraph.
(#) 3t begins a detailed description of the process introduced in the pre'ious two
paragraphs.
22. The passage suggests that which of the following would be K#A;T important in
determining whether nonen!ymatic glycosylation is likely to ha'e taken place in
the proteins of a particular tissue%
(A) The likelihood that the tissue has been e$posed to free glucose
(B) The color and spectrographic properties of structures within the tissue
(C) The amount of time that the proteins in the tissue ha'e persisted in the body
() The number of amino groups within the proteins in the tissue
(#) The degree of elasticity that the tissue e$hibits
2.. 3f the hypothesis stated in lines 12(16 is true/ it can be inferred that the crystallin
proteins in the lenses of people with cataracts
(A) ha'e increased elasticity
(B) do not respond to en!ymatic glycosylation
(C) are more susceptible to stiffening than are other proteins
() are at least se'eral months old
(#) respond more acutely than other proteins to changes in moisture le'els
Wrtng of the Iroquos naton, Smth has argued that through the chefs
counc, trba chefs tradtonay mantaned compete contro over the potca
affars of both the Iroquos trba eague and the ndvdua trbes beongng to the
eague, whereas the soe |ursdcton over regous affars resded wth the
shamans. Accordng to Smth, ths dvson was mantaned unt the ate
nneteenth century, when the dssouton of the chefs counc and the
consequent dmnshment of the chefs potca power fostered ther ncreasng
nvovement n regous affars.
However, Smth fas to recognze that ths dvson of power between the
trba chefs and shamans was not actuay rooted n Iroquos tradton; rather, t
resuted from the Iroquos resettement on reservatons eary n the nneteenth
century. Pror to resettement, the chefs counc controed ony the broad pocy
of the trba eague; ndvdua trbes had nsttutons-most mportant, the
225 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
onghouse-to govern ther own affars. In the onghouse, the trbes chef
nfuenced both potca and regous affars.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) "uestion the published conclusions of a scholar concerning the history of the
3ro"uois nation
(B) establish the relationship between an earlier scholar4s work and new
anthropological research
(C) summari!e scholarly contro'ersy concerning an incident from 3ro"uois
history
() trace two generations of scholarly opinion concerning 3ro"uois social
institutions
(#) differentiate between 3ro"uois political practices and 3ro"uois religious
practices
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage regards ;mith4s argument as
(A) pro'ocati'e and potentially useful/ but flawed by poor organi!ation
(B) elo"uently presented/ but needlessly inflammatory
(C) accurate in some of its particulars/ but inaccurate with regard to an important
point
() historically sound/ but o'erly detailed and redundant
(#) persuasi'e in its time/ but now largely outdated
22. The author of the passage implies that which of the following occurred after the
3ro"uois were resettled on reser'ations early in the nineteenth century%
(A) Chiefs became more in'ol'ed in their tribes4 religious affairs.
(B) The authority of the chiefs4 council o'er the affairs of indi'idual tribes
increased.
(C) The political influence of the 3ro"uois shamans was diminished.
() 3ndi'idual tribes coalesced into the 3ro"uois tribal league.
(#) The longhouse because a political rather than a religious institution.
2-. &hich of the following best e$presses an opinion presented by the author of the
passage%
(A) ;mith has o'erstated the importance of the political role played by 3ro"uois
tribal chiefs in the nineteenth century.
(B) ;mith has o'erlooked the fact that the 3ro"uois rarely allowed their shamans
to e$ercise political authority.
(C) ;mith has failed to e$plain why the chiefs4 council was dissol'ed late in the
nineteenth century.
() ;mith has failed to acknowledge the role prior to the nineteenth century of the
3ro"uois tribal chiefs in religious affairs.
GRE 221
(#) ;mith has failed to recogni!e that the 'ery structure of 3ro"uois social
institutions reflects religious beliefs.
SECTION B
(ary Barton, partcuary n ts eary chapters, s a movng response to the
sufferng of the ndustra worker n the Engand of the 1840s. What s most
mpressve about the book s the ntense and panstakng effort made by the
author, Ezabeth Gaske, to convey the experence of everyday fe n workng-
cass homes. Her method s party documentary n nature: the nove ncudes such
features as a carefuy annotated reproducton of daect, the exact detas of food
prces n an account of a tea party, an temzed descrpton of the furnture of the
Bartons vng room, and a transcrpton (agan annotated) of the baad "The
Odham Weaver." The nterest of ths record s consderabe, even though the
method has a sghty dstancng effect.
As a member of the mdde cass, Gaske coud hardy hep approachng
workng-cass fe as an outsde observer and a reporter, and the reader of the
nove s aways conscous of ths fact. But there s genune magnatve re-creaton
n her accounts of the wak n Green Heys Feds, of tea at the Bartons house, and
of |ohn Barton and hs frends dscovery of the starvng famy n the cear n the
chapter "Poverty and Death." Indeed, for a smary convncng re-creaton of such
fames emotons and responses (whch are more cruca than the matera detas
on whch the mere reporter s apt to concentrate), the Engsh nove had to wat
60 years for the eary wrtng of D. H. Lawrence. If Gaske never qute conveys the
sense of fu partcpaton that woud competey authentcate ths aspect of (ary
Barton, she st brngs to these scenes an ntutve recognton of feengs that has
ts own suffcent convcton.
The chapter "Od Aces Hstory" branty dramatzes the stuaton of that
eary generaton of workers brought from the vages and the countrysde to the
urban ndustra centers. The account of |ob Legh, the weaver and naturast who
s devoted to the study of boogy, vvdy embodes one knd of response to an
urban ndustra envronment: an affnty for vng thngs that hardens, by ts very
contrast wth ts envronment, nto a knd of crankness. The eary chapters-about
factory workers wakng out n sprng nto Green Heys Feds; about Ace Wson,
rememberng n her cear the twg-gatherng for brooms n the natve vage that
she w never agan see; about |ob Legh, ntent on hs mpaed nsects-capture
the characterstc responses of a generaton to the new and crushng experence
of ndustrasm. The other eary chapters eoquenty portray the deveopment of
the nstnctve cooperaton wth each other that was aready becomng an
mportant tradton among workers.
1-. &hich of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward Baskell4s use
of the method of documentary record in *ary %arton%
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) :ncritical enthusiasm
(B) :nresol'ed ambi'alence
(C) Nualified appro'al
() =esigned acceptance
(#) ?ild irritation
16. According to the passage/ *ary %arton and the early no'els of . ). Kawrence
share which of the following%
(A) epiction of the feelings of working(class families
(B) ocumentary ob<ecti'ity about working(class circumstances
(C) =ichly detailed description of working(class ad<ustment to urban life
() 3maginati'ely structured plots about working(class characters
(#) #$perimental prose style based on working(class dialect
1,. &hich of the following is most closely analogous to Aob Kegh in *ary %arton/ as
that character is described in the passage%
(A) An entomologist who collected butterflies as a child
(B) A small(town attorney whose hobby is nature photography
(C) A young man who lea'es his family4s dairy farm to start his own business
() A city dweller who raises e$otic plants on the roof of his apartment building
(#) A union organi!er who works in a te$tile mill under dangerous conditions
25. 3t can be inferred from e$amples gi'en in the last paragraph of the passage that
which of the following was part of *the new and crushing e$perience of
industrialism+ (lines 02(0-) for many members of the #nglish working class in
the nineteenth century%
(A) #$tortionate food prices
(B) Beographical displacement
(C) )a!ardous working conditions
() Alienation from fellow workers
(#) issolution of family ties
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es that *ary %arton might
ha'e been an e'en better no'el if Baskell had
(A) concentrated on the emotions of a single character
(B) made no attempt to re(create e$periences of which she had no firsthand
knowledge
(C) made no attempt to reproduce working(class dialects
() grown up in an industrial city
(#) managed to transcend her position as an outsider
GRE 22.
22. &hich of the following phrases could best be substituted for the phrase *this
aspect of *ary %arton+ in line 2, without changing the meaning of the passage
as a whole%
(A) the material details in an urban working(class en'ironment
(B) the influence of *ary %arton on lawrence4s early work
(C) the place of *ary %arton in the de'elopment of the #nglish no'el
() the e$tent of the po'erty and physical suffering among #ngland4s industrial
workers in the 16054s
(#) the portrayal of the particular feelings and responses of working(class
characters
2.. The author of the passage describes *ary %arton as each of the following
#DC#@TE
(A) insightful
(B) meticulous
(C) 'i'id
() poignant
(#) lyrical
As of the ate 1980s, nether theorsts nor arge-scae computer cmate
modes coud accuratey predct whether coud systems woud hep or hurt a
warmng gobe. Some studes suggested that a four percent ncrease n
stratocumuus couds over the ocean coud compensate for a doubng n
atmospherc carbon doxde, preventng a potentay dsastrous panetwde
temperature ncrease. On the other hand, an ncrease n crrus couds coud
ncrease goba warmng.
That couds represented the weakest eement n cmate modes was
ustrated by a study of fourteen such modes. Comparng cmate forecasts for a
word wth doube the current amount of carbon doxde, researchers found that
the modes agreed qute we f couds were not ncuded. But when couds were
ncorporated, a wde range of forecasts was produced. Wth such dscrepances
pagung the modes, scentsts coud not easy predct how qucky the words
cmate woud change, nor coud they te whch regons woud face duster
droughts or deader monsoons.
20. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) confirming a theory
(B) supporting a statement
(C) presenting new information
() predicting future disco'eries
(#) reconciling discrepant findings
21. 3t can be inferred that one reason the fourteen models described in the passage
220 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
failed to agree was that
(A) they failed to incorporate the most up(to(date information about the effect of
clouds on climate
(B) they were based on faulty information about factors other than clouds that
affect climate
(C) they were based on different assumptions about the o'erall effects of clouds
on climate
() their originators disagreed about the kinds of forecasts the models should
pro'ide
(#) their originators disagreed about the factors other than clouds that should be
included in the models
22. 3t can be inferred that the primary purpose of the models included in the study
discussed in the second paragraph of the passage was to
(A) predict future changes in the world4s climate
(B) predict the effects of cloud systems on the world4s climate
(C) find a way to pre'ent a disastrous planetwide temperature increase
() assess the percentage of the #arth4s surface co'ered by cloud systems
(#) estimate by how much the amount of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s
atmosphere will increase
2-. The information in the passage suggests that scientists would ha'e to answer
which of the following "uestions in order to predict the effect of clouds on the
warming of the globe%
(A) &hat kinds of cloud systems will form o'er the #arth%
(B) )ow can cloud systems be encouraged to form o'er the ocean%
(C) &hat are the causes of the pro<ected planetwide temperature increase%
() &hat proportion of cloud systems are currently composed of cirrus of clouds%
(#) &hat proportion of the clouds in the atmosphere form o'er land masses%
1996 04
SECTION A
For many years, Ben|amn Ouares semna account of the partcpaton of
Afrcan Amercans n the Amercan Revouton has remaned the standard work n
the fed. Accordng to Ouares, the outcome of ths confct was mxed for Afrcan
Amercan saves who ensted n Brtans fght aganst ts rebeous Amercan
coones n return for the promse of freedom: the Brtsh treacherousy resod
many nto savery n the West Indes, whe others obtaned freedom n Canada
and Afrca. Budng on Ouares anayss of the atter group, Syva Frey studed
GRE 221
the former saves who emgrated to Brtsh coones n Canada. Accordng to Frey,
these refugees-the most successfu of the Afrcan Amercan Revoutonary War
partcpants-vewed themseves as the deoogca hers of the Amercan
Revouton. Frey sees ths nhertances refected n ther demands for the same
rghts that the Amercan revoutonares had demanded from the Brtsh: and
ownershp, mts to arbtrary authorty and burdensome taxes, and freedom of
regon.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is true about the African
American =e'olutionary &ar participants who settled in Canada after the
American =e'olution%
(A) Although they were politically unaligned with either side/ they identified
more with British ideology than with American ideology.
(B) &hile they were not immediately betrayed by the British/ they ultimately
suffered the same fate as did African American =e'olutionary &ar
participants who were resold into sla'ery in the &est 3ndies.
(C) They settled in Canada rather than in Africa because of the greater religious
freedom a'ailable in Canada.
() They were more politically acti'e than were African American =e'olutionary
&ar participants who settled in Africa.
(#) They were more successful than were African American =e'olutionary &ar
participants who settled Africa.
16. &hich of the following is most analogous to the relationship between the African
American =e'olutionary &ar participants who settled in Canada after the
American =e'olution and the American re'olutionaries/ as that relationship is
described in the passage%
(A) A brilliant pupil of a great musician rebels against the teacher/ but adopts the
teacher4s musical style after the teacher4s une$pected death.
(B) Two warring rulers finally make peace after a lifetime of strife when they
reali!e that they ha'e been duped by a common enemy.
(C) A child who has sided with a domineering parent against a defiant sibling
later makes demands of the parent similar to those once made by the sibling.
() A writer spends much of her life populari!ing the work of her mentor/ only to
disco'er late in life that much of the older writer4s work is plagiari!ed from
the writings of a foreign contemporary.
(#) Two research scientists spend much of their careers working together toward
a common goal/ but later "uarrel o'er which of them should recei'e credit
for the training of a promising student.
1,. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following is true of
Ben<amin Nuarles4 work%
(A) 3t introduced a new and untried research methodology.
222 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) 3t contained theories so contro'ersial that they ga'e rise to an entire
generation of scholarship.
(C) 3t was a pioneering work that has not yet been displaced by subse"uent
scholarship.
() 3t launched the career of a scholar who later wrote e'en more important
works.
(#) At the time it appeared/ its author already en<oyed a well(established
reputation in the field.
25. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning Britain4s rule
in its Canadian colonies after the American =e'olution%
(A) )umiliated by their defeat by the Americans/ the British sharply curtailed
ci'il rights in their Canadian colonies.
(B) The British largely ignored their Canadian colonies.
(C) The British encouraged the coloni!ation of Canada by those African
Americans who had ser'ed on the American side as well as by those who
had ser'ed on the British side.
() ;ome of Britain4s policies in its Canadian colonies were similar to its policies
in its American colonies before the American =e'olution.
(#) To reduce the debt incurred during the war/ the British imposed e'en higher
ta$es on the Canadian colonists than they had on the American colonists.
Over the years, boogsts have suggested two man pathways by whch sexua
seecton may have shaped the evouton of mae brdsong. In the frst, mae
competton and ntrasexua seecton produce reatvey short, smpe songs used
many n terrtora behavor. In the second, femae choce and ntersexua
seecton produce onger, more compcated songs used many n mate attracton;
ke such vsua ornamentaton as the peacocks ta, eaborate voca
characterstcs ncrease the maes chances of beng chosen as a mate, and he
thus en|oys more reproductve success than hs ess ostentatous rvas. The two
pathways are not mutuay excusve, and we can expect to fnd exampes that
refect ther nteracton. Teasng them apart has been an mportant chaenge to
evoutonary boogsts.
Eary research confrmed the roe of ntrasexua seecton. In a varety of
experments n the fed, maes responded aggressvey to recorded songs by
exhbtng terrtora behavor near the speakers. The breakthrough for research
nto ntersexua seecton came n the deveopment of a new technque for
nvestgatng femae response n the aboratory. When femae cowbrds rased n
soaton n sound-proof chambers were exposed to recordngs of mae song, they
responded by exhbtng matng behavor. By quantfyng the responses,
researchers were abe to determne what partcuar features of the song were
most mportant. In further experments on song sparrows, researchers found that
when exposed to a snge song type repeated severa tmes or to a repertore of
GRE 22-
dfferent song types, femaes responded more to the atter. The beauty of the
expermenta desgn s that t effectvey rues out confoundng varabes; acoustc
soaton assures that the femae can respond ony to the song structure tsef.
If ntersexua seecton operates as theorzed, maes wth more compcated
songs shoud not ony attract femaes more ready but shoud aso en|oy greater
reproductve success. At frst, however, researchers dong fedwork wth song
sparrows found no correaton between arger repertores and eary matng, whch
has been shown to be one ndcator of reproductve success; further, common
measures of mae quaty used to predct reproductve success, such as weght,
sze, age, and terrtory, aso faed to correate wth song compexty.
The confrmaton researchers had been seekng was fnay acheved n studes
nvovng two varetes of warbers. Unke the song sparrow, whch repeats one of
ts severa song types n bouts before swtchng to another, the warber
contnuousy composes much onger and more varabe songs wthout repetton.
For the frst tme, researchers found a sgnfcant correaton between repertore
sze and eary matng, and they dscovered further that repertore sze had a more
sgnfcant effect than any other measure of mae quaty on the number of young
produced. The evdence suggests that warbers use ther extremey eaborate
songs prmary to attract femaes, ceary confrmng the effect of ntersexua
seecton on the evouton of brdsong.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) showing that intrase$ual selection has a greater effect on birdsong than does
interse$ual selection
(B) contrasting the role of song comple$ity in se'eral species of birds
(C) describing research confirming the suspected relationship between interse$ual
selection and the comple$ity of birdsong
() demonstrating the superiority of laboratory work o'er field studies in
e'olutionary biology
(#) illustrating the effecti'eness of a particular approach to e$perimental design
in e'olutionary biology
22. The author mentions the peacock4s tail in line 6 most probably in order to
(A) cite an e$ception to the theory of the relationship between intrase$ual
selection and male competition
(B) illustrate the importance of both of the pathways that shaped the e'olution of
birdsong
(C) draw a distinction between competing theories of interse$ual selection
() gi'e an e$ample of a feature that may ha'e e'ol'ed through interse$ual
selection by female choice
(#) refute a commonly held assumption about the role of song in mate attraction
2.. According to the passage/ which of the following is specifically related to
226 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
intrase$ual selection%
(A) >emale choice
(B) Territorial beha'ior
(C) Comple$ song types
() Karge song repertoires
(#) Cisual ornamentation
20. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most clearly demonstrate the interaction
mentioned in lines 11(1.%
(A) >emale larks respond similarly both to short/ simple songs and to longer/
more complicated songs.
(B) ?ale canaries use 'isual ornamentation as well as elaborate song repertoires
for mate attraction.
(C) Both male and female blackbirds de'elop elaborate 'isual and 'ocal
characteristics.
() ?ale <ays use songs to compete among themsel'es and to attract females.
(#) ?ale robins with elaborate 'isual ornamentation ha'e as much reproducti'e
success as ri'als with elaborate 'ocal characteristics.
21. The passage indicates that researchers raised female cowbirds in acoustic
isolation in order to
(A) eliminate confounding 'ariables
(B) appro$imate field conditions
(C) measure reproducti'e success
() "uantify repertoire comple$ity
(#) pre'ent early mating
22. According to the passage/ the song sparrow is unlike the warbler in that the song
sparrow
(A) uses songs mainly in territorial beha'ior
(B) continuously composes long and comple$ songs
(C) has a much larger song repertoire
() repeats one song type before switching to another
(#) responds aggressi'ely to recorded songs
2-. The passage suggests that the song sparrow e$periments mentioned in lines .-(0.
failed to confirm the role of interse$ual selection because
(A) females were allowed to respond only to the song structure
(B) song sparrows are unlike other species of birds
(C) the e$periments pro'ided no e'idence that elaborate songs increased male
reproducti'e success
GRE 22,
() the e$periments included the songs of only a small number of different song
sparrows
(#) the e$periments duplicated some of the limitations of pre'ious field studies
SECTION B
An experment conducted aboard Space Lab n 1983 was the frst attempt to
grow proten crystas n the ow-gravty envronment of space. That experment s
st cted as evdence that growng crystas n mcrogravty can ncrease crysta
sze: the authors reported that they grew ysozyme proten crystas 1,000 tmes
arger than crystas grown n the same devce on Earth. Unfortunatey, the authors
dd not pont out that ther crystas were no arger than the average crysta grown
usng other, more standard technques n an Earth aboratory.
No research has yet produced resuts that coud |ustfy the enormous costs of
producng crystas on a arge scae n space. To get an unbased vew of the
usefuness of mcrogravty crysta growth, crystas grown n space must be
compared wth the best crystas that have been grown wth standard technques
on Earth. Gven the great expense of conductng such experments wth proper
contros, and the mted promse of experments performed thus far, t s
questonabe whether further experments n ths area shoud even be conducted.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is true about the ;pace Kab
e$periment conducted in 1,6.%
(A) 3t was the first e$periment to take place in the microgra'ity en'ironment of
space.
(B) 3t was the first e$periment in which researchers in space were able to grow
lyso!yme protein crystals greater in si!e than those grown on #arth.
(C) 3ts results ha'e been superseded by subse"uent research in the field of
microgra'ity protein crystal growth.
() 3ts results are still considered by some to be e'idence for the ad'antages of
microgra'ity protein crystal growth.
(#) 3ts results are considered by many to be in'alid because nonstandard
techni"ues were employed.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would find the ;pace Kab
e$periment more impressi'e if which of the following were true%
(A) The results of the ;pace Kab e$periment could be replicated in producing
other kinds of crystals in addition to lyso!yme protein.
(B) The de'ice used in the e$periment produced larger crystals on #arth than it
did in space.
(C) The si!e of the crystals produced in the e$periment e$ceeded the si!e of
crystals grown in #arth laboratories using standard techni"ues.
() The cost of producing the crystals in space e$ceeded that of producing them
2-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
using standard laboratory techni"ues.
(#) The standard techni"ues used in #arth laboratories were modified in the
;pace Kab e$periment due to the effects of microgra'ity.
1,. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the de'ice used to
grow crystals in the ;pace Kab e$periment%
(A) The de'ice is more e$pensi'e to manufacture than are the de'ices used in
standard techni"ues in an #arth laboratory.
(B) The de'ice has not been used to grow crystals in space since the ;pace Kab
e$periment of 1,6..
(C) Crystals grown in the de'ice on #arth tend to be much smaller than crystals
grown in it in space.
() Crystals grown in the de'ice in space ha'e been e$ceeded in si!e by crystals
grown in subse"uent e$periments in space using other de'ices.
(#) The e$periments in which the de'ice was used were conducted with proper
controls.
25. The passage suggests that the author would most probably agree with which of
the following assessments of the results of the ;pace Kab e$periment%
(A) Although the results of the e$periment are impressi'e/ the e$periment was too
limited in scope to allow for definiti'e conclusions.
(B) The results of the e$periment are impressi'e on the surface/ but the report is
misleading.
(C) The results of the e$periment con'incingly confirm what researchers ha'e
long suspected.
() Because of design flaws/ the e$periment did not yield any results rele'ant to
the issue under in'estigation.
(#) The results of the e$periment are too contradictory to allow for easy
interpretation.
In 1923 the nnovatve Russan fmmaker Dzga Vertov descrbed fmmakng
as a process that eads vewers toward a "fresh percepton of the word." Vertovs
descrpton of fmmakng shoud appy to fms on the sub|ect of art. Yet fms on
art have not had a powerfu and pervasve effect on the way we see.
Pubcatons on art foursh, but these books and artces do not necessary
succeed n teachng us to see more deepy or more ceary. Much wrtng n art
hstory advances the dscourse n the fed but s unkey to nform the eye of one
unfamar wth ts poemcs. Fms, however, wth ther capacty to present
matera vsuay and to reach a broader audence, have the potenta to enhance
vsua teracy (the abty to dentfy the detas that characterze a partcuar
stye) more effectvey than pubcatons can. Unfortunatey, few of the hundred or
so fms on art that are made each year n the Unted States are broadcast
natonay on prme-tme teevson.
GRE 2-1
The fact that fms on art are rarey seen on prme-tme teevson may be due
not ony to mtatons on dstrbuton but aso to the shortcomngs of many such
fms. Some of these shortcomngs can be attrbuted to the faure of art hstorans
and fmmakers to coaborate cosey enough when makng fms on art. These
professonas are abe, wthn ther respectve dscpnes, to ncrease our
awareness of vsua forms. For cose coaboraton to occur, professonas n each
dscpne need to recognze that fms on art can be both educatona and
entertanng, but ths w requre compromse on both sdes.
A fmmaker who s creatng a fm about the work of an artst shoud not
foow the standards set by rock vdeos and advertsng. Fmmakers need to resst
the mpuse to move the camera qucky from deta to deta for fear of borng the
vewer, to frame the mage for the sake of drama aone, to add musc for fear of
sence. Fmmakers are aware that an art ob|ect demands concentraton and, at
the same tme, are concerned that t may not be compeng enough-and so they
hope to provde reef by nterposng "rea" scenes that bear ony a tangenta
reatonshp to the sub|ect. But a work of art needs to be expored on ts own
terms. On the other hand, art hstorans need to trust that one can ndcate and
anayze, not soey wth words, but aso by drectng the vewers gaze. The
specazed wrtten anguage of art hstory needs to be renqushed or at east
tempered for the screen. Ony an effectve coaboraton between fmmakers and
art hstorans can create fms that w enhance vewers perceptons of art.
21. The passage suggests that a filmmaker desiring to enhance 'iewers4 perceptions
of art should do which of the following%
(A) =ely on the precise language of art history when de'eloping scripts for films
on art.
(B) =ely on dramatic narrati'e and music to set a film4s tone and style.
(C) =ecogni!e that a work of art by itself can be compelling enough to hold a
'iewer4s attention.
() epend more strongly on narration instead of camera mo'ements to guide the
'iewer4s ga!e.
(#) #mphasi!e the social and the historical conte$ts within which works of art
ha'e been created.
22. The author of the passage refers to Certo' in the first paragraph most probably in
order to
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of how films can be used to influence perceptions
(B) present e'idence to support the argument that films ha'e been used
successfully to influence 'iewers4 perceptions
(C) introduce the notion that film can influence how 'iewers see
() contrast a traditional 'iew of the uses of film with a more modern 'iew
(#) describe how film can change a 'iewer4s perception of a work of art
2-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) An obser'ation about an unsatisfactory situation is offered/ the reasons for the
situation are discussed/ and then ways to change it are suggested.
(B) Two opinions regarding a contro'ersial phenomenon are contrasted/
supporting e'idence for each is presented/ and then the two opinions are
reconciled.
(C) Criticism of a point of 'iew is discussed/ the criticism is answered/ and then
the criticism is applied to another point of 'iew.
() A point of 'iew is described/ e'idence supporting the 'iew is pro'ided/ and
then a summary is presented.
(#) A strategy is presented/ reasons for its past failure are discussed/ and then a
recommendation that will be abandoned is offered.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) discussing why film4s potential as a medium for presenting art to the general
public has not been fully reali!ed and how film might be made more
effecti'e in this regard
(B) discussing the shortcomings of films on art and the technological inno'ations
re"uired to increase the impact of film on 'isual literacy
(C) discussing the ad'antages and the disad'antages of using films rather than
publications to present works of art to the general public
() presenting information to support the 'iew that films on art must focus more
on education and less on entertainment in order to increase 'isual literacy
(#) presenting information to support the 'iew that films on art/ because they
reach a broader audience than many other kinds of media/ ha'e had greater
success in promoting 'isual literacy
21. The author would most likely agree with which of the following statements about
film and 'isual literacy%
(A) =eading a publication about a work of art and then seeing a film about the
same work is the most effecti'e way to de'elop 'isual literacy.
(B) An increase in a 'iewer4s awareness of 'isual forms will also lead to an
increased attention span.
(C) >ilm has a great but not yet fully e$ploited capacity to increase 'iewers4
awareness of 'isual forms.
() A film that focuses on the details of a work of art will hinder the de'elopment
of 'isual literacy.
(#) >ilms on art would more effecti'ely enhance the 'isual literacy of teenagers if
filmmakers followed the standards set by rock 'ideos.
22. According to the passage/ art historians desiring to work with filmmakers to
enhance the public4s appreciation of art need to acknowledge which of the
GRE 2-.
following%
(A) The art historian4s role in the creation of a film on art is likely to be a
relati'ely minor one.
(B) >ilm pro'ides an ideal opportunity to ac"uaint 'iewers with a wide range of
issues that relate incidentally to a work of art.
(C) An in(depth analysis of a work of art is not an appropriate topic for a film on
art.
() Although silence may be an appropriate background when 'iewing a work of
art in a museum/ it is inappropriate in a film.
(#) >ilm can use non'erbal means to achie'e some of the same results that a
spoken or written discourse can achie'e.
2-. &hich of the following would describe the author4s most likely reaction to a
claim that films on art would more successfully promote 'isual literacy if they
followed the standards set for rock 'ideos%
(A) Ambi'alence
(B) 3ndifference
(C) ;ympathy
() 3nterest
(#) isdain
1996 10
SECTION A
Ths s not to deny that the Back gospe musc of the eary twenteth century
dffered n mportant ways from the save sprtuas. Whereas sprtuas were
created and dssemnated n fok fashon, gospe musc was composed, pubshed,
copyrghted, and sod by professonas. Nevertheess, mprovsaton remaned
centra to gospe musc. One has ony to sten to the recorded repertore of gospe
songs to reaze that Back gospe sngers rarey sang a song precsey the same
way twce and never accordng to ts exact musca notaton. They performed what
|azz muscans ca "head arrangements" proceedng from ther own feengs and
from the way "the sprt" moved them at the tme. Ths mprovsatory eement
was refected n the manner n whch gospe musc was pubshed. Back gospe
composers scored the musc ntended for Whte sngng groups fuy, ndcatng
the varous voca parts and the accompanment, but the musc produced for Back
sngers ncuded ony a voca ne and pano accompanment.
1-. &hich of the following best describes *head arrangement+ as the term is used in
line 11%
(A) A published 'ersion of a gospel song produced for use by Black singers
2-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) A gospel song based on a sla'e spiritual
(C) A musical score shared by a gospel singer and a <a!! musician
() An informally written composition intended for use by a gospel singer
(#) An impro'ised performance inspired by the singer4s emotions
16. The author mentions *folk fashion+ (line 0) most likely in order to
(A) counter an assertion about the role of impro'isation in music created by
Black people
(B) compare early gospel music with gospel music written later in the twentieth
century
(C) make a distinction between gospel music and sla'e spirituals
() introduce a discussion about the dissemination of sla'e spirituals
(#) describe a similarity between gospel music and sla'e spirituals
1,. The passage suggests which of the following about Black gospel music and sla'e
spirituals%
(A) Both became widely known in the early twentieth century.
(B) Both had an important impro'isatory element.
(C) Both were fre"uently performed by <a!! musicians.
() Both were published with only a 'ocal line and piano accompaniment.
(#) Both were disseminated chiefly by Black singing groups.
25. 8f the following sentences/ which is most likely to ha'e immediately preceded
the passage%
(A) >ew composers of gospel music drew on traditions such as the spiritual in
creating their songs.
(B) ;pirituals and Black gospel music were deri'ed from the same musical
tradition.
(C) The creation and singing of spirituals/ practiced by Black Americans before
the Ci'il &ar/ continued after the war.
() ;pirituals and gospel music can be clearly distinguished from one another.
(#) 3mpro'isation was one of the primary characteristics of the gospel music
created by Black musicians.
About a century ago, the Swedsh physca scentst Arrhenus proposed a aw
of cassca chemstry that reates chemca reacton rate to temperature.
Accordng to the Arrhenus equaton, chemca reactons are ncreasngy unkey
to occur as temperatures approach absoute zero, and at absoute zero (zero
degrees Kevn, or mnus 273 degrees Cesus) reactons stop. However, recent
expermenta evdence reveas that athough the Arrhenus equaton s generay
accurate n descrbng the knd of chemca reacton that occurs at reatvey hgh
temperatures, at temperatures coser to zero a quantum-mechanca effect known
GRE 2-1
as tunneng comes nto pay; ths effect accounts for chemca reactons that are
forbdden by the prncpes of cassca chemstry. Specfcay, entre moecues
can "tunne" through the barrers of repusve forces from other moecues and
chemcay react even though these moecues do not have suffcent energy,
accordng to cassca chemstry, to overcome the repusve barrer.
The rate of any chemca reacton, regardess of the temperature at whch t
takes pace, usuay depends on a very mportant characterstc known as ts
actvaton energy. Any moecue can be magned to resde at the bottom of a so-
caed potenta we of energy. A chemca reacton corresponds to the transton
of a moecue from the bottom of one potenta we to the bottom of another. In
cassca chemstry, such a transton can be accompshed ony by gong over the
potenta barrer between the wes, the heght of whch remans constant and s
caed the actvaton energy of the reacton. In tunneng, the reactng moecues
tunne from the bottom of one to the bottom of another we wthout havng to rse
over the barrer between the two wes. Recenty researchers have deveoped the
concept of tunneng temperature: the temperature beow whch tunneng
transtons greaty outnumber Arrhenus transtons, and cassca mechancs gves
way to ts quantum counterpart.
Ths tunneng phenomenon at very ow temperatures suggested my
hypothess about a cod prehstory of fe: the formaton of rather compex organc
moecues n the deep cod of outer space, where temperatures usuay reach ony
a few degrees Kevn. Cosmc rays (hgh-energy protons and other partces) mght
trgger the synthess of smpe moecues, such as nterstear formadehyde, n
dark couds of nterstear dust. Afterward compex organc moecues woud be
formed, sowy but surey, by means of tunneng. After I offered my hypothess,
Hoye and Wckramasnghe argued that moecues of nterstear formadehyde
have ndeed evoved nto stabe poysacchardes such as ceuose and starch.
Ther concusons, athough strongy dsputed, have generated exctement among
nvestgators such as mysef who are proposng that the gaactc couds are the
paces where the preboogca evouton of compounds necessary to fe occurred.
21. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing how the principles of classical chemistry were de'eloped
(B) initiating a debate about the kinds of chemical reactions re"uired for the
de'elopment of life
(C) e$plaining how current research in chemistry may be related to broader
biological concerns
() reconciling opposing theories about chemical reactions
(#) clarifying inherent ambiguities in the laws of classical chemistry
22. According to the passage/ classical chemical reactions and tunneling reactions are
alike in which of the following ways%
(A) 3n both types of reactions/ reacting molecules ha'e to rise o'er the barrier
2-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
between the two wells.
(B) 3n both types of reactions/ a transition is made from the bottom of one
potential well to the bottom of another.
(C) 3n neither type of reaction does the height of the barrier between the wells
remain constant.
() 3n neither type of reaction does the rate of a chemical reaction depend on its
acti'ation energy.
(#) 3n both types of reactions/ reacting molecules are able to go through the
barrier between the two wells.
2.. According to the Arrhenius e"uation as discussed in the passage/ which of the
following statements about chemical reactions is true%
(A) Chemical reactions are less likely to occur at temperatures close to absolute
!ero.
(B) 3n some cases the rate of a chemical reaction is related to temperature and in
other cases it is not.
(C) Chemical reactions fre"uently occur at a few degrees abo'e absolute !ero/ but
they are 'ery unpredictable.
() The rate of a chemical reaction depends on many other factors besides
temperature.
(#) Chemical reaction rate and temperature are not related.
20. The author4s attitude toward the theory of a cold pre(history of life can best be
described as
(A) neutral
(B) skeptical
(C) mildly positi'e
() 'ery supporti'e
(#) pointedly critical
21. The author4s hypothesis concerning the cold prehistory of life would be most
weakened if which of the following were true%
(A) Cosmic rays are unlikely to trigger the formation of simple molecules.
(B) Tunneling occurs only in a narrow band of temperatures around !ero degrees
Mel'in.
(C) The synthesis of interstellar formaldehyde can be acti'ated by means other
than cosmic rays.
() ;imple molecules can be synthesi!ed by means of tunneling.
(#) Classical chemical reactions do not occur at temperatures close to absolute
!ero.
22. &hich of the following best describes the hypothesis of )oyle and
GRE 2--
&ickramasinghe as it is presented in the passage%
(A) Cosmic rays can directly synthesi!e comple$ organic molecules.
(B) The galactic clouds are the places where prebiological e'olution of
compounds necessary to life occurred.
(C) 3nterstellar formaldehyde can be synthesi!ed by tunneling.
() ?olecules of interstellar formaldehyde can e'ol'e into comple$ organic
molecules.
(#) Comple$ organic molecules can be synthesi!ed from stable polysaccharides
such as cellulose and starch.
2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the first two paragraphs
of the passage%
(A) The author cites a basic principle of classical chemistry and then describes
the research from which that principle was de'eloped.
(B) The author cites an apparent contradiction to the principles of classical
chemistry and then e$plains the process of a chemical reaction to show there
is in fact no contradiction.
(C) The author describes the role of heat in chemical reactions and then offers a
detailed e$planation of its function.
() The author presents a law of classical chemistry in order to introduce a kind
of chemical reaction that differs from it and then e$plains the essential
difference between the two.
(#) The author presents the fundamental rules of classical chemistry in order to
introduce an e$planation of a specific chemical reaction.
SECTION B
Athough the hormone adrenane s known to reguate memory storage, t
does not pass from the bood nto bran ces. We are faced wth an apparent
paradox: how can a hormone that does not act drecty on the bran have such a
arge effect on bran functon?
Recenty, we tested the possbty that one of the hormones actons outsde
the bran mght be responsbe. Snce one consequence of adrenane reease n an
anma s an ncrease n bood gucose eves, we examned the effects of gucose
on memory n rats. We found that gucose n|ected mmedatey after tranng
enhances memory tested the next day. Addtona evdence was provded by
negatve fndngs: drugs caed adrenergc antagonsts, whch bock perphera
adrenane receptors, dsrupted adrenanes abty to reguate memory but dd
not affect memory enhancements produced by gucose that was not stmuated
by adrenane. These resuts are as they shoud be f adrenane affects memory
moduaton by ncreasng bood gucose eves.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
2-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(A) reconcile two opposing theories
(B) compare two different e$planations for a phenomenon
(C) describe e$perimental research that appears to support an unpopular theory
() present e'idence that may help to resol'e an apparent contradiction
(#) describe a hypothesis that has cause a contro'ersy
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely describe the
*additional e'idence+ (line 12) pro'ided by e$periments with adrenergic
antagonists as
(A) re'olutionary
(B) disappointing
(C) incomplete
() une$pected
(#) corroborati'e
1,. The passage pro'ides information about which of the following topics%
(A) The mechanism by which glucose affects memory storage
(B) The e'idence that prompted scientist to test the effects of adrenaline on
memory regulation
(C) The reason that the effects of glucose on memory were tested
() The ways that memory storage modifies the structure of the brain
(#) The kinds of training used to test memory enhancement in rats
25. The author refers to the results of the e$periment using adrenergic antagonists as
*negati'e findings+ (line 1.) most likely because the adrenergic antagonists
(A) failed to disrupt adrenaline4s effect on memory
(B) did not affect glucose4s ability to enhance memory
(C) did not block adrenaline4s ability to increase blood glucose le'els
() only partially affected adrenaline4s ability to enhance memory
(#) disrupted both adrenaline4s and glucose4s effect on memory
The age at whch young chdren begn to make mora dscrmnatons about
harmfu actons commtted aganst themseves or others has been the focus of
recent research nto the mora deveopment of chdren. Unt recenty, chd
psychoogsts supported poneer deveopmentast |ean. Paget n hs hypothess
that because of ther mmaturty, chdren under age seven do not take nto
account the ntentons of a person commttng accdenta or deberate harm, but
rather smpy assgn punshment for transgressons on the bass of the magntude
of the negatve consequences caused. Accordng to Paget, chdren under age
seven occupy the frst stage of mora deveopment, whch s characterzed by
mora absoutsm (rues made by authortes must be obeyed) and mmnent
|ustce (f rues are broken, punshment w be meted out). Unt young chdren
GRE 2-,
mature, ther mora |udgments are based entrey on the effect rather than the
cause of a transgresson. However, n recent research, Keasey found that sx-year-
od chdren not ony dstngush between accdenta and ntentona harm, but aso
|udge ntentona harm as naughter, regardess of the amount of damage
produced. Both of these fndngs seem to ndcate that chdren, at an earer age
than Paget camed, advance nto the second stage of mora deveopment, mora
autonomy, n whch they accept soca rues but vew them as more arbtrary than
do chdren n the frst stage.
Keaseys research rases two key questons for deveopmenta psychoogsts
about chdren under age seven: do they recognze |ustfcatons for harmfu
actons, and do they make dstnctons between harmfu acts that are preventabe
and those acts that have unforeseen harmfu consequences? Studes ndcate that
|ustfcatons excusng harmfu actons mght ncude pubc duty, sef-defense, and
provocaton. For exampe, Nesdae and Rue concuded that chdren were capabe
of consderng whether or not an aggressors acton was |ustfed by pubc duty:
fve year ods reacted very dfferenty to "Bonne wrecks Anns pretend house"
dependng on whether Bonne dd t "so somebody wont fa over t" or because
Bonne wanted "to make Ann fee bad." Thus, a chd of fve begns to understand
that certan harmfu actons, though ntentona, can be |ustfed; the constrants of
mora absoutsm no onger soey gude ther |udgments.
Psychoogsts have determned that durng kndergarten chdren earn to
make subte dstnctons nvovng harm. Darey observed that among acts
nvovng unntentona harm, sx-year-od chdren |ust enterng kndergarten
coud not dfferentate between foreseeabe, and thus preventabe, harm and
unforeseeabe harm for whch the perpetrator cannot be bamed. Seven months
ater, however, Darey found that these same chdren coud make both
dstnctons, thus demonstratng that they had become moray autonomous.
21. &hich of the following best describes the passage as a whole%
(A) An outline for future research
(B) An e$panded definition of commonly misunderstood terms
(C) An analysis of a dispute between two theorists
() A discussion of research findings in an ongoing in"uiry
(#) A confirmation of an established authority4s theory
22. According to the passage/ arley found that after se'en months of kindergarten
si$ year olds ac"uired which of the following abilities%
(A) ifferentiating between foreseeable and unforeseeable harm
(B) 3dentifying with the perpetrator of a harmful action
(C) Austifying harmful actions that result from pro'ocation
() #'aluating the magnitude of negati'e conse"uences resulting from the
breaking of rules
265 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) =ecogni!ing the difference between moral absolutism and moral autonomy
2.. According to the passage/ @iaget and Measey would not ha'e agreed on which of
the following points%
(A) The kinds of e$cuses children gi'e for harmful acts they commit
(B) The age at which children begin to discriminate between intentional and
unintentional harm
(C) The intentions children ha'e in perpetrating harm
() The circumstances under which children punish harmful acts
(#) The <ustifications children recogni!e for mitigating punishment for harmful
acts
20. 3t can be inferred that the term *public duty+ (line ..) in the conte$t of the
passage means which of the following%
(A) The necessity to apprehend perpetrators.
(B) The responsibility to punish transgressors
(C) An obligation to pre'ent harm to another
() The assignment of punishment for harmful action
(#) A <ustification for punishing transgressions
21. According to the passage/ Measey4s findings support which of the following
conclusions about si$(year(old children%
(A) They ha'e the ability to make autonomous moral <udgments.
(B) They regard moral absolutism as a threat to their moral autonomy.
(C) They do not understand the concept of public duty.
() They accept moral <udgment made by their peers more easily than do older
children.
(#) They make arbitrary moral <udgments.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that @iaget would be likely to agree with
which of the following statements about the punishment that children under se'en
assign to wrongdoing%
(A) The se'erity of the assigned punishment is determined by the percei'ed
magnitude of negati'e conse"uences more than by any other factor.
(B) The punishment is to be administered immediately following the
transgression.
(C) The children assign punishment less arbitrarily than they do when they reach
the age of moral autonomy.
() The punishment for acts of unintentional harm is less se'ere than it is for acts
in'ol'ing accidental harm.
(#) The more de'elopmentally immature a child/ the more se'ere the punishment
that the child will assign.
GRE 261
2-. According to the passage/ the research of 9esdale and =ule suggests which of the
following about fi'e(year(old children%
(A) Their reactions to intentional and accidental harm determine the se'erity of
the punishments they assign.
(B) They/ as perpetrators of harmful acts/ disregard the feelings of the children
they harm.
(C) They take into account the moti'ations of actions when <udging the beha'ior
of other children.
() They 'iew public duty as a <ustification for accidental/ but not intentional/
harm.
(#) They <ustify any action that protects them from harm.
1997 04
SECTION A
Geoogsts Harrs and Gass hypotheszed that the Red Sea rft deveoped aong
the ne of a suture (a spce n the Earths crust) formed durng the ate
Proterozoc era, and that sgnfcant observabe dfferences n the composton of
the upper ayers of rocks deposted on ether sde of the suture gve cues to the
dfferent natures of the underyng gneous rocks.
Other geoogsts argued that nether the upper rock ayer nor the underyng
gneous rocks on the one sde of the rft dffer fundamentay from the
correspondng ayers on the other sde. These geoogsts beeve, therefore, that
there s nadequate evdence to concude that a suture underes the rft.
In response, Harrs and Gass asserted that the upper rock ayers on the two
sdes of the rft had not been shown to be of smar age, structure, or
geochemca content. Furthermore, they cted new evdence that the underyng
gneous rocks on ether sde of the rft contan sgnfcanty dfferent knds of rare
metas.
1-. @art of the )arris and Bass hypothesis about the =ed ;ea rift would be weakened
if it could be demonstrated that the composition of upper rock layers
(A) cannot cause a suture to de'elop
(B) has no effect on where a suture will occur
(C) cannot pro'ide information about the nature of underlying rocks
() is similar on the two sides of a rift unless a suture di'ides the two sides
(#) is usually different from the composition of underlying rocks
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *8ther geologists+ (line 6) would be
most likely to agree with which of the following statements%
(A) ;imilar geological features along both sides of a possible suture imply the
262 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
e$istence of that suture.
(B) ;utures can be disco'ered only where they are not obscured by superimposed
geological features.
(C) The composition of igneous rocks permits prediction of the likelihood of a rift
de'eloping through them.
() 3t is possible to date igneous rocks by carefully studying the different kinds of
rare metals contained in them and by obser'ing their similarity to the layer
of rock that lies abo'e them.
(#) The e$istence of rock layers on one side of a rift that are similar in
composition to rock layers on the other side suggests that no suture e$ists
between the two sides.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that )arris and Bass ha'e done which of the
following%
(A) rawn detailed diagrams of the =ed ;ea rift.
(B) Based their conclusions on the way in which sutures de'elop in the #arth4s
crust.
(C) =e<ected other geologists ob<ections to their hypothesis about the =ed ;ea
rift.
() ;uggested that the presence of rare metals in rocks indicates an underlying
suture.
(#) Asserted that rifts usually occur along the lines of sutures.
25. According to the passage/ )arris and Bass ha'e mentioned all of the following
properties of rocks along the =ed ;ea rift #DC#@TE
(A) age of the upper layers of rock
(B) structure of the upper layers of rocks
(C) geochemical content of the upper layers of rocks
() metallic content of the underlying igneous rocks
(#) age of the underlying igneous rocks
Proponents of dfferent |azz styes have aways argued that ther
predecessors musca stye dd not ncude essenta characterstcs that defne
|azz as |azz. Thus, 1940s swng was betted by beboppers of the 1950s, who
were themseves attacked by free |azzers of the 1960s. The neoboppers of the
1980s and 1990s attacked amost everybody ese. The ttanc fgure of Back
saxophonst |ohn Cotrane has compcated the arguments made by proponents of
styes from bebop through neobop because n hs own musca |ourney he drew
from a those styes. Hs nfuence on a types of |azz was mmeasurabe. At the
heght of hs popuarty, Cotrane argey abandoned payng bebop, the stye that
had brought hm fame, to expore the outer reaches of |azz.
GRE 26.
Cotrane hmsef probaby beeved that the ony essenta characterstc of
|azz was mprovsaton, the one constant n hs |ourney from bebop to open-ended
mprovsatons on moda, Indan, and Afrcan meodes. On the other hand, ths
dogged student and prodgous techncan-who nssted on spendng hours each
day practcng scaes from theory books-was never abe to |ettson competey
the nfuence of bebop, wth ts fast and eaborate chans of notes and ornaments
on meody.
Two stystc characterstcs shaped the way Cotrane payed the tenor
saxophone, he favored payng fast runs of notes but on a meody and depended
on heavy, reguary accented beats. The frst ed Cotrane to "sheets of sound,"
where he raced faster and faster, pe-drvng notes nto each other to suggest
stacked harmones. The second meant that hs sense of rhythm was amost as
cose to rock as to bebop.
Three recordngs ustrate Cotranes energzng exporatons. Recordng 0ind
of Blue wth Mes Davs, Cotrane found hmsef outsde bop, exporng moda
meodes. Here he payed surgng, engthy soos but argey around repeated
motfs-an organzng prncpe unke that of free |azz saxophone payer Ornette
Coeman, who moduated or atered meodes n hs soos. On .iant te#s,
Cotrane debuted as eader, ntroducng hs own compostons. Here the sheets of
sound, downbeat accents, repettons, and great speed are part of each soo, and
the varety of the shapes of hs phrases s unque. Cotranes searchng
exporatons produced sod achevement. (y Favorite Things was another knd of
watershed. Here Cotrane payed the soprano saxophone, an nstrument sedom
used by |azz muscans. Muscay, the resuts were astoundng. Wth the sopranos
ppng sound, deas that had sounded dark and broodng acqured a feeng of
gddy fantasy.
When Cotrane began recordng for the Impuse! abe, he was st searchng.
Hs musc became raucous, physca. Hs nfuence on rockers was enormous,
ncudng |m Hendrx, the rock gutarst, who, foowng Cotrane, rased the
extended gutar soo usng repeated motfs to a knd of rock art form.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss the place of Coltrane in the world of <a!! and describe his musical
e$plorations
(B) e$amine the nature of bebop and contrast it with impro'isational <a!!
(C) analy!e the musical sources of Coltrane4s style and their influence on his
work
() acknowledge the influence of Coltrane4s music on rock music and rock
musicians
(#) discuss the arguments that di'ide the proponents of different <a!! styles
22. The author implies that which of the following would ha'e been an effect of
Coltrane4s ha'ing chosen to play the tenor rather than the soprano sa$ophone on
260 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
*y Fa$orite Things%
(A) The tone of the recording would ha'e been more somber.
(B) The influence of bebop on the recording would ha'e been more ob'ious.
(C) The music on the recording would ha'e sounded less raucous and physical.
() )is influence on rock music might ha'e been less per'asi'e.
(#) The style of the recording would ha'e been indistinguishable from that on
4ind o+ %lue2
2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the fourth paragraph%
(A) A thesis referred to earlier in the passage is mentioned and illustrated with
three specific e$amples.
(B) A thesis is stated and three e$amples are gi'en each suggesting that a
correction needs to be made to a thesis referred to earlier in the passage.
(C) A thesis referred to earlier in the passage is mentioned/ and three e$amples
are presented and ranked in order of their support of the thesis.
() A thesis is stated/ three seemingly opposing e$amples are presented/ and their
underlying correspondence is e$plained.
(#) A thesis is stated/ three dissimilar e$amples are considered/ and the thesis is
restated.
20. According to the passage/ Aohn Coltrane did all of the following during his career
#DC#@TE
(A) impro'ise on melodies from a number of different cultures
(B) perform as leader as well as soloist
(C) spend time impro'ing his technical skills
() e$periment with the sounds of 'arious instruments
(#) eliminate the influence of bebop on his own music
21. The author mentions the work of 8rnette Coleman in the fourth paragraph in
order to do which of the following%
(A) #$pand the discussion by mentioning the work of a sa$ophone player who
played in Coltrane4s style.
(B) Compare Coltrane4s solos with the work of another <a!! artist.
(C) ;upport the idea that rational organi!ing principles need to be applied to
artistic work.
() ;how the increasing intricacy of Coltrane4s work after he abandoned bebop.
(#) 3ndicate disagreement with the way Coltrane modulated the motifs in his
lengthy solos.
22. According to the passage/ a ma<or difference between Coltrane and other <a!!
musicians was the
GRE 261
(A) degree to which Coltrane4s music encompassed all of <a!!
(B) repetition of motifs that Coltrane used in his solos
(C) number of his own compositions that Coltrane recorded
() indifference Coltrane maintained to musical techni"ue
(#) importance Coltrane placed on rhythm in <a!!
2-. 3n terms of its tone and form/ the passage can best be characteri!ed as
(A) dogmatic e$planation
(B) indignant denial
(C) enthusiastic praise
() speculati'e study
(#) lukewarm re'iew
SECTION B
A speca mucous coatng that serves as a chemca camoufage aows cown
fsh to ve among the deady tentaces of the unsuspectng sea anemone. Uttery
dependent on ths unkey host for protecton from predators, cown fsh have
evoved n soated communtes, a pattern that has ed to unusua behavora
adaptatons.
The rgdy defned herarchy of each cown-fsh communty s domnated by a
monogamous breedng par consstng of the argest fsh, a femae, and the next
argest, a mae, attended by a fxed number of sexuay mmature fsh rangng n
sze from arge to tny. A remarkabe adaptaton s that the deveopment of these
|uvenes s somehow arrested unt the herarchy changes; then they grow n
ockstep, mantanng ther reatve szes. Whe the communty thus economzes
on mted space and food resources, fe s rsky for newy spawned cown fsh. On
hatchng, the hundreds of arvae drft off nto the pankton. If, wthn three weeks,
the defenseess arva cown fsh ocates a sutabe anemone (ether by pure
chance or perhaps guded by chemcas secreted by the anemone), t may survve.
However, f an anemone s fuy occuped, the resdent cown fsh w repe any
newcomer.
Though advantageous for estabshed communty members, the suspended
and staggered maturaton of |uvenes mght seem to pose a danger to the
contnuty of the communty: there s ony one successor for two breedng fsh.
Shoud one of a par de, the remanng fsh cannot swm off n search of a mate,
nor s one key to arrve. It woud seem nevtabe that reproducton must
sometmes have to hat, pendng the chance arrva and maturaton of a arva fsh
of the approprate sex.
Ths, however, turns out not to be the case. In experments, vacances have
been contrved by removng an estabshed fsh from a communty. Emnaton of
the breedng mae trggers the prompt maturaton of the argest |uvene. Each
262 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
remanng |uvene aso grows somewhat, and a mnuscue newcomer drops n
from the pankton. Remova of the femae aso trggers growth n a remanng fsh
and acceptance of a newcomer, but the femae s repaced by the adut mae.
Wthn days, the maes behavor aters and physoogca transformaton s
compete wthn a few months. Thus, whchever of the breedng par s ost, a
reatvey arge |uvene can f the vod, and reproducton can resume wth a
mnma oss of tme. Furthermore, the new mate has aready proved ts abty to
survve.
Ths transformaton of a mae nto a femae, or protandrous hermaphrodtsm,
s rare among reef fsh. The more common protogynous hermaphrodtsm, where
femaes change nto maes, does not occur among cown fsh. An ntrgung
queston for further research s whether a |uvene cown fsh can turn drecty nto
a femae or whether t must functon frst as a mae.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) analy!ing the mutually ad'antageous relationship between two species
(B) comparing two forms of hermaphroditism among clown fish
(C) describing and e$plaining aspects of clown(fish beha'ior
() outlining proposed research on clown(fish reproduction
(#) attempting to reconcile inconsistent obser'ations of clown(fish de'elopment
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the clown fish is able to sur'i'e in close
association with the sea anemone because the
(A) sea anemone cannot detect the presence of the clown fish
(B) tentacles of the sea anemone cannot grasp the slippery clown fish
(C) sea anemone prefers other prey
() clown fish does not actually come within the range of the sea anemone4s
tentacles
(#) clown fish has de'eloped tolerance to the sea anemone4s poison
1,. According to the passage/ adult clown fish would be at a disad'antage if they
were not associated with sea anemones because the clown fish would
(A) be incapable of se$ual transformation
(B) be 'ulnerable to predators
(C) ha'e no reliable source of food
() ha'e to lay their eggs in the open
(#) face competition from other clown fish
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that se$ change would ha'e been less
necessary for the clown fish if
(A) the male clown fish were larger than the female
(B) each sea anemone were occupied by se'eral 'arieties of clown fish
GRE 26-
(C) many mature clown fish of both se$es occupied each sea anemone
() <u'enile clown fish had a high mortality rate
(#) both male clown fish and female clown fish were highly territorial
21. The author mentions all of the following as characteristic of the *rigidly defined
hierarchy+ (line 6) of the clown(fish community #DC#@TE
(A) At any time only one female clown fish can be reproducti'ely acti'e
(B) The mature clown fish are monogamous
(C) The growth of clown fish is synchroni!ed
() The ma$imum number of clown fish is fi$ed
(#) There are e"ual numbers of male <u'eniles and female <u'eniles
22. &hich of the following statements about newly hatched clown fish can be
inferred from the passage%
(A) They de'elop rapidly.
(B) They remain close to the sea anemone occupied by their parents.
(C) They are more sensiti'e to chemical signals than are adult clown fish.
() They are not protected by their parents.
(#) They are less 'ulnerable to predation than are adult fish.
2.. &hich of the following/ if true/ would be K#A;T consistent with the author4s
e$planation of the ad'antage of hermaphroditism for clown fish%
(A) The number of indi'iduals in a clown(fish community fluctuates significantly.
(B) Adult clown fish fre"uently cannibali!e their young.
(C) The sea anemone tolerates clown fish only during a specific stage of the
anemone4s life cycle.
() Au'enile clown fish rarely reach maturity.
(#) Clown(fish communities are capable of efficiently recruiting solitary adult
clown fish.
Comparng desgns n musc wth vsua desgns rases nterestng questons.
We are famar wth the easy transfers of terms denotng quates from one fed
to another. The basc probem can be put ths way: can musc sound the way a
desgn ooks? The eements of musc are not the same as those of pantng. They
may be anaogous, but to be anaogous s not to be dentca. Is t possbe, then,
for the same broad characterstcs to emerge from dfferent perceptua
condtons?
Two facts about the reaton between broad characterstcs of a work and ther
perceptua condtons must be kept dstnct. Frst, the goba characterstcs of a
vsua or audtory compex are determned by the dscernbe parts and ther
reatonshps. Thus, any notabe change n the parts or ther reatonshps
produces a change n some of the goba characterstcs. Second, a change n the
266 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
parts or ther reatonshps may eave other goba characterstcs unchanged.
20. 3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with establishing the fact
that
(A) comparisons are not e"uations
(B) auditory phenomena are not 'isual phenomena
(C) fre"uently used comparisons are usually inaccurate
() careless perceptions result from careless thought
(#) "uestions concerning perception are psychological
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) distinguishing mutually e$clusi'e categories
(B) clarifying an apparent contradiction
(C) supporting new ideas
() analy!ing a problem
(#) comparing opinions
22. The second paragraph is primarily concerned with establishing the idea that
(A) different global characteristics of a work result from the same discernible
parts
(B) the parts of a work of art influence the total perception of the work
(C) 'isual and auditory characteristics can be combined
() changes in the parts of a work remain isolated from the work as a whole
(#) the 'isual comple$es in a work of art influence the work4s auditory comple$es
2-. &hich of the following statements is most likely be a continuation of the
passage%
(A) The search for broad similarities thus begins by understanding and
distinguishing these two facts.
(B) The search for musical('isual analogies thus depends on the comple$ity of
the works being compared.
(C) The search for music and art of the highest "uality thus depends on 'ery
different assumptions.
() Thus music and painting e$ist in mutually e$clusi'e worlds.
(#) Thus music and painting are too complicated to be e'aluated in terms of
analogies.
1997 11
SECTION A
GRE 26,
Investgators of monkeys soca behavor have aways been struck by
monkeys aggressve potenta and the consequent need for soca contro of ther
aggressve behavor. Studes drected at descrbng aggressve behavor and the
stuatons that ect t, as we as the soca mechansms that contro t, were
therefore among the frst nvestgatons of monkeys soca behavor.
Investgators ntay beeved that monkeys woud compete for any resource
n the envronment: hungry monkeys woud fght over food, thrsty monkeys woud
fght over water, and, n genera, any tme more than one monkey n a group
sought the same ncentve smutaneousy, a dspute woud resut and woud be
resoved through some form of aggresson. However, the motvatng force of
competton for ncentves began to be doubted when experments ke
Southwcks on the reducton of space or the wthhodng of food faed to produce
more than temporary ncreases n ntragroup aggresson. Indeed, food deprvaton
not ony faed to ncrease aggresson but n some cases actuay resuted n
decreased frequences of aggresson.
Studes of anmas n the wd under condtons of extreme food deprvaton
kewse reveaed that starvng monkeys devoted amost a avaabe energy to
foragng, wth tte energy remanng for aggressve nteracton. Furthermore,
accumuatng evdence from ater studes of a varety of prmate groups, for
exampe, the study conducted by Bernsten, ndcates that one of the most potent
stmu for ectng aggresson s the ntroducton of an ntruder nto an organzed
group. Such ntroductons resut n far more serous aggresson than that produced
n any other types of experments contrved to produce competton.
These studes of ntruders suggest that adut members of the same speces
ntroduced to one another for the frst tme show consderabe hostty because, n
the absence of a soca order, one must be estabshed to contro nteranma
reatonshps. When a snge new anma s ntroduced nto an exstng soca
organzaton, the newcomer meets even more serous aggresson. Whereas n the
frst case aggresson estabshes a soca order, n the second case resdent
anmas mob the ntruder, thereby ntay excudng the new anma from the
exstng soca unt. The smutaneous ntroducton of severa anmas essens the
effect, f ony because the group dvdes ts attenton among the mutpe targets.
If, however, the severa anmas ntroduced to a group consttute ther own soca
unt, each group may fght the opposng group as a unt; but, agan, no ndvdua
s sub|ected to mass attack, and the very coheson of the groups precudes
proonged ndvdua combat. The submsson of the defeated group, rather than
uneashng unchecked aggresson on the part of the vctorous group, reduces
both the ntensty and frequency of further attack. Monkey groups therefore see to
be organzed prmary to mantan ther estabshed soca order rather than to
engage n hosttes per se.
1-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ancing a new methodology for changing a monkey4s social beha'ior
2,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(B) comparing the methods of se'eral research studies on aggression among
monkeys
(C) e$plaining the reasons for researchers4 interest in monkeys4 social beha'ior
() discussing the de'elopment of in'estigators4 theories about aggression among
monkeys
(#) e$amining the effects of competition on monkeys4 social beha'ior
16. &hich of the following best summari!es the findings reported in the passage
about the effects of food depri'ation on monkeys4 beha'ior%
(A) >ood depri'ation has no effect on aggression among monkeys.
(B) >ood depri'ation increases aggression among monkeys because one of the
most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the competition for incenti'es.
(C) >ood depri'ation may increase long(term aggression among monkeys in a
laboratory setting/ but it produces only temporary increases among monkeys
in the wild.
() >ood depri'ation may temporarily increase aggression among monkeys/ but it
also leads to a decrease in conflict.
(#) >ood depri'ation decreases the intensity but not the fre"uency of aggressi'e
incidents among monkey.
1,. According to the author/ studies such as ;outhwick4s had which of the following
effects on in'estigators4 theories about monkeys4 social beha'ior%
(A) They suggested that e$isting theories about the role of aggression among
monkeys did not fully account for the monkeys4 ability to maintain an
established social order.
(B) They confirmed in'estigators4 theories about monkeys4 aggressi'e response to
competition for food and water.
(C) They confirmed in'estigators4 beliefs about the moti'ation for continued
aggression among monkeys in the same social group.
() They dispro'ed in'estigators4 theory that the introduction of intruders in an
organi!ed monkey group elicits intragroup aggressi'e beha'ior.
(#) They cast doubt on in'estigators4 theories that could account for obser'ed
patterns of aggression among monkeys.
25. The passage suggests that in'estigators of monkeys social beha'ior ha'e been
especially interested in aggressi'e beha'ior among monkeys because
(A) aggression is the most common social beha'ior among monkeys
(B) successful competition for incenti'es determines the social order in a monkey
group
(C) situations that elicit aggressi'e beha'ior can be studied in a laboratory
() most monkeys are potentially aggressi'e/ yet they li'e in social units that
could not function without control of their aggressi'e impulses
GRE 2,1
(#) most monkeys are social/ yet they fre"uently respond to newcomers entering
e$isting social units by attacking them
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the establishment and preser'ation of
social order among a group of monkeys is essential in order to
(A) keep the monkeys from straying and <oining other groups
(B) control aggressi'e beha'ior among group members
(C) pre'ent the domination of that group by another
() protect indi'iduals seeking to become members of that group from mass
attack
(#) pre'ent aggressi'e competition for incenti'es between that group and another
22. The passage supplies information to answer which of the following "uestions%
(A) )ow does the reduction of space affect intragroup aggression among
monkeys in an e$perimental setting%
(B) o family units within a monkey social group compete with other family
units for food%
(C) &hat are the mechanisms by which the social order of an established group of
monkeys controls aggression within that group%
() )ow do monkeys engaged in aggression with other monkeys signal
submission%
(#) o monkeys of different species engage in aggression with each other o'er
food%
2.. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the second paragraph%
(A) A hypothesis is e$plained and counter e'idence is described.
(B) A theory is ad'anced and specific e'idence supporting it is cited.
(C) >ield obser'ations are described and a conclusion about their significance is
drawn.
() Two theories are e$plained and e'idence supporting each of them is detailed.
(#) An e$planation of a general principle is stated and specific e$amples of its
operation are gi'en.
Anayss of prehstorc ar trapped n tny bubbes beneath the poar ce sheets
and of the composton of ce surroundng those bubbes suggests a correaton
between carbon doxde eves n the Earths atmosphere and goba temperature
over the ast 160,000 years. Estmates of goba temperature at the tme ar n the
bubbes was trapped rey on measurng the reatve abundances of hydrogen and
ts heaver sotope, deuterum, n the ce surroundng the bubbes. When goba
temperatures are reatvey ow, water contanng deuterum tends to condense
and precptate before reachng the poes; thus, ce deposted at the poes when
the goba temperature was cooer contaned reatvey ess deuterum than ce
deposted at warmer goba temperatures. Estmates of goba temperature based
2,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
on ths nformaton, combned wth anayss of the carbon doxde content of ar
trapped n ce deep beneath the poar surface, suggest that durng perods of
postgaca warmng carbon doxde n the Earths atmosphere ncreased by
approxmatey 40 percent.
20. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which of the
following%
(A) escribing a new method of estimating decreases in global temperature that
ha'e occurred o'er the last 125/555 years
(B) escribing a method of analysis that pro'ides information regarding the
relation between the carbon dio$ide content of the #arth4s atmosphere and
global temperature
(C) @resenting information that suggests that global temperature has increased
o'er the last 125/555 years
() escribing the kinds of information that can be gleaned from a careful
analysis of the contents of sheets
(#) emonstrating the difficulty of arri'ing at a firm conclusion regarding how
increases in the amount of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere affect
global temperature
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that during periods of postglacial warming/
which of the following occurred%
(A) The total 'olume of air trapped in bubbles beneath the polar ice sheets
increased.
(B) The amount of deuterium in ice deposited at the poles increased.
(C) Carbon dio$ide le'els in the #arth atmosphere decreased.
() The amount of hydrogen in the #arth4s atmosphere decreased relati'ely the
amount of deuterium.
(#) The rate at which ice was deposited at the poles increased.
22. The author states that there is e'idence to support which of the following
assertions%
(A) #stimates of global temperature that rely on measurements of deuterium in
ice deposited at the poles are more reliable than those based on the amount
of carbon dio$ide contained in air bubbles beneath the polar surface.
(B) The amount of deuterium in the #arth4s atmosphere tends to increase as
global temperature decreases.
(C) @eriods of postglacial warming are characteri!ed by the presence of increased
le'els of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere.
() 3ncreases in global temperature o'er the last 125/555 years are largely the
result of increases in the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the #arth4s
atmosphere.
GRE 2,.
(#) 3ncreases in global temperature o'er the last 125/555 years ha'e been
accompanied by decreases in the amount of deuterium in the ice deposited at
the poles.
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the conclusion stated in the last sentence
would need to be ree'aluated if scientists disco'ered that which of the following
were true%
(A) The amount of deuterium in ice deposited on the polar surface is significantly
greater than the amount of deuterium in ice located deep beneath the polar
surface.
(B) Both the air bubbles trapped deep beneath the polar surface and the ice
surrounding them contain relati'ely low le'els of deuterium.
(C) Air bubbles trapped deep beneath the polar surface and containing relati'ely
high le'els of carbon dio$ide are surrounded by ice that contained relati'ely
low le'els of deuterium.
() The current le'el of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere e$ceeds the
le'el of carbon dio$ide in the prehistoric air trapped beneath the polar
surface.
(#) 3ncreases in the le'el of carbon dio$ide in the #arth4s atmosphere are
accompanied by increases in the amount of deuterium in the ice deposited at
the poles.
SECTION B
Bracken fern has been spreadng from ts woodand stronghods for centures,
but the rate of encroachment nto open countrysde has atey ncreased
aarmngy throughout northern and western Brtan. A tough compettor, bracken
reduces the vaue of grazng and by crowdng out other vegetaton. The fern s
tsef posonous to vestock, and aso encourages proferaton of sheep tcks,
whch not ony attack sheep but aso transmt dseases. No ess mportant to some
peope are brackens effects on threatened habtats and on the use of upands for
recreatona purposes, even though many apprecate ts beauty.
Boogca contros may be the ony economc souton. One potentay cheap
and sef-sustanng method of hatng the spread of bracken s to ntroduce natura
enemes of the pant. Intay unrestraned by predators of ther own, foregn
predators are key to be abe to mutpy rapdy and overwhem ntended targets.
Because bracken occurs throughout the word, there s penty of scope for ths
approach. Two canddates, both moths from the Southern Hemsphere, are now
beng studed.
Of course, boogca contro agents can safey be reeased ony f t can be
verfed that they feed soey on the target weed. The screenng tests have so far
been fraught wth dffcutes. The frst arge shpment of moths succumbed to a
dsease. Growng enough bracken ndoors s dffcut, and the moths do not ready
2,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
expot cut stems. These are common probems wth rearng nsects for boogca
contro.
Other probems can be foreseen. Pocymakers need to consder many factors
and opnons such as the cost of contro compared to exstng methods, and the
mpact of the cearance of bracken on the andscape, wdfe, and vegetaton. In
fact, scentsts aready have much of the nformaton needed to assess the mpact
of boogca contro of bracken, but t s spread among many ndvduas,
organzatons, and government bodes. The potenta gans for the envronment
are key to outwegh the osses because few pants, nsects, mammas, and brds
ve assocated ony wth bracken, and many woud beneft from a return of other
vegetaton or from a more dverse mosac of habtats. But ega consequences of
attempts at boogca contro present a potenta mnefed. For exampe, many
rura tenants st have the rght of "estoyers," the rght to cut bracken as beddng
for vestock and uses. What woud happen f they were deprved of these rghts?
Once a boogca contro agent s reeased, t s dffcut to contro ts speed. What
consderaton s due andowners who do not want to contro bracken? Accordng to
aw, the reease of the boogca contro agents must be authorzed by the
secretary of state for the envronment. But Brtan acks the ega and
admnstratve machnery to assembe evdence for and aganst reease.
1-. &hich of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ;tudies suggest that biological control of bracken will not be technically
feasible.
(B) Although biological control appears to be the best solution to bracken
infestation/ careful assessment of the conse"uences is re"uired.
(C) #n'ironmentalists are hoping that laboratory technicians will find a way to
raise large numbers of moths in capti'ity.
() Bracken is currently the best solution to the proliferation of nonnati'e moth
species.
(#) #'en after researchers disco'er the most economical method of pest control/
the go'ernment has no authority to implement a control program.
16. According to the passage/ which of the following can be inferred about sheep
ticks%
(A) They increase where bracken spreads.
(B) They are dangerous only to sheep.
(C) They are especially adapted to woodland.
() They ha'e no natural enemies.
(#) They cause disease among bracken.
1,. The author cites all of the following as disad'antages of bracken encroachment
#DC#@TE
(A) Bracken is poisonous to farm animals.
GRE 2,1
(B) Bracken inhibits the growth of 'aluable 'egetation.
(C) Bracken indirectly helps spread certain diseases.
() Bracken is aesthetically ob<ectionable.
(#) Bracken disturbs habitats that some people would like to protect.
25. The final paragraph can best be described as
(A) a summation of arguments presented in pre'ious paragraphs
(B) the elimination of competing arguments to strengthen a single remaining
conclusion
(C) an enumeration of ad'antages to biological control
() an e$pansion of the discussion from the particular e$ample of bracken control
to the general problem of go'ernment regulation
(#) an o'er'iew of the 'ariety of factors re"uiring further assessment
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that it is ad'antageous to choose as the
biological control agent a predator that is foreign to the targeted en'ironment for
which of the following reasons%
(A) Conser'ation groups prefer not to fa'or one nati'e species o'er another.
(B) All local predators ha'e already been o'erwhelmed by the target species.
(C) Kocal predators cannot be effecti'ely screened since they already e$ist in the
wild.
() There is little risk of an artificially introduced foreign predator multiplying
out of control.
(#) 9ati'e predator species are generally limited by their own predators.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the screening tests performed on the
biological control agent are designed primarily to determine
(A) its effecti'eness in eliminating the target species
(B) the response of local residents to its introduction
(C) the risk it poses to species other than the target
() its resistance to the stress of shipment
(#) the likelihood of its sur'i'al indoors
2.. As it is discussed in the passage/ the place of bracken within the forest habitat can
best be described as
(A) rapidly e$panding
(B) the sub<ect of contro'ersy
(C) well established
() circumscribed by numerous predators
(#) a significant nutrient source
Aen and Wokowtzs research chaenges the common cam that homework
2,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
-waged abor performed at home for a company-s prmary a response to
women workers needs and preferences. By focusng on a mted geographca
area n order to gather n-depth nformaton, the authors have avoded the
methodoogca ptfas that have pagued earer research on homework. Ther
fndngs dsprove accepted notons about homeworkers: that they are unquafed
for other |obs and that they use homework as a short-term strategy for deang
wth chd care.
The authors concude that the persstence of homework cannot be expaned
by appea to such notons, for, n fact, homeworkers do not dffer sharpy from
other empoyed women. Most homeworkers woud prefer to work outsde the
home but are constraned from dong so by ack of opportunty. In fact, homework
s drven by empoyers desres to mnmze fxed costs: homeworkers receve no
benefts and are pad ess than reguar empoyees.
20. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ocating a contro'ersial theory
(B) presenting and challenging the results of a study
(C) describing a problem and proposing a solution
() discussing research that opposes a widely accepted belief
(#) comparing se'eral e$planations for the same phenomenon
21. According to the passage/ which of the following has been generally belie'ed
about homework%
(A) The benefits of homework accrue primarily to employers rather than to
homeworkers.
(B) )omework is pre'alent predominantly in rural areas.
(C) )omework is primarily a response to the preferences of women workers.
() >ew homeworkers rely on homework for the ma<ority of their family income.
(#) ?ost homework is seasonal and part(time rather than full(time and year(
round.
22. Allen and &olkowit!4s research suggests that each of the following is true of
most homeworkers #DC#@TE
(A) They do not necessarily resort to homework as a strategy for dealing with
child care.
(B) Their family situations are not unlike those of other employed women.
(C) They are as well "ualified as women who work outside the home.
() They perform professional(le'el duties rather than manual tasks or
piecework.
(#) They do not prefer homework to employment outside the home.
2-. The passage suggests which of the following about pre'ious research on
GRE 2,-
homework%
(A) 3t was conducted primarily with women who did not ha'e e$tensi'e
household responsibilities or care for small children at home.
(B) 3t was conducted with homeworkers and companies o'er a large geographical
area.
(C) 3t indicated that women homeworkers had numerous opportunities to work
outside the home.
() 3t indicated that homeworkers usually work for companies that are close to
their homes.
(#) 3t indicated that homework was financially ad'antageous to large companies.
1998 04
SECTION A
Much of the research on haucnogenc drugs such as LSD has focused on the
neurotransmtter serotonn, a chemca that when reeased from a presynaptc
serotonn-secretng neuron causes the transmsson of a nerve mpuse across a
synapse to an ad|acent postsynaptc, or target, neuron. There are two ma|or
reasons for ths emphass. Frst, t was dscovered eary on that many of the ma|or
haucnogens have a moecuar structure smar to that of serotonn. In addton,
anma studes of bran neurochemstry foowng admnstraton of haucnogens
nvaraby reported changes n serotonn eves.
Eary nvestgators correcty reasoned that the structura smarty to the
serotonn moecue mght mpy that LSDs effects are brought about by an acton
on the neurotransmsson of serotonn n the bran. Unfortunatey, the eve of
technca expertse n the fed of bran research was such that ths hypothess had
to be tested on perphera tssue (tssue outsde the bran). Two dfferent groups of
scentsts reported that LSD powerfuy bockaded serotonns acton. Ther
concusons were qucky chaenged, however. We now know that the acton of a
drug at one ste n the body does not necessary correspond to the drugs acton
at another ste, especay when one ste s n the bran and the other s not.
By the 1960s, technca advances permtted the drect testng of the
hypothess that LSD and reated haucnogens act by drecty suppressng the
actvty of serotonn-secretng neurons themseves-the so-caed presynaptc
hypothess. Researchers reasoned that f the haucnogenc drugs act by
suppressng the actvty of serotonn-secretng neurons, then drugs admnstered
after these neurons had been destroyed shoud have no effect on behavor,
because the system woud aready be maxmay suppressed. Contrary to ther
expectatons, neuron destructon enhanced the effect of LSD and reated
haucnogens on behavor. Thus, haucnogenc drugs apparenty do not act
drecty on serotonn-secretng neurons.
2,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
However, these and other avaabe data do support an aternatve hypothess
that LSD and reated drugs act drecty at receptor stes on serotonn target
neurons (the postsynaptc hypothess). The fact that LSD ects "serotonn
syndrome"-that s, causes the same knds of behavors as does the
admnstraton of serotonn-n anmas whose brans are depeted of serotonn
ndcates that LSD acts drecty on serotonn receptors, rather than ndrecty
through the reease of stores of serotonn. The enhanced effect of LSD reported
after serotonn depeton coud be due to a proferaton of serotonn receptor stes
on serotonn target neurons. Ths phenomenon often foows neuron destructon or
neurotransmtter depeton; the ncrease n the number of receptor stes appears
to be a compensatory response to decreased nput. Sgnfcanty, ths hypothess
s supported by data from a number of dfferent aboratores.
1-. According to the passage/ which of the following is one of the primary factors
that led researchers studying hallucinogenic drugs to focus on serotonin%
(A) The suppression of the acti'ity of serotonin(secreting neurons by the
administration of hallucinogens
(B) The obser'ed similarities in the chemical structures of serotonin and
hallucinogens
(C) The effects the administration of hallucinogens has on serotonin production in
the human brain
() ;erotonin(induced changes in the effects of hallucinogens on beha'ior
(#) )allucinogen(induced changes in the effects of serotonin on beha'ior
16. 3t can be inferred that researchers abandoned the presynaptic hypothesis because
(A) a new and more attracti'e hypothesis was suggested
(B) no research was reported that supported the hypothesis
(C) research results pro'ided e'idence to counter the hypothesis
() the hypothesis was supported only by studies of animals and not by studies of
human beings
(#) the le'el of technical e$pertise in the field of brain research did not permit
ade"uate testing of the hypothesis
1,. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) =esearch has suggested that the neurotransmitter serotonin is responsible for
the effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the brain and on beha'ior.
(B) =esearchers ha'e spent an inade"uate amount of time de'eloping theories
concerning the way in which the effects of hallucinogenic drugs occur.
(C) =esearch results strongly suggest that hallucinogenic drugs create their effects
by acting on the serotonin receptor sites located on target neurons in the
brain.
() =esearchers ha'e recently made 'aluable disco'eries concerning the effects
GRE 2,,
of depleting the amount of serotonin in the brain.
(#) =esearchers ha'e concluded that hallucinogenic drugs suppress the acti'ity of
serotonin(secreting neurons.
25. The research described in the passage is primarily concerned with answering
which of the following "uestions%
(A) )ow can researchers control the effects that K; has on beha'ior%
(B) )ow are animals4 reactions to K; different from those of human beings%
(C) &hat triggers the effects that K; has on human beha'ior%
() &hat technical ad'ances would permit researchers to predict more accurately
the effects of K; on beha'ior%
(#) &hat relationship does the suppression of neuron acti'ity ha'e to the
occurrence of *serotonin syndrome+%
21. &hich of the following best defines *serotonin syndrome+ (line 02) as the term is
used in the passage%
(A) The series of beha'iors/ usually associated with the administration of
serotonin/ that also occurs when K; is administered to animals whose
brains are depleted of serotonin
(B) The series of beha'iors/ usually associated with the administration of K;/
that also occurs when the amount of serotonin in the brain is reduced
(C) The ma$imal suppression of neuron acti'ity that results from the destruction
of serotonin(secreting neurons
() The release of stores of serotonin from serotonin(secreting neurons in the
brain
(#) The proliferation of serotonin receptor sites that follows depletion of
serotonin supplies in the brain
22. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the argument that the
author of the passage presents in the last two paragraphs%
(A) Two approaches to testing a hypothesis are described/ and the greater merits
of one approach are indicated.
(B) The assumptions underlying two hypotheses are outlined/ and e'idence for
and against each hypothesis is discussed.
(C) A phenomenon is described/ and hypotheses concerning its occurrence are
considered and re<ected.
() The reasoning behind a hypothesis is summari!ed/ e'idence supporting the
hypothesis is presented/ and research that counters the supporting e'idence
is described.
(#) A hypothesis is discussed/ e'idence undermining the hypothesis is re'ealed/
and a further hypothesis based on the undermining e'idence is e$plained.
-55 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
2.. The author4s attitude toward early researchers4 reasoning concerning the
implications of similarities in the structures of serotonin and K; molecules can
best be described as one of
(A) complete agreement
(B) reluctant support
(C) subtle condescension
() irre'erent dismissal
(#) strong opposition
When terary perods are defned on the bass of mens wrtng, womens
wrtng must be forcby assmated nto an rreevant grd: a Renassance that s
not a renassance for women, a Romantc perod n whch women payed very tte
part, a modernsm wth whch women confct. Smutaneousy, the hstory of
womens wrtng has been suppressed, eavng arge, mysterous gaps n accounts
of the deveopment of varous genres. Femnst crtcsm s begnnng to correct
ths stuaton. Margaret Anne Doody, for exampe, suggests that durng "the
perod between the death of Rchardson and the appearance of the noves of Scott
and Austen," whch has "been regarded as a dead perod," ate-eghteenth-
century women wrters actuay deveoped "the paradgm for womens fcton of
the nneteenth century-somethng hardy ess than the paradgm of the
nneteenth-century nove tsef." Femnst crtcs have aso ponted out that the
twenteth-century wrter Vrgna Woof beonged to a tradton other than
modernsm and that ths tradton surfaces n her work precsey where crtcsm
has htherto found obscurtes, evasons, mpausbtes, and mperfectons.
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author 'iews the di'ision of literature
into periods based on men4s writing as an approach that
(A) makes distinctions among literary periods ambiguous
(B) is appropriate for e'aluating only premodern literature
(C) was misunderstood until the ad'ent of feminist criticism
() pro'ides a 'aluable basis from which feminist criticism has e'ol'ed
(#) obscures women4s contributions to literature
21. The passage suggests which of the following about Cirginia &oolf4s work%
3. 9onfeminist criticism of it has been flawed.
33. Critics ha'e treated it as part of modernism.
333. 3t is based on the work of late(eighteenth(century women writers.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 3 and 33 only
() 33 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
GRE -51
22. The author "uotes oody most probably in order to illustrate
(A) a contribution that feminist criticism can make to literary criticism
(B) a modernist approach that conflicts with women4s writing
(C) writing by a woman which had pre'iously been ignored
() the hitherto o'erlooked significance of ;cott4s and Austen4s no'els
(#) a standard system of defining literary periods
2-. The passage pro'ides information that answers which of the following "uestions%
(A) 3n what tradition do feminist critics usually place Cirginia &oolf%
(B) &hat are the main themes of women4s fiction of the nineteenth century%
(C) &hat e'ents moti'ated the feminist reinterpretation of literary history%
() )ow has the period between =ichardson4s death and ;cott4s and Austen4s
no'els traditionally been regarded by critics%
(#) )ow was the de'elopment of the nineteenth(century no'el affected by
women4s fiction in the same century%
SECTION B
The orgn of the theory that ma|or geoogc events may occur at reguar
ntervas can be traced back not to a study of vocansm or pate tectoncs but to
an nvestgaton of marne extnctons. In the eary 1980s, scentsts began to ook
cosey at the queston of how these extnctons occur. Two paeontoogsts, Raup
and Sepkosk, comped a master st of marne speces that ded out durng the
past 268 mon years and noted that there were bref perods durng whch many
speces dsappeared at once. These mass extnctons occurred at surprsngy
reguar ntervas.
Later studes reveaed that extnctons of terrestra reptes and mammas
aso occurred perodcay. These fndngs, combned wth the research of Raup and
Sepkosk, ed scentsts to hypothesze the exstence of some knd of cyccay
recurrng force powerfu enough to affect vng thngs profoundy. Specuaton that
so powerfu a force mght affect geoogc events as we ed geoogsts to search
for evdence of perodcty n epsodes of vocansm, seafoor spreadng, and pate
movement.
1-. According to the passage/ =aup and ;epkoski4s research was concerned with
(A) learning more about the habitats of marine species
(B) studying plate tectonics and the occurrence of 'olcanism o'er the past 226
million years
(C) e$amining e$tinctions of marine species o'er the past 226 million years
() finding out whether a rhythmically recurring geologic force e$ists
(#) confirming pre'ious e'idence suggesting that e$tinction of terrestrial species
occurred regularly
-52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
16. The author of the passage would most likely describe the findings of =aup and
;epkoski as
(A) plausible/ because the findings supported the theories of pre'ious researchers
(B) significant/ because the findings were an impetus for subse"uent research
(C) contro'ersial/ because the findings contradicted the theories of pre'ious
researchers
() "uestionable/ because the authors were not working in their field of e$pertise
(#) definiti'e/ because the findings confirmed the e$istence of a rhythmically
recurring force
1,. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) determining the dates of 'arious geologic e'ents
(B) defending the conclusions reached by =aup and ;epkoski
(C) establishing a link between the disciplines of paleontology and geology
() pro'ing that mass e$tinctions of marine animals occur periodically
(#) e$plaining how a theory concerning geologic e'ents was formulated
25. The passage suggests which of the following about the *force+ mentioned in lines
12 and 16%
(A) 3t is responsible for most of the ma<or geologic e'ents that ha'e occurred.
(B) 3t is responsible for most of the marine e$tinctions that ha'e occurred.
(C) 3ts recurrence is unlikely to be able to be predicted by scientists.
() 3ts e$istence was not seriously considered by scientists before =aup and
;epkoski did their research.
(#) 3ts e$istence was confirmed by the research of =aup and ;epkoski.
A recent hstory of the Chcago meat-packng ndustry and ts workers
examnes how the ndustry grew from ts appearance n the 1830s through the
eary 1890s. Meat-packers, the author argues, had good wages, workng
condtons, and prospects for advancement wthn the packnghouses, and dd not
cooperate wth abor agtators snce abor reatons were so harmonous. Because
the hstory mantans that condtons were above standard for the era, the
frequency of abor dsputes, especay n the md-1880s, s not accounted for. The
work gnores the fact that the 1880s were cruca years n Amercan abor hstory,
and that the packnghouse workers efforts were part of the natona movement
for abor reform.
In fact, other hstorca sources for the ate nneteenth century record
deteroratng housng and hgh dsease and nfant mortaty rates n the ndustra
communty, due to ow wages and unheathy workng condtons. Addtona data
from the Unversty of Chcago suggest that the packnghouses were dangerous
paces to work. The government nvestgaton commssoned by Presdent
Theodore Roosevet whch eventuay ed to the adopton of the 1906 Meat
GRE -5.
Inspecton Act found the packnghouses unsantary, whe soca workers observed
that most of the workers were poory pad and overworked. The hstory may be
too optmstc because most of ts data date from the 1880s at the atest, and the
nformaton provded from that decade s nsuffcenty anayzed. Condtons
actuay decned n the 1880s, and contnued to decne after the 1880s, due to
a reorganzaton of the packng process and a massve nfux of unsked workers.
The deteroraton n worker status, party a resut of the new avaabty of
unsked and hence cheap abor, s not dscussed. Though a detaed account of
work n the packng-houses s attempted, the author fas to dstngush between
the wages and condtons for sked workers and for those unsked aborers who
comprsed the ma|orty of the ndustrys workers from the 1880s on. Whe
condtons for the former were arguaby toerabe due to the strategc mportance
of sked workers n the compcated saughterng, cuttng, and packng process
(though worker compants about the rate and condtons of work were frequent),
pay and condtons for the atter were wretched.
The authors msnterpretaton of the orgns of the feengs the meat-packers
had for ther ndustra neghborhood may account for the hstorys fauty
generazatons. The prde and contentment the author remarks upon were,
arguaby, ess the products of the ndustra word of the packers-the gant yards
and the ntrcate pants-than of the unty and vbrance of the ethnc cutures that
formed a vabe communty on Chcagos South Sde. Indeed, the strength of ths
communty succeeded n generatng a soca movement that effectvey
confronted the probems of the ndustry that provded ts vehood.
21. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) how historians ought to e$plain the origins of the conditions in the Chicago
meat(packing industry
(B) why it is difficult to determine the actual nature of the conditions in the
Chicago meat(packing industry
(C) why a particular account of the conditions in the Chicago meat(packing
industry is inaccurate
() what ought to be included in any account of the Chicago meat(packers4 role
in the national labor mo'ement
(#) what data are most rele'ant for an accurate account of the relations between
Chicago meat(packers and local labor agitators
22. The author of the passage mentions all of the following as describing negati'e
conditions in the meat(packing industry #DC#@TE
(A) data from the :ni'ersity of Chicago
(B) a recent history of the meat(packing industry
(C) social workers
() historical sources for the late nineteenth century
-50 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(#) go'ernment records
2.. The author of the passage mentions the *social mo'ement+ (line 1-) generated by
Chicago4s ;outh ;ide community primarily in order to
(A) inform the reader of e'ents that occurred in the meat(packing industry after
the period of time co'ered by the history
(B) suggest the history4s limitations by pointing out a situation that the history
failed to e$plain ade"uately
(C) sal'age the history4s point of 'iew by suggesting that there were positi'e
de'elopments in the meat(packing industry due to worker unity
() introduce a new issue designed to elaborate on the good relationship between
the meat(packers and Chicago4s ethnic communities
(#) suggest that the history should ha'e focused more on the general issue of the
relationship between labor mo'ements and healthy industrial communities
20. According to the passage/ the working conditions of skilled workers in the meat(
packing industry during the 16654s were influenced by
(A) the workers4 determined complaints about the rate and conditions of their
work
(B) the efforts of social workers to impro'e sanitation in the packinghouses
(C) the workers4 ability to perform the industry4s comple$ tasks
() impro'ements in the industry4s packing process that occurred in the 16654s
(#) opportunities for <ob ad'ancement due to the filling of less desirable positions
by increasing numbers of unskilled workers
21. The author of the passage uses the second paragraph to
(A) summari!e the main point of the history discussed in the passage
(B) e$plain why the history discussed in the passage has been disparaged by
critics
(C) e'aluate the findings of recent studies that undermine the premises of the
history discussed in the passage
() introduce a hypothesis that will be discussed in detail later in the passage
(#) present e'idence that is intended to refute the argument of the history
discussed in the passage
22. The tone of the author of the passage in discussing the meat(packer community
on Chicago4s ;outh ;ide can best be described as one of
(A) appreciation of the community4s ability to cope with difficult conditions
(B) admiration for the community4s refusal to cooperate with labor agitators
(C) indignation at the kinds of social conditions the community faced
() annoyance at the community4s inability to abolish discrimination in the meat(
packing industry
GRE -51
(#) concern that the meat(packers4 feelings for their community ha'e not been
documented
2-. The information in the passage suggests that the author of the history discussed in
the passage made which of the following errors%
(A) >ailing to recogni!e the effect of the di'ersity of the ;outh ;ide community
on the meat(packers4 efforts to reform the industry
(B) Attributing good working conditions in the meat(packing industry to the
efforts of labor agitators
(C) 8'eremphasi!ing the importance of the a'ailability of unskilled labor as an
influence on conditions in the meat packing industry
() 3nterpreting the meat(packers4 feelings for their community as appreciation of
their industry
(#) >ailing to obser'e the pride and contentment felt by the meat(packers
1998 11
SECTION A
(Ths passage s from a book pubshed n 1960.)
When we consder great panters of the past, the study of art and the study of
uson cannot aways be separated. By uson I mean those contrvances of
coor, ne, shape, and so forth that ead us to see marks on a fat surface as
depctng three-dmensona ob|ects n space. I must emphasze that I am not
makng a pea, dsgused or otherwse, for the exercse of usonst trcks n
pantng today, athough I am, n fact, rather crtca of certan theores of non-
representatona art. But to argue over these theores woud be to mss the pont.
That the dscoveres and effects of representaton that were the prde of earer
artsts have become trva today I woud not deny for a moment. Yet I beeve that
we are n rea danger of osng contact wth past masters f we accept the
fashonabe doctrne that such matters never had anythng to do wth art. The
very reason why the representaton of nature can now be consdered somethng
commonpace shoud be of the greatest nterest to art hstorans. Never before
has there been an age when the vsua mage was so cheap n every sense of the
word. We are surrounded and assaed by posters and advertsements, comcs and
magazne ustratons. We see aspects of reaty represented on teevson,
postage stamps, and food packages. Pantng s taught n schoo and practced as
a pastme, and many modest amateurs have mastered trcks that woud have
ooked ke sheer magc to the fourteenth-century panter Gotto. Even the crude
coored renderngs on a cerea box mght have made Gottos contemporares
gasp. Perhaps there are peope who concude from ths that the cerea box s
superor to a Gotto; I do not. But I thnk that the vctory and vugarzaton of
representatona sks create a probem for both art hstorans and crtcs.
-52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
In ths connecton t s nstructve to remember the Greek sayng that to
marve s the begnnng of knowedge and f we cease to marve we may be n
danger of ceasng to know. I beeve we must restore our sense of wonder at the
capacty to con|ure up by forms, nes, shades, or coors those mysterous
phantoms of vsua reaty we ca "pctures." Even comcs and advertsements,
rghty vewed, provde food for thought. |ust as the study of poetry remans
ncompete wthout an awareness of the anguage of prose, so, I beeve, the study
of art w be ncreasngy suppemented by nqury nto the "ngustcs" of the
vsua mage. The way the anguage of art refers to the vsbe word s both so
obvous and so mysterous that t s st argey unknown except to artsts, who
use t as we use a anguage-wthout needng to know ts grammar and
semantcs.
1-. The author of the passage e$plicitly disagrees with which of the following
statements4
(A) 3n modern society e'en nonartists can master techni"ues that great artists of
the fourteenth century did not employ.
(B) The ability to represent a three(dimensional ob<ect on a flat surface has
nothing to do with art.
(C) 3n modern society the 'ictory of representational skills has created a problem
for art critics.
() The way that artists are able to represent the 'isible world is an area that
needs a great deal more study before it can be fully understood.
(#) ?odern painters do not fre"uently make use of illusionist tricks in their work.
16. The author suggests which of the following about art historians%
(A) They do not belie'e that illusionist tricks ha'e become tri'ial.
(B) They generally spend little time studying contemporary artists.
(C) They ha'e not gi'en enough consideration to how the representation of nature
has become commonplace.
() They generally tend to argue about theories rather than address substanti'e
issues.
(#) They are less likely than art critics to study comics or ad'ertisements.
1,. &hich of the following best states the author4s attitude toward comics/ as
e$pressed in the passage%
(A) They constitute an inno'ati'e art form.
(B) They can be a worthwhile sub<ect for study.
(C) They are critically important to an understanding of modem art.
() Their 'isual structure is more comple$ than that of medie'al art.
(#) They can be understood best if they are e$amined in con<unction with
ad'ertisements.
GRE -5-
25. The author4s statement regarding how artists use the language of art (lines 06(12)
implies that
(A) artists are better e"uipped than are art historians to pro'ide detailed
e'aluations of other artists4 work
(B) many artists ha'e an unusually "uick/ intuiti'e understanding of language
(C) artists can produce works of art e'en if they cannot analy!e their methods of
doing so
() artists of the past/ such as Biotto/ were better educated about artistic issues
than were artists of the author4s time
(#) most artists probably consider the processes in'ol'ed in their work to be
closely akin to those in'ol'ed in writing poetry
21. The passage asserts which of the following about commercial art%
(A) There are many e$amples of commercial art whose artistic merit is e"ual to
that of great works of art of the past.
(B) Commercial art is hea'ily influenced by whate'er doctrines are fashionable in
the serious art world of the time.
(C) The line between commercial art and great art lies primarily in how an image
is used/ not in the moti'ation for its creation.
() The le'el of technical skill re"uired to produce representational imagery in
commercial art and in other kinds of art cannot be compared.
(#) The per'asi'eness of contemporary commercial art has led art historians to
under'alue representational skills.
22. &hich of the following can be inferred from the passage about the adherents of
*certain theories of nonrepresentational art+ (lines ,(15)%
(A) They consider the use of illusion to be inappropriate in contemporary art.
(B) They do not agree that marks on a flat surface can e'er satisfactorily con'ey
the illusion of three(dimensional space.
(C) They do not discuss important works of art created in the past.
() They do not think that the representation of nature was e'er the primary goal
of past painters.
(#) They concern themsel'es more with types of art such as ad'ertisements and
maga!ine illustrations than with traditional art.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that someone who wanted to analy!e the
*grammar and semantics+ (line 12) of the language of art would most
appropriately comment on which of the following%
(A) The relationship between the drawings in a comic strip and the accompanying
te$t
(B) The amount of detail that can be included in a tiny illustration on a postage
stamp
-56 GMAT, GRE, LSAT
(C) The sociological implications of the images chosen to ad'ertise a particular
product
() The degree to which 'arious colors used in different 'ersions of the same
poster would attract the attention of passersby
(#) The particular <u$taposition of shapes in an illustration that makes one shape
look as though it were behind another
The 1973 Endangered Speces Act made nto ega pocy the concept that
endangered speces of wdfe are precous as part of a natura ecosystem. The
neary unanmous passage of ths act n the Unted States Congress, refectng the
rsng natona popuarty of envronmentasm, masked a btter debate. Affected
ndustres cung to the former wdfe pocy of vaung ndvdua speces
accordng to ther economc usefuness. They fought to mnmze the aws mpact
by mtng defntons of key terms, but they ost on neary every ssue. The act
defned "wdfe" as amost a knds of anmas-from arge mammas to
nvertebrates-and pants. "Takng" wdfe was defned broady as any acton that
threatened an endangered speces; areas vta to a speces survva coud be
federay protected as "crtca habtats." Though these defntons egsated
strong envronmentast goas, potca compromses made n the enforcement of
the act were to determne |ust what economc nterests woud be set asde for the
sake of ecoogca stabzaton.
20. According to the passage/ which of the following does the #ndangered ;pecies
Act define as a *critical habitat+%
(A) A natural ecosystem that is threatened by imminent de'elopment
(B) An industrial or urban area in which wildlife species ha'e almost ceased to
li'e among humans
(C) A natural area that is crucial to the sur'i'al of a species and thus eligible for
federal protection
() A wilderness area in which the *taking+ of wildlife species is permitted rarely
and only under strict federal regulation
(#) A natural en'ironment that is protected under law because its wildlife has a
high economic 'alue
21. According to the passage/ which of the following is an e$planation for the degree
of support that the #ndangered ;pecies Act recei'ed in Congress%
(A) Concern for the en'ironment had gained increasing national popularity.
(B) #cological research had created new economic opportunities dependent on
the sur'i'al of certain species.
(C) Congress had long wanted to change the e$isting wildlife policy.
() The growth of industry had endangered increasing numbers of wildlife
species.
(#) Kegislators did not anticipate that the act could be effecti'ely enforced.
GRE -5,
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if business interests had won the debate
on pro'isions of the 1,-. #ndangered ;pecies Act/ which of the following would
ha'e resulted%
(A) #n'ironmentalist concepts would not ha'e become widely popular.
(B) The definitions of key terms of the act would ha'e been more restricted.
(C) #nforcement of the act would ha'e been more difficult.
() The act would ha'e had stronger support from Congressional leaders.
(#) The public would ha'e boycotted the industries that had the greatest impact in
defining the act.
2-. The author refers to the terms *wildlife+ (line 11)/ *taking+ (line 1.)/ and *critical
habitats+ (line 12) most likely in order to
(A) illustrate the misuse of scientific language and concepts in political processes
(B) emphasi!e the importance of selecting precise language in transforming
scientific concepts into law
(C) represent terminology whose definition was crucial in writing
en'ironmentalist goals into law
() demonstrate the tri'iality of the issues debated by industries before Congress
passed the #ndangered ;pecies Act
(#) show that broad definitions of key terms in many types of laws resulted in
ambiguity and thus left room for disagreement about how the law should be
enforced
SECTION B
From the 1900s through the 1950s watresses n the Unted States deveoped
a form of unonsm based on the unons defnng the sks that ther occupaton
ncuded and enforcng standards for the performance of those sks. Ths
"occupatona unonsm" dffered substantay from the "workste unonsm"
prevaent among factory workers. Rather than unonzng the workforces of
partcuar empoyers, watress ocas sought to contro ther occupaton throughout
a cty. Occupatona unonsm operated through unon hrng has, whch provded
free pacement servces to empoyers who agreed to hre ther personne ony
through the unon. Hrng has offered unon watresses coectve empoyment
securty, not ndvdua |ob securty-a basc protecton offered by workste unons.
That s, when a watress ost her |ob, the oca dd not ntervene wth her empoyer
but paced her esewhere; and when |obs were scarce, the work hours avaabe
were dstrbuted fary among a members rather than beng assgned accordng
to senorty.
1-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) analy!e a current trend in relation to the past
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(B) discuss a particular solution to a longstanding problem
(C) analy!e changes in the way that certain standards ha'e been enforced
() apply a generali!ation to an unusual situation
(#) describe an approach by contrasting it with another approach
16. &hich of the following statements best summari!es a distinction mentioned in the
passage between waitress unions and factory workers4 unions%
(A) &aitress unions were more successful than factory workers4 unions in that
they were able to unioni!e whole cities.
(B) &aitress unions had an impact on only certain local areas/ whereas the impact
of factory workers4 unions was national.
(C) &aitress union members held primarily part(time positions/ whereas factory
workers4 unions placed their members in full(time <obs.
() &aitress unions emphasi!ed the occupation of workers/ whereas factory
workers4 unions emphasi!ed the worksite at which workers were employed.
(#) &aitress unions defined the skills of their trade/ whereas the skills of factory
trades were determined by employers4 groups.
1,. According to the passage/ which of the following was characteristic of the form
of union that :nited ;tates waitresses de'eloped in the first half of the twentieth
century%
(A) The union represented a wide 'ariety of restaurant and hotel ser'ice
occupations.
(B) The union defined the skills re"uired of waitresses and disciplined its
members to meet certain standards.
(C) The union billed employers for its members4 work and distributed the
earnings among all members.
() The union negotiated the enforcement of occupational standards with each
employer whose workforce <oined the union.
(#) The union ensured that a worker could not be laid off arbitrarily by an
employer.
25. The author of the passage mentions *particular employers+ (line 6) primarily in
order to
(A) suggest that occupational unions found some employers difficult to satisfy
(B) indicate that the occupational unions ser'ed some employers but not others
(C) emphasi!e the uni"ue focus of occupational unionism
() accentuate the hostility of some employers toward occupational unionism
(#) point out a weakness of worksite unionism
In prehstorc tmes brachopods were one of the most abundant and dverse
forms of fe on Earth: more than 30,000 speces of ths camke creature have
GRE -11
been cataoged from foss records. Today brachopods are not as numerous, and
exstng speces are not we studed, party because nether the anmas feshy
nner tssue nor ts she has any commerca vaue. Moreover, n contrast to the
greater dversty of the extnct speces, the approxmatey 300 known survvng
speces are reatvey unform n appearance. Many zooogsts have nterpreted
ths as a sgn that the anma has been unabe to compete successfuy wth other
marne organsms n the evoutonary strugge.
Severa thngs, however, suggest that the conventona vew needs revsng.
For exampe, the genus 'ingula has an unbroken foss record extendng over
more than haf a bon years to the present. Thus, f ongevty s any measure,
brachopods are the most successfu organsms extant. Further, recent studes
suggest that dversty among speces s a ess mportant measure of evoutonary
success than s the abty to wthstand envronmenta change, such as when a
ayer of cay repaces sand on the ocean bottom. The reatvey greater unformty
among the exstng brachopod speces may offer greater protecton from
envronmenta change and hence may refect hghy successfu adaptve behavor.
The adaptve advantages of unformty for brachopods can be seen by
consderng specazaton, a process that occurs as a resut of proonged
coonzaton of a unform substrate. Those that can survve on many surfaces are
caed generasts, whe those that can survve on a mted range of substrates
are caed specasts. One specast speces, for exampe, has vaves weghted at
the base, a characterstc that assures that the organsm s propery postoned for
feedng n mud and smar substrates; other speces secrete gue aowng them
to survve on the face of underwater cffs. The foss record demonstrates that
most brachopod neages have foowed a trend toward ncreased specazaton.
However, durng perods of envronmenta nstabty, when a partcuar substrate
to whch a specast speces has adapted s no onger avaabe, the speces
qucky des out. Generasts, on the other hand, are not dependent on a partcuar
substrate, and are thus ess vunerabe to envronmenta change. One study of the
foss record reveaed a mass extncton of brachopods foowng a change n
sedmentaton from chak to cay. Of the 35 brachopod speces found n the chak,
ony 6 survved n the cay, a of them generasts.
As ong as enough generast speces are mantaned, and studes of arctc and
subarctc seas suggest that generasts are often domnant members of the
marne communtes there, t seems unkey that the phyum s cose to
extncton.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) re<ecting an earlier e$planation for the longe'ity of certain brachiopod
species
(B) ree'aluating the implications of uniformity among e$isting brachiopod
species
(C) describing the 'arieties of en'ironmental change to which brachiopods are
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'ulnerable
() reconciling opposing e$planations for brachiopods4 lack of e'olutionary
success
(#) elaborating the mechanisms responsible for the tendency among brachiopod
species toward speciali!ation
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that many !oologists assume that a large
di'ersity among species of a gi'en class of organisms typically leads to which of
the following%
(A) ifficulty in classification
(B) A discontinuous fossil record
(C) A greater chance of sur'i'al o'er time
() 9umerical abundance
(#) A longer life span
2.. The second paragraph makes use of which of the following%
(A) ;pecific e$amples
(B) Analogy
(C) ?etaphor
() Nuotation
(#) #$aggeration
20. The author suggests that the scientists holding the con'entional 'iew mentioned
in lines 11(12 make which of the following errors%
(A) They mistakenly emphasi!e sur'i'al rather than di'ersity.
(B) They misunderstand the causes of speciali!ation.
(C) They misuse !oological terminology.
() They catalog fossili!ed remains improperly.
(#) They o'erlook an alternati'e criterion of e'olutionary success.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the decision to study an organism may
sometimes be influenced by
(A) its practical or commercial benefits to society
(B) the nature and pre'alence of its fossili!ed remains
(C) the relati'e con'enience of its geographical distribution
() its similarity to one or more better(known species
(#) the degree of its physiological comple$ity
22. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s claim (lines
12(1-) that *it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to e$tinction+%
(A) Beneralist species now li'ing in arctic water gi'e few if any indications of a
GRE -1.
tendency towards significant future speciali!ation.
(B) Loologists ha'e recently disco'ered that a common marine organism is a
natural predator of brachiopods.
(C) 3t was recently disco'ered that certain brachiopod species are almost always
concentrated near areas rich in offshore oil deposits.
() The ratio of specialist to Beneralist species is slowly but steadily increasing.
(#) 3t is easier for a brachiopod to sur'i'e a change in sedimentation than a
change in water temperature.
2-. 3nformation in the passage supports which of the following statements about
brachiopods%
3. >ew brachiopods li'ing in prehistoric times were specialists.
33. A tendency toward speciali!ation/ though typical/ is not ine'itable.
333. ;pecialist species dominate in all but arctic and subarctic waters.
(A) 3 only
(B) 33 only
(C) 33 and 333 only
() 3 and 333 only
(#) 3/ 33 and 333
1999 04
SECTION A
Ths passage s based on an artce pubshed n 1990.
Eght tmes wthn the past mon years, somethng n the Earths cmatc
equaton has changed, aowng snow n the mountans and the northern attudes
to accumuate from one season to the next nstead of metng away. Each tme,
the enormous ce sheets resutng from ths contnua budup asted tens of
thousands of years unt the end of each partcuar gaca cyce brought a warmer
cmate. Scentsts specuated that these gaca cyces were utmatey drven by
astronomca factors: sow, cycc changes n the eccentrcty of the Earths orbt
and n the tt and orentaton of ts spn axs. But up unt around 30 years ago,
the ack of an ndependent record of ce-age tmng made the hypothess
untestabe.
Then n the eary 1950s Eman produced the frst compete record of the
waxngs and wanngs of past gacatons. It came from a seemngy odd pace, the
seafoor. Snge-ce marne organsms caed "foramnfera" house themseves n
shes made from cacum carbonate. When the foramnfera de, snk to the
bottom, and become part of seafoor sedments, the carbonate of ther shes
preserves certan characterstcs of the seawater they nhabted. In partcuar, the
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rato of a heavy sotope of oxygen (oxygen-18) to ordnary oxygen (oxygen-16) n
the carbonate preserves the rato of the two oxygens n water moecues.
It s now understood that the rato of oxygen sotopes n seawater cosey
refects the proporton of the words water ocked up n gacers and ce sheets. A
knd of meteoroogca dstaton accounts for the nk. Water moecues
contanng the heaver sotope tend to condense and fa as precptaton sghty
sooner than moecues contanng the ghter sotope. Hence, as water vapor
evaporated from warm oceans moves away from ts source, ts oxygen-18 returns
more qucky to the oceans than does ts oxygen-16. What fas as snow on dstant
ce sheets and mountan gacers s reatvey depeted of oxygen-18. As the
oxygen-18-poor ce buds up, the oceans become reatvey enrched n the
sotope. The arger the ce sheets grow, the hgher the proporton of oxygen-18
becomes n seawater-and hence n the sedments.
Anayzng cores dred from seafoor sedments, Eman found that the
sotopc rato rose and fe n rough accord wth the Earths astronomca cyces.
Snce that poneerng observaton, oxygen-sotope measurements have been
made on hundreds of cores. A chronoogy for the combned record enabes
scentsts to show that the record contans the very same perodctes as the
orbta processes. Over the past 800,000 years, the goba ce voume has peaked
every 100,000 years, matchng the perod of the orbta eccentrcty varaton. In
addton, "wrnkes" superposed on each cyce-sma decreases or surges n ce
voume-have come at ntervas of roughy 23,000 and 41,000 years, n keepng
wth the precesson and tt frequences of the Earths spn axs.
1-. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) ?arine sediments ha'e allowed scientists to amass e'idence tending to
confirm that astronomical cycles dri'e the #arth4s glacial cycles.
(B) The ratio between two different isotopes of o$ygen in seawater correlates
closely with the si!e of the #arth4s ice sheets.
(C) ;urprisingly/ single(cell marine organisms pro'ide a record of the #arth4s ice
ages.
() The #arth4s astronomical cycles ha'e recently been re'ealed to ha'e an
une$pectedly large impact on the #arth4s climate.
(#) The earth has e$perienced eight periods of intense glaciation in the past
million years/ primarily as a result of substantial changes in its orbit.
16. The passage asserts that one reason that oceans become enriched in o$ygen(16 as
ice sheets grow is because
(A) water molecules containing o$ygen(16 condense and fall as precipitation
slightly sooner than those containing o$ygen(12
(B) the ratio of o$ygen(16 to o$ygen(12 in water 'apor e'aporated from oceans is
different from that of these isotopes in seawater
GRE -11
(C) growing ice sheets tend to lose their o$ygen(16 as the temperature of the
oceans near them gradually decreases
() less water 'apor e'aporates from oceans during glacial periods and therefore
less o$ygen(16 is remo'ed from the seawater
(#) the free!ing point of seawater rich in o$ygen(16 is slightly lower than that of
seawater poor in o$ygen(16
1,. According to the passage/ the large ice sheets typical of glacial cycles are most
directly caused by
(A) changes in the a'erage temperatures in the tropics and o'er open oceans
(B) prolonged increases in the rate at which water e'aporates from the oceans
(C) e$treme seasonal 'ariations in temperature in northern latitudes and in
mountainous areas
() steadily increasing precipitation rates in northern latitudes and in
mountainous areas
(#) the continual failure of snow to melt completely during the warmer seasons in
northern latitudes and in mountainous areas
25. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of the water
locked in glaciers and ice sheets today%
(A) 3t is richer in o$ygen(16 than fro!en water was during past glacial periods.
(B) 3t is primarily located in the northern latitudes of the #arth.
(C) 3ts ratio of o$ygen isotopes is the same as that pre'alent in seawater during
the last ice age.
() 3t is steadily decreasing in amount due to increased thawing during summer
months.
(#) 3n comparison with seawater/ it is relati'ely poor in o$ygen(16.
21. The discussion of the o$ygen(isotope ratios in paragraph three of the passage
suggests that which of the following must be assumed if the conclusions
described in lines 0,(16 are to be 'alidly drawn%
(A) The #arth4s o'erall annual precipitation rates do not dramatically increase or
decrease o'er time.
(B) The 'arious chemicals dissol'ed in seawater ha'e had the same
concentrations o'er the past million years.
(C) 9atural processes unrelated to ice formation do not result in the formation of
large "uantities of o$ygen(16.
() &ater molecules falling as precipitation usually fall on the open ocean rather
than on continents or polar ice packs.
(#) 3ncreases in global temperature do not increase the amount of water that
e'aporates from the oceans.
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22. The passage suggests that the scientists who first constructed a coherent/
continuous picture of past 'ariations in marine(sediment isotope ratios did which
of the following%
(A) =elied primarily on the data obtained from the analysis of #miliani4s core
samples.
(B) Combined data deri'ed from the analysis of many different core samples.
(C) ?atched the data obtained by geologists with that pro'ided by astronomers.
() #'aluated the isotope(ratio data obtained in se'eral areas in order to eliminate
all but the most reliable data.
(#) Compared data obtained from core samples in many different marine
en'ironments with data samples deri'ed from polar ice caps.
2.. The passage suggests that the scientists mentioned in line 6 considered their
reconstruction of past astronomical cycles to be
(A) unreliable because astronomical obser'ations ha'e been made and recorded
for only a few thousand years
(B) ade"uate enough to allow that reconstruction4s use in e$plaining glacial
cycles if a record of the latter could be found
(C) in need of confirmation through comparison with an independent source of
information about astronomical phenomena
() incomplete and therefore unusable for the purposes of e$plaining the causes
of ice ages
(#) ade"uate enough for scientists to support conclusi'ely the idea that ice ages
were caused by astronomical changes
Athough Vctor Turners wrtngs have proved frutfu for feds beyond
anthropoogy, hs defnton of rtua s overy restrctve. Rtua, he says, s
"prescrbed forma behavor for occasons not gven over to technoogca routne,
havng reference to beefs n mystca bengs or powers." "Technoogca routne"
refers to the means by whch a soca group provdes for ts matera needs.
Turners dfferentatng rtua from technoogy heps us recognze that festvas and
ceebratons may have tte purpose other than pay, but t obscures the practca
ams, such as makng crops grow or heang patents, of other rtuas. Further,
Turners defnton mpes a necessary reatonshp between rtua and mystca
beefs. However, not a rtuas are regous; some regons have no reference to
mystca bengs; and ndvduas may be requred ony to partcpate n, not
necessary beeve n, a rtua. Turners assumpton that rtua behavor foows
beef thus mts the usefuness of hs defnton n studyng rtua across cutures.
20. According to the passage/ which of the following does Turner e$clude from his
conception of ritual%
(A) Beha'ior based on beliefs
(B) Beha'ior based on formal rules
GRE -1-
(C) Celebrations whose purpose is play
() =outines directed toward practical ends
(#) >esti'als honoring supernatural beings
21. The passage suggests that an assumption underlying Turner4s definition of ritual
is that
(A) anthropological concepts apply to other fields
(B) festi'als and ceremonies are related cultural phenomena
(C) there is a relationship between play and practical ends
() rituals refer only to belief in mystical beings or powers
(#) mystical beings and powers ha'e certain common attributes across cultures
22. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage belie'es each of the following
concerning rituals #DC#@TE
(A) ;ome are unrelated to religious belief.
(B) ;ome are intended to ha'e practical conse"uences.
(C) ;ome ha'e no purpose other than play.
() They sometimes in'ol'e reference to mystical beings.
(#) They are predominantly focused on agricultural ends.
2-. &hich of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) >actual data are presented and a hypothesis is proposed.
(B) A distinction is introduced then shown not to be a true distinction.
(C) A statement is "uoted/ and two assumptions on which it is based are clarified.
() A definition is challenged/ and two reasons for the challenge are gi'en.
(#) An opinion is offered and then placed within a historical framework.
SECTION B
Ben|amn Frankn estabshed that ghtnng s the transfer of postve or
negatve eectrca charge between regons of a coud or from coud to earth. Such
transfers requre that eectrcay neutra couds, wth unform charge dstrbutons,
become eectrfed by separaton of charges nto dstnct regons. The greater ths
separaton s, the greater the votage, or eectrca potenta of the coud.
Scentsts st do not now the precse dstrbuton of charges n thundercouds nor
how separaton adequate to support the huge votages typca of ghtnng bots
arses. Accordng to one theory, the precptaton hypothess, charge separaton
occurs as a resut of precptaton. Larger dropets n a thundercoud precptate
downward past smaer suspended dropets. Cosons among dropets transfer
negatve charge to precptatng dropets, eavng the suspended dropets wth a
postve charge, thus producng a postve dpoe n whch the ower regon of the
thundercoud s fed wth negatvey charged randrops and the upper wth
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postvey charged suspended dropets.
1-. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing which of the following%
(A) A central issue in the e$planation of how lightning occurs
(B) Ben<amin >ranklin4s acti'ities as a scientist
(C) =esearch into the strength and distribution of thunderstorms
() The direction of mo'ement of electrical charges in thunderclouds
(#) The relation between a cloud4s charge distribution and its 'oltage
16. The passage suggests that lightning bolts typically
(A) produce a distribution of charges called a positi'e dipole in the clouds where
they originate
(B) result in the mo'ement of negati'e charges to the centers of the clouds where
they originate
(C) result in the suspension of large/ positi'ely charged raindrops at the tops of
the clouds where they originate
() originate in clouds that ha'e large numbers of negati'ely charged droplets in
their upper regions
(#) originate in clouds in which the positi'e and negati'e charges are not
uniformly distributed
1,. According to the passage/ Ben<amin >ranklin contributed to the scientific study of
lightning by
(A) testing a theory proposed earlier/ showing it to be false/ and de'eloping an
alternati'e/ far more successful theory of his own
(B) making an important disco'ery that is still important for scientific
in'estigations of lightning
(C) introducing a hypothesis that/ though recently shown to be false/ pro'ed to be
a useful source of insights for scientists studying lightning
() de'eloping a techni"ue that has enabled scientists to measure more precisely
the phenomena that affect the strength and location of lightning bolts
(#) predicting correctly that two factors pre'iously thought unrelated to lightning
would e'entually be shown to contribute <ointly to the strength and location
of lightning bolts
25. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the precipitation
hypothesis/ as it is set forth in the passage%
(A) Karger clouds are more likely than smaller clouds to be characteri!ed by
complete separation of positi'e and negati'e charges.
(B) 3n smaller clouds lightning more often occurs within the cloud than between
the cloud and the earth.
(C) Karge raindrops mo'e more rapidly in small clouds than they do in large
GRE -1,
clouds.
() Clouds that are smaller than a'erage in si!e rarely/ if e'er/ produce lightning
bolts.
(#) 3n clouds of all si!es negati'e charges concentrate in the center of the clouds
when the clouds become electrically charged.
Before Laura Gpn (1891-1979), few women n the hstory of photography
had so devoted themseves to chroncng the andscape. Other women had
photographed the and, but none can be regarded as a andscape photographer
wth a sustaned body of work documentng the physca terran. Anne Brgman
often photographed woodands and coasta areas, but they were generay
settngs for her artfuy paced sub|ects. Dorothea Langes andscapes were aways
conceved of as counterparts to her portrats of rura women.
At the same tme that Gpns nterest n andscape work dstngushed her
from most other women photographers, her approach to andscape photography
set her apart from men photographers who, ke Gpn, documented the western
Unted States. Western Amercan andscape photography grew out of a mae
tradton, poneered by photographers attached to government and commerca
survey teams that went west n the 1860s and 1870s. These exporer-
photographers documented the West that ther empoyers wanted to see: an
exotc and ma|estc and shaped by awesome natura forces, unpopuated and
ready for Amercan settement. The next generaton of mae photographers,
represented by Anse Adams and Eot Porter, often worked wth conservatonst
groups rather than government agences or commerca companes, but they
nonetheess preserved the "heroc" stye and mantaned the roe of respectfu
outsder peerng n wth reverence at a frage natura word.
For Gpn, by contrast, the andscape was nether an empty vsta awatng
human settement nor a |ewe-ke scene resstng human ntruson, but a peoped
andscape wth a rch hstory and tradton of ts own, an envronment that shaped
and moded the ves of ts nhabtants. Her photographs of the Ro Grande, for
exampe, consstenty depct the rver n terms of ts sgnfcance to human
cuture: as a source of rrgaton water, a source of food for vestock, and a
provder of town stes. Aso nstructve s Gpns genera avodance of extreme
cose-ups of her natura sub|ects: for her, embematc detas coud never suggest
the ntrcaces of the nterreatonshp between peope and nature that made the
andscape a compeng sub|ect. Whe t s dangerous to draw concusons about a
"femnne" way of seeng from the work of one woman, t can nonetheess be
argued that Gpns unque approach to andscape photography was anaogous to
the work of many women wrters who, far more than ther mae counterparts,
descrbed the andscape n terms of ts potenta to sustan human fe.
Gpn never spoke of hersef as a photographer wth a femnne perspectve:
she eschewed any dscusson of gender as t reated to her work and mantaned
tte nterest n nterpretatons that reed on the concept of a "womans eye."
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Thus t s ronc that her photographc evocaton of a hstorca andscape shoud
so ceary present a dstnctvey femnne approach to andscape photography.
21. &hich of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) Bilpin4s landscape photographs more accurately documented the ;outhwest
than did the photographs of e$plorers and conser'ationists.
(B) Bilpin4s style of landscape photography substantially influenced the heroic
style practiced by her male counterparts.
(C) The labeling of Bilpin4s style of landscape photography as feminine ignores
important ties between it and the heroic style.
() Bilpin4s work e$emplifies an arguably feminine style of landscape
photography that contrasts with the style used by her male predecessors.
(#) Bilpin4s style was strongly influenced by the work of women writers who
described the landscape in terms of its relationship to people.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the teams mentioned in line 1, were most
interested in which of the following aspects of the land in the western :nited
;tates%
(A) 3ts fragility in the face of increased human intrusion
(B) 3ts role in shaping the li'es of indigenous peoples
(C) 3ts potential for sustaining future settlements
() 3ts importance as an en'ironment for rare plants and animals
(#) 3ts unusual 'ulnerability to e$treme natural forces
2.. The author of the passage claims that which of the following is the primary
reason why Bilpin generally a'oided e$treme close(ups of natural sub<ects%
(A) Bilpin belie'ed that pictures of natural details could not depict the
interrelationship between the land and humans.
(B) Bilpin considered close(up photography to be too closely associated with her
predecessors.
(C) Bilpin belie'ed that all of her photographs should include people in them.
() Bilpin associated close(up techni"ues with photography used for commercial
purposes.
(#) Bilpin feared that pictures of small details would suggest an indifference to
the fragility of the land as a whole.
20. The passage suggests that a photographer who practiced the heroic style would be
most likely to emphasi!e which of the following in a photographic series focusing
on the =io Brande%
(A) 3ndigenous people and their ancient customs relating to the ri'er
(B) The e$ploits of na'igators and e$plorers
(C) :npopulated/ pristine parts of the ri'er and its surroundings
GRE -21
() #$isting commercial 'entures that relied hea'ily on the ri'er
(#) The dams and other monumental engineering structures built on the ri'er
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the first two generations of landscape
photographers in the western :nited ;tates had which of the following in
common%
(A) They photographed the land as an entity that had little interaction with human
culture.
(B) They ad'anced the philosophy that photographers should resist alliances with
political or commercial groups.
(C) They were con'inced that the pristine condition of the land needed to be
preser'ed by go'ernment action.
() They photographed the land as a place ready for increased settlement.
(#) They photographed only those locations where humans had settled.
22. Based on the description of her works in the passage/ which of the following
would most likely be a sub<ect for a photograph taken by Bilpin%
(A) A 'ista of a canyon still untouched by human culture
(B) A portrait of a 'isitor to the &est against a desert backdrop
(C) A 'iew of historic 9ati'e American dwellings car'ed into the side of a natural
cliff
() A picture of artifacts from the &est being transported to the eastern :nited
;tates for retail sale
(#) An abstract pattern created by the shadows of clouds on the desert
2-. The author of the passage mentions women writers in line 15 most likely in order
to
(A) counter a widely held criticism of her argument
(B) bolster her argument that Bilpin4s style can be characteri!ed as a feminine
style
(C) suggest that Bilpin took some of her ideas for photographs from landscape
descriptions by women writers
() clarify the interrelationship between human culture and the land that Bilpin
was attempting to capture
(#) offer an analogy between photographic close(ups and literary descriptions of
small details
-22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
LSAT 01 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Immgrants adopton of Engsh as ther prmary anguage s one measure of
assmaton nto the arger Unted States socety. Generay anguages defne
soca groups and provde |ustfcaton for soca structures. Hence, a dstnctve
anguage sets a cutura group off from the domnant anguage group. Throughout
Unted States hstory ths pattern has resuted n one consstent, unhappy
consequence, dscrmnaton aganst members of the cutura mnorty. Language
dfferences provde both a way to ratonaze subordnaton and a ready means for
achevng t.
Tradtonay, Engsh has repaced the natve anguage of mmgrant groups by
the second or thrd generaton. Some characterstcs of todays Spansh-speakng
popuaton, however, suggest the possbty of a departure from ths hstorca
pattern. Many fames retan tes n Latn Amerca and move back and forth
between ther present and former communtes. Ths "revovng door"
phenomenon, aong wth the hgh probabty of addtona mmgrants from the
south, means that arge Spansh-speakng communtes are key to exst n the
Unted States for the ndefnte future.
Ths expectaton underes the ca for natona support for bngua educaton
n Spansh-speakng communtes pubc schoos. Bngua educaton can serve
dfferent purposes, however. In the 1960s, such programs were estabshed to
factate the earnng of Engsh so as to avod dsadvantagng chdren n ther
other sub|ects because of ther mted Engsh. More recenty, many advocates
have vewed bngua educaton as a means to mantan chdrens natve
anguages and cutures. The ssue s mportant for peope wth dfferent potca
agendas, from absorpton at one poe to separatsm at the other.
To date, the evauatons of bngua educatons mpact on earnng have been
nconcusve. The ssue of bngua educaton has, nevertheess, served to unte
the eadershp of the natons Hspanc communtes. Grounded n concerns about
status that are drecty traceabe to the Unted States hstory of dscrmnaton
aganst Hspancs, the demand for mantenance of the Spansh anguage n the
schoos s an asserton of the worth of a peope and ther cuture. If the Unted
States s truy a mutcutura naton-that s, f t s one cuture refectng the
contrbutons of many-ths demand shoud be seen as a demand not for
separaton but for ncuson.
More drect efforts to force ncuson can be msguded. For exampe,
LSAT -2.
movements to decare Engsh the offca anguage do not truy advance the
coheson of a mutcutura naton. They aenate the twenty mon peope who do
not speak Engsh as ther mother tongue. They are unnecessary snce the pubcs
busness s aready conducted argey n Engsh. Further, gven the present state
of understandng about the effects of bngua educaton on earnng, t woud be
unwse to requre the unversa use of Engsh. Fnay, t s for parents and oca
communtes to choose the path they w foow, ncudng how much of ther
cuture they want to mantan for ther chdren.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that one of the characteristics of immigrant
groups to the :nited ;tates has traditionally been that/ after immigration/
relati'ely few members of the group
(A) became politically acti'e in their new communities
(B) mo'ed back and forth repeatedly between the :nited ;tates and their former
communities
(C) used their nati'e languages in their new communities
() suffered discrimination in their new communities at the hands of the cultural
ma<ority
(#) sought assimilation into the dominant culture of the new communities they
were entering
2. The passage suggests that one of the effects of the debate o'er bilingual education
is that it has
(A) gi'en the )ispanic community a new(found pride in its culture
(B) hampered the education of ;panish(speaking students
(C) demonstrated the negati'e impact on imposing #nglish as the official :nited
;tates language
() pro'ided a common banner under which the ;panish(speaking communities
could rally
(#) polari!ed the opinions of local ;panish(speaking community leaders
.. 3n lines .6(.,/ the phrase *different political agendas+ refers specifically to
conflicting opinions regarding the
(A) means of legislating the assimilation of minorities into :nited ;tates society
(B) methods of inducing )ispanics to adopt #nglish as their primary language
(C) means of achie'ing nondiscriminatory education for )ispanics
() official gi'en responsibility for decisions regarding bilingual education
(#) e$tent to which )ispanics should blend into the larger :nited ;tates society
0. 3n lines 20(21 the author says that *3t would be unwise to re"uire the uni'ersal
use of #nglish.+ 8ne reason for this/ according to the author/ is that
(A) it is not clear yet whether re"uiring the uni'ersal use of #nglish would
-20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
promote or hinder the education of children whose #nglish is limited
(B) the nation4s )ispanic leaders ha'e shown that bilingual education is most
effecti'e when it includes the maintenance of the ;panish language in the
schools
(C) re"uiring the uni'ersal use of #nglish would reduce the cohesion of the
nation4s )ispanic communities and leadership
() the "uestion of language in the schools should be answered by those who
e'aluate bilingual education/ not by people with specific political agendas
(#) it has been shown that bilingual education is necessary to a'oid
disad'antaging in their general learning children whose #nglish is limited
1. 3n the last paragraph/ the author of the passage is primarily concerned with
discussing
(A) reasons against enacting a measure that would mandate the forced inclusion
of immigrant groups within the dominant :nited culture
(B) the 'irtues and limitations of declaring #nglish the official language of the
:nited ;tates
(C) the history of attitudes within the )ispanic community toward bilingual
education in the :nited ;tates
() the importance for immigrant groups of maintaining large segments of their
culture to pass on to their children
(#) the difference in cultures between )ispanics and other immigrant groups in
the :nited ;tates
The refusa of some countres to extradte persons accused or convcted of
terrorst act has focused attenton on the probems caused by the potca offense
excepton to extradton. Extradton s the process by whch one country returns
an accused or convcted person found wthn ts borders to another country for
tra or punshment. Under the potca offense excepton, the requested state
may, f t consders the crme to be a "potca offense," deny extradton to the
requestng state.
Protecton of potca offenses s a recent addton to the ancent practce of
extradton. It s the resut of two fundamenta changes that occurred as European
monarches were repaced by representatve governments. Frst, these
governments began to re|ect what had been a prmary ntent of extradton, to
expedte the return of potca offenders, and nstead sought to protect dssdents
feeng despotc regmes. Second, countres began to contend that they had no
ega or mora duty to extradte offenders wthout specfc agreements creatng
such obgatons. As extradton aws subsequenty deveoped through
nternatona treates, the potca offense excepton graduay became an
accepted prncpe among Western natons.
There s no nternatona consensus, however, as to what consttutes a
LSAT -21
potca offense. For anaytca purposes ega potca conduct has tradtonay
been dvded nto two categores. "Pure" potca offenses are acts perpetrated
drecty aganst the government, such as treason and esponage. These crmes are
generay recognzed as nonextradtabe, even f not expressy excuded from
extradton by the appcabe treaty. In contrast, common crmes, such as murder,
assaut, and robbery, are generay extradtabe. However, there are some
common crmes that are so nseparabe from a potca act that the entre offense
s regarded as potca. These crmes, whch are caed "reatve" potca offenses,
are generay nonextradtabe. Despte the wdespread acceptance of these
anaytc constructs, the dstnctons are more academc than meanngfu. When t
comes to rea cases, there s no agreement about what transforms a common
crme nto a potca offense and about whether terrorst acts fa wthn the
protecton of the excepton. Most terrorsts cam that ther acts do fa under ths
protecton.
Natons of the word must now baance the competng needs of potca
freedom and nternatona pubc order. It s tme to reexamne the potca offense
excepton, as nternatona terrorsm eradcates the crtca dstnctons between
potca offenses and nonpotca crmes. The ony ratona and attanabe
ob|ectve of the excepton s to protect the requested person aganst unfar
treatment by the requestng country. The nternatona communty needs to fnd
an aternatve to the potca offense excepton that woud protect the rghts of
requested persons and yet not offer terrorsts mmunty from crmna abty.
2. 3n the passage/ the author primarily seeks to
(A) define a set of terms
(B) outline a new approach
(C) describe a current problem
() e$pose an illegal practice
(#) present historical information
-. According to the passage/ when did countries begin to e$cept political offenders
from e$tradition%
(A) when the principle of e$traditing accused or con'icted persons originated
(B) when some nations began refusing to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted
of terrorist acts
(C) when representati'e go'ernments began to replace #uropean monarchies
() when countries began to refuse to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted of
common crimes
(#) when go'ernments began to use e$tradition to e$pedite the return of political
offenders
6. Bi'en the discussion in the passage/ which one of the following distinctions does
the author consider particularly problematic%
-22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) between common crimes and *relati'e+ political offense
(B) between *pure+ political offenses and common crimes
(C) between *pure+ political offenses and *relati'e+ political offenses
() between terrorist acts and acts of espionage
(#) between the political offense e$ception and other e$ceptions to e$tradition
,. According to the author/ the primary purpose of the political offense e$ception
should be to
(A) ensure that terrorists are tried for their acts
(B) ensure that indi'iduals accused of political crimes are not treated unfairly
(C) distinguish between political and nonpolitical offenses
() limit e$tradition to those accused of *pure+ political offenses
(#) limit e$tradition to those accused of *relati'e+ political offenses
15. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which one of
the following statements about the political offense e$ception%
(A) The e$ception is 'ery unpopular.
(B) The e$ception is probably illegal.
(C) The e$ception is used too little.
() The e$ception needs rethinking.
(#) The e$ception is too limited.
11. &hen referring to a balance between *the competing needs of political freedom
and international public order+ (lines 10(11) the author means that nations must
strike a balance between
(A) allowing persons to protest political in<ustice and pre'enting them from
committing political offenses
(B) protecting the rights of persons re"uested for e$tradition and holding
terrorists criminally liable
(C) maintaining the political offense e$ception to e$tradition and clearing up the
confusion o'er what is a political offense
() allowing nations to establish their own e$tradition policies and establishing
an agreed(upon international approach to e$tradition
(#) protecting from e$tradition persons accused of *pure+ political offenses and
ensuring the trial of persons accused of *relati'e+ political offenses
12. The author would most likely agree that the political offense e$ception
(A) has/ in some cases/ been stretched beyond intended use
(B) has been used too infre"uently to be e'aluated
(C) has been a modestly useful weapon again terrorism
() has ne'er met the ob<ecti'e for which it was originally established
LSAT -2-
(#) has been of more academic than practical 'alue to political dissidents
1.. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would gi'e the author most cause to
reconsider her recommendation regarding the political offence e$ception (lines
22(22)%
(A) ?ore nations started refusing to e$tradite persons accused or con'icted of
terrorist acts.
(B) ?ore nations started e$traditing persons accused or con'icted of treason/
espionage/ and other similar crimes.
(C) The nations of the world sharply decreased their use of the political offense
e$ception protect persons accused of each of the 'arious types of *pure+
political offenses.
() The nations of the world sharply decreased their use of the political offense
e$ception to protect persons accused of each of the 'arious types of
*relati'e+ political offenses.
(#) The nations of the world started to disagree o'er the analytical distinction
between *pure+ political offenses and *relati'e+ political offenses.
As s we known and has often been descrbed, the machne ndustry of recent
tmes took ts rse by a gradua emergence out of handcraft n Engand n the
eghteenth century. Snce then the mechanca ndustry has progressvey been
gettng the upper hand n a the cvzed natons, n much the same degree n
whch these natons have come to be counted as cvzed. Ths mechanca
ndustry now stands domnant at the apex of the ndustra system.
The state of the ndustra arts, as t runs on the nes of the mechanca
ndustry, s a technoogy of physcs and chemstry. That s to say, t s governed by
the same ogc as the scentfc aboratores. The procedure, the prncpes, habts
of thought, preconceptons, unts of measurement and of vauaton, are the same
n both cases.
The technoogy of physcs and chemstry s not derved from estabshed aw
and custom, and t goes on ts way wth as neary compete a dsregard of the
sprtua truths of aw and custom as the crcumstances w permt. The reates
wth whch ths technoogy s occuped are of another order of actuaty, yng
atogether wthn the three dmensons that contan the matera unverse, and
runnng atogether on the ogc of matera fact. In effect t s the ogc of
nanmate facts.
The mechanca ndustry makes use of the same range of facts handed n the
same mpersona way and drected to the same manner of ob|ectve resuts. In
both cases ake t s of the frst mportance to emnate the "persona equaton,"
to et the work go forward and et the forces at work take effect qute ob|ectvey,
wthout hndrance or defecton for any persona end, nterest, or gan. It s the
techncans pace n ndustry, as t s the scentsts pace n the aboratory, to
serve as an nteectua embodment of the forces at work, soate the forces
-26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
engaged from a extraneous dsturbances, and et them take fu effect aong the
nes of desgned work. The techncan s an actve or creatve factor n the case
ony n the sense that he s the keeper of the ogc whch governs the forces at
work.
These forces that so are brought to bear n mechanca ndustry are of an
ob|ectve, mpersona, unconventona nature, of course. They are of the nature of
opaque fact. Pecunary gan s not one of these mpersona facts. Any
consderaton of pecunary gan that may be n|ected nto the techncans workng
pans w come nto the case as an ntrusve and aen factor, whose soe effect s
to defect, retard, derange and curta the work n hand. At the same tme
consderatons of pecunary gan are the ony agency brought nto the case by the
busnessmen, and the ony ground on whch they exercse a contro of producton.
10. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) industrial organi!ation in the eighteenth century
(B) the moti'es for pecuniary gain
(C) the technician4s place in mechanical industry
() the impersonal organi!ation of industry
(#) the material contribution of physics in industrial society
11. The author of the passage suggests that businessmen in the mechanical industry
are responsible mainly for
(A) keeping the logic go'erning the forces at work
(B) managing the profits
(C) directing the acti'ities of the technicians
() employing the technological procedures of physics and chemistry
(#) treating material gain as a spiritual truth
12. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would contradict the author4s belief that the
role of technician is to be *the keeper of the logic+ (lines 01(02)%
(A) All technicians are human beings with feelings and emotions.
(B) An interest in pecuniary gain is the technician4s sole moti'e for participation
in industry.
(C) The technician4s working plans do not coincide with the technician4s
pecuniary interests.
() Technicians are employed by businessmen to o'ersee the forces at work.
(#) Technicians refuse to carry out the instructions of the businessmen.
1-. The author would probably most strongly agree with which one of the following
statements about the e'olution of the industrial system%
(A) The handicraft system of industry emerged in eighteenth(century #ngland and
was subse"uently replaced by the machine industry.
LSAT -2,
(B) The handicraft system of industrial production has gradually gi'en rise to a
mechanistic technology that dominates contemporary industry.
(C) The handicraft system emerged as the dominant factor of production in
eighteenth(century #ngland but was soon replaced by mechanical techni"ues
of production.
() The mechanical system of production that preceded the handicraft system
was the precursor of contemporary means of production.
(#) The industrial arts de'eloped as a result of the growth of the mechanical
industry that followed the decline of the handicraft system of production.
16. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward scientific
techni"ues%
(A) critical
(B) hostile
(C) idealistic
() ironic
(#) neutral
(Ths passage was orgnay pubshed n 1905)
The word democracy may stand for a natura soca equaty n the body potc
or for a consttutona form of government n whch power es more or ess drecty
n the peopes hand. The former may be caed soca democracy and the ater
democratc government. The two dffer wdey, both n orgn and n mora
prncpe. Genetcay consdered, soca democracy s somethng prmtve,
unntended, proper to communtes where there s genera competence and no
marked persona emnence. There be no w arstocracy, no prestge, but nstead
an ntegent readness to end a hand and to do n unson whatever s done. In
other words, there w be that most democratc of governments-no government
at a. But when pressure of crcumstances, danger, or nward strfe makes
recognzed and proonged gudance necessary to a soca democracy, the form ts
government takes s that of a rudmentary monarchy estabshed by eecton or
genera consent. A natura eader emerges and s nstnctvey obeyed. That eader
may ndeed be freey crtczed and w not be screened by any pomp or
tradtona mystery; he or she w be easy to repace and every ctzen w fee
essentay hs or her equa. Yet such a state s at the begnnngs of monarchy and
arstocracy.
Potca democracy, on the other hand, s a ate and artfca product. It arses
by a gradua extenson of arstocratc prveges, through rebeon aganst abuses,
and n answer to restessness on the peopes part. Its prncpe s not the absence
of emnence, but the dscovery that exstng emnence s no onger genune and
representatve. It may retan many vestges of oder and ess democratc
nsttutons. For under democratc governments the peope have not created the
state; they merey contro t. Ther suspcons and |eaouses are queted by
-.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
assgnng to them a voce, perhaps ony a veto, n the admnstraton. The
peopes berty conssts not n ther orgna responsbty for what exsts, but
merey n the facuty they have acqured of aboshng any deta that may dstress
or wound them, and of mposng any new measure, whch, seen aganst the
background of exstng aws, may commend tsef from tme to tme to ther
nstnct and mnd.
If we turn from orgns to deas, the contrast between soca and potca
democracy s no ess marked. Soca democracy s a genera ethca dea, ookng
to human equaty and brotherhood, and nconsstent, n ts radca form, wth such
nsttutons as the famy and heredtary property. Democratc government, on the
contrary, s merey a means to an end, an expedent for the better and smoother
government of certan states at certan |unctures. It nvoves no speca deas of
fe; t s a queston of pocy, namey, whether the genera nterest w be better
served by grantng a peope an equa voce n eectons. For potca democracy
must necessary be a government by deputy, and the questons actuay
submtted to the peope can be ony very arge rough matters of genera pocy or
of confdence n party eaders.
1,. The author suggests that the lack of *marked personal eminence+ (line 11) is an
important feature of a social democracy because
(A) such a society is also likely to contain the seeds of monarchy and aristocracy
(B) the absence of 'isible social leaders in such a society will probably impede
the de'elopment of a political democracy
(C) social democracy represents a more sophisticated form of go'ernment than
political democracy
() a society that lacks recogni!ed leadership will be unable to accomplish its
cultural ob<ecti'es
(#) the absence of 'isible social leaders in such a community is likely to be
accompanied by a spirit of cooperation
25. &hich one of the following forms of go'ernment does the author say is most
likely to e'ol'e from a social democracy%
(A) monarchy
(B) go'ernment by deputy
(C) political democracy
() representati'e democracy
(#) constitutional democracy
21. The author of the passage suggests that a political democracy is likely to ha'e
been immediately preceded by which one of the following forms of social
organi!ation%
(A) a social democracy in which the spirit of participation has been diminished by
the need to maintain internal security
LSAT -.1
(B) an aristocratic society in which go'ernment leaders ha'e grown insensiti'e to
people4s interests
(C) a primiti'e society that stresses the radical e"uality of all its members
() a state of utopian brotherhood in which no go'ernment e$ists
(#) a go'ernment based on general ethical ideals
22. According to the passage/ *the people4s liberty+ (line 02) in a political democracy
is best defined as
(A) a willingness to accept responsibility for e$isting go'ernmental forms
(B) a myth perpetrated by aristocratic leaders who refuse to grant political power
to their sub<ects
(C) the ability to impose radically new measures when e$isting go'ernmental
forms are found to be inade"uate
() the ability to secure concessions from a go'ernment that may retain many
aristocratic characteristics
(#) the ability to elect leaders whom the people consider socially e"ual to
themsel'es
2.. According to the author of this passage/ a social democracy would most likely
adopt a formal system of go'ernment when
(A) recogni!ed leadership becomes necessary to deal with social problems
(B) people lose the instincti'e ability to cooperate in sol'ing social problems
(C) a ruling monarch decides that it is necessary to grant political concessions to
the people
() citi!ens no longer consider their social leaders essentially e"ual to themsel'es
(#) the human instinct to obey social leaders has been weakened by suspicion and
<ealousy
20. According to the passage/ which one of the following is likely to occur as a result
of the disco'ery that *e$isting eminence is no longer genuine and representati'e+
(lines .1(.2)%
(A) Aristocratic pri'ileges will be strengthened/ which will result in a further loss
of the people4s liberty.
(B) The go'ernment will be forced to admit its responsibility for the inade"uacy
of e$isting political institutions.
(C) The remaining 'estiges of less democratic institutions will be banished from
go'ernment.
() @eople will gain political concessions from the go'ernment and a 'oice in the
affairs of state.
(#) @eople will demand that political democracy conform to the ethical ideals of
social democracy.
-.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the practice of *go'ernment by deputy+
(line 20) in a political democracy probably has its origins in
(A) aristocratic ideals
(B) human instincts
(C) a commitment to human e"uality
() a general ethical ideal
(#) a policy decision
22. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ would contradict the author4s
notion of the characteristics of social democracy%
(A) 8rgani!ed go'ernmental systems tend to arise spontaneously/ rather than in
response to specific problem situations.
(B) The presence of an organi!ed system of go'ernment stifles the e$pression of
human e"uality and brotherhood.
(C) ;ocial democracy represents a more primiti'e form of communal
organi!ation than political democracy.
() @rolonged and formal leadership may become necessary in a social
democracy when problems arise that cannot be resol'ed by recourse to the
general competence of the people.
(#) Although political democracy and social democracy are radically different
forms of communal organi!ation/ it is possible for both to contain elements
of monarchy.
LSAT 02 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
There s substanta evdence that by 1926, wth the pubcaton of The ,eary
Blues, Langston Hughes had broken wth two we-estabshed tradtons n Afrcan
Amercan terature. In The ,eary Blues, Hughes chose to modfy the tradtons
that decreed that Afrcan Amercan terature must promote raca acceptance and
ntegraton, and that, n order to do so, t must refect an understandng and
mastery of Western European terary technques and styes. Necessary excuded
by ths decree, ngustcay and thematcay, was the vast amount of secuar fok
matera n the ora tradton that had been created by Back peope n the years of
savery and after. It mght be ponted out that even the sprtuas or "sorrow
songs" of the saves-as dstnct from ther secuar songs and stores-had been
Europeanzed to make them acceptabe wthn these Afrcan Amercan tradtons
after the Cv War. In 1862 northern Whte wrters had commented favoraby on
LSAT -..
the unque and provocatve meodes of these "sorrow songs" when they frst
heard them sung by saves n the Carona sea sands. But by 1916, ten years
before the pubcaton of The ,eary Blues, Hurry T. Buregh, the Back bartone
soost at New Yorks utrafashonabe Sant Georges Epscopa Church, had
pubshed !u$ilee ongs of the 2nited tates, wth every sprtua arranged so that
a concert snger coud sng t "n the manner of an art song." Ceary, the artstc
work of Back peope coud be used to promote raca acceptance and ntegraton
ony on the condton that t became Europeanzed.
Even more than hs rebeon aganst ths restrctve tradton n Afrcan
Amercan art, Hughess expresson of the vbrant fok cuture of Back peope
estabshed hs wrtng as a andmark n the hstory of Afrcan Amercan terature.
Most of hs fok poems have the dstnctve marks of ths fok cutures ora
tradton: they contan many nstances of namng and enumeraton, consderabe
hyperboe and understatement, and a strong nfuson of street-tak rhymng. There
s a deceptve ve of artessness n these poems. Hughes prded hmsef on beng
an mpromptu and mpressonstc wrter of poetry. Hs, he nssted, was not an
artfuy constructed poetry. Yet an anayss of hs dramatc monoogues and other
poems reveas that hs poetry was carefuy and artfuy crafted. In hs fok poetry
we fnd features common to a fok terature, such as dramatc epss, narratve
compresson, rhythmc repetton, and monosyabc emphass. The pecuar
mxture of rony and humor we fnd n hs wrtng s a dstngushng feature of hs
fok poetry. Together, these aspects of Hughess wrtng heped to modfy the
prevous restrctons on the technques and sub|ect matter of Back wrters and
consequenty to broaden the ngustc and thematc range of Afrcan Amercan
terature.
1. The author mentions which one of the following as an e$ample of the influence
of Black folk culture on )ughes4s poetry%
(A) his e$ploitation of ambiguous and decepti'e meanings
(B) his care and craft in composing poems
(C) his use of naming and enumeration
() his use of first(person narrati'e
(#) his strong religious beliefs
2. The author suggests that the *decepti'e 'eil+ (line 02) in )ughes4s poetry
obscures
(A) e'idence of his use of oral techni"ues in his poetry
(B) e'idence of his thoughtful deliberation in composing his poems
(C) his scrupulous concern for representati'e details in his poetry
() his incorporation of &estern #uropean literary techni"ues in his poetry
(#) his engagement with social and political issues rather than aesthetic ones
.. &ith which one of the following statements regarding 6ubilee Songs o+ the
-.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
'nited States would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) 3ts publication marked an ad'ance in the intrinsic "uality of African American
art.
(B) 3t pa'ed the way for publication of )ughes4s The &eary Blues by making
African American art fashionable.
(C) 3t was an authentic replication of African American spirituals and *sorrow
songs+.
() 3t demonstrated the e$tent to which spirituals were adapted in order to make
them more broadly accepted.
(#) 3t was to the spiritual what )ughes4s The &eary Blues was to secular songs
and stories.
0. The author most probably mentions the reactions of northern &hite writers to
non(#uropeani!ed *sorrow songs+ in order to
(A) indicate that modes of e$pression acceptable in the conte$t of sla'ery in the
;outh were acceptable only to a small number of &hite writers in the 9orth
after the Ci'il &ar
(B) contrast &hite writers earlier appreciation of these songs with the growing
tendency after the Ci'il &ar to regard #uropeani!ed 'ersions of the songs as
more acceptable
(C) show that the re"uirement that such songs be #uropeani!ed was internal to
the African American tradition and was unrelated to the literary standards or
attitudes of &hite writers
() demonstrate that such songs in their non(#uropeani!ed form were more
imaginati'e
(#) suggest that &hite writers benefited more from e$posure to African American
art forms than Black writers did from e$posure to #uropean art forms
1. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which
one of the following statements about the re"uirement that Black writers employ
&estern #uropean literary techni"ues%
(A) The re"uirement was imposed more for social than for aesthetic reasons.
(B) The re"uirement was a relati'ely unimportant aspect of the African American
tradition.
(C) The re"uirement was the chief reason for )ughes4s success as a writer.
() The re"uirement was appropriate for some forms of e$pression but not for
others.
(#) The re"uirement was ne'er as strong as it may ha'e appeared to be.
2. &hich one of the following aspects of )ughes4s poetry does the author appear to
'alue most highly%
(A) its no'elty compared to other works of African American literature
LSAT -.1
(B) its subtle understatement compared to that of other kinds of folk literature
(C) its 'irtuosity in adapting musical forms to language
() its e$pression of the folk culture of Black people
(#) its uni'ersality of appeal achie'ed through the adoption of collo"uial
e$pressions
Hstorans generay agree that, of the great modern nnovatons, the raroad
had the most far-reachng mpact on ma|or events n the Unted States n the
nneteenth and eary twenteth centures, partcuary on the Industra Revouton.
There s, however, consderabe dsagreement among cutura hstorans regardng
pubc atttudes toward the raroad, both at ts ncepton n the 1830s and durng
the haf century between 1880 and 1930, when the natona ra system was
competed and reached the zenth of ts popuarty n the Unted States. In a
recent book, |ohn Stgoe has addressed ths ssue by argung that the "romantc-
era dstrust" of the raroad that he cams was present durng the 1830s vanshed
n the decades after 1880. But the argument he provdes n support of ths
poston s unconvncng.
What Stgoe cas "romantc-era dstrust" was n fact the reacton of a
mnorty of wrters, artstes, and nteectuas who dstrusted the raroad not so
much for what t was as for what t signified. Thoreau and Hawthorne apprecated,
even admred, an mproved means of movng thngs and peope from one pace to
another. What these wrters and others were concerned about was not the new
machnery as such, but the new knd of economy, soca order, and cuture that t
prefgured. In addton, Stgoe s wrong to mpy that the crtca atttude of these
wrters was typca of the perod: ther dstrust was argey a reacton aganst the
prevang atttude n the 1830s that the raroad was an unquafed mprovement.
Stgoes asserton that the ambvaence toward the raroad exhbted by
wrters ke Hawthorne and Thoreau dsappeared after the 1880s s aso
mseadng. In support of ths thess, Stgoe has unearthed an mpressve voume
of matera, the work of htherto unknown ustrators, |ournasts, and novests, a
devotees of the raroad; but t s not cear what ths new matera proves except
perhaps that the works of popuar cuture greaty expanded at the tme. The
voume of the matera proves nothng f Stgoes pont s that the earer dstrust
of a mnorty of nteectuas dd not endure beyond the 1880s, and, oddy, much
of Stgoes other evdence ndcates that t dd. When he gances at the treatment
of raroads by wrters ke Henry |ames, Sncar Lews, or F. Scott Ftzgerad, what
comes through n spte of Stgoes anayss s remarkaby ke Thoreaus feeng of
contrarety and ambvaence. (Had he ooked at the work of Frank Norrs, Eugene
ONe, or Henry Adams, Stgoes case woud have been much stronger.) The
pont s that the sharp contrast between the enthusastc supporters of the
raroad n the 1830s and the mnorty of nteectua dssenters durng that perod
extended nto the 1880s and beyond.
-. The passage pro'ides information to answer all of the following "uestions
-.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
#DC#@TE
(A) uring what period did the railroad reach the !enith of its popularity in the
:nited ;tates%
(B) )ow e$tensi'e was the impact of the railroad on the 3ndustrial =e'olution in
the :nited ;tates/ relati'e to that of other modern inno'ations%
(C) &ho are some of the writers of the 16.5s who e$pressed ambi'alence toward
the railroad%
() 3n what way could ;tilgoe ha'e strengthened his argument regarding
intellectuals4 attitudes toward the railroad in the years after the 1665s%
(#) &hat arguments did the writers after the 1665s/ as cited by ;tilgoe/ offer to
<ustify their support for the railroad%
6. According to the author of the passage/ ;tilgoe uses the phrase *romantic(era
distrust+ (line 1.) to imply that the 'iew he is referring to was
(A) the attitude of a minority of intellectuals toward technological inno'ation that
began after 16.5
(B) a commonly held attitude toward the railroad during the 16.5s
(C) an ambi'alent 'iew of the railroad e$pressed by many poets and no'elists
between 1665 and 1,.5
() a criti"ue of social and economic de'elopments during the 16.5s by a
minority of intellectuals
(#) an attitude toward the railroad that was disseminated by works of popular
culture after 1665
,. According to the author/ the attitude toward the railroad that was reflected in
writings of )enry Aames/ ;inclair Kewis/ and >. ;cott >it!gerald was
(A) influenced by the writings of >rank 9orris/ #ugene 849eill/ and )enry
Adams
(B) similar to that of the minority of writers who had e$pressed ambi'alence
toward the railroad prior to the 1665s
(C) consistent with the public attitudes toward the railroad that were reflected in
works of popular culture after the 1665s
() largely a reaction to the works of writers who had been se'erely critical of the
railroad in the 16.5s
(#) consistent with the pre'ailing attitude toward the railroad during the 16.5s
15. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author uses the phrase *works of
popular culture+ (line 01) primarily to refer to the
(A) work of a large group of writers that was published between 1665 and 1,.5
and that in ;tilgoe4s 'iew was highly critical of the railroad
(B) work of writers who were hea'ily influenced by )awthorne and Thoreau
LSAT -.-
(C) large 'olume of writing produced by )enry Adams/ ;inclair Kewis/ and
#ugene 849eill
() work of <ournalists/ no'elists/ and illustrators who were responsible for
creating enthusiasm for the railroad during the 16.5s
(#) work of <ournalists/ no'elists/ and illustrators that was published after 1665
and that has recei'ed little attention from scholars other than ;tilgoe
11. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage regarding the work
of >rank 9orris/ #ugene 849eill/ and )enry Adams%
(A) Their work ne'er achie'ed broad popular appeal.
(B) Their ideas were disseminated to a large audience by the popular culture of
the early 1655s.
(C) Their work e$pressed a more positi'e attitude toward the railroad than did
that of )enry Aames/ ;inclair Kewis/ and >. ;cott >it!gerald.
() Although they were primarily no'elists/ some of their work could be
classified as <ournalism.
(#) Although they were influenced by Thoreau/ their attitude toward the railroad
was significantly different from his.
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ;tilgoe would be most likely to agree with
which one of the following statements regarding the study of cultural history%
(A) 3t is impossible to know e$actly what period historians are referring to when
they use the term *romantic era.+
(B) The writing of intellectuals often anticipates ideas and mo'ements that are
later embraced by popular culture.
(C) &riters who were not popular in their own time tell us little about the age in
which they li'ed.
() The works of popular culture can ser'e as a reliable indicator of public
attitudes toward modern inno'ations like the railroad.
(#) The best source of information concerning the impact of an e'ent as large as
the 3ndustrial =e'olution is the pri'ate letters and <ournals of indi'iduals.
1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e'aluate one scholar4s 'iew of public attitudes toward the railroad in the
:nited ;tates from the early nineteenth to the early twentieth century
(B) re'iew the treatment of the railroad in American literature of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries
(C) sur'ey the 'iews of cultural historians regarding the railroad4s impact on
ma<or e'ents in :nited ;tates history
() e$plore the origins of the public support for the railroad that e$isted after the
completion of a national rail system in the :nited ;tates
(#) define what historians mean when they refer to the *romantic(era distrust+ of
-.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
the railroad
Three basc adaptve responses-reguatory, accmatory, and deveopmenta
-may occur n organsms as they react to changng envronmenta condtons. In
a three, ad|ustment of boogca features (morphoogca ad|ustment) or of ther
use (functona ad|ustment) may occur. Reguatory responses nvove rapd
changes n the organsms use of ts physoogca apparatus-ncreasng or
decreasng the rates of varous processes, for exampe. Accmaton nvoves
morphoogca change-thckenng of fur or red bood ce proferaton-whch
aters physoogy tsef. Such structura changes requre more tme than reguatory
response changes. Reguatory and accmatory responses are both reversbe.
Deveopmenta responses, however, are usuay permanent and rreversbe:
they become fxed n the course of the ndvduas deveopment n response to
envronmenta condtons at the tme the response occurs. One such response
occurs n many knds of water bugs. Most water-bug speces nhabtng sma akes
and ponds have two generatons per year. The frst hatches durng the sprng,
reproduces durng the summer, then des. The eggs ad n the summer hatch and
deveop nto aduts n ate summer. They ve over the wnter before breedng n
eary sprng. Indvduas n the second (overwnterng) generaton have fuy
deveoped wngs and eave the water n autumn to overwnter n forests, returnng
n sprng to sma bodes of water to ay eggs. Ther wngs are absoutey
necessary for ths seasona dspersa. The summer (eary) generaton, n contrast,
s usuay dmorphc-some ndvduas have norma functona (macropterous)
wngs; others have much-reduced (mcropterous) wngs of no use for fght. The
summer generatons dmorphsm s a compromse strategy, for these ndvduas
usuay do not eave the ponds and thus generay have no use for fuy deveoped
wngs. But sma ponds occasonay dry up durng the summer, forcng the water
bugs to search for new habtats, an eventuaty that macropterous ndvduas are
we adapted to meet.
The dmorphsm of mcropterous and macropterous ndvduas n the summer
generaton expresses deveopmenta fexbty; t s not genetcay determned.
The ndvduas wng form s envronmentay determned by the temperature to
whch deveopng eggs are exposed pror to ther beng ad. Eggs mantaned n a
warm envronment aways produce bugs wth norma wng, but exposure to cod
produces mcropterous ndvduas. Eggs producng the overwnterng brood are a
formed durng the ate summers warm temperatures. Hence, a ndvduas n the
overwnterng brood have norma wngs. Eggs ad by the overwnterng aduts n
the sprng, whch deveop nto the summer generaton of aduts, are formed n
eary autumn and eary sprng. Those eggs formed n autumn are exposed to cod
wnter temperatures, and thus produce mcropterous aduts n the summer
generaton. Those formed durng the sprng are never exposed to cod
temperatures, and thus yed ndvduas wth norma wng. Adut water bugs of the
overwnterng generaton brought nto the aboratory durng the cod months and
kept warm, produce ony macropterous offsprng.
LSAT -.,
10. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) illustrate an organism4s functional adapti'e response to changing
en'ironmental conditions
(B) pro'e that organisms can e$hibit three basic adapti'e responses to changing
en'ironmental conditions
(C) e$plain the differences in form and function between micropterous and
macropterous water bugs and analy!e the effect of en'ironmental changes on
each
() discuss three different types of adapti'e responses and pro'ide an e$ample
that e$plains how one of those types of responses works
(#) contrast acclimatory responses with de'elopmental responses and suggest an
e$planation for the e'olutionary purposes of these two responses to changing
en'ironmental conditions
11. The passage supplies information to suggest that which one of the following
would happen if a pond inhabited by water bugs were to dry up in Aune%
(A) The number of de'elopmental responses among the water(bug population
would decrease.
(B) Both micropterous and macropterous water bugs would show an acclimatory
response.
(C) The generation of water bugs to be hatched during the subse"uent spring
would contain an unusually large number of macropterous indi'iduals.
() The dimorphism of the summer generation would enable some indi'iduals to
sur'i'e.
(#) The dimorphism of the summer generation would be genetically transferred to
the ne$t spring generation.
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that if the winter months of a particular year
were unusually warm/ the
(A) eggs formed by water bugs in the autumn would probably produce a higher
than usual proportion of macropterous indi'iduals
(B) eggs formed by water bugs in the autumn would probably produce an entire
summer generation of water bugs with smaller than normal wings
(C) eggs of the o'erwintering generation formed in the autumn would not be
affected by this temperature change
() o'erwintering generation would not lea'e the ponds for the forest during the
winter
(#) o'erwintering generation of water bugs would most likely form fewer eggs in
the autumn and more in the spring
1-. According to the passage/ the dimorphic wing structure of the summer generation
of water bugs occurs because
-05 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) the o'erwintering generation forms two sets of eggs/ one e$posed to the
colder temperatures of winter and one e$posed only to the warmer
temperatures of spring
(B) the eggs that produce micropterous and macropterous adults are
morphologically different
(C) water bugs respond to seasonal changes by making an acclimatory functional
ad<ustment in the wings
() water bugs hatching in the spring li'e out their life spans in ponds and ne'er
need to fly
(#) the o'erwintering generation/ which produces eggs de'eloping into the
dimorphic generation/ spends the winter in the forest and the spring in small
ponds
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following is an e$ample
of a regulatory response%
(A) thickening of the plumage of some birds in the autumn
(B) increase in pulse rate during 'igorous e$ercise
(C) gradual darkening of the skin after e$posure to sunlight
() gradual enlargement of muscles as a result of weight lifting
(#) de'elopment of a hea'y fat layer in bears before hibernation
1,. According to the passage/ the generation of water bugs hatching during the
summer is likely to
(A) be made up of e"ual numbers of macropterous and micropterous indi'iduals
(B) lay its eggs during the winter in order to e$pose them to cold
(C) show a marked inability to fly from one pond to another
() e$hibit genetically determined differences in wing form from the early
spring(hatched generation
(#) contain a much greater proportion of macropterous water bugs than the early
spring(hatched generation
25. The author mentions laboratory e$periments with adult water bugs (lines 2.(22)
in order to illustrate which one of the following%
(A) the function of the summer generation4s dimorphism
(B) the irre'ersibility of most de'elopmental adapti'e responses in water bugs
(C) the effect of temperature on de'eloping water(bug eggs
() the morphological difference between the summer generation and the
o'erwintering generation of water bugs
(#) the functional ad<ustment of water bugs in response to seasonal temperature
'ariation
21. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
LSAT -01
(A) Biological phenomena are presented/ e$amples of their occurrence are
compared and contrasted/ and one particular e$ample is illustrated in detail.
(B) A description of related biological phenomena is stated/ and two of those
phenomena are e$plained in detail with illustrated e$amples.
(C) Three related biological phenomena are described/ a hypothesis e$plaining
their relationship is presented/ and supporting e'idence is produced.
() Three complementary biological phenomena are e$plained/ their causes are
e$amined/ and one of them is described by contrasting its causes with the
other two.
(#) A new way of describing biological phenomena is suggested/ its applications
are presented/ and one specific e$ample is e$amined in detail.
The Consttuton of the Unted States does not expcty defne the extent of
the Presdents authorty to nvove Unted States troops n confcts wth other
natons n the absence of a decaraton of war. Instead, the queston of the
Presdents authorty n ths matter fas n the hazy area of concurrent power,
where authorty s not expressy aocated to ether the Presdent or the Congress.
The Consttuton gves Congress the basc power to decare war, as we as the
authorty to rase and support armes and a navy, enact reguatons for the contro
of the mtary, and provde for the common defense. The Presdent, on the other
hand, n addton to beng obgated to execute the aws of the and, ncudng
commtments negotated by defense treates, s named commander n chef of the
armed forces and s empowered to appont envoys and make treates wth the
consent of the Senate. Athough ths aocaton of powers does not expressy
address the use of armed forces short of a decared war, the sprt of the
Consttuton at east requres that Congress shoud be nvoved n the decson to
depoy troops, and n passng the War Powers Resouton of 1973, Congress has at
ast recamed a roe n such decsons.
Hstorcay, Unted States Presdents have not wated for the approva of
Congress before nvovng Unted States troops n confcts n whch a state of war
was not decared. One schoar has dentfed 199 mtary engagements that
occurred wthout the consent of Congress, rangng from |effersons confct wth
the Barbary prates to Nxons nvason of Camboda durng the Vetnam confct,
whch Presdent Nxon argued was |ustfed because hs roe as commander n
chef aowed hm amost unmted dscreton over the depoyment of troops.
However, the Vetnam confct, never a decared war, represented a turnng pont
n Congresss toerance of presdenta dscreton n the depoyment of troops n
undecared wars. Gavanzed by the human and monetary cost of those hosttes
and showng a new determnaton to fuf ts proper roe, Congress enacted the
War Powers Resouton of 1973, a statute desgned to ensure that the coectve
|udgment of both Congress and the Presdent woud be apped to the nvovement
of Unted States troops n foregn confcts.
The resouton requred the Presdent, n the absence of a decaraton of war,
-02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
to consut wth Congress "n every possbe nstance" before ntroducng forces
and to report to Congress wthn 48 hours after the forces have actuay been
depoyed. Most mportant, the resouton aows Congress to veto the nvovement
once t begns, and requres the Presdent, n most cases, to end the nvovement
wthn 60 days uness Congress specfcay authorzes the mtary operaton to
contnue. In ts fna secton, by decarng the resouton s not ntended to ater
the consttutona authorty of ether Congress or the Presdent, the resouton
asserts that congressona nvovement n decsons to use armed force s n
accord wth the ntent and sprt of the Consttuton.
22. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) showing how the Cietnam conflict led to a new interpretation of the
Constitution4s pro'isions for use of the military
(B) arguing that the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. is an attempt to reclaim a
share of constitutionally concurrent power that had been usurped by the
@resident
(C) outlining the history of the struggle between the @resident and Congress for
control of the military
() pro'iding e$amples of conflicts inherent in the Constitution4s approach to a
balance of powers
(#) e$plaining how the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. alters the Constitution to
eliminate an o'erlap of authority
2.. &ith regard to the use of :nited ;tates troops in a foreign conflict without a
formal declaration of war by the :nited ;tates/ the author belie'es that the :nited
;tates Constitution does which one of the following%
(A) assumes that the @resident and Congress will agree on whether troops should
be used
(B) pro'ides a clear(cut di'ision of authority between the @resident and Congress
in the decision to use troops
(C) assigns a greater role to the Congress than to the @resident in deciding
whether troops should be used
() grants final authority to the @resident to decide whether to use troops
(#) intends (;3B93>H/ ?#A9) that both the @resident and Congress should be
in'ol'ed in the decision to use troops
20. The passage suggests that each of the following contributed to Congress4s
enacting the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. #DC#@T
(A) a change in the attitude in Congress toward e$ercising its role in the use of
armed forces
(B) the failure of @residents to uphold commitments specified in defense treaties
(C) Congress4s desire to be consulted concerning :nited ;tates military actions
LSAT -0.
instigated by the @resident
() the amount of money spent on recent conflicts waged without a declaration of
war
(#) the number of li'es lost in Cietnam
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. is
applicable only in *the absence of a declaration of war+ (lines 06(0,) because
(A) Congress has enacted other laws that already set out presidential re"uirements
for situations in which war has been declared
(B) by 'irtue of declaring war/ Congress already implicitly participates in the
decision to deploy troops
(C) the @resident generally recei'es broad public support during wars that ha'e
been formally declared by Congress
() Congress felt that the @resident should be allowed unlimited discretion in
cases in which war has been declared
(#) the :nited ;tates Constitution already e$plicitly defines the reporting and
consulting re"uirements of the @resident in cases in which war has been
declared
22. 3n can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es that the &ar @owers
=esolution of 1,-.
(A) is not in accord with the e$plicit roles of the @resident and Congress as
defined in the Constitution
(B) interferes with the role of the @resident as commander in chief of the armed
forces
(C) signals Congress4s commitment to fulfill a role intended for it by the
Constitution
() fails e$plicitly to address the use of armed forces in the absence of a
declaration of war
(#) confirms the role historically assumed by @residents
2-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following statements regarding the in'asion of Cambodia%
(A) Because it was undertaken without the consent of Congress/ it 'iolated the
intent and spirit of the Constitution.
(B) Because it gal'ani!ed support for the &ar @owers =esolution/ it contributed
indirectly to the e$pansion of presidential authority.
(C) Because it was necessitated by a defense treaty/ it re"uired the consent of
Congress.
() 3t ser'ed as a precedent for a new interpretation of the constitutional limits on
the @resident4s authority to deploy troops.
(#) 3t differed from the actions of past @residents in deploying :nited ;tates
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troops in conflicts without a declaration of war by Congress.
26. According to the pro'isions of the &ar @owers =esolution of 1,-. as described
in the passage/ if the @resident percei'es that an international conflict warrants
the immediate in'ol'ement of :nited ;tates armed forces/ the @resident is
compelled in e'ery instance to
(A) re"uest that Congress consider a formal declaration of war
(B) consult with the leaders of both house of Congress before deploying armed
forces
(C) desist from deploying any troops unless e$pressly appro'ed by Congress
() report to Congress within 06 hours of the deployment of armed forces
(#) withdraw any armed forces deployed in such a conflict within 25 days unless
war is declared
LSAT 03 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The extent of a natons power over ts coasta ecosystems and the natura
resources n ts coasta waters has been defned by two nternatona aw
doctrnes: freedom of the seas and ad|acent state soveregnty. Unt the md-
twenteth century, most natons favored appcaton of broad open-seas freedoms
and mted soveregn rghts over coasta waters. A naton had the rght to ncude
wthn ts terrtora domnon ony a very narrow band of coasta waters (generay
extendng three mes from the shorene), wthn whch t had the authorty but
not the responsbty, to reguate a actvtes. But, because ths area of terrtora
domnon was so mted, most natons dd not estabsh rues for management or
protecton of ther terrtora waters.
Regardess of whether or not natons enforced reguatons n ther terrtora
waters, arge ocean areas remaned free of contros or restrctons. The ctzens of
a natons had the rght to use these unrestrcted ocean areas for any nnocent
purpose, ncudng navgaton and fshng. Except for contros over ts own
ctzens, no naton had the responsbty, et aone the unatera authorty, to
contro such actvtes n nternatona waters. And, snce there were few standards
of conduct that apped on the "open seas", there were few |ursdctona confcts
between natons.
The ack of standards s traceabe to popuar perceptons hed before the
mdde of ths century. By and arge, marne pouton was not perceved as a
sgnfcant probem, n part because the adverse effect of coasta actvtes on
LSAT -01
ocean ecosystems was not wdey recognzed, and pouton caused by human
actvtes was generay beeved to be mted to that caused by navgaton.
Moreover, the freedom to fsh, or overfsh, was an essenta eement of the
tradtona ega doctrne of freedom of the seas that no martme country wshed
to see mted. And fnay, the technoogy that ater aowed expotaton of other
ocean resources, such as o, dd not yet exst.
To date, controng pouton and reguatng ocean resources have st not
been comprehensvey addressed by aw, but nternatona aw-estabshed
through the customs and practces of natons-does not precude such efforts.
And two recent deveopments may actuay ead to future nternatona rues
provdng for ecosystem management. Frst, the estabshment of extensve
fshery zones extendng terrtora authorty as far as 200 mes out from a
countrys coast, has provded the opportunty for natons ndvduay to manage
arger ecosystems. Ths opportunty, combned wth natona sef-nterest n
mantanng fsh popuatons, coud ead natons to reevauate poces for
management of ther fsheres and to address the probem of pouton n terrtora
waters. Second, the nternatona communty s begnnng to understand the
mportance of preservng the resources and ecoogy of nternatona waters and to
show sgns of acceptng responsbty for dong so. As an nternatona consensus
regardng the need for comprehensve management of ocean resources deveops,
t w become more key that nternatona standards and poces for broader
reguaton of human actvtes that affect ocean ecosystems w be adopted and
mpemented.
1. According to the passage/ until the mid(twentieth century there were few
<urisdictional disputes o'er international waters because.
(A) the nearest coastal nation regulated acti'ities
(B) few controls or restrictions applied to ocean areas
(C) the ocean areas were used for only innocent purposes
() the freedom of the seas doctrine settled all claims concerning na'igation and
fishing
(#) broad authority o'er international waters was shared e"ually among all
nations
2. According to the international law doctrines applicable before the mid(twentieth
century/ if commercial acti'ity within a particular nation4s territorial waters
threatened all marine life in those waters/ the nation would ha'e been
(A) formally censured by an international organi!ation for not properly regulating
marine acti'ities
(B) called upon by other nations to establish rules to protect its territorial waters
(C) able but not re"uired to place legal limits on such commercial acti'ities
() allowed to resol'e the problem at it own discretion pro'iding it could contain
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the threat to its own territorial waters
(#) permitted to hold the commercial offenders liable only if they were citi!ens of
that particular nation
.. The author suggests that/ before the mid(twentieth century/ most nations4 actions
with respect to territorial and international waters indicated that
(A) managing ecosystems in either territorial or international waters was gi'en
low priority
(B) unlimited resources in international waters resulted in little interest in
territorial waters
(C) nations considered it their responsibility to protect territorial but not
international waters
() a nation4s authority o'er its citi!enry ended at territorial lines
(#) although nations could e$tend their territorial dominion beyond three miles
from their shoreline/ most chose not to do so
0. The author cites which one of the following as an effect of the e$tension of
territorial waters beyond the three(mile limit%
(A) increased political pressure on indi'idual nations to establish comprehensi'e
laws regulating ocean resources
(B) a greater number of <urisdictional disputes among nations o'er the regulation
of fishing on the open seas
(C) the opportunity for some nations to manage large ocean ecosystems
() a new awareness of the need to minimi!e pollution caused by na'igation
(#) a political incenti'e for smaller nations to sol'e the problems of pollution in
their coastal waters
1. According to the passage/ before the middle of the twentieth century/ nations
failed to establish rules protecting their territorial waters because
(A) the waters appeared to be unpolluted and to contain unlimited resources
(B) the fishing industry would be ad'ersely affected by such rules
(C) the si!e of the area that would be sub<ect to such rules was insignificant
() the technology needed for pollution control and resource management did not
e$ist
(#) there were few <urisdictional conflicts o'er nations4 territorial waters
2. The passage as a whole can best be described as
(A) a chronology of the e'ents that ha'e led up to present(day crisis
(B) a legal in"uiry into the abuse of e$isting laws and the likelihood of reform
(C) a political analysis of the problems inherent in directing national attention to
an international issue
() a historical analysis of a problem that re"uires international attention
LSAT -0-
(#) a proposal for adopting and implementing international standards to sol'e an
ecological problem
The human speces came nto beng at the tme of the greatest boogca
dversty n the hstory of the Earth. Today, as human popuatons expand and
ater the natura envronment, they are reducng boogca dversty to ts owest
eve snce the end of the Mesozoc era, 65 mon years ago. The utmate
consequences of ths boogca coson are beyond cacuaton, but they are
certan to be harmfu. That, n essence, s the bodversty crss.
The hstory of goba dversty can be summarzed as foows: after the nta
fowerng of mutceuar anmas, there was a swft rse n the number of speces
n eary Paeozoc tmes (between 600 and 430 mon years ago), then pateauke
stagnaton for the remanng 200 mon years of the Paeozoc era, and fnay a
sow but steady cmb through the Mesozoc and Cenozoc eras to dverstys a-
tme hgh. Ths hstory suggests that boogca dversty was hard won and a ong
tme n comng. Furthermore, ths pattern of ncrease was set back by fve massve
extncton epsodes. The most recent of these, durng the Cretaceous perod, s by
far the most famous, because t ended the age of the dnosaurs, conferred
hegemony on the mammas, and utmatey made possbe the ascendancy of the
human speces. But the cretaceous crss was mnor compared wth the Perman
extnctons 240 mon years ago, durng whch between 77 and 96 percent of
marne anma speces pershed. It took 5 mon years, we nto Mesozoc tmes,
for speces dversty to begn a sgnfcant recovery.
Wthn the past 10,000 years boogca dversty has entered a whoy new
era. Human actvty has had a devastatng effect on speces dversty, and the
rate of human-nduced extnctons s acceeratng. Haf of the brd speces of
Poynesa have been emnated through huntng and the destructon of natve
forests. Hundreds of fsh speces endemc to Lake Vctora are now threatened
wth extncton foowng the careess ntroducton of one speces of fsh, the Ne
perch. The st of such bogeographc dsasters s extensve.
Because every speces s unque and rrepaceabe, the oss of bodversty s
the most profound process of envronmenta change. Its consequences are aso
the east predctabe because the vaue of Earths bota (the fauna and fora
coectvey) remans argey unstuded and unapprecated; unke matera and
cutura weath, whch we understand because they are the substance of our
everyday ves, boogca weath s usuay taken for granted. Ths s a serous
strategc error, one that w be ncreasngy regretted as tme passes. The bota s
not ony part of a countrys hertage, the product of mons of years of evouton
centered on that pace; t s aso a potenta source for mmense untapped
matera weath n the form of food, medcne, and other commercay mportant
substance.
-. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The reduction in biodi'ersity is an irre'ersible process that represents a
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setback both for science and for society as a whole.
(B) The material and cultural wealth of a nation are insignificant when compared
with the country4s biological wealth.
(C) The enormous di'ersity of life on #arth could not ha'e come about without
periodic e$tinctions that ha'e conferred preeminence on one species at the
e$pense of another.
() The human species is in the process of initiating a massi'e e$tinction episode
that may make past episodes look minor by comparison.
(#) The current decline in species di'ersity is human(induced tragedy of
incalculable proportions that has potentially gra'e conse"uences for the
human species.
6. &hich one of the following situations is most analogous to the history of global
di'ersity summari!ed in lines 15(16 of the passage%
(A) The number of fish in a lake declines abruptly as a result of water pollution/
then makes a slow comeback after cleanup efforts and the passage of
ordinances against dumping.
(B) The concentration of chlorine in the water supply of large city fluctuates
widely before stabili!ing at a constant and safe le'el.
(C) An old(fashioned article of clothing goes in and out of style periodically as a
result of features in fashion maga!ines and the popularity of certain period
films.
() After 'aluable mineral deposits are disco'ered/ the population of a
geographic region booms then le'els off and begins to decrease at a slow
and steady pace.
(#) The 'ariety of styles stocked by a shoe store increases rapidly after the store
opens/ holds constant for many months/ and then gradually creeps upward.
,. The author suggests which one of the following about the Cretaceous crisis%
(A) 3t was the second most de'astating e$tinction episode in history.
(B) 3t was the most de'astating e$tinction episode up until that time.
(C) 3t was less de'astating to species di'ersity than is the current biodi'ersity
crisis.
() The rate of e$tinction among marine animal species as a result of the crisis
did not approach -- percent.
(#) The dinosaurs comprised the great ma<ority of species that perished during the
crisis.
15. The author mentions the 9ile perch in order to pro'ide an e$ample of
(A) a species that has become e$tinct through human acti'ity
(B) the typical lack of foresight that has led to biogeographic disaster
(C) a marine animal species that sur'i'ed the @ermian e$tinctions
LSAT -0,
() a species that is a potential source of material wealth
(#) the kind of action that is necessary to re'erse the decline in species di'ersity
11. All of the following are e$plicitly mentioned in the passage as contributing to the
e$tinction of species #DC#@T
(A) hunting
(B) pollution
(C) deforestation
() the growth of human populations
(#) human(engineered changes in the en'ironment
12. The passage suggests which one of the following about material and cultural
wealth%
(A) Because we can readily assess the 'alue of material and cultural wealth/ we
tend not to take them for granted.
(B) Aust as the biota is a source of potential material wealth/ it is an untapped
source of cultural wealth as well.
(C) ;ome degree of material and cultural wealth may ha'e to be sacrificed if we
are to protect our biological heritage.
() ?aterial and cultural wealth are of less 'alue than biological wealth because
they ha'e e'ol'ed o'er a shorter period of time.
(#) ?aterial wealth and biological wealth are interdependent in a way that
material wealth and cultural wealth are not.
1.. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following
statements about the conse"uences of the biodi'ersity crisis%
(A) The loss of species di'ersity will ha'e as immediate an impact on the material
of nations as on their biological wealth.
(B) The crisis will likely end the hegemony of the human race and bring about the
ascendancy of another species.
(C) The effects of the loss of species di'ersity will be dire/ but we cannot yet tell
how dire.
() 3t is more fruitful to discuss the conse"uences of the crisis in terms of the
potential loss to humanity than in strictly biological loss to humanity than in
strictly biological terms.
(#) The conse"uences of the crisis can be minimi!ed/ but the pace of e$tinctions
can not be re'ersed.
Womens partcpaton n the revoutonary events n France between 1789
and 1795 has ony recenty been gven nuanced treatment. Eary twenteth
century hstorans of the French Revouton are typfed by |aures, who, though
sympathetc to the womens movement of hs own tme, never even mentons ts
antecedents n revoutonary France. Even today most genera hstores treat ony
-15 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
cursory a few ndvdua women, ke Mare Antonette. The recent studes by
Landes, Badnter, Godneau, and Roudnesco, however, shoud sgna a much-
needed reassessment of womens partcpaton.
Godneau and Roudnesco pont to three sgnfcant phases n that
partcpaton. The frst, up to md-1792, nvoved those women who wrote potca
tracts. Typca of ther orentaton to theoretca ssues-n Godneauss vew,
wthout practca effect-s Mare Gouzes -eclaration of the *ight of ,omen. The
emergence of voca mdde-cass womens potca cubs marks the second phase.
Formed n 1791 as ad|uncts of mdde-cass mae potca cubs, and orgnay
phanthropc n functon, by ate 1792 ndependent cubs of women began to
advocate mtary partcpaton for women. In the fna phase, the famne of 1795
occasoned a mass womens movement: women sezed food suppes, hod
offcas hostage, and argued for the mpementaton of democratc potcs. Ths
phase ended n May of 1795 wth the mtary suppresson of ths mutcass
movement. In a three phases womens partcpaton n potcs contrasted
markedy wth ther partcpaton before 1789. Before that date some nobewomen
partcpated ndrecty n eectons, but such partcpaton by more than a narrow
range of the popuaton-women or men-came ony wth the Revouton.
What makes the recent studes partcuary compeng, however, s not so
much ther organzaton of chronoogy as ther unfnchng wngness to confront
the reasons for the coapse of the womens movement. For Landes and Badnter,
the necessty of womens havng to speak n the estabshed vocabuares of
certan nteectua and potca tradton dmnshed the abty of the womens
movement to resst suppresson. Many women, and many men, they argue,
ocated ther vson wthn the confnng tradton of |ean-|acques Rousseau, who
nked mae and femae roes wth pubc and prvate spheres respectvey. But,
when women went on to make potca aances wth radca |acobn men,
Badnter asserts, they adopted a vocabuary and a voenty extremst vewpont
that unfortunatey was even more damagng to ther potca nterests.
Each of these schoars has dfferent potca agenda and takes a dfferent
approach-Godneau, for exampe, works wth poce archves whe Roudnesco
uses expanatory schema from modern psychoogy. Yet, admraby, each gves
center stage to a group that prevousy has been margnazed, or at best
undfferentated, by hstorans. And n the case of Landes and Badnter, the reader
s eft wth a soberng awareness of the cost to the women of the Revouton of
speakng n borrowed voces.
10. &hich one of the following best states the main point of the passage%
(A) According to recent historical studies/ the participation of women in the
re'olutionary e'ents of 1-6,(1-,1 can most profitably be 'iewed in three
successi'e stages.
(B) The findings of certain recent historical studies ha'e resulted from an earlier
general reassessment/ by historians/ of women4s participation in the
LSAT -11
re'olutionary e'ents of 1-6,(1-,1.
(C) Adopting the 'ocabulary and 'iewpoint of certain intellectual and political
traditions resulted in no political ad'antage for women in >rance in the years
1-6,(1-,1.
() Certain recent historical studies ha'e pro'ided a much(needed description
and e'aluation of the e'ol'ing roles of women in the re'olutionary e'ents of
1-6,(1-,1.
(#) )istorical studies that seek to e$plain the limitations of the women4s
mo'ement is more con'incing than are those that seek only to describe the
general features of that mo'ement.
11. The passage suggests that Bodineau would be likely to agree with which one of
the following statements about ?arie Bou!e4s eclaration of the =ights of
&omen%
(A) This work was not understood by many of Bou!e4s contemporaries.
(B) This work indirectly inspired the formation of independent women4s political
clubs.
(C) This work had little impact on the world of political action.
() This work was the most compelling produced by a >rench woman between
1-6, and 1-,2.
(#) This work is typical of the kind of writing >rench women produced between
1-,. and 1-,1.
12. According to the passage/ which one of the following is a true statement about the
purpose of the women4s political cubs mentioned in line 25%
(A) These clubs fostered a mass women4s mo'ement.
(B) These clubs e'entually de'eloped a purpose different from their original
purpose.
(C) These clubs were founder to ad'ocate military participation for women.
() These clubs counteracted the original purpose of male political clubs.
(#) These clubs lost their direction by the time of the famine of 1-,1.
1-. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is toE
(A) outline the author4s argument about women4s roles in >rances between 1-6,
and 1-,1
(B) anticipate possible challenges to the findings of the recent studies of women
in >rance between 1-6, and 1-,1
(C) summari!e some long(standing e$planations of the role of indi'idual women
in >rance between 1-6, and 1-,1
() present a conte$t for the discussion of recent studies of women in >rance
between 1-6, and 1-,1
-12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) characteri!e 'arious eighteenth(century studies of women in >rance
16. The passage suggests that Kandes and Badinter would be likely to agree with
which one of the following statements about the women4s mo'ement in >rance in
the 1-,5s%
(A) The mo'ement might ha'e been more successful if women had de'eloped
their own political 'ocabularies.
(B) The downfall of the mo'ement was probably unrelated to it alliance with
Aacobin men.
(C) The mo'ement had a great deal of choice about whether to adopt a
=ousseauist political 'ocabulary.
() The mo'ement would ha'e triumphed if it had not been suppressed by
military means.
(#) The mo'ement 'iewed a =ousseauist political tradition/ rather than a Aacobin
political ideology/ as detrimental to its interests.
1,. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ the word *cost+ in line 2. refers to the
(A) dichotomy of pri'ate roles for women and public roles for men
(B) almost none$istent political participation of women before 1-6,
(C) historians4 lack of differentiation among 'arious groups of women
() political alliances women made with radical Aacobin men
(#) collapse of the women4s mo'ement in the 1-,5s
25. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) critici!ing certain political and intellectual traditions
(B) summari!ing the main points of se'eral recent historical studies and assessing
their 'alue
(C) establishing a chronological se"uence and arguing for its importance
() comparing and contrasting women4s political acti'ities before and after the
>rench =e'olution
(#) ree$amining a long(held point of 'iew and isolating its strengths and
weaknesses
Art hstorans approach to French Impressonsm has changed sgnfcanty n
recent years. Whe a decade ago Rewads %istory of )m#ressionism, whch
emphaszes Impressonst panters stystc nnovatons, was unchaenged, the
terature on mpressonsm has now become a knd of deoogca battefed, n
whch more attenton s pad to the sub|ect matter of the pantngs, and to the
soca and mora ssues rased by t, than to ther stye. Recenty, potcay
charged dscussons that address the mpressonsts unequa treatment of men
and women and the excuson of modern ndustry and abor from ther pctures
have tended to crowd out the stystc anayss favored by Rewad and hs
foowers. In a new work ustratng ths trend, Robert L. Herbert dssocates
LSAT -1.
hmsef from formasts whose preoccupaton wth the stystc features of
mpressonst pantng has, n Herberts vew, eft the hstory out of art hstory; hs
am s to restore mpressonst pantngs "to ther sococutura context." However,
hs arguments are not fnay persuasve.
In attemptng to pace mpressonst pantng n ts proper hstorca context,
Herbert has redrawn the tradtona boundares of mpressonsm. Lmtng hmsef
to the two decades between 1860 and 1880, he assembes under the
mpressonst banner what can ony be descrbed as a somewhat eccentrc
groupng of panters. Cezanne, Psarro, and Ssey are amost entrey gnored,
argey because ther pantngs do not sut Herberts emphass on themes of urban
fe and suburban esure, whe Manet, Degas, and Caebotte-who pant scenes
of urban fe but whom many woud hardy characterze as mpressonsts-
domnate the frst haf of the book. Athough ths new descrpton of Impressonst
pantng provdes a more unfed concepton of nneteenth-century French pantng
by groupng qute dsparate modernst panters together and emphaszng ther
common concerns rather than ther stystc dfference, t aso forces Herbert to
overook some of the most mportant genres of mpressonst pantng-
portrature, pure andscape, and st-fe pantng.
Moreover, the ratonae for Herberts emphass on the soca and potca
reates that Impressonst pantngs can be sad to communcate rather than on
ther stye s fnay undermned by what even Herbert concedes was the faure of
Impressonst panters to serve as partcuary conscentous ustrators of ther
soca meu. They eft much ordnary experence-work and poverty, for exampe
-out of ther pantngs and what they dd put n was transformed by a stye that
had ony an ndrect reatonshp to the soca reates of the word they depcted.
Not ony were ther pctures nventons rather than photographs, they were
nventons n whch stye to some degree dsrupted descrpton. Ther pantng n
effect have two eves of sub|ect: what s represented and how t s represented,
and no art hstoran can afford to emphasze one at the expense of the other.
21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) The style of impressionist paintings has only an indirect relation to their
sub<ect matter.
(B) The approach to impressionism that is illustrated by )erbert4s recent book is
inade"uate.
(C) The historical conte$t of impressionist paintings is not rele'ant to their
interpretation.
() impressionism emerged from a historical conte$t of ideological conflict and
change.
(#) Any ade"uate future interpretation of impressionism will ha'e to come to
terms with )erbert4s 'iew of this art mo'ement.
22. According to the passage/ =ewald4s book on impressionism was characteri!ed by
-10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
which one of the following%
(A) e'enhanded ob<ecti'ity about the achie'ements of impressionism
(B) bias in fa'or of certain impressionist painters
(C) an emphasis on the stylistic features of impressionist painting
() an idiosyncratic 'iew of which painters were to be classified as impressionists
(#) a refusal to enter into the ideological debates that had characteri!ed earlier
discussions of impressionism
2.. The author implies that )erbert4s redefinition of the boundaries of impressionism
resulted from which one of the following%
(A) an e$clusi'e emphasis on form and style
(B) a bias in fa'or of the representation of modern industry
(C) an attempt to place impressionism within a specific sociocultural conte$t
() a broadening of the term impressionism to include all nineteenth(century
>rench painting
(#) an insufficient familiarity with earlier interpretations of impressionism
20. The author states which one of the following about modern industry and labor as
sub<ects for painting%
(A) The impressionists neglected these sub<ects in their paintings.
(B) )erbert4s book on impressionism fails to gi'e ade"uate treatment of these
sub<ects.
(C) The impressionists4 treatment of these sub<ects was ideali!ed.
() =ewald4s treatment of impressionist painters focused inordinately on their
representations of these sub<ects.
(#) ?odernist painters presented a distorted picture of these sub<ects.
21. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the structure of the
author4s argument in the passage%
(A) The first two paragraphs each present independent arguments for a conclusion
that is drawn in the third paragraph.
(B) A thesis is stated in the first paragraph and re'ised in the second paragraph
and re'ised in the second paragraph/ and the re'ised thesis is supported with
argument in the third paragraph.
(C) The first two paragraphs discuss and critici!e a thesis/ and the third paragraph
presents an alternati'e thesis.
() a claim is made in the first paragraph/ and the ne$t two paragraph/ and the
ne$t two paragraphs each present reasons for accepting that claim.
(#) An argument is presented in the first paragraph/ a counterargument is
presented in the second paragraph/ and the third paragraph suggests a way to
resol'e the dispute.
LSAT -11
22. The author4s statement that impressionist paintings *were in'entions in which
style to some degree disrupted description+ (lines 1-(1,) ser'es to
(A) strengthen the claim that impressionist sought to emphasi!e the differences
between painting and photography
(B) weaken the argument that style is the only important feature of impressionist
paintings
(C) indicate that impressionists recogni!ed that they had been strongly influence
by photography
() support the argument that an e$clusi'e emphasis on the impressionists sub<ect
matter is mistaken
(#) undermine the claim that impressionists neglected certain kinds of sub<ect
matter
2-. The author would most likely regard a book on the impressionists that focused
entirely on their style as
(A) a product of the recent confusion caused by )erbert4s book on impressionism
(B) emphasi!ing what impressionists themsel'es took to be their primary artistic
concern
(C) an o'erreaction against the traditional interpretation of impressionism
() neglecting the most inno'ati'e aspects of impressionism
(#) addressing only part of what an ade"uate treatment should co'er
LSAT 0( SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Governments of deveopng countres occasonay enter nto economc
deveopment agreements wth foregn nvestors who provde capta and
technoogca expertse that may not be ready avaabe n such countres.
Besdes the norma economc rsk that accompanes such enterprses, nvestors
face the addtona rsk that the host government may attempt unateray to
change n ts favor the terms of the agreement or even to termnate the
agreement atogether and approprate the pro|ect for tsef. In order to make
economc deveopment agreements more attractve to nvestors, some deveopng
countres have attempted to strengthen the securty of such agreements wth
causes specfyng that the agreements w be governed by "genera prncpes of
aw recognzed by cvzed natons"-a set of ega prncpes or rues shared by
the words ma|or ega systems. However, advocates of governments freedom to
modfy or termnate such agreements argue that these agreements fa wthn a
-12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
speca cass of contracts known as admnstratve contracts, a concept that
orgnated n French aw. They assert that under the theory of admnstratve
contracts, a government retans nherent power to modfy or termnate ts own
contract, and that ths power ndeed consttutes a genera prncpe of aw.
However, ther argument s fawed on at east two counts.
Frst, n French aw not a government contracts are treated as admnstratve
contracts. Some contracts are desgnated as admnstratve by specfc statute, n
whch case the contractor s made aware of the appcabe ega rues upon
enterng nto agreement wth the government. Aternatvey, the contractng
government agency can tsef desgnate a contract as admnstratve by ncudng
certan terms not found n prvate cv contracts. Moreover, even n the case of
admnstratve contracts, French aw requres that n the event that the
government unateray modfes the terms of the contract, t must compensate
the contractor for any ncreased burden resutng from the governments acton. In
effect, the government s thus prevented from modfyng those contractua terms
that defne the fnanca baance of the contract.
Second, the French aw of admnstratve contracts, athough adopted by
severa countres, s not so unversay accepted that t can be embraced as a
genera prncpe of aw. In both the Unted States and the Unted Kngdom,
government contracts are governed by the ordnary aw of contracts, wth the
resut that the government can reserve the power to modfy or termnate a
contract unateray ony by wrtng such power nto the contract as a specfc
provson. Indeed, the very fact that termnaton and modfcaton causes are
commony found n government contracts suggests that a governments capacty
to modfy or termnate agreements unateray derves from specfc contract
provsons, not from nherent state power.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) pointing out flaws in an argument pro'ided in support of a position
(B) analy!ing the weaknesses inherent in the proposed solution to a problem
(C) marshaling e'idence in support of a new e$planation of a phenomenon
() analy!ing the risks inherent in adopting a certain course of action
(#) ad'ocating a new approach to a problem that has not been sol'ed by
traditional means
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following assertions regarding the *general principles of
law+ mentioned in lines 12(1- of the passage%
(A) They fail to take into account the special needs and interests of de'eloping
countries that enter into agreements with foreign in'estors.
(B) They ha'e only recently been in'oked as criteria for ad<udicating disputes
between go'ernments and foreign in'estors.
LSAT -1-
(C) They are more compatible with the laws of >rance and the :nited ;tates than
with those of the :nited Mingdom.
() They do not assert that go'ernments ha'e an inherent right to modify
unilaterally the terms of agreements that they ha'e entered into with foreign
in'estors.
(#) They are not useful in ad<udicating disputes between de'eloping countries
and foreign in'estors.
.. The author implies that which one of the following is true of economic
de'elopment agreements%
(A) They pro'ide greater economic benefits to the go'ernments that are parties to
such agreements than to foreign in'estors.
(B) They are interpreted differently by courts in the :nited Mingdom than they
are by courts in the :nited ;tates.
(C) They ha'e proliferated in recent years as a result of go'ernments4 attempts to
make them more legally secure.
() They entail greater risk to in'estors when the go'ernments that enter into
such agreements reser'e the right to modify unilaterally the terms of the
agreements.
(#) They ha'e become less attracti'e to foreign in'estors as an increasing number
of go'ernments that enter into such agreements consider them go'erned by
the law of ordinary contracts.
0. According to the author/ which one of the following is true of a contract that is
designated by a >rench go'ernment agency as an administrati'e contract%
(A) 3t re"uires the go'ernment agency to pay for unanticipated increases in the
cost of deli'ering the goods and ser'ices specified in the contract.
(B) 3t pro'ides the contractor with certain guarantees that are not normally
pro'ided in pri'ate ci'il contracts.
(C) 3t must be ratified by the passage of a statute.
() 3t discourages foreign companies from bidding on the contract.
(#) 3t contains terms that distinguish it from a pri'ate ci'il contract.
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that under the *ordinary law of contracts+
(lines 1.(10)/ a go'ernment would ha'e the right to modify unilaterally the terms
of a contract that it had entered into with a foreign in'estor if which one of the
following were true%
(A) The go'ernment undertook a greater economic risk by entering into the
contract than did the foreign in'estor.
(B) The cost to the foreign in'estor of abiding by the terms of the contract
e$ceeded the original estimates of such costs.
(C) The modification of the contract did not result in any increased financial
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burden for the in'estor.
() Both the go'ernment and the in'estor had agreed to abide by the general
principles of law recogni!ed by ci'ili!ed nations.
(#) The contract contains a specific pro'ision allowing the go'ernment to modify
the contract.
2. 3n the last paragraph/ the author refers to go'ernment contracts in the :nited
;tates and the :nited Mingdom primarily in order to
(A) Cite two go'ernments that often reser'e the right to modify unilaterally
contracts that they enter into with foreign in'estors.
(B) ;upport the assertion that there is no general principle of law go'erning
contracts between pri'ate indi'iduals and go'ernments.
(C) Cast doubt on the alleged uni'ersality of the concept of administrati'e
contracts.
() @ro'ide e$amples of legal systems that might benefit from the concept of
administrati'e contracts.
(#) @ro'ide e$amples of characteristics that typically distinguish go'ernment
contracts from pri'ate ci'il contracts.
-. &hich one of the following best states the author4s main conclusion in the
passage%
(A) @ro'iding that an international agreement be go'erned by general principles
of law is not a 'iable method of guaranteeing the legal security of such an
agreement.
(B) >rench law regarding contracts is significantly different from those in the
:nited ;tates and the :nited Mingdom.
(C) Contracts between go'ernments and pri'ate in'estors in most nations are
go'erned by ordinary contract law.
() An inherent power of a go'ernment to modify or terminate a contract cannot
be considered a general principle of law.
(#) Contracts between go'ernments and pri'ate in'estors can be secured only by
reliance on general principles of law.
6. The author4s argument in lines 1-(22 would be most weakened if which one of
the following were true%
(A) The specific pro'isions of go'ernment contracts often contain e$plicit
statements of what all parties to the contracts already agree are inherent state
powers.
(B) Bo'ernments are more fre"uently put in the position of ha'ing to modify or
terminate contracts than are pri'ate indi'iduals.
(C) ?odification clauses in economic de'elopment agreements ha'e fre"uently
been challenged in international tribunals by foreign in'estors who were a
LSAT -1,
party to such agreements.
() The general principles of law pro'ide that modification clauses cannot allow
the terms of a contract to be modified in such a way that the financial
balance of the contract is affected.
(#) Termination and modification agreements are often interpreted differently by
national courts than they are by international tribunals.
Nco Fr|da wrtes that emotons are governed by a psychoogca prncpe
caed the "aw of apparent reaty": emotons are ected ony by events
apprased as rea, and the ntensty of these emotons corresponds to the degree
to whch these events are apprased as rea. Ths observaton seems
psychoogcay pausbe, but emotona responses ected by works of art rase
counterexampes.
Fr|das aw accounts for my panc f I am afrad of snakes and see an ob|ect I
correcty apprase as a rattesnake, and aso for my dentca response f I see a
coed garden hose I mstakeny perceve to be a snake. However, suppose I am
watchng a move and see a snake gdng toward ts vctm. Surey I mght
experence the same emotons of panc and dstress, though I know the snake s
not rea. These responses extend even to phenomena not conventonay accepted
as rea. A move about ghosts, for exampe, may be terrfyng to a vewers, even
those who frmy re|ect the possbty of ghosts, but ths s not because vewers
are confusng cnematc depcton wth reaty. Moreover, I can fee strong
emotons n response to ob|ects of art that are nterpretatons, rather than
representatons, of reaty: I am moved by Mozarts *equiem, but I know that I am
not at a rea funera. However, f Fr|das aw s to expan a emotona reactons,
there shoud be no emotona response at a to aesthetc ob|ects or events,
because we know they are not rea n the way a vng rattesnake s rea.
Most psychoogsts, perpexed by the feengs they acknowedge are aroused
by aesthetc experence, have camed that these emotons are genune, but
dfferent n knd from nonaesthetc emotons. Ths, however, s a descrptve
dstncton rather than an emprca observaton and consequenty acks
expanatory vaue. On the other hand, Gombrch argues that emotona responses
to art are ersatz; art trggers remembrances of prevousy experenced emotons.
These debates have prompted the psychoogst Radford to argue that peope do
experence rea meanchoy or |oy n respondng to art, but that these are
rratona responses precsey because peope know they are reactng to usory
stmu. Fr|das aw does not hep us to untange these postons, snce t smpy
mpes that events we recognze as beng represented rather than rea cannot
ect emoton n the frst pace.
Fr|da does suggest that a vvd magnaton has "propertes of reaty"-
mpyng, wthout expanaton, that we make aesthetc ob|ects or events "rea" n
the act of experencng them. However, as Scruton argues, a necessary
characterstc of the magnatve constructon that can occur n an emotona
-25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
response to art s that the person knows he or she s pretendng. Ths s what
dstngushes magnaton from psychotc fantasy.
,. &hich one of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) The law of apparent reality fails to account satisfactorily for the emotional
nature of belief.
(B) Theories of aesthetic response fail to account for how we distinguish
unreasonable from reasonable responses to art.
(C) The law of apparent reality fails to account satisfactorily for emotional
responses to art.
() @sychologists ha'e been unable to determine what accounts for the
changeable nature of emotional responses to art.
(#) @sychologists ha'e been unable to determine what differentiates aesthetic
from nonaesthetic emotional responses.
15. According to the passage/ >ri<da4s law asserts that emotional responses to e'ents
are
(A) unpredictable because emotional responses depend on how aware the person
is of the reality of an e'ent
(B) weaker if the person cannot distinguish illusion from reality
(C) more or less intense depending on the degree to which the person percei'es
the e'ent to be real
() more intense if the person percei'es an e'ent to be frightening
(#) weaker if the person <udges an e'ent to be real but unthreatening
11. The author suggests that >ri<da4s notion of the role of imagination in aesthetic
response is problematic because it
(A) ignore the unselfconsciousness that is characteristic of emotional responses to
art
(B) ignores the distinction between genuine emotion and ersat! emotion
(C) ignores the fact that a person who is imagining knows that he or she is
imagining
() makes irrele'ant distinctions between 'i'id and weak imaginati'e capacities
(#) suggests/ in reference to the obser'ation of art/ that there is no distinction
between real and illusory stimuli
12. The passage supports all of the following statements about the differences
between Bombrich and =adford #DC#@TE
(A) =adfod4s argument relies on a notion of irrationality in a way that
Bomgbrich4s argument does not.
(B) Bmbrich4s position is closer to the position of the ma<ority of psychologists
than is =adford4s.
LSAT -21
(C) Bombrich/ unlike =adford/ argues that we do not ha'e true emotions in
response to art.
() Bombrich4s argument rests on a notion of memory in a way that =adford4s
argument does not.
(#) =adford4s argument/ unlike Bombrich4s/ is not focused on the artificial
"uality of emotional responses to art.
1.. &hich one of the following best captures the progression of the author4s
argument in lines ,(.1%
(A) The emotional responses to e'ents ranging from the real to the depicted
illustrate the irrationality of emotional response.
(B) A series of e'ents that range from the real to the depicted con'eys the contrast
between real e'ents and cinematic depiction.
(C) An intensification in emotional response to a series of e'ents that range from
the real to the depicted illustrates >ri<da4s law.
() A progression of e'ents that range from the real to the depicted e$amines the
precise nature of panic in relation to feared ob<ect.
(#) The consistency of emotional responses to e'ents that range from the real to
the depicted challenges >ri<da4s law.
10. Author4s assertions concerning mo'ies about ghosts imply that all of the
following statements are false #DC#@TE
(A) ?o'ies about ghosts are terrifying in proportion to 'iewers4 beliefs in the
phenomenon of ghosts.
(B) ?o'ies about imaginary phenomena like ghosts may be <ust as terrifying as
mo'ies about phenomena like snake.
(C) ?o'ies about ghosts and snakes are not terrifying because people know that
what they 'iewing is not real.
() ?o'ies about ghosts are terrifying to 'iewers who pre'iously re<ected the
possibility of ghosts because mo'ies permanently alter the 'iewers sense of
reality.
(#) ?o'ies about ghosts elicit a 'ery different emotional response from 'iewers
who do not belie'e in ghosts than mo'ies about snakes elicit from 'iewers
who are frightened by snakes.
11. &hich one of the following statements best e$emplifies the position of =adford
concerning the nature of emotional response to art%
(A) A person watching a mo'ie about guerrilla warfare irrationally belie'es that
he or she is present at the battle.
(B) A person watching a play about a kidnapping feels nothing because he or she
rationally reali!es it is not a real e'ent.
(C) A person gets particular en<oyment out of writing fictional narrati'es in which
-22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
he or she figures as a main character.
() A person irrationally bursts into tears while reading a no'el about a
destructi'e fire/ e'en while reali!ing that he or she is reading about a
fictional e'ent.
(#) A person who is afraid of snakes trips o'er a branch and irrationally panics.
Athough bactera are unceuar and among the smpest autonomous forms
of fe, they show a remarkabe abty to sense ther envronment. They are
attracted to materas they need and are repeed by harmfu substances. Most
types of bactera swm very erratcay: short smooth runs n reatvey straght
nes are foowed by bref tumbes, after whch the bactera shoot off n random
drectons. Ths eaves researchers wth the queston of how such bactera fnd
ther way to an attractant such as food or, n the case of photosynthetc bactera,
ght, f ther swmmng pattern conssts ony of smooth runs and tumbes, the
atter resutng n random changes n drecton.
One cue comes from the observaton that when a chemca attractant s
added to a suspenson of such bactera, the bactera swm aong a gradent of the
attractant, from an area where the concentraton of the attractant s weaker to an
area where t s stronger. As they do so, ther swmmng s characterzed by a
decrease n tumbng and an ncrease n straght runs over reatvey onger
dstances. As the bactera encounter ncreasng concentratons of the attractant,
ther tendency to tumbe s suppressed, whereas tumbng ncreases whenever
they move away from the attractant. The net effect s that runs n the drecton of
hgher concentratons of the attractant become onger and straghter as a resut
of the suppresson of tumbng, whereas runs away from t are shortened by an
ncreased tendency of the bactera to tumbe and change drecton.
Boogsts have proposed two mechansms that bactera mght use n
detectng changes n the concentraton of a chemca attractant. Frst, a bacterum
mght compare the concentraton of a chemca at the front and back of ts ce
body smutaneousy. If the concentraton s hgher at the front of the ce, then t
knows t s movng up the concentraton gradent, from an area where the
concentraton s ower to an area where t s hgher. Aternatvey, t mght
measure the concentraton at one nstant and agan after a bref nterva, n whch
case the bacterum must retan a memory of the nta concentraton. Researchers
reasoned that f bactera do compare concentratons at dfferent tmes, then when
suddeny exposed to a unformy hgh concentraton of an attractant, the ces
woud behave as f they were swmmng up a concentraton gradent, wth ong,
smooth runs and reatvey few tumbes. If, on the other hand, bactera detect a
chemca gradent by measurng t smutaneousy at two dstnct ponts, front and
back, on the ce body, they woud not respond to the |ump n concentraton
because the concentraton of the attractant n front and back of the ces, though
hgh, woud be unform. Expermenta evdence suggests that bactera compare
concentratons at dfferent tmes.
LSAT -2.
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following e$perimental
results would suggest that bacteria detect changes in the concentration of an
attractant by measuring its concentration in front and back of the cell body
simultaneously%
(A) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an
attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was
uniformly high/ the tendency of the bacteria to tumble and undergo random
changes in direction increased.
(B) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an
attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was
uniformly high/ the bacteria4s e$hibited no change in the pattern of their
motion.
(C) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an
attractant was uniformly low to one in which the concentration was
uniformly high/ the bacteria4s mo'ement was characteri!ed by a complete
absence of tumbling.
() &hen placed in a medium in which the concentration of an attractant was in
some areas low and in others high/ the bacteria e$hibited an increased
tendency to tumble in those areas where the concentration of the attractant
was high.
(#) &hen suddenly transferred from a medium in which the concentration of an
attractant was uniformly low to one that was completely free of attractants/
the bacteria e$hibited a tendency to suppress tumbling and mo'e in longer/
straighter lines.
1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that a bacterium would increase the likelihood
of its mo'ing away from an area where the concentration of a harmful substance
is high if it did which one of the following%
(A) 3ncreased the speed at which it swam immediately after undergoing the
random changes in direction that result from tumbling.
(B) etected the concentration gradient of an attractant toward which it could
begin to swim.
(C) =elied on the simultaneous measurement of the concentration of the
substance in front and back of its body/ rather than on the comparison of the
concentration at different points in time.
() #$hibited a complete cessation of tumbling when it detected increases in the
concentration of substance.
(#) #$hibited an increased tendency to tumble as it encountered increasing
concentrations of the substance/ and suppressed tumbling as it detected
decreases in the concentration of the substance.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that when describing bacteria as *swimming
up a concentration gradient+ (lines 0,(15)/ the author means that they were
-20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
beha'ing as if they were swimming
(A) Against a resistant medium that makes their swimming less efficient.
(B) Away from a substance to which they are normally attracted.
(C) Away from a substance that is normally harmful to them.
() >rom an area where the concentration of a repellent is weaker to an area
where it is completely absent.
(#) >rom an area where the concentration of a substance is weaker to an area
where it is stronger.
1,. The passage indicates that the pattern that characteri!es a bacterium4s motion
changes in response to
(A) The kinds of chemical attractants present in different concentration gradients.
(B) The mechanism that the bacterium adopts in determining the presence of an
attractant.
(C) The bacterium4s detection of changes in the concentration of an attractant.
() The e$tent to which neighboring bacteria are engaged in tumbling.
(#) Changes in the inter'als of time that occur between the bacterium4s
measurement of the concentration of an attractant.
25. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third paragraph
of the passage%
(A) Two approaches to a problem are discussed/ a test that would determine
which is more efficient is described/ and a conclusion is made/ based on
e$perimental e'idence.
(B) Two hypotheses are described/ a way of determining which of them is more
likely to be true is discussed/ and one said to be more accurate on the basis
of e$perimental e'idence.
(C) Two hypotheses are described/ the flaws inherent in one of them are
elaborated/ and e$perimental e'idence confirming the other is cited.
() An assertion that a species has adopted two different mechanisms to sol'e a
particular problem is made/ and e'idence is then pro'ided in support of that
assertion.
(#) An assertion that one mechanism for sol'ing a particular problem is more
efficient than another is made/ and e'idence is then pro'ided in support of
that assertion.
21. The passage pro'ides information in support of which one of the following
assertions%
(A) The seemingly erratic motion e$hibited by a microorganism can in fact reflect
a mechanism by which it is able to control its mo'ement.
(B) Biologists often o'erstate the comple$ity of simple organisms such as
bacteria.
LSAT -21
(C) A bacterium cannot normally retain a memory of a measurement of the
concentration of an attractant.
() Bacteria now appear to ha'e less control o'er their mo'ement than biologists
had pre'iously hypothesi!ed.
(#) @hotosynthetic bacteria appear to ha'e more control o'er their mo'ement
than do bacteria that are not photosynthetic.
Anthropoogst Davd Mandebaum makes a dstncton between fe-passage
studes and fe-hstory studes whch emerged prmary out of research
concernng Natve Amercans. Lfe-passage studes, he says, "emphasze the
requrements of socety, showng how groups socaze and encuturate ther
young n order to make them nto vabe members of socety." Lfe hstores,
however, "emphasze the experences and requrements of the ndvdua, how the
person copes wth socety rather than how socety copes wth the stream of
ndvduas." Lfe-passage studes brng out the genera cutura characterstcs
and commonates that broady defne a cuture, but are unconcerned wth an
ndvduas choces or how the ndvdua perceves and responds to the demands
and expectatons mposed by the constrants of hs or her cuture. Ths dstncton
can ceary be seen n the autobographes of Natve Amercan women.
For exampe, some eary recorded autobographes, such as The
"uto$iogra#hy of a Fo3 )ndian ,oman, a fe passage recorded by anthropoogst
Truman Mcheson, emphaszes prescrbed roes. The narrator presents her story n
a way that conforms wth trba expectatons. Mchesons work s vauabe as
ethnography, as a refecton of the day-to-day responsbtes of Mesquake
women, yet as s often the case wth fe-passage studes, t presents tte of the
centra characters psychoogca motvaton. The Fox womans fe story focuses
on her trba educaton and ntegraton nto the ways of her peope, and reates
ony what Mcheson utmatey decded was worth preservng. The dfference
between the two types of studes s often the resut of the amount of contro the
narrator mantans over the matera; autobographes n whch there are no
recorder-edtors are far more refectve of the fe-hstory category, for there are
no outsders shapng the story to refect ther preconceved notons of what the
genera cutura patterns are.
For exampe, n Mara Campbes account of growng up as a Canadan Mets
who was nfuenced strongy, and often negatvey, by the non-Natve Amercan
word around her, one earns a great dea about the fe of Natve Amercan
women, but Campbes ndvdua story, whch s tod to us drecty, s aways the
center of her narratve. Ceary t s mportant to her to communcate to the
audence what her experences as a Natve Amercan have been. Through
Campbes story of her famy the reader earns of the effect of poverty and
pre|udce on a peope. The reader becomes an ntmate of Campbe the wrter,
sharng her pan and ceebratng her sma vctores. Athough Campbes book s
wrtten as a fe hstory (the dramatc moments, the frustratons, and the fears are
-22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
ceary hers), t reveas much about ethnc reatons n Canada whe refectng the
perod n whch t was wrtten.
22. &hich one of the following is the most accurate e$pression of the main point of
the passage%
(A) The contributions of life(history studies to anthropology ha'e made life(
passage studies obsolete.
(B) espite their dissimilar approaches to the study of culture/ life(history and
life(passage studies ha'e similar goals.
(C) The autobiographies of 9ati'e American women illustrate the differences
between life(history and life(passage studies.
() The roots of ?aria Campbell4s autobiography can be traced to earlier
narrati'es such as The Autobiography o+ a Fo, /ndian Wo-an.
(#) espite its shortcomings/ the life(passage study is a more effecti'e tool than
the life(history study for identifying important cultural patterns.
2.. The term *prescribed roles+ in line 20 of the passage refers to the
(A) >unction of life(passage studies in helping ethnologists to understand cultural
tradition.
(B) >unction of life(history studies in helping ethnologists to gather information.
(C) &ay in which a sub<ect of a life passage 'iews himself or herself.
() =oles clearly distinguishing the narrator of an autobiography from the
recorder of an autobiography.
(#) =oles generally adopted by indi'iduals in order to comply with cultural
demands.
20. The reference to the *psychological moti'ation+ (line .5) of the sub<ect of The
Autobiography o+ a Fo, /ndian Wo-an ser'es primarily to
(A) ismiss as irrele'ant the personal perspecti'e in the life(history study.
(B) 3dentify an aspect of e$perience that is not commonly a ma<or focus of life(
passage studies.
(C) Clarify the narrator4s self(acknowledged purpose in relating a life passage.
() ;uggest a common conflict between the goals of the narrator and those of the
recorder in most life(passage studies.
(#) Assert that de'eloping an understanding of an indi'idual4s psychological
moti'ation usually undermines ob<ecti'e ethnography.
21. &hich one of following statements about ?aria Campbell can be inferred from
material in the passage%
(A) ;he was familiar with the 'ery early history of her tribe but lacked insight
into the moti'ations of non(9ati'e Americans.
(B) ;he was unfamiliar with ?ichelson4s work but had probably read a number of
LSAT -2-
life(passage studies about 9ati'e Americans.
(C) ;he had training as a historian but was not "ualified as an anthropologist.
() )er family influenced her beliefs and opinions more than the e'ents of her
time did.
(#) )er life history pro'ides more than a record of her personal e$perience.
22. According to the passage/ one way in which life history studies differ from life(
passage studies is that life(history studies are
(A) :sually told in the sub<ect4s nati'e language.
(B) Kess reliable because they rely solely on the sub<ect4s recall.
(C) ?ore likely to be told without the influence of an intermediary.
() ?ore creati'e in the way they interpret the sub<ect4s cultural legacy.
(#) ?ore representati'e of the historian4s point of 'iew than of the
ethnographer4s.
2-. &hich one of the following pairings best illustrates the contrast between life
passages and life histories%
(A) A study of the attitudes of a society toward a mainstream religion and an
analysis of techni"ues used to instruct members of that religious group.
(B) A study of how a preindustrial society maintains peace with neighboring
societies and a study of how a postindustrial society does the same.
(C) A study of the way a military organi!ation establishes and maintains
discipline and a newly enlisted soldier4s narrati'e describing his initial
responses to the military en'ironment.
() An analysis of a society4s means of subsistence and a study of how its
members celebrate religious holidays.
(#) A political history of a society focusing on leaders and parties and a study of
how the electorate shaped the political landscape of the society.
LSAT 05 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Unt recenty many astronomers beeved that asterods trave about the soar
system unaccompaned by satetes. These astronomers assumed ths because
they consdered asterod-satete systems nherenty unstabe. Theoretcans
coud have tod them otherwse: even mnuscue bodes n the soar system can
theoretcay have satetes, as ong as everythng s n proper scae. If a bowng
ba were orbtng about the Sun n the asterod bet, t coud have a pebbe
-26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
orbtng t as far away as a few hundred rad (or about 50 meters) wthout osng
the pebbe to the Suns gravtatona pu.
Observatons now suggest that asterod satetes may exsts not ony n
theory but aso n reaty. Severa astronomers have notced, whe watchng
asterods pass brefy n front of stars, that somethng besdes the known asterod
sometmes bocks out the star as we. Is that somethng a satete?
The most convncng such report concerns the asterod Hercuna, whch was
due to pass n front of a star n 1978. Astronomers watng for the predcted event
found not |ust one occutaton, or ecpse, of the star, but two dstnct drops n
brghtness. One was the predcted occutaton, exacty on tme. The other, astng
about fve seconds, preceded the predcted event by about two mnutes. The
presence of a secondary body near Hercuna thus seemed strongy ndcated. To
cause the secondary occutaton, an unseen satete woud have to be about 45
kometers n dameter, a quarter of the sze of Hercuna, and at a dstance of 990
kometers from the asterod at the tme. These vaues are wthn theoretca
bounds, and such an asterod-satete par coud be stabe.
Wth the Hercuna event, apparent secondary occutatons became
"respectabe"-and more commony reported. In fact, so common dd reports of
secondary events become that they are now smpy too numerous for a of them
to be accurate. Even f every asterod has as many satetes as can be ftted
around t wthout an undue number of cosons, ony one n every hundred
prmary occutatons woud be accompaned by a secondary event (one n every
thousand f asterod satetes system resembed those of the panets).
Yet even astronomers who fnd the case for asterod satetes unconvncng at
present say they woud change ther mnds f a photoeectrc record were made of
a we-behaved secondary event. By "we-behaved" they mean that durng
occutaton the observed brghtness must drop sharpy as the star wnks out and
must rse sharpy as t reappears from behnd the obstructng ob|ect, but the
brghtness durng the secondary occutaton must drop to that of the asterod, no
hgher and no ower. Ths woud make t extremey unkey that an arpane or a
gtch n the nstruments was masqueradng as an occutng body.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The obser'ation of )erculina represented the crucial e'ent that astronomical
obser'ers and theoreticians had been waiting for to establish a con'incing
case for the stability of asteroid(satellite systems.
(B) Although astronomers long belie'ed that obser'ation supports the e$istence
of stable asteroid(satellite systems/ numerous recent reports ha'e increased
skepticism on this issue in astronomy.
(C) Theoreticians4 'iews on the stability of asteroid(satellite systems may be
re'ised in the light of reports like those about )erculina.
() Astronomers continue to consider it respectable to doubt the stability of
LSAT -2,
asteroid(satellite systems/ but new theoretical de'elopments may change
their 'iews.
(#) The )erculina e'ent suggests that theoreticians4 'iews about asteroid(satellite
systems may be correct/ and astronomers agree about the kind of e'idence
needed to clearly resol'e the issue.
2. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as pro'iding e'idence
that )erculina has a satellite%
(A) the diameter of a body directly obser'ed near )erculina
(B) the distance between )erculina and planet nearest to it
(C) the shortest possible time in which satellites of )erculina/ if any/ could
complete a single orbit
() the occultation that occurred shortly before the predicted occultation by
)erculina
(#) the precise e$tent to which obser'ed brightness dropped during the
occultation by )erculina
.. According to the passage/ the attitude of astronomers toward asteroid satellites
since the )erculina e'ent can best described as
(A) open(mindedness combined with a concern for rigorous standards of proof
(B) contempt for and impatience with the position held by theoreticians
(C) bemusement at a chaotic mi$ of theory/ inade"uate or spurious data/ and calls
for scientific rigor
() hardheaded skepticism/ implying re<ection of all data not recorded
automatically by state(of(the(art instruments
(#) admiration for the methodical process by which science progresses from
initial hypothesis to incontro'ertible proof
0. The author implies that which one of the following was true prior to reports of the
)erculina e'ent%
(A) ;ince no good theoretical model e$isted/ all claims that reports of secondary
occultations were common were disputed.
(B) ;ome of the reported obser'ations of secondary occultations were actually
obser'ations of collisions of satellites with one another.
(C) 3f there were obser'ations of phenomena e$actly like the phenomena now
labeled secondary occultations/ astronomers were less likely than to ha'e
reported such obser'ations.
() The pre'ailing standards concerning what to classify as a well(beha'ed
secondary e'ent were less stringent than they are now.
(#) Astronomers were eager to publish their obser'ations of occultations of stars
by satellites of asteroids.
--5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1. The information presented in the passage implies which one of the following
about the fre"uency of reports of secondary occultations after the )erculina
e'ent%
(A) The percentage of reports of primary occultations that also included reports of
secondary occultations increased tenfold compared to the time before the
)erculina e'ent.
(B) @rimary occultations by asteroids were reported to ha'e been accompanied by
secondary occultations in about one out of e'ery thousand cases.
(C) The absolute number of reports of secondary occultations increased tenfold
compared to the time before the )erculina e'ent.
() @rimary occultations by asteroids were reported to ha'e been accompanied by
secondary occultations in more than one out of e'ery hundred cases.
(#) 3n more than one out of e'ery hundred cases/ primary occultations were
reported to ha'e been accompanied by more than one secondary occultation.
2. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) cast doubts on e$isting reports of secondary occultations of stars
(B) describe e$perimental efforts by astronomers to separate theoretically
belie'able obser'ations of satellites of asteroids from spurious ones
(C) re'iew the de'elopment of ideas among astronomers about whether or not
satellites of asteroids e$ist
() bring a theoretician4s perspecti'e to bear on an incomplete discussion of
satellites of asteroids
(#) illustrate the limits of reasonable speculation concerning the occultation of
stars
-. The passage suggests that which one of the following would most help to resol'e
the "uestion of whether asteroids ha'e satellites%
(A) a re'iew of pre(1,-6 reports of secondary occultations
(B) an impro'ed theoretical model of stable satellite systems
(C) a photoelectric record of a well(beha'ed secondary occultation
() a more stringent definition of what constitutes a well(beha'ed secondary
occultation
(#) a powerful telescope that would permit a comparison of ground(based
obser'ation with those made from airplanes
Hstorans attemptng to expan how scentfc work was done n the
aboratory of the seventeenth-century chemst and natura phosopher Robert
Boye must address a fundamenta dscrepancy between how such
expermentaton was actuay performed and the seventeenth-century rhetorc
descrbng t. Leaders of the new Roya Socety of London n the 1660s nssted
that authentc scence depended upon actua experments performed, observed,
LSAT --1
and recorded by the scentsts themseves. Re|ectng the tradtona contempt for
manua operatons, these scentsts, a members of the Engsh upper cass, were
not to thnk themseves demeaned by the muckng about wth chemcas,
furnaces, and pumps; rather, the wngness of each of them to become, as Boye
hmsef sad, a mere "drudge" and "under-buder" n the search for Gods truth n
nature was taken as a sgn of ther nobty and Chrstan pety.
Ths rhetorc has been so effectve that one modern hstoran assures us that
Boye hmsef actuay performed a of the thousand or more experments he
reported. In fact, due to poor eyesght, frage heath, and frequent absences from
hs aboratory, Boye turned over much of the abor of obtanng and recordng
expermenta resuts to pad techncans, athough pubshed accounts of the
experments rarey, f ever, acknowedged the techncans contrbutons. Nor was
Boye unque n reyng on techncans wthout pubcy credtng ther work.
Why were the contrbutons of these techncans not recognzed by ther
empoyers? One reason s the hstorca tendency, whch has perssted nto the
twenteth century, to vew scentfc dscovery as resutng from momentary
fashes of ndvdua nsght rather than from extended perods of cooperatve
work by ndvduas wth varyng eves of knowedge and sk. Moreover, despte
the camor of seventeenth-century scentfc rhetorc commendng a hands-on
approach, scence was st overwhemngy an actvty of the Engsh upper cass,
and the tradtona contempt that gentee socety mantaned for manua abor
was pervasve and deepy rooted. Fnay, a of Boyes techncans were
"servants," whch n seventeenth-century usage meant anyone who worked for
pay. To seventeenth-century sensbtes, the wage reatonshp was charged wth
potca sgnfcance. Servants, meanng wage earners, were excuded from the
franchse because they were perceved as utmatey dependent on ther wages
and thus controed by the w of ther empoyers. Techncans remaned nvsbe
n the potca economy of scence for the same reasons that underay servants
genera potca excuson. The techncans contrbuton, ther observatons and
|udgment, f acknowedged, woud not have been perceved n the arger scentfc
communty as ob|ectve because the techncans were dependent on the wages
pad to them by ther empoyers. Servants mght have made the apparatus work,
but ther contrbutons to the makng of scentfc knowedge were argey-and
convenenty-gnored by ther empoyers.
6. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) ;e'enteenth(century scientific e$perimentation would ha'e been impossible
without the work of paid laboratory technicians.
(B) ;e'enteenth(century social con'entions prohibited upper(class laboratory
workers from taking public credit for their work.
(C) ;e'enteenth(century 'iews of scientific disco'ery combined with social class
distinctions to ensure that laboratory technicians4 scientific work was ne'er
publicly acknowledged.
--2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() ;e'enteenth(century scientists were far more dependent on their laboratory
technicians than are scientists today/ yet far less willing to acknowledge
technicians4 scientific contributions.
(#) ;e'enteenth(century scientists liberated themsel'es from the stigma attached
to manual labor by relying hea'ily on the work of laboratory technicians.
,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the *se'enteenth(century rhetoric+
mentioned in line 2 would ha'e more accurately described the e$perimentation
performed in Boyle4s laboratory if which one of the following were true%
(A) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle recogni!ed that most
scientific disco'eries resulted from the cooperati'e efforts of many
indi'iduals.
(B) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle maintained a deeply
rooted and per'asi'e contempt for manual labor.
(C) :nlike many se'enteenth(century scientists/ Boyle was a member of the
=oyal ;ociety of Kondon.
() Boyle generously acknowledged the contribution of the technicians who
worked in his laboratory.
(#) Boyle himself performed the actual labor of obtaining and recording
e$perimental results.
15. According to the author/ ser'ants of se'enteenth(century #ngland were e$cluded
from the franchised because of the belief that
(A) their interests were ade"uately represented by their employers
(B) their education was inade"uate to make informed political decisions
(C) the independence of their political <udgment would be compromised by their
economic dependence on their employers
() their participation in the elections would be a polari!ing influence on the
political process
(#) the manual labor that they performed did not constitute a contribution to the
society that was sufficient to <ustify their participation in elections
11. According to the author/ the =oyal ;ociety of Kondon insisted that scientists
abandon the
(A) belief that the primary purpose of scientific disco'ery was to re'eal the di'ine
truth that could be found in nature
(B) 'iew that scientific knowledge results largely from the insights of a few
brilliant indi'iduals rather than from the cooperati'e efforts of many workers
(C) se'enteenth(century belief that ser'ants should be denied the right to 'ote
because they were dependent on wages paid to them by their employers
() traditional disdain for manual labor that was maintained by most members of
the #nglish upper class during the se'enteenth(century
LSAT --.
(#) idea that the search for scientific truth was a sign of piety
12. The author implies that which one of the following beliefs was held in both the
se'enteenth and the twentieth centuries%
(A) 3ndi'idual insights rather than cooperati'e endea'ors produce most scientific
disco'eries.
(B) )ow science is practiced is significantly influenced by the political beliefs
and assumption of scientists.
(C) ;cientific research undertaken for pay cannot be considered ob<ecti'e.
() ;cientific disco'ery can re'eal di'ine truth in nature.
(#) ;cientific disco'ery often relies on the unacknowledged contributions of
laboratory technicians.
1.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph%
(A) ;e'eral alternati'e answers are presented to a "uestion posed in the pre'ious
paragraph/ and the last is adopted as the most plausible.
(B) A "uestion regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the pre'ious
paragraph is posed/ two possible e$planations are re<ected/ and e'idence is
pro'ided in support of a third.
(C) A "uestion regarding the phenomenon described in the pre'ious paragraph is
posed/ and se'eral incompatible 'iews are presented.
() A "uestion regarding the cause of the phenomenon described in the pre'ious
paragraph is posed/ and se'eral contributing factors are then discussed.
(#) ;e'eral answers to a "uestion are e'aluated in light of recent disco'eries cited
earlier in the passage.
10. The author4s discussion of the political significance of the *wage relationship+
(line 06) ser'es to
(A) place the failure of se'enteenth(century scientists to acknowledge the
contributions of their technicians in the large conte$t of relations between
workers and their employers in se'enteenth(century #ngland
(B) pro'ide e'idence in support of the author4s more general thesis regarding the
relationship of scientific disco'ery to the economic conditions of societies in
which it takes place
(C) pro'ide e'idence in support of the author4s e$planation of why scientists in
se'enteenth(century #ngland were reluctant to rely on their technicians for
the performance of anything but the most menial tasks
() illustrate political and economic changes in the society of se'enteenth(
century #ngland that had a profound impact on how scientific research was
conduced
(#) undermine the 'iew that scientific disco'ery results from indi'idual enterprise
rather than from the collecti'e endea'or of many workers
--0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that *the clamor of se'enteenth(century
scientific rhetoric+ (lines .,(05) refers to
(A) the claim that scientific disco'ery results largely from the insights of brilliant
indi'iduals working alone
(B) ridicule of scientists who were members of the #nglish upper class and who
were thought to demean themsel'es by engaging in the manual labor
re"uired by their e$periments
(C) criticism of scientists who publicly acknowledged the contributions of their
technicians
() assertions by members of the =oyal ;ociety of Kondon that scientists
themsel'es should be responsible for obtaining and recording e$perimental
results
(#) the claim by Boyle and his colleagues that the primary reason for scientific
research is to disco'er e'idence of di'ine truth in the natural world
One type of voaton of the anttrust aws s the abuse of monopoy power.
Monopoy power s the abty of a frm to rase ts prces above the compettve
eve-that s, above the eve that woud exst naturay f severa frms had to
compete-wthout drvng away so many customers as to make the prce ncrease
unproftabe. In order to show that a frm has abused monopoy power, and
thereby voated the anttrust aws, two essenta facts must be estabshed. Frst,
a frm must be shown to possess monopoy power, and second, that power must
have been used to excude competton n the monopozed market or reated
markets.
The prce a frm may charge for ts product s constraned by the avaabty of
cose substtutes for the product. If a frm attempts to charge a hgher prce-a
supracompettve prce-consumers w turn to other frms abe to suppy
substtute products at compettve prces. If a frm provdes a arge percentage of
the products actuay or potentay avaabe, however, customers may fnd t
dffcut to buy from aternatve suppers. Consequenty, a frm wth a arge share
of the reevant market of substtutabe products may be abe to rase ts prce
wthout osng many customers. For ths reason courts often use market share as a
rough ndcator of monopoy power.
Supracompettve prces are assocated wth a oss of consumers wefare
because such prces force some consumers to buy a ess attractve mx of
products than they woud ordnary buy. Supracompettve prces, however, do not
themseves consttute an abuse of monopoy power. Anttrust aws do not attempt
to counter the mere exstence of monopoy power, or even the use of monopoy
power to extract extraordnary hgh profts. For exampe, a frm en|oyng
economes of scae-that s, ow unt producton costs due to hgh voume-does
not voate the anttrust aws when t obtans a arge market share by chargng
prces that are proftabe but so ow that ts smaer rvas cannot survve. If the
anttrust aws posed dsncentves to the exstence and growth of such frms, the
LSAT --1
aws coud mpar consumers wefare. Even f the frm, upon acqurng monopoy
power, chose to rase prces n order to ncrease profts, t woud not be n
voaton of the anttrust aws.
The anttrust prohbtons focus nstead on abuses of monopoy power that
excude competton n the monopozed market or nvove everage-the use of
power n one market to reduce competton n another. One such forbdden
practce s a tyng arrangement, n whch a monopost condtons the sae of a
product n one market on the buyers purchase of another product n a dfferent
market. For exampe, a frm en|oyng a monopoy n the communcatons systems
market mght not se ts products to a consumer uness that customer aso buys
ts computer systems, whch are competng wth other frms computer systems.
The focus on the abuse of monopoy power, rather than on monopoy tsef,
foows from the prmary purpose of the anttrust aws: to promote consumers
wefare through assurance of the quaty and quantty of products avaabe to
consumers.
12. &hich one of the following distinctions between monopoly power and the abuse
of monopoly power would the author say underlies the antitrust laws discussed in
the passage%
(A) ?onopoly power is assessed in term of market share/ whereas abuse of
monopoly power is assessed in term of market control.
(B) ?onopoly power is easy to demonstrate/ whereas abuse of monopoly power
is difficult to demonstrate.
(C) ?onopoly power in'ol'es only one market/ whereas abuse of monopoly
power in'ol'es at least two or more related markets.
() ?onopoly power is the ability to charge supracompetiti'e prices/ whereas
abuse of monopoly power is the use of that ability.
(#) ?onopoly power does not necessarily hurt consumer welfare/ whereas abuse
of monopoly power does.
1-. &ould the use of le'erage meet the criteria for abuse of monopoly power outlined
in the first paragraph%
(A) 9o/ because le'erage in'ol'es a nonmonopoli!ed market.
(B) 9o/ unless the le'erage in'ol'es a tying arrangement.
(C) Hes/ because le'erage is a characteristic of monopoly power.
() Hes/ unless the firm using le'erage is charging competiti'e prices.
(#) Hes/ because le'erage is used to eliminate competition in a related market.
16. &hat is the main purpose of the third paragraph (lines 26Q0-)%
(A) to distinguish between supracompetiti'e prices and supracompetiti'e profits
(B) to describe the positi'e use of monopoly power
(C) to introduce the concept of economies of scale
--2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() to distinguish what is not co'ered by the antitrust law under discussion from
what is co'ered
(#) to remind the reader of the issue of consumers welfare
1,. Bi'en only the information in the passage/ with which one of the following
statements about competition would those responsible for the antitrust laws most
likely agree%
(A) Competition is essential to consumers4 welfare.
(B) There are acceptable and unacceptable ways for firms to reduce their
competition.
(C) The preser'ation of competition is the principal aim of the antitrust laws.
() ;upracompetiti'e prices lead to reductions in competition.
(#) Competition is necessary to ensure high("uality products at low prices.
25. &hich one of the following sentences would best complete the last paragraph of
the passage%
(A) By limiting consumers4 choices/ abuse of monopoly power reduces
consumers4 welfare/ but monopoly alone can sometimes actually operate in
the consumers4 best interest.
(B) &hat is needed now is a set of related laws to deal with the negati'e impacts
that monopoly itself has on consumers4 ability to purchase products at
reasonable cost.
(C) 8'er time/ the antitrust laws ha'e been 'ery effecti'e in ensuring competition
and/ conse"uently/ consumers4 welfare in the 'olatile communications and
computer systems industries.
() By controlling supracompetiti'e prices and corresponding supracompetiti'e
profits/ the antitrust laws ha'e/ indeed/ gone a long way toward meeting that
ob<ecti'e.
(#) As noted abo'e/ the necessary restraints on monopoly itself ha'e been left to
the market/ where competiti'e prices and economies of scale are rewarded
through increased market share.
Amsden has dvded Nava|o weavng nto four dstnct styes. He argues that
three of them can be dentfed by the type of desgn used to form horzonta
bands: coored strps, zgzags, or damonds. The fourth, or bordered, stye he
dentfes by a dstnct border surroundng centray paced, domnatng fgures.
Amsden beeves that the damond stye appeared after 1869 when, under
Ango nfuence and encouragement, the banket became a rug wth arger
desgns and boder nes. The bordered stye appeared about 1890, and, Amsden
argues, t refects the greatest number of Ango nfuences on the newy emergng
rug busness. The Ango desre that anythng wth a graphc desgns have a top,
bottom, and border s a cutura preference that the Nava|o abhorred, as
evdenced, he suggests, by the fact that n eary bordered specmens strps of
LSAT ---
coor unexpectedy break through the encosng pattern.
Amsden argues that the bordered rug represents a radca break wth prevous
styes. He asserts that the border changed the artstc probem facng weavers: a
bank area suggests the use of soated fgures, whe tradtona, banded Nava|o
desgns were contnuous and dd not use soated fgures. The od patterns
aternated horzonta decoratve zones n a reguar order.
Amsdens vew rases severa questons. Frst, what s nvoved n aterng
artstc styes? Some studes suggest that artsans motor habts and thought
processes must be revsed when a stye changes precptousy. In the evouton of
Nava|o weavng, however, no radca revsons n the way artces are produced
need be assumed. After a, a weavng subordnates desgn to the physca
mtatons created by the process of weavng, whch ncudes creatng an edge or
border. The habts requred to make decoratve borders are, therefore, atent and
easy brought to the surface.
Second, s the reatonshp between the banded and bordered styes as smpe
as Amsden suggests? He assumes that a break n stye s a break n psychoogy.
But f stye resuts from constant quests for nventon, such stystc breaks are
nevtabe. When a stye has exhausted the possbtes nherent n ts prncpes,
artsts cast about for new, but not necessary aen, prncpes. Nava|o weavng
may have reached ths turnng pont pror to 1890.
Thrd, s there reay a sgnfcant stystc gap? Two other styes e between
the banded styes and the bordered styes. They suggest that dsntegraton of the
bands may have atered vsua and motor habts and prepared the way for a
border fed wth separate unts. In the Chef Whte Anteope banket, dated pror
to 1865, ten years before the frst Ango tradng post on the Nava|o reservaton,
whoe and parta damonds nterrupt the fowng desgn and become separate
forms. Parts of damonds arranged vertcay at each sde may be seen to
antcpate the border.
21. The author4s central thesis is that
(A) the 9a'a<o re<ected the stylistic influences of Anglo culture
(B) 9a'a<o wea'ing cannot be classified by Amsden4s categories
(C) the 9a'a<o changed their style of wea'ing because they sought the challenge
of new artistic problems
() original motor habits and thought processes limit the e$tent to which a style
can be re'ised
(#) the casual factors leading to the emergence of the bordered style are not as
clear(cut as Amsden suggests
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that Amsden 'iews the use of *strips of color+
(line 16) in the early bordered style as
(A) a sign of resistance to a change in style
--6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) an echo of the diamond style
(C) a feature deri'ed from Anglo culture
() an attempt to disintegrate the rigid form of the banded style
(#) a means of differentiating the top of the wea'ing from the bottom
2.. The author4s 'iew of 9a'a<o wea'ing suggests which one of the following%
(A) The appearance of the first trading post on the 9a'a<o reser'ation coincided
with the appearance of the diamond style.
(B) Traces of thought processes and motor habits of one culture can generally be
found in the art of another culture occupying the same period and region.
(C) The bordered style may ha'e de'eloped gradually from the banded style as a
result of 9a'a<o e$periencing with design.
() The influence of Anglo culture was not the only non(9ati'e American
influence on 9a'a<o wea'ing.
(#) )ori!ontal and 'ertical rows of diamond forms were transformed by the
9a'a<os into solid lines to create the bordered style.
20. According to the passage/ 9a'a<o wea'ings made prior to 16,5 typically were
characteri!ed by all of the following #DC#@T
(A) repetition of forms
(B) o'erall patterns
(C) hori!ontal bands
() isolated figures
(#) use of color
21. The author would most probably agree with which one of the following
conclusions about the stylistic de'elopment of 9a'a<o wea'ing%
(A) The styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing changed in response to changes in 9a'a<o
motor habits and thought processes.
(B) The !ig!ag style was the result of stylistic influences from Anglo culture.
(C) 9a'a<o wea'ing used isolated figures in the beginning/ but combined
naturalistic and abstract designs in later styles.
() 9a'a<o wea'ing changed gradually from a style in which the entire surface
was co'ered by hori!ontal bands to one in which central figures dominated
the surface.
(#) The styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing always contained some type of isolated figure.
22. The author suggests that Amsden4s claim that borders in 9a'a<o wea'ing were
inspired by Anglo culture could be
(A) concei'ed as a response to imagined correspondences between Anglo and
9a'a<o art
(B) biased by Amsden4s feelings about Anglo culture
LSAT --,
(C) a result of Amsden4s failing to take into account certain aspects of 9a'a<o
wea'ing
() based on a limited number of specimens of the styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing
(#) based on a confusion between the stylistic features of the !ig!ag and diamond
styles
2-. The author most probably mentions the Chief &hite Antelope blanket in order to
(A) establish the credit influence of Anglo culture on the bordered style
(B) cast doubts on the claim that the bordered style arose primarily from Anglo
influence
(C) cite an e$ample of a blanket with a central design and no border
() suggest that the Anglo influence produced significant changes in the two
earliest styles of 9a'a<o wea'ing
(#) illustrate how the 9a'a<o had e$hausted the stylistic possibilities of the
diamond style
26. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) comparing and contrasting different styles
(B) "uestioning a 'iew of how a style came into being
(C) proposing alternati'e methods of in'estigating the e'olution of styles
() discussing the influence of one culture on another
(#) analy!ing the effect of the interaction between two different cultures
LSAT 06 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The Taft-Hartey Act, passed by the Unted States Congress n 1947, gave
states the power to enact "rght-to-work" egsaton that prohbts unon shop
agreements. Accordng to such an agreement, a abor unon negotates wages and
workng condtons for a workers n a busness, and a workers are requred to
beong to the unon. Snce 1947, 20 states have adopted rght-to-work aws. Much
of the terature concernng rght-to-work aws mpes that such egsaton has not
actuay had a sgnfcant mpact. Ths pont of vew, however, has not gone
uncrtczed. Thomas V Carro has proposed that the concusons drawn by
prevous researchers are attrbutabe to ther myopc focus on the premse that,
uness rght-to-work aws sgnfcanty reduce unon membershp wthn a state,
they have no effect. Carro argues that the rght-to-work aws "do matter" n that
such aws generate dfferences n rea wages across states. Specfcay, Carro
-65 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
ndcates that whe rght-to-work aws may not "destroy" unons by reducng the
absoute number of unonzed workers, they do mpede the spread of unons and
thereby reduce wages wthn rght-to-work states. Because the countervang
power of unons s weakened n rght-to-work states, manufacturers and ther
suppers can act cohesvey n compettve abor markers, thus owerng wages n
the affected ndustres.
Such a fndng has mportant mpcatons regardng the demographcs of
empoyment and wages n rght-to-work states. Specfcay, f rght-to-work aws
ower wages by weakenng unon power, mnorty workers can be expected to
suffer a reatvey greater economc dsadvantage n rght-to-work states than n
unon shop states. Ths s so because, contrary to what was once thought, unon
tend to have a sgnfcant postve mpact on the economc poston of mnorty
workers, especay Back workers, reatve to Whte workers. Most studes
concerned wth the mpact of unonsm on the Back workers economc poston
reatve to the Whte workers have concentrated on the changes n Back wages
due to unon membershp. That s, they have concentrated on unon versus
nonunon groups. In a poneerng study, however, Ashenfeter fnds that these
studes overook an mportant fact: athough craft unonsm ncrease the
dfferenta between the wages of Whte workers and Back workers due to the
tradtona excuson of mnorty workers from unons n the craft sectors of the
abor market, strong postve wage gans are made by Back workers wthn
ndustra unons. In fact, Ashenfeter estmates that ndustra unonsm decreases
the dfferenta between the wages of Back workers and Whte workers by about 3
percent. If state rght-to-work aws weaken the economc power of unons to rase
wages, Back workers w experence a dsproportonate decne n ther reatve
wage postons. Back workers n rght-to-work states woud therefore experence a
decne n ther reatve economc postons uness there s strong economc growth
n rght-to-work states, creatng abor shortages and thereby drvng up wages.
1. The reasoning behind the *literature+ (line ,)/ as that reasoning is presented in the
passage/ is most analogous to the reasoning behind which one of the following
situations%
(A) A law is proposed that benefits many but disad'antages a fewE those
ad'ocating passage of the law argue that the disad'antages to few are not so
serious that the benefits should be denied to many.
(B) A new ta$ on certain categories of consumer items is proposedE those in fa'or
of the ta$ argue that those affected by the ta$ are well able to pay it/ since
the items ta$ed are lu$ury items.
(C) A college sets strict course re"uirements that e'ery student must complete
before graduatingI students already enrolled argue that it is unfair for the
new re"uirements to apply to those enrolled before the change.
() The personnel office of a company designs a promotions become effecti'e on
Aanuary 1E the managers protest that such a policy means that they cannot
LSAT -61
respond fast enough to changes in staffing needs.
(#) A fare increase in a public transportation system does not significantly reduce
the number of fares soldE the management of the public transportation
system asserts/ therefore/ that the fare hike has had no negati'e effects.
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of Carroll4s study%
(A) 3t implies that right(to(work laws ha'e had a negligible effect on workers in
right(to(work states.
(B) 3t demonstrates that right(to(work laws ha'e significantly decreased union
membership from what it once was in right(to(work states.
(C) 3t argues that right(to(work laws ha'e affected wages in right(to(work states.
() 3t supports the findings of most earlier researchers.
(#) 3t e$plains the mechanisms by which collusion between manufacturers and
suppliers is accomplished.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author belie'es which one of
following about craft unions%
(A) Craft unions ha'e been successful in ensuring that the wages of their
members remain higher than the wages of nonunion workers in the same
occupational groups.
(B) The number of minority workers <oining craft unions has increased sharply in
states that ha'e not adopted right(to(work legislation.
(C) &ages for workers belonging to craft unions ha'e generally risen faster and
more steadily than wages for workers belonging to industrial unions.
() The wages of workers belonging to craft unions ha'e not been significantly
affected by right(to(work legislation/ although the wages of workers
belonging to industrial unions ha'e been negati'ely affected.
(#) The wages of workers belonging to craft unions are more likely to be dri'en
up in the e'ent of labor shortages than are the wages of workers belonging to
industrial unions.
0. &hich one of the following best describes the effect industrial unionism has had
on the wages of Black workers relati'e to those of &hite workers/ as that effect is
presented in the passage%
(A) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had little effect on the wages of Black
workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had a slight
positi'e effect.
(B) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had a strong positi'e effect on the wages of
Black workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had
little effect.
(C) @rior to 1,0-/ industrial unionism had a negati'e effect on the wages of Black
workers relati'e to those of &hite workersE since 1,0-/ it has had a
-62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
significant positi'e effect.
() 3ndustrial unionism has contributed moderately to an increase in the wage
differential between Black workers and &hite workers.
(#) 3ndustrial unionism has contributed strongly to a . percent decrease in the
wage differential between Black workers and &hite workers.
1. According to the passage/ which one of the following could counteract the effects
of a decrease in unions4 economic power to raise wages in right(to(work states%
(A) a decease in the number of union shop agreements
(B) strong economic growth that creates labor shortages
(C) a decrease in membership in craft unions
() the merging of large industrial unions
(#) a decline in the craft sectors of the labor market
2. &hich one of the following best describes the passage as a whole%
(A) an o'er'iew of a problem in research methodology and a recommended
solution to that problem
(B) a comparison of two competing theories and a suggestion for reconciling
them
(C) a criti"ue of certain legislation and a proposal for modification of that
legislation
() a re'iew of research that challenges the conclusions of earlier researchers
(#) a presentation of a specific case that confirms the findings of an earlier study
In the ate nneteenth century, the need for women physcans n mssonary
hosptas n Canton, Chna, ed to expanded opportuntes for both Western women
and Chnese women. The presence of Western women as medca mssonares n
Chna was made possbe by certan changes wthn the Western mssonary
movement. Begnnng n the 1870s, ncreasngy arge numbers of women were
formng womens foregn msson socetes dedcated to the support of womens
foregn msson work. Beyond gvng the women who organzed the socetes a
forma actvty outsde ther home crces, these organzatons enabed an
ncreasng number of snge women mssonares (as opposed to women who were
part of the more typca husband-wfe mssonary teams) to work abroad. Before
the formaton of these womens organzatons, msson funds had been coected
by mnsters and other church eaders, most of whom emphaszed oca parsh
work. What money was spent on foregn mssons was under the contro of
excusvey mae foregn msson boards whose members were unformy uneasy
about the new dea of sendng snge women out nto the msson fed. But as
womens groups began rasng mpressve amounts of money donated specfcay
n support of snge women mssonares, the home churches bowed both to
womens changng roes at home and to ncreasng numbers of snge professona
mssonary women abroad.
LSAT -6.
Athough the dea of empoyng a woman physcan was a darng one for most
Western mssonares n Chna, the advantages of a we-traned Western woman
physcan coud not be gnored by Canton msson hospta admnstrators. A
woman physcan coud attend women patents wthout offendng any of the
accepted conventons of femae modesty. Eventuay, some of these women were
abe to found and head separate womens medca nsttutons, thereby ganng
access to professona responsbtes far beyond those avaabe to them at
home.
These deveopments aso ed to the attanment of vauabe tranng and status
by a sgnfcant number of Chnese women. The presence of women physcans n
Canton msson hosptas ed many Chnese women to ava themseves of Western
medcne who mght otherwse have faed to do so because of ther cutures
emphass on physca modesty. In order to provde enough women physcans for
these patents, growng numbers of young Chnese women were gven nstructon
n medcne. Ths enabed them to earn an ndependent ncome, somethng that
was then argey unavaabe to women wthn tradtona Chnese socety. Many
women graduates were eventuay abe to go out on ther own nto prvate
practce, freeng themseves of dependence upon the msson communty.
The most mportant resut of these opportuntes was the estabshment of
cear evdence of womens abtes and strengths, cear reasons for affordng
women expanded opportuntes, and cear roe modes for how these abtes and
responsbtes mght be exercsed.
-. &hich one of the following statements about &estern women missionaries
working abroad can be inferred from the passage%
(A) There were 'ery few women in'ol'ed in foreign missionary work before the
16-5s.
(B) ?ost women working abroad as missionaries before the 16-5s were financed
by women4s foreign mission societies.
(C) ?ost women employed in mission hospitals abroad before the 16-5s were
trained as nurses rather than as physicians.
() The ma<ority of professional women missionaries working abroad before the
16-5s were located in Canton/ China.
(#) ?ost women missionaries working abroad before the 16-5s were married to
men who were also missionaries.
6. The author mentions that most foreign mission boards were e$clusi'ely male
most probably in order to
(A) Contrast foreign mission boards with the boards of secular organi!ations
sending aid to China.
(B) #$plain the policy of foreign mission boards toward training Chinese women
in medicine.
-60 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) Austify the preference of foreign mission boards for professionally "ualified
missionaries.
() )elp account for the attitude of foreign mission boards towards sending
single women missionaries abroad.
(#) ifferentiate foreign mission boards from boards directing parish work at
home.
,. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A situation is described/ conditions that brought about the situation are
e$plained/ and results of the situation are enumerated.
(B) An assertion is made/ statements supporting and refuting the assertion are
e$amined/ and a conclusion is drawn.
(C) An obstacle is identified/ a 'ariety of possible ways to o'ercome the obstacle
are presented/ and an opinion is 'entured.
() A predicament is outlined/ factors leading up to the predicament are
scrutini!ed/ and a tentati'e resolution of the predicament is recommended.
(#) A de'elopment is analy!ed/ the drawbacks and ad'antages accompanying the
de'elopment are contrasted/ and an e'entual outcome is predicted.
15. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the author4s analysis
of the reason for the increasing number of single women missionaries sent abroad
beginning in the 16-5s%
(A) The &estern church boards that sent the greatest number of single women
missionaries abroad had not recei'ed any financial support from women4s
au$iliary groups.
(B) The women who were sent abroad as missionary physicians had been raised
in families with a strong history of missionary commitment.
(C) ?ost of the single missionary women sent abroad were trained as teachers
and translators rather than as medical practitioners.
() The western church boards tended to send abroad single missionary women
who had pre'iously been acti'e in local parish work.
(#) 9one of the single missionary women who were sent abroad were acti'e
members of foreign mission boards.
11. According to the passage/ which one of the following was a factor in the
acceptance of &estern women as physicians in mission hospitals in Canton/
China%
(A) The number of male physicians practicing in that region.
(B) The specific women4s foreign mission society that supplied the funding.
(C) The specific home parishes from which the missionary women came.
() The cultural con'entions of the host society.
(#) The relations between the foreign mission boards and the hospital
LSAT -61
administrators.
12. The passage suggests which one of the following about medical practices in late(
nineteenth(century Canton/ China%
(A) There was great suspicion of non(Chinese medical practices.
(B) ?edical care was more often administered in the home than in hospitals.
(C) 3t was customary for women physicians to donate a portion of their income
for the maintenance of their e$tended family.
() 3t was not customary for female patients to be treated by male physicians.
(#) Houng women tended to be afforded as many educational opportunities in
medicine as young men were.
In recent years the eary musc movement, whch advocates performng a
work as t was performed at the tme of ts composton, has taken on the
character of a crusade, partcuary as t has moved beyond the sphere of
medeva and baroque musc and nto musc from the ate eghteenth and eary
nneteenth centures by composers such as Mozart and Beethoven. Granted,
knowedge about the experence of payng od musc on now-obsoete
nstruments has been of nestmabe vaue to schoars. Nevertheess, the eary
musc approach to performance rases profound and troubng questons.
Eary musc advocates assume that composers wrte ony for the nstruments
avaabe to them, but evdence suggests that composers of Beethovens stature
magned extraordnary hgh and ow notes as part of ther compostons, even
when they recognzed that such notes coud not be payed on nstruments
avaabe at the tme. In the score of Beethovens frst pano concerto, there s a
"wrong" note, a hgh F-natura where the meody obvousy cas for a hgh F-
sharp, but panos dd not have ths hgh an F-sharp when Beethoven composed
the concerto. Because Beethoven once expressed a desre to revse hs eary
works to expot the extended range of panos that became avaabe to hm some
years ater, t seems key that he woud have payed the F-sharp f gven the
opportunty. To use a pano exacty contemporary wth the works composton
woud requre payng a note that was probaby frustratng for Beethoven hmsef
to have had to pay.
In addton, eary musc advocates often nadvertenty dvorce musc and ts
performance from the fe of whch they were, and are, a part. The dscovery that
Haydns and Mozarts symphones were conducted durng ther fetmes by a
panst who payed the chords to keep the orchestra together has gven rse to
eary musc recordngs n whch a pano can be heard obtrusvey n the
foreground, despte evdence ndcatng that the orchestra pano was vrtuay
naudbe to audences at eghteenth-century concerts and was dropped as
muscay unnecessary when a better way to beat tme was found. And athough n
the eary nneteenth century the frst three movements (sectons) of Mozarts and
Beethovens symphones were often payed faster, and the ast movement sower
-62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
than today, ths dfference can ready be expaned by the fact that at that tme
audences appauded at the end of each movement, rather than wthhodng
appause unt the end of the entre work. As a resut, muscans were not forced
nto extra brance n the fnae n order to generate appause, as they are now. To
restore the orgna tempo of these symphones represents an rratona dena of
the fact that our concepts of musca ntensty and exctement have qute smpy,
changed.
1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that by *a piano e$actly contemporary+ (line
.5) with the composition of Beetho'en4s first piano concerto/ the author means
the kind of piano that was
(A) esigned to be inaudible to the audience when used by conductors of
orchestras.
(B) 3ncapable of playing the high >(natural that is in the score of Beetho'en4s
original 'ersion of the concerto.
(C) :na'ailable to ?o!art and )aydn.
() 3ncapable of playing the high >(sharp that the melody of the concerto calls
for.
(#) 3nfluential in Beetho'en4s decision to re'ise his early compositions.
10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The early music mo'ement has yet to resol'e a number of troubling "uestions
regarding its approach to the performance of music.
(B) The early music mo'ement/ while largely successful in its approach to the
performance of medie'al and baro"ue music/ has yet to <ustify its use of
obsolete instruments in the performance of music by Beetho'en and ?o!art.
(C) The early music approach to performance often assumes that composers write
music that is perfectly tailored to the limitations of the instruments on which
it will be performed during their lifetimes.
() Although ad'ocates of early music know much about the instruments used to
perform music at the time it was composed/ they lack information regarding
how the style of such performances has changed since such music was
written.
(#) The early music mo'ement has not yet fully e$ploited the knowledge that it
has gained from playing music on instruments a'ailable at the time such
music was composed.
11. 3n the second paragraph/ the author discusses Beetho'en4s first piano concerto
primarily in order to
(A) 3llustrate how piano music began to change in response to the e$tended range
of pianos that became a'ailable during Beetho'en4s lifetime.
(B) 3llustrate how Beetho'en4s work failed to anticipate the changes in the design
of instruments that were about to be made during his lifetime.
LSAT -6-
(C) ;uggest that early music ad'ocates commonly perform music using scores
that do not reflect re'isions made to the music years after it was originally
composed.
() 3llustrate how composers like Beetho'en sometimes composed music that
called for notes that could not be played on instruments that were currently
a'ailable.
(#) @ro'ide an e$ample of a piano composition that is especially amenable to
being played on piano a'ailable at the time the music was composed.
12. The author suggests that the final mo'ements of symphonies by ?o!art and
Beetho'en might be played more slowly by today4s orchestras if which one of the
following were to occur%
(A) 8rchestras were to use instruments no more ad'anced in design than those
used by orchestras at the time ?o!art and Beetho'en composed their
symphonies.
(B) Audiences were to return to the custom of applauding at the end of each
mo'ement of a symphony.
(C) Audiences were to reser'e their most enthusiastic applause for the most
brilliantly played finales.
() Conductors were to return to the practice of playing the chords on an
orchestral piano to keep the orchestra together.
(#) Conductors were to conduct the symphonies in the manner in which
Beetho'en and ?o!art had conducted them.
1-. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the last paragraph%
(A) A generali!ation is made e'idence undermining it is presented/ and a
conclusion re<ecting it is then drawn.
(B) A criticism is stated and then elaborated with two supporting e$amples.
(C) An assumption is identified and then e'idence undermining its 'alidity is
presented.
() An assumption is identified and then e'idence fre"uently pro'ided in support
of it is then critically e'aluated.
(#) Two specific cases are presented and then a conclusion regarding their
significance is drawn.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s e$planation in lines 15(10
would be most weakened if which one of the following were true%
(A) ?usicians who perform in modern orchestras generally recei'e more
e$tensi'e training than did their nineteenth(century counterparts.
(B) Breaks between the mo'ements of symphonies performed during the early
nineteenth century often lasted longer than they do today because
nineteenth(century musicians needed to retune their instruments between
-66 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
each mo'ement.
(C) #arly nineteenth(century orchestral musicians were generally as concerned
with the audience4s response to their music as are the musicians who
perform today in modern orchestras.
() #arly nineteenth(century audience applauded only perfunctorily after the first
three mo'ements of symphonies and con'entionally withheld their most
enthusiastic applause until the final mo'ement was completed.
(#) #arly nineteenth(century audiences were generally more knowledgeable about
music than are their modern counterparts.
1,. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following assertions regarding the early music recordings
mentioned in the third paragraph%
(A) These recordings fail to recogni!e that the last mo'ements of )aydn4s and
?o!art4s symphonies were often played slower in the eighteenth century
than they are played today.
(B) These recordings betray the influence of baro"ue musical style on those early
music ad'ocates who ha'e recently turned their attention to the music of
)aydn and ?o!art.
(C) By making audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in
eighteenth century performances/ these recordings attempt to achie'e
aesthetic integrity at the e$pense of historical authenticity.
() By making audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in
eighteenth century performances/ these recordings unwittingly create music
that is unlike what eighteenth century audiences heard.
(#) These recordings suggest that at least some ad'ocates of early music
recogni!e that concepts of musical intensity and e$citement ha'e changed
since )aydn and ?o!art composed their symphonies.
25. The author suggests that the modern audience4s tendency to withhold applause
until the end of a symphony4s performance is primarily related to which one of
the following%
(A) The replacement of the orchestral piano as a method of keeping the orchestra
together.
(B) A gradual increase since the time of ?o!art and Beetho'en in audiences4
e$pectations regarding the ability of orchestral musicians.
(C) A change since the early nineteenth century in audiences4 concepts of musical
e$citement and intensity.
() A more sophisticated appreciation of the structural integrity of the symphony
as a piece of music.
(#) The tendency of orchestral musicians to employ their most brilliant effects in
the early.
LSAT -6,
Athough the Unted States stee ndustry faces wdey pubczed economc
probems that have eroded ts stee producton capacty, not a branches of the
ndustry have been equay affected. The stee ndustry s not monothc: t
ncudes ntegrated producers, mnms, and specaty-stee ms. The ntegrated
producers start wth ron ore and coa and produce a wde assortment of shaped
stees. The mnms reprocess scrap stee nto a mted range of ow-quaty
products, such as renforcng rods for concrete. The specaty-stee ms are
smar to mnms n that they tend to be smaer than the ntegrated producers
and are based on scrap, but they manufacture much more expensve products
than mnms do and commony have an actve n-house research-and-
deveopment effort.
Both mnms and specaty-stee ms have succeeded n avodng the worst
of the economc dffcutes that are affctng ntegrated stee producers, and
some of the ms are qute proftabe. Both take advantage of new technoogy for
refnng and castng stee, such as contnuous castng, as soon as t becomes
avaabe. The mnms concentrate on producng a narrow range of products for
sae n ther mmedate geographc area, whereas specaty-stee ms preserve
fexbty n ther operatons n order to fuf a customers partcuar
specfcatons.
Among the factors that constran the compettveness of ntegrated producers
are excessve abor, energy, and capta costs, as we as manufacturng
nfexbty. Ther equpment s od and ess automated, and does not ncorporate
many of the atest refnement n steemakng technoogy. (For exampe, ony
about haf of the Unted States ntegrated producers have contnuous casters,
whch combne pourng and rong nto one operaton and thus save the cost of
separate rong equpment.) One mght concude that the oder abor-ntensve
machnery st operatng n Unted States ntegrated pants s at faut for the poor
performance of the Unted States ndustry, but ths cannot expan why |apanese
ntegrated producers, who produce a hgher-quaty product usng ess energy and
abor, are aso experencng economc troube. The fact s that the common
technoogca denomnator of ntegrated producers s an nherenty neffcent
process that s st rooted n the nneteenth century.
Integrated producers have been unabe to compete successfuy wth mnms
because the mnms, ke specaty-stee ms, have dspensed amost entrey
wth the archac energy and capta-ntensve front end of ntegrated steemakng:
the ron-smetng process, ncudng the mnng and preparaton of the raw
materas and the bast-furnace operaton. In addton, mnms have found a
proftabe way to market stee products: as ndcated above, they se ther
fnshed products ocay, thereby reducng transportaton costs, and concentrate
on a mted range of shapes and szes wthn a narrow group of products that can
be manufactured economcay. For these reasons, mnms have been abe to
avod the economc decne affectng ntegrated stee producers.
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21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) :nited ;tates steel producers face economic problems that are shared by
producers in other nations.
(B) ?inimills are the most successful steel producers because they best meet
market demands for cheap steel.
(C) ?inimills and specialty(steel mills are more economically competiti'e than
integrated producers because they use new technology and a'oid the costs of
the iron(smelting process.
() :nited ;tates steel producers are e$periencing an economic decline that can
be traced back to the nineteenth century.
(#) 9ew steelmaking technologies such as continuous casting will replace blast(
furnace operations to re'erse the decline in :nited ;tates steel production.
22. The author mentions all of the following as features of minimills #DC#@T
(A) fle$ibility in their operations
(B) local sale of their products
(C) a'oidance of mining operations
() use of new steel(refining technology
(#) a limited range of low("uality products
2.. The author of the passage refers to *Aapanese integrated producers+ (line 0.)
primarily in order to support the 'iew that
(A) different economic difficulties face the steel industries of different nations
(B) not all integrated producers share a common technological denominator
(C) labor(intensi'e machinery cannot be blamed for the economic condition of
:nited ;tates integrated steel producers
() modern steelmaking technology is generally labor(and energy(efficient
(#) labor(intensi'e machinery is an economic burden on :nited ;tates integrated
steel producers
20. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third
paragraph%
(A) A hypothesis is proposed and supportedI then an opposing 'iew is presented
and critici!ed.
(B) A debate is described and illustratedE then a contrast is made and the debate is
resol'ed.
(C) A dilemma is described and cited as e'idence for a broader criticism.
() A proposition is stated and argued/ then re<ected in fa'or of a more general
statement/ which is supported with additional e'idence.
(#) Beneral statements are made and details gi'enI then an e$planation is
proposed and re<ected/ and an alternati'e is offered.
LSAT -,1
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that :nited ;tates specialty(steel mills
generally differ from integrated steel producers in that the specialty(steel mills
(A) sell products in a restricted geographical area
(B) share the economic troubles of the minimills
(C) resemble specialty(steel mills found in Aapan
() concentrate on producing a narrow range of products
(#) do not operate blast furnaces
22. #ach of the following describes an industry facing a problem also e$perienced by
:nited ;tated integrated steel producers #DC#@T
(A) a paper(manufacturing company that e$periences difficulty in obtaining
enough timber and other raw materials to meet its orders
(B) a food(canning plant whose canning machines must constantly be tended by
human operators
(C) a te$tile firm that spends hea'ily on capital e"uipment and energy to process
raw cotton before it is turned into fabric
() a window(glass manufacturer that is unable to produce "uickly different
'arieties of glass with special features re"uired by certain customers
(#) a leather(goods company whose hand(operated cutting and stitching machines
were manufactured in 3taly in the 1,25s
2-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would best ser'e as supporting e'idence for
the author4s e$planation of the economic condition of integrated steel producers%
(A) Those nations that deri'e a larger percentage of their annual steel production
from minimills than the :nited ;tates does also ha'e a smaller per capita
trade deficit.
(B) ?any integrated steel producers are as adept as the specialty(steel mills at
producing high("uality products to meet customer specifications.
(C) 3ntegrated steel producers in the :nited ;tates are rapidly adopting the
production methods of Aapanese integrated producers.
() 3ntegrated steel producers in the :nited ;tates are now attempting to de'elop
a worldwide market by ad'ertising hea'ily.
(#) Those nations in which iron(smelting operations are carried out independently
of steel production must hea'ily subsidi!e those operations in order to make
them profitable.
LSAT 07 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
-,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The abor force s often organzed as f workers had no famy responsbtes.
Preschoo-age chdren need fu-tme care; chdren n prmary schoo need care
after schoo and durng schoo vacatons. Athough day-care servces can resove
some schedung confcts between home and offce, workers cannot aways fnd
or afford sutabe care. Even when they obtan such care, parents must st cope
wth emergences, such as nesses, that keep chdren at home. Moreover,
chdren need more than tendng; they aso need meanngfu tme wth ther
parents. Conventona fu-tme workdays, especay when combned wth
unavodabe househod dutes, are too nfexbe for parents wth prmary chd-
care responsbty.
Athough a sma but ncreasng number of workng men are snge parents,
those barrers aganst successfu partcpaton n the abor market that are reated
to prmary chd-care responsbtes many dsadvantage women. Even n fames
where both parents work, cutura pressures are tradtonay much greater on
mothers than on fathers to bear the prmary chd-rearng responsbtes.
In reconcng chd-rearng responsbtes wth partcpaton n the abor
market, many workng mothers are forced to make compromses. For exampe,
approxmatey one-thrd of a workng mothers are empoyed ony part-tme, even
though part-tme |obs are dramatcay underpad and often ess desrabe n
comparson to fu-tme empoyment. Even though part-tme work s usuay
avaabe ony n occupatons offerng mnma empoyee responsbty and tte
opportunty for advancement or sef-enrchment, such empoyment does aow
many women the tme and fexbty to fuf ther famy dutes, but ony at the
expense of the advantages assocated wth fu-tme empoyment.
Moreover, even mothers wth fu-tme empoyment must compromse
opportuntes n order to ad|ust to barrers aganst parents n the abor market.
Many choose |obs entang tte chaenge or responsbty or those offerng
fexbe schedung, often avaabe ony n poory pad postons, whe other
workng mothers, athough wng and abe to assume as much responsbty as
peope wthout chdren, fnd that ther need to spend reguar and predctabe tme
wth ther chdren nevtaby causes them to ose career opportuntes to those
wthout such demands. Thus, women n educaton are more key to become
teachers than schoo admnstrators, whose more conventona fu-tme work
schedues do not correspond to the schedues of schoo-age chdren, whe femae
awyers are more key to practce aw n trusts and estates, where they can
contro ther work schedues, than n tgaton, where they cannot.
Nonprofessona women are concentrated n secretara work and department
store saes, where ther absences can be covered easy by substtutes and where
they can enter and eave the work force wth tte oss, snce the |obs offer so tte
persona gan. Indeed, as ong as the abor market remans hoste to parents, and
famy roes contnue to be aocated on the bass of gender, women w be
LSAT -,.
serousy dsadvantaged n that abor market.
1. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) Current trends in the labor force indicate that working parents/ especially
women/ may not always need to choose between occupational and child(care
responsibilities.
(B) 3n order for mothers to ha'e an e"ual opportunity for ad'ancement in the
labor force/ traditional family roles ha'e to be ree$amined and re'ised.
(C) Although single parents who work ha'e to balance parental and career
demands/ single mothers suffer resulting employment disad'antages that
single fathers can almost always a'oid.
() Although child(care responsibilities disad'antage many women in the labor
force/ professional women (such as teachers and lawyers) are better able to
o'ercome this problem than are nonprofessional women.
(#) Traditional work schedules are too infle$ible to accommodate the child(care
responsibilities of many parents/ a fact that se'erely disad'antages women in
the labor force.
2. &hich one of the following statements about part(time work can be inferred from
the information presented in the passage%
(A) 8ne(third of all part(time workers are working mothers.
(B) @art(time work generally offers fewer opportunities for ad'ancement to
working mothers than to women generally.
(C) @art(time work/ in addition to ha'ing relati'ely poor wages/ often re"uires
that employees work during holidays/ when their children are out of school.
() @art(time employment/ despite its disad'antages/ pro'ides working mothers
with an opportunity to address some of the demands of caring for children.
(#) ?any mothers with primary child(care responsibility choose part(time <obs in
order to better e$ploit full(time career opportunities after their children are
grown.
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following statements about working fathers in two(parent
families%
(A) They are e"ually burdened by the employment disad'antages placed upon all
parentsQmale and femaleQin the labor market.
(B) They are so absorbed in their <obs that they often do not see the in<ustice
going on around them.
(C) They are shielded by the traditional allocation of family roles from many of
the pressures associated with child(rearing responsibilities.
() They help compound the ine"uities in the labor market by keeping women
form competing with men for career opportunities.
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(#) They are responsible for many of the problems of working mothers because
of their insistence on traditional roles in the family.
0. 8f the following/ which one would the author most likely say is the most
troublesome barrier facing working parents with primary child(care
responsibility%
(A) the lack of full(time <obs open to women
(B) the infle$ibility of work schedules
(C) the low wages of part(time employment
() the limited ad'ancement opportunities for nonprofessional employees
(#) the practice of allocating responsibilities in the workplace on the basis of
gender
1. The passage suggests that day care is at best a limited solution to the pressures
associated with child rearing for all of the following reasons #DC#@TE
(A) #'en the best day care a'ailable cannot guarantee that children will ha'e
meaningful time with their parents.
(B) ;ome parents cannot afford day(care ser'ices.
(C) &orking parents sometimes ha'e difficulty finding suitable day care for their
children.
() @arents who send their children to day care still need to pro'ide care for their
children during 'acations.
(#) #'en children who are in day care may ha'e to stay home when they are sick.
2. According to the passage/ many working parents may be forced to make any of
the following types of career decisions #DC#@T
(A) declining professional positions for nonprofessional ones/ which typically
ha'e less con'entional work schedules
(B) accepting part(time employment rather than full(time employment
(C) taking <obs with limited responsibility/ and thus more limited career
opportunities/ in order to ha'e a more fle$ible schedule
() pursuing career speciali!ations that allow them to control their work
schedules instead of pursuing a more desirable speciali!ation in the same
field
(#) limiting the career potential of one parent/ often the mother/ who assumes
greater child(care responsibility
-. &hich one of the following statements would most appropriately continue the
discussion at the end of the passage%
(A) At the same time/ most men will remain better able to en<oy the career and
salary opportunities offered by the labor market.
(B) 8f course/ men who are married to working mothers know of these
LSAT -,1
employment barriers but seem unwilling to do anything about them.
(C) 8n the other hand/ salary le'els may become more e"uitable between men
and women e'en if the other career opportunities remain more accessible to
men than to women.
() 8n the contrary/ men with primary child(rearing responsibilities will continue
to en<oy more ad'antages in the workplace than their female counterparts.
(#) Thus/ institutions in society that fa'or men o'er women will continue to
widen the gap between the career opportunities a'ailable for men and for
women.
Crtcs have ong been puzzed by the nner contradctons of ma|or characters
n |ohn Websters tragedes. In hs The -uchess of (alfi, for nstance, the Duchess
s "good" n demonstratng the obvous tenderness and sncerty of her ove for
Antono, but "bad" n gnorng the wshes and wefare of her famy and n makng
regon a "coak" hdng wordy sef-ndugence. Bosoa s "bad" n servng
Ferdnand, "good" n turnng the Duchess thoughts toward heaven and n
pannng to avenge her murder. The ancent Greek phosopher Arstote mped
that such contradctons are vrtuay essenta to the tragc personaty, and yet
crtcs keep comng back to ths eement of nconsstency as though t were an
eccentrc feature of Websters own tragc vson.
The probem s that, as an Ezabethan paywrght, Webster has become a
prsoner of our crtca presuppostons. We have, n recent years, been dazzed by
the way the earer Renassance and medeva theater, partcuary the moraty
pay, umnates Ezabethan drama. We now understand how the habt of mnd
that saw the word as a batteground between good and ev produced the
moraty pay. Moraty pays aegorzed that confct by presentng characters
whose actons were defned as the embodment of good or ev. Ths mode of
reaty ved on, overad by dfferent conventons, n the most sophstcated
Ezabethan works of the foowng age. Yet Webster seems not to have been as
heavy nfuenced by the moraty pays mode of reaty as were hs Ezabethan
contemporares; he was apparenty more senstve to the more moray
compcated Itaan drama than to these Engsh sources. Consequenty, hs
characters cannot be evauated accordng to reductve formuas of good and ev,
whch s precsey what modern crtcs have tred to do. They choose what seem to
be the most promsng of the contradctor vaues that are dramatzed n the pay,
and treat those vaues as f they were the ony bass for anayzng the mora
deveopment of the pays ma|or characters, attrbutng the nconsstences n a
characters behavor to artstc ncompetence on Websters part. The ack of
consstency n Websters characters can be better understood f we recognze that
the ambguty at the heart of hs tragc vson es not n the externa word but n
the duaty of human nature. Webster estabshes tenson n hs pays by settng
up confctng systems of vaue that appear mmora ony when one vaue system
s vewed excusvey from the perspectve of the other. He presents us not ony
-,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
wth characters that we condemn nteectuay or ethcay and at the same tme
mpusvey approve of, but aso wth |udgments we must accept as ogcay
sound and yet fnd emotonay repusve. The demma s not ony dramatc: t s
tragc, because the confct s rreconcabe, and because t s ours as much as
that of the characters.
6. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) clarify an ambiguous assertion
(B) pro'ide e'idence in support of a commonly held 'iew
(C) analy!e an unresol'ed "uestion and propose an answer
() offer an alternati'e to a flawed interpretation
(#) describe and categori!e opposing 'iewpoints
,. The author suggests which one of the following about the dramatic works that
most influenced &ebster4s tragedies%
(A) They were not concerned with dramati!ing the conflict between good and e'il
that was presented in morality plays.
(B) They were not as sophisticated as the 3talian sources from which other
#li!abethan tragedies were deri'ed.
(C) They ha'e ne'er been ade"uately understood by critics.
() They ha'e only recently been used to illuminate the con'entions of
#li!abethan drama.
(#) They ha'e been considered by many critics to be the reason for &ebster4s
apparent artistic incompetence.
15. The author4s allusion to Aristotle4s 'iew of tragedy in lines 11(1. ser'es which
one of the following functions in the passage%
(A) 3t introduces a commonly held 'iew of &ebster4s tragedies that the author
plans to defend.
(B) 3t supports the author4s suggestion that &ebster4s conception of tragedy is not
idiosyncratic.
(C) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of an approach to &ebster4s tragedies that the author
critici!es.
() 3t establishes the similarity between classical and modern approaches to
tragedy.
(#) 3t supports the author4s assertion that #li!abethan tragedy cannot be fully
understood without the help of recent scholarship.
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that modern critics4 interpretations of
&ebster4s tragedies would be more 'alid if
(A) the ambiguity inherent in &ebster4s tragic 'ision resulted from the duality of
human nature
LSAT -,-
(B) &ebster4s conception of the tragic personality were similar to that of Aristotle
(C) &ebster had been hea'ily influenced by the morality play
() #li!abethan dramatists had been more sensiti'e to 3talian sources of influence
(#) the inner conflicts e$hibited by &ebster4s characters were similar to those of
modern audiences
12. &ith which one of the following statements regarding #li!abethan drama would
the author be most likely to agree%
(A) The skill of #li!abethan dramatists has in recent years been o'erestimated.
(B) The con'entions that shaped #li!abethan drama are best e$emplified by
&ebster4s drama.
(C) #li!abethan drama/ for the most part/ can be 'iewed as being hea'ily
influenced by the morality play.
() 8nly by carefully e$amining the work of his #li!abethan contemporaries can
&ebster4s achie'ement as a dramatist be accurately measured.
(#) #li!abethan drama can best be described as influenced by a composite of
3talian and classical sources.
1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most modern critics assume which one of
the following in their interpretation of &ebster4s tragedies%
(A) &ebster4s play tended to allegori!e the conflict between good and e'il more
than did those of his contemporaries.
(B) &ebster4s plays were deri'ed more from 3talian than from #nglish sources.
(C) The artistic flaws in &ebster4s tragedies were largely the result of his
ignorance of the classical definition of tragedy.
() &ebster4s tragedies pro'ide no rele'ant basis for analy!ing the moral
de'elopment of their characters.
(#) 3n writing his tragedies/ &ebster was influenced by the same sources as his
contemporaries.
10. The author implies that &ebster4s conception of tragedy was
(A) artistically flawed
(B) highly con'entional
(C) largely deri'ed from the morality play
() somewhat different from the con'entional #li!abethan conception of tragedy
(#) uninfluenced by the classical conception of tragedy
Cutvaton of a snge crop on a gven tract of and eads eventuay to
decreased yeds. One reason for ths s that harmfu bactera phytopathogens,
organsms parastc on pant hosts, ncrease n the so surroundng pant roots.
The probem can be cured by crop rotaton, denyng the pathogens a sutabe host
for a perod of tme. However, even f crops are not rotated, the severty of
-,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
dseases brought on by such phytopathogens often decreases after a number of
years as the mcroba popuaton of the so changes and the so becomes
"suppressve" to those dseases. Whe there may be many reasons for ths
phenomenon, t s cear that eves of certan bactera, such as Pseudomonas
fluorescens, a bacterum antagonstc to a number of harmfu phytopathogens, are
greater n suppressve than n nonsuppressve so. Ths suggests that the
presence of such bactera suppresses phytopathogens. There s now consderabe
expermenta support for ths vew. Wheat yed ncreases of 27 percent have been
obtaned n fed tras by treatment of wheat seeds wth fuorescent
pseudomonads. Smar treatment of sugar beets, cotton, and potatoes has had
smar resuts.
These mprovements n crop yeds through the appcaton of Pseudomonas
fluorescens suggest that agrcuture coud beneft from the use of bactera
genetcay atered for specfc purposes. For exampe, a form of phytopathogen
atered to remove ts harmfu propertes coud be reeased nto the envronment n
quanttes favorabe to ts competng wth and eventuay excudng the harmfu
norma stran. Some experments suggest that deberatey reeasng atered
nonpathogenc Pseudomonas syringae coud crowd out the nonatered varety that
causes frost damage. Opponents of such research have ob|ected that the
deberate and arge-scae reease of genetcay atered bactera mght have
deeterous resuts. Proponents, on the other hand, argue that ths partcuar stran
s atered ony by the remova of the gene responsbe for the strans propensty
to cause frost damage, thereby renderng t safer than the phytopathogen from
whch t was derved.
Some proponents have gone further and suggest that genetc ateraton
technques coud create organsms wth totay new combnatons of desrabe
trats not found n nature. For exampe, genes responsbe for producton of
nsectcda compounds have been transposed from other bactera nto
pseudomonads that coonze corn roots. Experments of ths knd are dffcut and
requre great care: such bactera are deveoped n hghy artfca envronments
and may not compete we wth natura so bactera. Nevertheess, proponents
contend that the prospects for mproved agrcuture through such methods seem
exceent. These prospects ead many to hope that current efforts to assess the
rsks of deberate reease of atered mcroorgansms w successfuy answer the
concerns of opponents and create a cmate n whch such research can go
forward wthout undue mpedment.
11. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) =ecent field e$periments with genetically altered @seudomonas bacteria ha'e
shown that releasing genetically altered bacteria into the en'ironment would
not in'ol'e any significant danger.
(B) #ncouraged by current research/ ad'ocates of agricultural use of genetically
altered bacteria are optimistic that such use will e'entually result in
LSAT -,,
impro'ed agriculture/ though opponents remain wary.
(C) Current research indicates that adding genetically altered Pseudo-onas
syringae bacteria to the soil surrounding crop plant roots will ha'e many
beneficial effects/ such as the pre'ention of frost damage in certain crops.
() Benetic alteration of a number of harmful phytopathogens has been
ad'ocated by many researchers who contend that these techni"ues will
e'entually replace such outdated methods as crop rotation.
(#) Benetic alteration of bacteria has been successful in highly artificial
laboratory conditions/ but opponents of such research ha'e argued that these
techni"ues are unlikely to produce organisms that are able to sur'i'e in
natural en'ironments.
12. The author discusses naturally occurring Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria in the
first paragraph primarily in order to do which one of the following%
(A) pro'e that increases in the le'el of such bacteria in the soil are the sole cause
of soil suppressi'ity
(B) e$plain why yields increased after wheat fields were sprayed with altered
Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria
(C) detail the chemical processes that such bacteria use to suppress organisms
parasitic to crop plants/ such as wheat/ sugar beets/ and potatoes
() pro'ide background information to support the argument that research into
the agricultural use of genetically altered bacteria would be fruitful
(#) argue that crop rotation is unnecessary/ since diseases brought on by
phytopathogens diminish in se'erity and e'entually disappear on their own
1-. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of Pseudo-onas +luorescens
bacteria that which one of the following would be true of crops imper'ious to
parasitical organisms%
(A) Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria would be absent from the soil surrounding
their roots.
(B) They would crowd out and e'entually e$clude other crop plants if their
growth were not carefully regulated.
(C) Their yield would not be likely to be impro'ed by adding Pseudo-onas
+luorescens bacteria to the soil.
() They would mature more "uickly than crop plants that were susceptible to
parasitical organisms.
(#) Ke'els of phytopathogenic bacteria in the soil surrounding their roots would
be higher compared with other crop plants.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that crop rotation can increase yields in part
because
(A) mo'ing crop plants around makes them hardier and more resistant to disease
655 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) the number of Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria in the soil usually increases
when crops are rotated
(C) the roots of many crop plants produce compounds that are antagonistic to
phytopathogens harmful to other crop plants
() the presence of phytopathogenic bacteria is responsible for the ma<ority of
plant diseases
(#) phytopathogens typically attack some plant species but find other species to
be unsuitable hosts
1,. According to the passage/ proponents of the use of genetically altered bacteria in
agriculture argue that which one of the following is true of the altered bacteria
used in the frost(damage e$periments%
(A) The altered bacteria had a genetic constitution differing from that of the
normal strain only in that the altered 'ariety had one less gene.
(B) Although the altered bacteria competed effecti'ely with the nonaltered strain
in the laboratory/ they were not as 'iable in natural en'ironments.
(C) The altered bacteria were much safer and more effecti'e than the naturally
occurring Pseudo-onas +luorescens bacteria used in earlier e$periments.
() The altered bacteria were antagonistic to se'eral types of naturally occurring
phytopathogens in the soil surrounding the roots of frost(damaged crops.
(#) The altered bacteria were released into the en'ironment in numbers sufficient
to guarantee the 'alidity of e$perimental results.
25. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously weaken the proponents4
argument regarding the safety of using altered Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria to
control frost damage%
(A) Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria are primiti'e and ha'e a simple genetic
constitution.
(B) The altered bacteria are deri'ed from a strain that is parasitic to plants and
can cause damage to crops.
(C) Current genetic(engineering techni"ues permit the large(scale commercial
production of such bacteria.
() 8ften genes whose presence is responsible for one harmful characteristic
must be present in order to pre'ent other harmful characteristics.
(#) The frost(damage e$periments with Pseudo-onas syringae bacteria indicate
that the altered 'ariety would only replace the normal strain if released in
sufficient numbers.
In 1887 the Dawes Act egsated wde-scae prvate ownershp of reservaton
ands n the Unted States for Natve Amercans. The act aotted pots of 80 acres
to each Natve Amercan adut. However, the Natve Amercans were not granted
outrght tte to ther ands. The act defned each grant as a "trust patent,"
meanng that the Bureau of Indan Affars (BIA), the governmenta agency n
LSAT 651
charge of admnsterng pocy regardng Natve Amercans, woud hod the
aotted and n trust for 25 years, durng whch tme the Natve Amercan owners
coud use, but not aenate (se) the and. After the 25-year perod, the Natve
Amercan aottee woud receve a "fee patent" awardng fu ega ownershp of
the and.
Two man reasons were advanced for the restrcton on the Natve Amercans
abty to se ther ands. Frst, t was camed that free aenabty woud ead to
mmedate transfer of arge amounts of former reservaton and to non-Natve
Amercans, consequenty threatenng the tradtona way of fe on those
reservatons. A second ob|ecton to free aenaton was that Natve Amercans
were unaccustomed to, and dd not desre, a system of prvate andownershp.
Ther custom, t was sad, favored communa use of and.
However, both of these arguments bear ony on the transfer of Natve
Amercan ands to non-Natve Amercans: nether offers a reason for prohbtng
Natve Amercans from transferrng and among themseves. Seng and to each
other woud not threaten the Natve Amercan cuture. Addtonay, f communa
and use remaned preferabe to Natve Amercans after aotment, free aenabty
woud have aowed aottees to se ther ands back to the trbe.
When stated ratonaes for government poces prove empty, usng an
nterest-group mode often provdes an expanaton. Whe nether Natve
Amercans nor the potenta non-Natve Amercan purchasers benefted from the
restrant on aenaton contaned n the Dawes Act, one ceary defned group dd
beneft: the BIA bureaucrats. It has been convncngy demonstrated that
bureaucrats seek to maxmze the sze of ther staffs and ther budgets n order to
compensate for the ack of other sources of fufment, such as power and
prestge. Addtonay, potcans tend to favor the growth of governmenta
bureaucracy because such growth provdes ncreased opportunty for the exercse
of potca patronage. The restrant on aenaton vasty ncreased the amount of
work, and hence the budgets, necessary to mpement the statute. Unt aotment
was ended n 1934, grantng fee patents and easng Natve Amercan ands were
among the prncpa actvtes of the Unted States government. One hypothess,
then, for the temporary restrcton on aenaton n the Dawes Act s that t
refected a compromse between non-Natve Amercans favorng mmedate
aenabty so they coud purchase and and the BIA bureaucrats who
admnstered the prvatzaton system.
21. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) :nited ;tates go'ernment policy toward 9ati'e Americans has tended to
disregard their needs and consider instead the needs of non(9ati'e American
purchasers of land.
(B) 3n order to preser'e the uni"ue way of life on 9ati'e American reser'ations/
use of 9ati'e American lands must be communal rather than indi'idual.
(C) The awes Act4s restriction on the right of 9ati'e Americans to sell their land
652 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
may ha'e been implemented primarily to ser'e the interests of politicians
and bureaucrats.
() The clause restricting free alienability in the awes Act greatly e$panded
:nited ;tates go'ernmental acti'ity in the area of land administration.
(#) ;ince passage of the awes Act in 166-/ 9ati'e Americans ha'e not been
able to sell or transfer their former reser'ation land freely.
22. &hich one of the following statements concerning the reason for the end of
allotment/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for the author4s 'iew of
politicians%
(A) @oliticians reali!ed that allotment was damaging the 9ati'e American way of
life.
(B) @oliticians decided that allotment would be more congruent with the 9ati'e
American custom of communal land use.
(C) @oliticians belie'ed that allotment4s continuation would not enhance their
opportunities to e$ercise patronage.
() @oliticians felt that the staff and budgets of the B3A had grown too large.
(#) @oliticians were concerned that too much 9ati'e American land was falling
into the hands of non(9ati'e Americans.
2.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) The passage of a law is analy!ed in detail/ the benefits and drawbacks of one
of its clauses are studied/ and a final assessment of the law is offered.
(B) The history of a law is narrated/ the effects of one of its clauses on 'arious
populations are studied/ and repeal of the law is ad'ocated
(C) A law is e$amined/ the political and social backgrounds of one of its clauses
are characteri!ed/ and the permanent effects of the law are studied.
() A law is described/ the rationale put forward for one of its clauses is outlined
and dismissed/ and a different rationale for the clause is presented.
(#) The legal status of an ethnic group is e$amined with respect to issues of
landownership and commercial autonomy/ and the benefits to ri'al groups
due to that status are e$plained.
20. The author4s attitude toward the reasons ad'anced for the restriction on
alienability in the awes Act at the time of its passage can best be described as
(A) completely credulous
(B) partially appro'ing
(C) basically indecisi'e
() mildly "uestioning
(#) highly skeptical
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following was true of
LSAT 65.
9ati'e American life immediately before passage of the awes Act%
(A) ?ost 9ati'e Americans supported themsel'es through farming.
(B) 9ot many 9ati'e Americans personally owned the land on which they li'ed.
(C) The land on which most 9ati'e Americans li'ed had been bought from their
tribes.
() >ew 9ati'e Americans had much contact with their non(9ati'e American
neighbors.
(#) >ew 9ati'e Americans were willing to sell their land to non(9ati'e
Americans.
22. According to the passage/ the type of landownership initially obtainable by
9ati'e Americans under the awes Act differed from the type of ownership
obtainable after a 21(year period in that only the latter allowed
(A) owners of land to farm it
(B) owners of land to sell it
(C) go'ernment some control o'er how owners disposed of land
() owners of land to build on it with relati'ely minor go'ernmental restrictions
(#) go'ernment to charge owners a fee for de'eloping their land
2-. &hich of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen the author4s argument
regarding the true moti'ation for the passage of the awes Act%
(A) The legislators who 'oted in fa'or of the awes Act owned land ad<acent to
9ati'e American reser'ations.
(B) The ma<ority of 9ati'e Americans who were granted fee patents did not sell
their land back to their tribes.
(C) 9ati'e Americans managed to preser'e their traditional culture e'en when
they were geographically dispersed.
() The legislators who 'oted in fa'or of the awes Act were hea'ily influenced
by B3A bureaucrats.
(#) 9on(9ati'e Americans who purchased the ma<ority of 9ati'e American lands
consolidated them into larger farm holdings.
LSAT 0' SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 2' &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The aw-and-terature movement cams to have ntroduced a vauabe
pedagogca nnovaton nto ega study: nstructng students n technques of
650 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
terary anayss for the purpose of nterpretng aws and n the recproca use of
ega anayss for the purpose of nterpretng terary texts. The resuts, accordng
to advocates, are not ony conceptua breakthroughs n both aw and terature but
aso more senstve and humane awyers. Whatever the truth of ths ast cam,
there can be no doubt that the movement s a success: aw-and-terature s an
accepted sub|ect n aw |ournas and n eadng aw schoos. Indeed, one ndcaton
of the movements strength s the fact that ts most dstngushed crtc, Rchard A.
Posner, paradoxcay ends up expressng quafed support for the movement n a
recent study n whch he systematcay refutes the wrtngs of ts eadng ega
schoars and cooperatng terary crtcs.
Crtqung the movements assumpton that awyers can offer speca nsghts
nto terature that deas wth ega matters, Posner ponts out that wrters of
terature use the aw oosey to convey a partcuar dea or as a metaphor for the
workngs of the socety envsoned n ther fcton. Lega questons per se, about
whch a awyer mght nstruct readers, are sedom at ssue n terature. Ths s
why practtoners of aw-and-terature end up dscussng the aw tsef far ess
than one mght suppose. Movement eader |ames Whte, for exampe, n hs
dscusson of arguments n the )liad, barey touches on aw, and then so generay
as to render hmsef vunerabe to Posners devastatng remark that "any
argument can be anaogzed to a ega dspute."
Smary, the noton that terary crtcsm can be hepfu n nterpretng aw s
probematc. Posner argues that terary crtcsm n genera ams at exporng
rchness and varety of meanng n texts, whereas ega nterpretaton ams at
dscoverng a snge meanng. A terary approach can thus ony confuse the task
of nterpretng the aw, especay f one adopts current fashons ke
deconstruction, whch hods that a texts are nherenty unnterpretabe.
Nevertheess, Posner wrtes that aw-and-terature s a fed wth "promse".
Why? Perhaps, recognzng the success of a movement that, n the past, has
snged hm out for abuse, he s attemptng to appease hs detractors, payng
obesance to the movements nsttutona success by decarng that t "deserves a
pace n ega research" whe eavng t to others to draw the concuson from hs
cogent anayss that t s an entrey facttous undertakng, deservng of no
nteectua respect whatsoever. As a resut, hs work stands both as a rebutta of
aw-and-terature and as a trbute to the power t has come to exercse n
academc crces.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) assess the law(and(literature mo'ement by e$amining the position of one of
its most prominent critics
(B) assert that a mutually beneficial relationship e$ists between the study of law
and the study of literature
(C) pro'ide e$amples of the law(and(literature mo'ement in practice by
discussing the work of its proponents
LSAT 651
() dismiss a prominent critics recent study of the law(and(literature mo'ement
(#) describe the role played by literary scholars in pro'iding a broader conte$t for
legal issues
2. @osner4s stated position with regard to the law(and(literature mo'ement is most
analogous to which one of the following%
(A) a musician who is trained in the classics but fre"uently plays modern music
while performing on stage
(B) a partisan who transfers allegiance to a new political party that demonstrates
more promise but has fewer documented accomplishments
(C) a sports fan who wholeheartedly supports the team most likely to win rather
than his or her personal fa'orite
() an ideologue who remains committed to his or her own 'iew of a sub<ect in
spite of compelling e'idence to the contrary
(#) a salesperson who describes the faults in a fashionable product while
conceding that it may ha'e some 'alue
.. The passage suggests that @osner regards legal practitioners as using an approach
to interpreting law that
(A) eschews disco'ery of multiple meanings
(B) employs techni"ues like deconstruction
(C) interprets laws in light of 'arying community standards
() is informed by the positions of literary critics
(#) de(emphasi!es the social rele'ance of the legal tradition
0. The @assage suggests that @osner might find legal training useful in the
interpretation of a literary te$t in which
(A) a legal dispute symboli!es the relationship between two characters
(B) an oppressi'e law is used to symboli!e an oppressi'e culture
(C) one of the key issues in'ol'es the answer to a legal "uestion
() a legal contro'ersy is used to represent a moral conflict
(#) the working of the legal system suggests something about the political
character of a society
1. The author uses the word *success+ in line 11 to refer to the law(and(literature
mo'ement4s
(A) positi'e effect on the sensiti'ity of lawyers
(B) widespread acceptance by law schools and law <ournals
(C) ability to offer fresh insights into literary te$ts
() ability to encourage inno'ati'e approaches in two disciplines
(#) response to recent criticism in law <ournals
652 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2. According to the passage/ @osner argues that legal analysis is not generally useful
in interpreting literature because
(A) use of the law in literature is generally of a "uite different nature than use of
the law in legal practice
(B) law is rarely used to con'ey important ideas in literature
(C) lawyers do not ha'e enough literary training to analy!e literature competently
() legal interpretations of literature tend to focus on legal issues to the e$clusion
of other important elements
(#) legal interpretations are only rele'ant to contemporary literature
-. According to @osner/ the primary difficulty in using literary criticism to interpret
law is that
(A) the goals of the two disciplines are incompatible
(B) there are few ad'ocates for the law(and(literature mo'ement in the literary
profession
(C) the task of interpreting law is too comple$ for the techni"ues of literary
criticism
() the interpretation of law relies hea'ily on legal precedent
(#) legal scholars are reluctant to adopt the practice in the classroom
A recent generaton of hstorans of scence, far from portrayng accepted
scentfc vews as ob|ectvey accurate refectons of a natura word, expan the
acceptance of such vews n terms of the deoogca bases of certan nfuenta
scentsts or the nsttutona and rhetorca power such scentsts wed. As an
exampe of deoogca bas, t has been argued that Pasteur re|ected the theory of
spontaneous generaton not because of expermenta evdence but because he
re|ected the materast deoogy mpct n that doctrne. These hstorans seem to
fnd aes n certan phosophers of scence who argue that scentfc vews are
not mposed by reaty but are free nventons of creatve mnds, and that
scentfc cams are never more than brave con|ectures, aways sub|ect to
nevtabe future fasfcaton. Whe these phosophers of scence themseves
woud not be key to have much truck wth the recent hstorans, t s an easy
step from ther vews to the extremsm of the hstorans.
Whe ths re|ecton of the tradtona beef that scentfc vews are ob|ectve
refectons of the word may be fashonabe, t s deepy mpausbe. We now
know, for exampe, that water s made of hydrogen and oxygen and that parents
each contrbute one-haf of ther chdrens compement of genes. I do not beeve
any serous-mnded and nformed person can cam that these statements are not
factua descrptons of the word or that they w nevtaby be fasfed.
However, scences accumuaton of astng truths about the word s not by
any means a straghtforward matter. We certany need to get beyond the nave
vew that the truth w automatcay revea tsef to any scentst who ooks n the
LSAT 65-
rght drecton; most often, n fact, a whoe seres of pror dscoveres s needed to
tease reatys truths from experment and observaton. And the phosophers of
scence mentoned above are qute rght to argue that new scentfc deas often
correct od ones by ndcatng errors and mprecson (as, say, Newtons deas dd
to Kepers). Nor woud I deny that there are nterestng questons to be answered
about the soca processes n whch scentfc actvty s embedded. The
persuasve processes by whch partcuar scentfc groups estabsh ther
expermenta resuts as authortatve are themseves soca actvtes and can be
rewardngy studed as such. Indeed, much of the new work n the hstory of
scence has been extremey reveang about the nsttutona nteractons and
rhetorca devces that hep determne whose resuts acheve promnence.
But one can accept a ths wthout acceptng the thess that natura reaty
never pays any part at a n determnng what scentsts beeve. What the new
hstorans ought to be showng us s how those doctrnes that do n fact ft reaty
work ther way through the compex soca processes of scentfc actvty to
eventuay receve genera scentfc acceptance.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following characteri!ations of scientific truth%
(A) 3t is often implausible.
(B) 3t is sub<ect to ine'itable falsification.
(C) 3t is rarely ob'ious and transparent.
() 3t is rarely disco'ered by creati'e processes.
(#) 3t is less often established by e$perimentation than by the rhetorical power of
scientists.
,. According to the passage/ Mepler4s ideas pro'ide an e$ample of scientific ideas
that were
(A) corrected by subse"uent in"uiries
(B) dependent on a series of prior obser'ations
(C) originally thought to be imprecise and then later confirmed
() established primarily by the force of an indi'iduals rhetorical power
(#) specifically taken up for the purpose of falsification by later scientists
15. 3n the third paragraph of the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) presenting conflicting e$planations for a phenomenon
(B) suggesting a field for possible future research
(C) "ualifying a pre'iously e$pressed point of 'iew
() pro'iding an answer to a theoretical "uestion
(#) attacking the assumptions that underlie a set of beliefs
11. The use of the words *any serious(minded and informed person4 (lines 26(2,)
656 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
ser'es which one of the following functions in the conte$t of the passage%
(A) to satiri!e chronologically earlier notions about the composition of water
(B) to reinforce a pre'iously stated opinion about certain philosophers of science
(C) to suggest the author4s reser'ations about the *traditional belief+ mentioned
in line 22
() to anticipate ob<ections from someone who would argue for an ob<ecti'ely
accurate description of the world
(#) to discredit someone who would argue that certain scientific assertions do not
factually describe reality
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements about the relationship between the 'iews
of *certain philosophers of science+ (lines l2(1.) and those of the recent
historians%
(A) These two 'iews are difficult to differentiate.
(B) These two 'iews share some similarities.
(C) The 'iews of the philosophers ought to be seen as the source of the historians4
'iews.
() Both 'iews emphasi!e the rhetorical power of scientists.
(#) The historians e$plicitly acknowledge that their 'iews are indebted to those of
the philosophers.
1.. &hich one of the following best characteri!es the author4s assessment of the
opinions of the new historians of science/ as these opinions are presented in the
passage%
(A) They lack any credibility.
(B) They themsel'es can be rewardingly studied as social phenomena.
(C) They are least con'incing when they concern the actions of scientific groups.
() Although they are gross o'erstatements/ they lead to some 'aluable insights.
(#) Although they are now popular/ they are likely to be refused soon.
10. 3n concluding the passage/ the author does which one of the following%
(A) offers a prescription
(B) presents a parado$
(C) makes a prediction
() concedes an argument
(#) anticipates ob<ections
11. The authors attitude toward the *thesis+ mentioned in line 12 is re'ealed in which
one of the following pairs of words%
(A) *biases+ (line 1) and *rhetorical+ (line 2)
LSAT 65,
(B) *wield+ (line -) and *falsification+ (line 1-)
(C) *con<ectures+ (line l2) and *truck with+ (line 1,)
() *e$tremism+ (line 25) and *implausible+ (line 20)
(#) *nai'e+ (line .1) and *errors4 (line 02)
Unt recenty, t was thought that the Cherokee, a Natve Amercan trbe, were
compeed to assmate Euro-Amercan cuture durng the 1820s. Durng that
decade, t was supposed, Whte mssonares arrved and, together wth ther part-
Cherokee ntermedares, mposed the benefts of "cvzaton" on Cherokee trbes
whe the Unted States government actvey promoted accuturazaton by
encouragng the Cherokee to swtch from huntng to setted agrcuture. Ths vew
was based on the assumpton that the end of a Natve Amercan groups economc
and potca autonomy woud automatcay mean the end of ts cutura autonomy
as we.
Wam G. McLaughn has recenty argued that not ony dd Cherokee cuture
foursh durng and after the 1820s, but the Cherokee themseves actvey and
contnuay reshaped ther cuture. Mssonares dd have a decsve mpact durng
these years, he argues, but that mpact was far from what t was ntended to be.
The mssonares tendency to cater to the nterests of an accuturatng part-
Cherokee ete (who comprsed the buk of ther converts) at the expense of the
more tradtonast fu-Cherokee ma|orty created great ntratrba tensons. As the
ete ntated reforms desgned to egtmze ther own and the Cherokee Natons
pace n the new repubc of the Unted States, antmsson Cherokee reacted by
fosterng revvas of tradtona regous beefs and practces. However, these
revvas dd not, accordng to McLaughn, undermne the etst reforms, but
suppemented them wth popuar tradtonast counterparts.
Tradtonast Cherokee dd not re|ect the etst reforms outrght, McLaughn
argues, smpy because they recognzed that there was more than one way to use
the sks the mssonares coud provde them. As he quotes one group as sayng,
"We want our chdren to earn Engsh so that the Whte man cannot cheat us."
Many tradtonasts Cherokee wecomed the mssonares for another reason: they
perceved that t woud be usefu to have Whte aes. In the end, McLaughn
asserts, most members of the Cherokee counc, ncudng tradtonasts,
supported a move whch preserved many of the reforms of the part-Cherokee ete
but mted the actvtes and nfuence of the mssonares and other Whte
setters. Accordng to McLaughn, the dentty and cuture that resuted were
dstnctvey Cherokee, yet refected the arger potca and soca settng n whch
they fourshed.
Because hs work concentrates on the nneteenth century, McLaughn
unfortunatey overooks earer sources of nfuence, such as eghteen-century
Whte resdent traders and neghbors, thus obscurng the reatve mpact of the
mssonares of the 1820s n contrbutng to both accuturazaton and resstance
to t among the Cherokee. However, McLaughn s undoubtedy correct n
615 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
recognzng that cuture s an ongong process rather than a statc entty, and he
has made a sgnfcant contrbuton to our understandng of how Cherokee cuture
changed whe retanng ts essenta dentty after confrontng the mssonares.
12. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ?cKaughlin4s studies of the impact of missionaries on Cherokee culture
during the 1625s are fundamentally flawed/ since ?cKaughlin ignores the
greater impact of &hite resident traders in the eighteenth century.
(B) Though his work is limited in perspecti'e/ ?cKaughlin is substantially
correct that changes in Cherokee culture in the 1625s were mediated by the
Cherokee themsel'es rather than simply imposed by the missionaries.
(C) Although ?cKaughlin is correct in asserting that cultural changes among the
Cherokee were autonomous and so not a result of the presence of
missionaries/ he o'eremphasi!es the role of intertribal conflicts.
() ?cKaughlin has shown that Cherokee culture not only flourished during and
after the 1625s/ but that changes in Cherokee culture during this time
de'eloped naturally from elements already present in Cherokee culture.
(#) Although ?cKaughlin o'erlooks a number of rele'ant factors in Cherokee
cultural change in the 1625s/ he con'incingly demonstrates that these
changes were fostered primarily by missionaries.
1-. &hich one of the following statements regarding the Cherokee council in the
1625s can be inferred from the passage%
(A) ?embers of the Cherokee council were elected democratically by the entire
Cherokee 9ation.
(B) 3n order for a policy to come into effect for the Cherokee 9ation/ it had to
ha'e been appro'ed by a unanimous 'ote of the Cherokee council.
(C) espite the fact that the Cherokee were dominated politically and
economically by the :nited ;tates in the 1625s/ the Cherokee council was
able to o'erride policies set by the :nited ;tates go'ernment.
() Though it did not ha'e complete autonomy in go'erning the Cherokee
9ation/ it was able to set some policies affecting the acti'ities of &hite
people li'ing in tribal areas.
(#) The proportions of traditionalist and acculturating Cherokee in the Cherokee
council were determined by the proportions of traditionalist and
acculturating Cherokee in the Cherokee population.
16. &hich one of the following statements regarding the attitudes of traditionalist
Cherokee toward the reforms that were instituted in the 1625s can be inferred
from the passage%
(A) They supported the reforms merely as a way of placating the increasingly
'ocal acculturating elite.
(B) They thought that the reforms would lead to the destruction of traditional
LSAT 611
Cherokee culture but felt powerless to stop the reforms.
(C) They supported the reforms only because they thought that they were
ine'itable and it was better that the reforms appear to ha'e been initiated by
the Cherokee themsel'es.
() They belie'ed that the reforms were a natural e$tension of already e$isting
Cherokee traditions.
(#) They 'iewed the reforms as a means of preser'ing the Cherokee 9ation and
protecting it against e$ploitation.
1,. According to the passage/ ?cKaughlin cites which one of the following as a
contributing factor in the re'i'al of traditional religious beliefs among the
Cherokee in the 1625s%
(A) ?issionaries were gaining con'erts at an increasing rate as the 1625s
progressed.
(B) The traditionalist Cherokee ma<ority thought that most of the reforms initiated
by the missionaries4 con'erts would corrupt Cherokee culture.
(C) ?issionaries unintentionally created conflict among the Cherokee by fa'oring
the interests of the acculturating elite at the e$pense of the more traditionalist
ma<ority.
() Traditionalist Cherokee recogni!ed that only some of the reforms instituted
by a small Cherokee elite would be beneficial to all Cherokee.
(#) A small group of Cherokee con'erted by missionaries attempted to institute
reforms designed to ac"uire political supremacy for themsel'es in the
Cherokee council.
25. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine
?cKaughlin4s account of the course of reform among the Cherokee during the
1625s%
(A) Traditionalist Cherokee gained control o'er the ma<ority of seats on the
Cherokee council during the 1625s.
(B) The :nited ;tates go'ernment took an acti'e interest in political and cultural
de'elopments within 9ati'e American tribes.
(C) The missionaries li'ing among the Cherokee in the 1625s were strongly in
fa'or of the cultural reforms initiated by the acculturating elite.
() =e'i'als of traditional Cherokee religious beliefs and practices began late in
the eighteenth century/ before the missionaries arri'ed.
(#) The acculturating Cherokee elite of the 1625s did not 'iew the reforms they
initiated as beneficial to all Cherokee.
21. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of ?cKaughlin4s 'iews that the
author thinks that Cherokee acculturali!ation in the 1625s
(A) was re'ersed in the decades following the 1625s
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(B) may ha'e been part of an already(e$isting process of acculturali!ation
(C) could ha'e been the result of earlier contacts with missionaries
() would not ha'e occurred without the encouragement of the :nited ;tates
go'ernment
(#) was primarily a result of the influence of &hite traders li'ing near the
Cherokee
In the hstory of nneteenth-century andscape pantng n the Unted States,
the Lumnsts are dstngushed by ther focus on atmosphere and ght. The
accepted vew of Lumnst pantngs s that they are bascay sprtua and mpy a
tranqu mystcsm that contrasts wth earer Amercan artsts concept of nature
as dynamc and energetc. Accordng to ths vew, the Lumnst atmosphere,
characterzed by "pure and constant ght," gudes the onooker toward a ucd
transcendentasm, an deazed vson of the word.
What ths vew fas to do s to dentfy the true sgnfcance of ths
transcendenta atmosphere n Lumnst pantngs. The prosac factors that are
reveaed by a coser examnaton of these works suggest that the gowng
appearance of nature n Lumnsm s actuay a sgn of natures domestcaton, ts
adaptaton to human use. The deazed Lumnst atmosphere thus seems to
convey, not an ntensfcaton of human responses to nature, but rather a mutng
of those emotons, ke awe and fear, whch untamed nature ects.
One crtc, n descrbng the sprtua quaty of harbor scenes by Ftz Hugh
Lane, an mportant Lumnst, carefuy notes that "at the peak of Lumnst
deveopment n the 1850s and 1860s, sprtuasm n Amerca was extremey
wdespread." It s aso true, however, that the 1850s and 1860s were a tme of
trade expanson. From 1848 unt hs death n 1865, Lane ved n a house wth a
vew of the harbor of Goucester, Massachusetts, and he made short trps to
Mane, New York, Batmore, and probaby Puerto Rco. In a of these paces he
panted the harbors wth ther shps-the nstruments of expandng trade.
Lane usuay depcts paces ke New York Harbor, wth shps at anchor, but
even when he depcts more remote, ess commercay actve harbors, nature
appears pastora and domestcated rather than prmtve or unexpored. The shps,
rather than the surroundng andscapes-ncudng the sea-are generay the
actve eement n hs pctures. For Lane the sea s, n effect, a cana or a trade
route for commerca actvty, not a free powerfu eement, as t s n the eary
pctures of hs predecessor, Coe. For Lane nature s subdued, even when storms
are approachng; thus, the sea s aways a vabe hghway for the transport of
goods. In sum, I consder Lanes sea smpy an envronment for human actvty-
nature no onger nvoate. The umnescence that Lane pants symbozes natures
humbed state, for the ght tsef s as doce as the Lumnst sea, and ts
tranquty n a sense sgnfes no more than good condtons on the hghway to
progress. Progress, probaby even more than transcendence, s the secret
message of Lumnsm. In a sense, Lumnst pctures are an deoogca |ustfcaton
LSAT 61.
of the atmosphere necessary for busness, f aso an exaggerated, deastc
renderng of that atmosphere.
22. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) the importance of religion to the art of a particular period
(B) the way one artist4s work illustrates a tradition of painting
(C) the significance of the sea in one artist4s work
() differences in the treatment of nature as a more acti'e or a less acti'e force
(#) 'ariations in the artistic treatment of light among nineteenth(century
landscape painters
2.. The author argues that nature is portrayed in Kane4s pictures as
(A) wild and une$plored
(B) ideali!ed and distant
(C) continually changing
() difficult to understand
(#) subordinate to human concerns
20. The passage contains information to suggest that the author would most probably
agree with which one of the following statements%
(A) The pre'ailing religious principles of a gi'en time can be reflected in the art
of that time.
(B) 3n order to interest 'iewers/ works of art must depict familiar sub<ects in
detail.
(C) Because commerce is unusual as a sub<ect in art/ the painter of commercial
acti'ity must tra'el and obser'e it widely.
() Mnowing about the en'ironment in which an artist li'ed can aid in an
understanding of a work by that artist.
(#) The most popular works of art at a gi'en time are de'oted to furthering
economic or social progress.
21. According to the author/ a supporter of the 'iew of Kuminism described in the
first paragraph would most likely
(A) be unimpressed by the paintings glowing light
(B) consider Kuminist scenes to be undomesticated and wild
(C) interpret the Kuminist depiction of nature incorrectly
() see Kuminist paintings as practical rather than mystical
(#) focus on the paintings4 sub<ect matter instead of an atmosphere and light
22. According to the author/ the sea is significant in Kane4s paintings because of its
association with
(A) e$ploration
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(B) commerce
(C) canals
() idealism
(#) mysticism
2-. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) refute a new theory
(B) replace an inade"uate analysis
(C) summari!e current critics4 attitudes
() support another critic4s e'aluation
(#) describe the history of a misinterpretation
26. The author "uotes a critic writing about Kane (lines 21(2-) most probably in order
to
(A) suggest that Kuminism was the dominant mode of painting in the 1615s and
1625s
(B) support the idea that Kane was interested in spiritualism
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of the primary cultural factors that influenced the
Kuminists
() e$plain why the de'elopment of Kuminism coincided with that of spiritualism
(#) illustrate a common misconception concerning an important characteristic of
Kane4s paintings
LSAT 09 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
After thrty years of nvestgaton nto ce genetcs, researchers made startng
dscoveres n the 1960s and eary 1970s whch cumnated n the deveopment of
processes, coectvey known as recombnant deoxyrbonucec acd (rDNA)
technoogy, for the actve manpuaton of a ces genetc code. The technoogy
has created exctement and controversy because t nvoves aterng DNA-whch
contans the budng bocks of the genetc code.
Usng rDNA technoogy, scentsts can transfer a porton of the DNA from one
organsm to a snge vng ce of another. The scentst chemcay "snps" the
DNA chan of the host ce at a predetermned pont and attaches another pece of
DNA from a donor ce at that pace, creatng a competey new organsm.
Proponents of rDNA research and deveopment cam that t w aow
LSAT 611
scentsts to fnd cures for dsease and to better understand how genetc
nformaton contros an organsms deveopment. They aso see many other
potentay practca benefts, especay n the pharmaceutca ndustry. Some
corporatons empoyng the new technoogy even cam that by the end of the
century a ma|or dseases w be treated wth drugs derved from mcroorgansms
created through rDNA technoogy. Pharmaceutca products aready deveoped,
but not yet marketed, ndcate that these predctons may be reazed.
Proponents aso cte nonmedca appcatons for ths technoogy. Energy
producton and waste dsposa may beneft: genetcay atered organsms coud
convert sewage and other organc matera nto methane fue. Agrcuture mght
aso take advantage of rDNA technoogy to produce new varetes of crops that
resst fou weather, pests, and the effects of poor so.
A ma|or concern of the crtcs of rDNA research s that genetcay atered
mcroorgansms mght escape from the aboratory. Because these mcroorgansms
are aboratory creatons that, n a probabty, do not occur n nature, ther
nteracton wth the natura word cannot be predcted wth certanty. It s possbe
that they coud cause prevousy unknown, perhaps ncurabe dseases. The effect
of genetcay atered mcroorgansms on the words mcroboogca predator-prey
reatonshps s another potentay serous probem ponted out by the opponents
of rDNA research. Introducng a new speces may dsrupt or even destroy the
exstng ecosystem. The coapse of nterdependent reatonshps among speces,
extrapoated to ts extreme, coud eventuay resut n the destructon of humanty.
Opponents of rDNA technoogy aso cte ethca probems wth t. For exampe,
t gves scentsts the power to nstanty cross evoutonary and speces
boundares that nature took menna to estabsh. The mpcatons of such power
woud become partcuary profound f genetc engneers were to tnker wth
human genes, a practce that woud brng us one step coser to Adous Huxeys
grm vson n Brave +ew ,orld of a totataran socety that engneers human
bengs to fuf specfc roes.
1. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) e$plaining the process and applications of r9A technology
(B) ad'ocating continued r9A research and de'elopment
(C) pro'iding e'idence indicating the need for regulation of r9A research and
de'elopment
() summari!ing the contro'ersy surrounding r9A research and de'elopment
(#) arguing that the en'ironmental risks of r9A technology may outweigh its
medical benefits
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following is an accurate statement
about research into the genetic code of cells%
(A) 3t led to the de'elopment of processes for the manipulation of 9A.
612 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) 3t was initiated by the disco'ery of r9A technology.
(C) 3t led to the use of new treatments for ma<or diseases.
() 3t was uni'ersally heralded as a great benefit to humanity.
(#) 3t was moti'ated by a desire to create new organisms.
.. The potential benefits of r9A technology referred to in the passage include all
of the following #DC#@T
(A) new methods of waste treatment
(B) new biological knowledge
(C) enhanced food production
() de'elopment of less e$pensi'e drugs
(#) increased energy production
0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken an argument of
opponents of r9A technology%
(A) 9ew safety procedures de'eloped by r9A researchers make it impossible
for genetically altered microorganisms to escape from laboratories.
(B) A genetically altered microorganism accidentally released from a laboratory is
successfully contained.
(C) A particular r9A(engineered microorganism introduced into an ecosystem
attracts predators that keep its population down.
() Benetically altered organisms designed to process sewage into methane
cannot sur'i'e outside the waste treatment plant.
(#) A specific hereditary disease that has plagued humankind for generations is
successfully eradicated.
1. The author4s reference in the last sentence of the passage to a society that
engineers human beings to fulfill specific roles ser'es to
(A) emphasi!e the potential medical dangers of r9A technology
(B) ad'ocate research on the use of r9A technology in human genetics
(C) warn of the possible disasters that could result from upsetting the balance of
nature
() present %ra$e Ne( World as an e$ample of a work of fiction that accurately
predicted technological de'elopments
(#) illustrate the sociopolitical ramifications of applying genetic engineering to
humans
2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen an argument of the
opponents of r9A technology%
(A) Agricultural products de'eloped through r9A technology are no more
attracti'e to consumers than are traditional crops.
(B) Benetically altered microorganisms ha'e no natural predators but can prey on
LSAT 61-
a wide 'ariety of other microorganisms.
(C) rugs produced using r9A technology cost more to manufacture than drugs
produced with traditional technologies.
() #cosystems are impermanent systems that are often liable to collapse/ and
occasionally do so.
(#) Benetically altered microorganisms generally cannot sur'i'e for more than a
few hours in the natural en'ironment.
Gray marketng, the seng of trademarked products through channes of
dstrbuton not authorzed by the trademark hoder, can nvove dstrbuton of
goods ether wthn a market regon or across market boundares. Gray marketng
wthn a market regon ("channe fow dverson") occurs when manufacturer-
authorzed dstrbutors se trademarked goods to unauthorzed dstrbutors who
then se the goods to consumers wthn the same regon. For exampe, quantty
dscounts from manufacturers may motvate authorzed deaers to enter the gray
market because they can purchase arger quanttes of a product than they
themseves ntend to stock f they can se the extra unts through gray marketng
channes.
When gray marketng occurs across market boundares, t s typcay n an
nternatona settng and may be caed "parae mportng." Manufacturers often
produce and se products n more than one country and estabsh a network of
authorzed deaers n each country. Parae mportng occurs when trademarked
goods ntended for one country are dverted from proper channes (channe fow
dverson) and then exported to unauthorzed dstrbutors n another country.
Trademark owners |ustfaby argue aganst gray marketng practces snce
such practces ceary |eopardze the goodw estabshed by trademark owners:
consumers who purchase trademarked goods n the gray market do not get the
same "extended product," whch typcay ncudes pre- and postsae servce.
Equay mportant, authorzed dstrbutors may cease to promote the product f t
becomes avaabe for much ower prces through unauthorzed channes.
Current debate over reguaton of gray marketng focuses on three dsparate
theores n trademark aw that have been varousy and confusngy apped to
parae mportaton cases: unversaty, exhauston, and terrtoraty. The theory
of unversaty hods that a trademark s ony an ndcaton of the source or orgn
of the product. Ths theory does not recognze the goodw functons of a
trademark. When the courts appy ths theory, gray marketng practces are
aowed to contnue because the orgn of the product remans the same
regardess of the specfc route of the product through the channe of dstrbuton.
The exhauston theory hods that a trademark owner renqushes a rghts once a
product has been sod. When ths theory s apped, gray marketng practces are
aowed to contnue because the trademark owners rghts cease as soon as ther
products are sod to a dstrbutor. The theory of terrtoraty hods that a
trademark s effectve n the country n whch t s regstered. Under the theory of
616 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
terrtoraty, trademark owners can stop gray marketng practces n the
regsterng countres on products bearng ther trademarks. Snce ony the
terrtoraty theory affords trademark owners any rea ega protecton aganst
gray marketng practces, I beeve t s nevtabe as we as desrabe that t w
come to be consstenty apped n gray marketng cases.
-. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) Bray marketing is unfair to trademark owners and should be legally
controlled.
(B) Bray marketing is practiced in many different forms and places/ and
legislators should recogni!e the futility of trying to regulate it.
(C) The mechanisms used to control gray marketing across markets are different
from those most effecti'e in controlling gray marketing within markets.
() The three trademark law theories that ha'e been applied in gray marketing
cases lead to different case outcomes.
(#) Current theories used to interpret trademark laws ha'e resulted in increased
gray marketing acti'ity.
6. The function of the passage as a whole is to
(A) critici!e the moti'es and methods of those who practice gray marketing
(B) e'aluate the effects of both channel flow di'ersion and parallel importation
(C) discuss the methods that ha'e been used to regulate gray marketing and
e'aluate such methods4 degrees of success
() describe a contro'ersial marketing practice and e'aluate se'eral legal 'iews
regarding it
(#) discuss situations in which certain marketing practices are common and
analy!e the economic factors responsible for their de'elopment
,. &hich one of the following does the author offer as an argument against gray
marketing%
(A) ?anufacturers find it difficult to monitor the effecti'eness of promotional
efforts made on behalf of products that are gray marketed.
(B) Bray marketing can discourage product promotion by authori!ed distributors.
(C) Bray marketing forces manufacturers to accept the low profit margins that
result from "uantity discounting.
() Bray marketing discourages competition among unauthori!ed dealers.
(#) Nuality standards in the manufacture of products likely to be gray marketed
may decline.
15. The information in the passage suggests that proponents of the theory of
territoriality would probably differ from proponents of the theory of e$haustion
on which one of the following issues%
LSAT 61,
(A) the right of trademark owners to enforce/ in countries in which the trademarks
are registered/ distribution agreements intended to restrict distribution to
authori!ed channels
(B) the right of trademark owners to sell trademarked goods only to those
distributors who agree to abide by distribution agreements
(C) the legality of channel flow di'ersion that occurs in a country other than the
one in which a trademark is registered
() the significance consumers attach to a trademark
(#) the usefulness of trademarks as marketing tools
11. The author discusses the impact of gray marketing on goodwill in order to
(A) fault trademark owners for their unwillingness to offer a solution to a ma<or
consumer complaint against gray marketing
(B) indicate a way in which manufacturers sustain damage against which they
ought to be protected
(C) highlight one way in which gray marketing across markets is more
problematic than gray marketing within a market
() demonstrate that gray marketing does not always benefit the interests of
unauthori!ed distributors
(#) argue that consumers are unwilling to accept a reduction in price in e$change
for elimination of ser'ice
12. The author4s attitude toward the possibility that the courts will come to e$ercise
consistent control o'er gray marketing practices can best be characteri!ed as one
of
(A) resigned tolerance
(B) utter dismay
(C) reasoned optimism
() unbridled fer'or
(#) cynical indifference
1.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that some channel flow di'ersion might be
eliminated if
(A) profit margins on authori!ed distribution of goods were less than those on
goods marketed through parallel importing
(B) manufacturers relie'ed authori!ed channels of all responsibility for product
promotion
(C) manufacturers charged all authori!ed distributors the same unit price for
products regardless of "uantity purchased
() the postsale ser'ice policies of authori!ed channels were controlled by
manufacturers
625 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) manufacturers refused to pro'ide the *e$tended product+ to consumers who
purchase goods in the gray market
Any study of autobographca narratves that appeared under the ostensbe
authorshp of Afrcan Amercan wrters between 1760 and 1865 nevtaby rases
concerns about authentcty and nterpretaton. Shoud an autobography whose
wrtten composton was teray out of the hands of ts narrator be consdered as
the terary equvaent of those autobographes that were authored ndependenty
by ther sub|ects?
In many cases, the so-caed edted narratve of an ex-save ought to be
treated as a ghostwrtten account nsofar as terary anayss s concerned,
especay when t was composed by ts edtor from "a statement of facts"
provded by an Afrcan Amercan sub|ect. Bassngame has taken pans to show
that the edtors of severa of the more famous antebeum save narratves were
"noted for ther ntegrty" and thus were unkey to dstort the facts gven them by
save narrators. From a terary standpont, however, t s not the mora ntegrty of
these edtors that s at ssue but the ngustc, structura, and tona ntegrty of
the narratves they produces. Even f an edtor fathfuy reproduced the facts of a
narrators fe, t was st the edtor who decded what to make of these facts, how
they shoud be emphaszed, n what order they ought to be presented, and what
was extraneous or germane. Readers of Afrcan Amercan autobography then and
now have too ready accepted the presumpton of these eghteenth- and
nneteenth-century edtors that experenta facts recounted oray coud be
recorded and sorted by an amanuenss-edtor, taken out of ther orgna contexts,
and then pubshed wth edtora prefaces, footnotes, and appended commentary,
a wthout compromsng the vadty of the narratve as a product of an Afrcan
Amercan conscousness.
Transcrbed narratves n whch an edtor expcty demts hs or her roe
undoubtedy may be regarded as more authentc and refectve of the narrators
thought n acton than those edted works that fesh out a statement of facts n
ways unaccounted for. St, t woud be nave to accord dctated ora narratves
the same status as autobographes composed and wrtten by the sub|ects of the
stores themseves. Ths pont s ustrated by an anayss of Works Progress
Admnstraton ntervews wth ex-saves n the 1930s that suggests that narrators
often tod ntervewers what they seemed to want to hear. If t seemed mpotc
for former saves to te a they knew and thought about the past to ntervewers
n the 1930s, the same coud be sad of escaped saves on the run n the
antebeum era. Dctated narratves, therefore, are terary texts whose
authentcty s dffcut to determne. Anaysts shoud reserve cose anaytc
readngs for ndependenty authored texts. Dscusson of coaboratve texts
shoud take nto account the condtons that governed ther producton.
10. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main point of the passage%
(A) The personal integrity of an autobiography4s editor has little rele'ance to its
LSAT 621
'alue as a literary work.
(B) Autobiographies dictated to editors are less 'aluable as literature than are
autobiographies authored by their sub<ects.
(C) The facts that are recorded in an autobiography are less important than the
personal impressions of its author.
() The circumstances under which an autobiography was written should affect
the way it is interpreted as literature.
(#) The autobiographies of African Americans written between 1-25 and 1621
deser'e more careful study than they ha'e so far recei'ed.
11. The information in the passage suggests that the role of the *editor+ (lines 2.(20)
is most like that of
(A) an artist who wishes to in'ent a uni"ue method of con'eying the emotional
impact of a scene in a painting
(B) a worker who must interpret the instructions of an employer
(C) a critic who must pro'ide e'idence to support opinions about a play being
re'iewed
() an architect who must make the best use of a natural setting in designing a
public building
(#) a historian who must decide how to direct the reenactment of a historical
e'ent
12. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s opinion about applying
literary analysis to edited autobiographies%
(A) The author is adamantly opposed to the application of literary analysis to
edited autobiographies.
(B) The author is skeptical of the 'alue of close analytical reading in the case of
edited autobiographies.
(C) The author belie'es that literary analysis of the prefaces/ footnotes/ and
commentaries that accompany edited autobiographies would be more useful
than an analysis of the te$t of the autobiographies.
() The author belie'es that an e$clusi'ely literary analysis of edited
autobiographies is more 'aluable than a reading that emphasi!es their
historical import.
(#) The author belie'es that the literary analysis of edited autobiographies would
enhance their linguistic/ structural/ and tonal integrity.
1-. The passage supports which one of the following statements about the readers of
autobiographies of African Americans that were published between 1-25 and
1621%
(A) They were more concerned with the personal details in the autobiographies
than with their historical significance.
622 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) They were unable to distinguish between ghostwritten and edited
autobiographies.
(C) They were less naT'e about the facts of sla'e life than are readers today.
() They presumed that the editing of the autobiographies did not affect their
authenticity.
(#) They had little interest in the moral integrity of the editors of the
autobiographies.
16. &hen one of the following words/ as it is used in the passage/ best ser'es to
underscore the author4s concerns about the authenticity of the autobiographies
discussed%
(A) *ostensible+ (line 2)
(B) *integrity+ (line 16)
(C) *e$traneous+ (line 2-)
() *delimits+ (line .,)
(#) *impolitic+ (line 11)
1,. According to the passage/ close analytic reading of an autobiography is
appropriate only when the
(A) autobiography has been dictated to an e$perienced amanuensis(editor
(B) autobiography attempts to reflect the narrator4s thought in action
(C) autobiography was authored independently by its sub<ect
() moral integrity of the autobiography4s editor is well established
(#) editor of the autobiography collaborated closely with its sub<ect in its editing
25. 3t can be inferred that the discussion in the passage of Blassingame4s work
primarily ser'es which one of the following purposes%
(A) 3t adds an authority4s endorsement to the author4s 'iew that edited narrati'es
ought to be treated as ghostwritten accounts.
(B) 3t pro'ides an e$ample of a mistaken emphasis in the study of autobiography.
(C) 3t presents an account of a new method of literary analysis to be applied to
autobiography.
() 3t illustrates the inade"uacy of traditional approaches to the analysis of
autobiography.
(#) 3t emphasi!es the importance of the relationship between editor and narrator.
A conventona vew of nneteenth-century Brtan hods that ron
manufacturers and texte manufacturers from the north of Engand became the
weathest and most powerfu peope n socety after about 1832. Accordng to
Marxst hstorans, these ndustrasts were the target of the workng cass n ts
strugge for power. A new study by Rubnsten, however, suggests that the rea
weath ay wth the bankers and merchants of London. Rubnsten does not deny
LSAT 62.
that a northern ndustra ete exsted but argues that t was consstenty
outnumbered and outdone by a London-based commerca ete. Hs cams are
provocatve and deserve consderaton.
Rubnstens cam about the ocaton of weath comes from hs nvestgaton
of probate records. These ndcate the vaue of persona property, excudng rea
property (budngs and and), eft by ndvduas at death. It does seem as f arge
fortunes were more frequenty made n commerce than n ndustry and, wthn
ndustry, more frequenty from acoho or tobacco than from textes or meta.
However, such records do not unequvocay make Rubnstens case.
Uncertantes abound about how the probate rues for vaung assets were actuay
apped. Ms and factores, beng rea property, were ceary excuded: machnery
may aso have been, for the same reason. What the vauaton conventons were
for stock-n-trade (goods for sae) s aso uncertan. It s possbe that ther probate
vaues were much ower than ther actua market vaue: cash or near-cash, such
as bank baances or stocks, were, on the other hand, nvaraby consdered at fu
face vaue. A further compcaton s that probate vauatons probaby took no
notce of a busnesss goodw (favor wth the pubc) whch, snce t represents
expectatons about future proft-makng, woud today very often be a arge
fracton of market vaue. Whether factors ke these ntroduced systematc bases
nto the probate vauatons of ndvduas wth dfferent types of busnesses woud
be worth nvestgatng.
The orthodox vew that the weathest ndvduas were the most powerfu s
aso questoned by Rubnstens study. The probem for ths orthodox vew s that
Rubnsten fnds many monares who are totay unknown to nneteenth-century
hstorans: the reason for ther obscurty coud be that they were not powerfu.
Indeed, Rubnsten dsmsses any noton that great weath had anythng to do wth
entry nto the governng ete, as represented by bshops, hgher cv servants,
and charmen of manufacturng companes. The ony requrements were unversty
attendance and a father wth a mdde-cass ncome.
Rubnsten, n another study, has begun to buttress hs fndngs about the
ocaton of weath by anayzng ncome tax returns, whch revea a geographca
dstrbuton of mdde-cass ncomes smar to that of weathy ncomes reveaed
by probate records. But unt further confrmatory nvestgaton s done, hs cams
can ony be consdered partay convncng.
21. The main idea of the passage is that
(A) the ?ar$ist interpretation of the relationship between class and power in
nineteenth(century Britain is no longer 'iable
(B) a simple e"uation between wealth and power is unlikely to be supported by
new data from nineteenth(century British archi'es
(C) a recent historical in'estigation has challenged but not dispro'ed the orthodo$
'iew of the distribution of wealth and the relationship of wealth to power in
nineteenth(century Britain
620 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() probate records pro'ide the historian with a re'ealing but incomplete glimpse
of the e$tent and location of wealth in nineteenth(century Britain
(#) an attempt has been made to confirm the findings of a new historical study of
nineteenth(century Britain/ but complete confirmation is likely to remain
elusi'e
22. The author of the passage implies that probate records as a source of information
about wealth in nineteenth(century Britain are
(A) self(contradictory and misleading
(B) ambiguous and outdated
(C) contro'ersial but readily a'ailable
() re'ealing but difficult to interpret
(#) widely used by historians but fully understandable only by specialists
2.. The author suggests that the total probate 'aluations of the personal property of
indi'iduals holding goods for sale in nineteenth(century Britain may ha'e been
(A) affected by the 'aluation con'entions for such goods
(B) less accurate than the 'aluations for such goods pro'ided by income ta$
returns
(C) less/ on a'erage/ if such goods were tobacco(related than if they were
alcohol(related
() greater/ on a'erage/ than the total probate 'aluations of those indi'iduals who
held bank balances
(#) dependent on whether such goods were held by industrialists or by merchants
or bankers
20. According to the passage/ =ubinstein has pro'ided e'idence that challenges
which one of the following claims about nineteenth(century Britain%
(A) The distribution of great wealth between commerce and industry was not
e"ual.
(B) Karge incomes were typically made in alcohol and tobacco rather than in
te$tiles and metal.
(C) A Kondon(based commercial elite can be identified.
() An official go'erning elite can be identified.
(#) There was a necessary relationship between great wealth and power.
21. The author mentions that goodwill was probably e$cluded from the probate
'aluation of a business in nineteenth(century Britain most likely in order to
(A) gi'e an e$ample of a business asset about which little was known in the
nineteenth century
(B) suggest that the probate 'aluations of certain businesses may ha'e been
significant underestimations of their true market 'alue
LSAT 621
(C) make the point that this e$clusion probably had an e"ual impact on the
probate 'aluations of all nineteenth(century British businesses
() indicate that e$pectations about future profit(making is the single most
important factor in determining the market 'alue of certain businesses
(#) argue that the twentieth(century method of determining probate 'aluations of
a business may be consistently superior to the nineteenth(century method
22. &hich one of the following studies would pro'ide support for =ubinstein4s
claims%
(A) a study that indicated that many members of the commercial elite in
nineteenth(century Kondon had insignificant holdings of real property
(B) a study that indicated that in the nineteenth century/ industrialists from the
north of #ngland were in fact a target for working(class people
(C) a study that indicated that/ in nineteenth(century Britain/ probate 'alues of
goods for sale were not as high as probate 'alues of cash assets
() a study that indicated that the wealth of nineteenth(century British
industrialists did not appear to be significantly greater when the full 'alue of
their real property holdings was actually considered
(#) a study that indicated that at least some members of the official go'erning
elite in nineteenth(century Britain owned more real property than had
pre'iously been thought to be the case
2-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would cast the most doubt on =ubinstein4s
argument concerning wealth and the official go'erning elite in nineteenth(century
Britain%
(A) #ntry into this elite was more dependent on uni'ersity attendance than on
religious background.
(B) Attendance at a prestigious uni'ersity was probably more crucial than a
certain minimum family income in gaining entry into this elite.
(C) Bishops as a group were somewhat wealthier/ at the point of entry into this
elite/ than were higher ci'il ser'ants or chairmen of manufacturing
companies.
() The families of many members of this elite owned few/ if any/ shares in iron
industries and te$tile industries in the north of #ngland.
(#) The composition of this elite included 'ice(chancellors/ many of whom held
office because of their wealth.
LSAT 10 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
622 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Many argue that recent deveopments n eectronc technoogy such as
computers and vdeotape have enabed artsts to vary ther forms of expresson.
For exampe, vdeo art can now acheve mages whose effect s produced by
"dgtazaton": breakng up the pcture usng computerzed nformaton
processng. Such new technooges create new ways of seeng and hearng by
addng dfferent dmensons to oder forms, rather than repacng those forms.
Consder 'ocale, a fm about a modern dance company. The camera operator
wore a SteadcamTM, an uncompcated devce that aows a camera to be
mounted on a person so that the camera remans steady no matter how the
operator moves. The SteadcamTM captures the dance n ways mpossbe wth
tradtona mounts. Such new equpment aso aows for the preservaton of
prevousy unrecordabe aspects of performances, thus enrchng archves.
By Contrast, others cam that technoogy subverts the artstc enterprse: that
artstc efforts acheved wth machnes preempt human creatvty, rather than
beng nspred by t. The orgnaty of musca performance, for exampe, mght
suffer, as muscans woud be deprved of the opportunty to spontaneousy
change peces of musc before ve audences. Some even worry that technoogy
w emnate ve performance atogether; performances w be recorded for
home vewng, aboshng the reatonshp between performer and audence. But
these negatve vews assume both that technoogy poses an unprecedented
chaenge to the arts and that we are not commtted enough to the artstc
enterprse to preserve the ve performance, assumptons that seem unnecessary
cynca. In fact, technoogy has tradtonay asssted our capacty for creatve
expresson and can refne our notons of any gve art form.
For exampe, the portabe camera and the snapshot were deveoped at the
same tme as the rse of mpressonst pantng n the nneteenth century. These
photographc technooges encouraged a new apprecaton. In addton,
mpressonst artsts ke Degas studed the eements of ght and movement
captured by nstantaneous photography and used ther new understandng of the
way our perceptons dstort reaty to try to more accuratey capture reaty n ther
work. Snce photos can capture the "moments" of a movement, such as a hand
partay rased n a gesture of greetng, Impressonst artsts were nspred to pant
such moments n order to more effectvey convey the quaty of spontaneous
human acton. Photography freed artsts from the preconcepton that a sub|ect
shoud be panted n a statc, artfca entrety, and nspred them to capture the
random and fragmentary quates of our word. Fnay, snce photography
preempted pantng as the means of obtanng portrats, panters had more
freedom to vary ther sub|ect matter, thus gvng rse to the abstract creatons
characterstc of modern art.
1. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the
LSAT 62-
passage%
(A) The progress of art relies primarily on technology.
(B) Technological inno'ation can be beneficial to art.
(C) There are risks associated with using technology to create art.
() Technology will transform the way the public responds to art.
(#) The relationship between art and technology has a lengthy history.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author shares which one of the
following opinions with the opponents of the use of new technology in art%
(A) The li'e performance is an important aspect of the artistic enterprise.
(B) The public4s commitment to the artistic enterprise is "uestionable.
(C) =ecent technological inno'ations present an entirely new sort of challenge to
art.
() Technological inno'ations of the past ha'e been 'ery useful to artists.
(#) The performing arts are especially 'ulnerable to technological inno'ation.
.. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the position held by
opponents of the use of new technology in art concerning the effect of technology
on li'e performance%
(A) ;ur'eys show that when recordings of performances are made a'ailable for
home 'iewing/ the public becomes far more knowledgeable about different
performing artists.
(B) ;ur'eys show that some people feel comfortable responding spontaneously to
artistic performances when they are 'iewing recordings of those
performances at home.
(C) After a li'e performance/ sales of recordings for home 'iewing of the
particular performing artist generally increase.
() The distribution of recordings of artists4 performances has begun to attract
many new audience members to their li'e performances.
(#) ?usicians are less apt to make creati'e changes in musical pieces during
recorded performances than during li'e performances.
0. The author uses the e$ample of the ;teadicamT? primarily in order to suggest
that
(A) the filming of performances should not be limited by inade"uate e"uipment
(B) new technologies do not need to be 'ery comple$ in order to benefit art
(C) the interaction of a traditional art form with a new technology will change
attitudes toward technology in general
() the replacement of a traditional technology with a new technology will
transform definitions of a traditional art form
(#) new technology does not so much preempt as enhance a traditional art form
626 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1. According to the passage/ proponents of the use of new electronic technology in
the arts claim that which one of the following is true%
(A) ?ost people who re<ect the use of electronic technology in art forget that
machines re"uire a person to operate them.
(B) #lectronic technology allows for the e$pansion of archi'es because longer
performances can be recorded.
(C) #lectronic technology assists artists in finding new ways to present their
material.
() #lectronic technology makes the practice of any art form more efficient by
speeding up the creati'e process.
(#) ?odern dance is the art form that will probably benefit most from the use of
electronic technology.
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would agree with which one of
the following statements regarding changes in painting since the nineteenth
century%
(A) The artistic e$periments of the nineteenth century led painters to use a 'ariety
of methods in creating portraits/ which they then applied to other sub<ect
matter.
(B) The nineteenth(century knowledge of light and mo'ement pro'ided by
photography inspired the abstract works characteristic of modern art.
(C) 8nce painters no longer felt that they had to paint con'entional portraits/ they
turned e$clusi'ely to abstract portraiture.
() 8nce painters were less limited to the impressionist style/ they were able to
e$periment with a 'ariety of styles of abstract art.
(#) 8nce painters painted fewer con'entional portraits/ they had greater
opportunity to mo'e beyond the literal depiction of ob<ects.
Durng the 1940s and 1950s the Unted States government deveoped a new
pocy toward Natve Amercans, often known as "read|ustment." Because the
ncreased awareness of cv rghts n these decades heped renforce the beef
that fe on reservatons prevented Natve Amercans from exercsng the rghts
guaranteed to ctzens under the Unted States Consttuton, the read|ustment
movement advocated the end of the federa governments nvovement n Natve
Amercan affars and encouraged the assmaton of Natve Amercans as
ndvduas nto manstream socety. However, the same years aso saw the
emergence of a Natve Amercan eadershp and efforts to deveop trba
nstructons and reaffrm trba dentty. The cash of these two trends may be
traced n the attempts on the part of the Bureau of Indan Affars (BIA) to convnce
the Oneda trbe of Wsconsn to accept read|ustment.
The cumnaton of BIA efforts to sway the Oneda occurred at a meetng that
took pace n the fa of 1956. The BIA suggested that t woud be to the Onedas
beneft to own ther own property and, ke other homeowners, pay rea estate
LSAT 62,
taxes on t. The BIA aso emphaszed that, after read|ustment, the government
woud not attempt to restrct Natve Amercans abty to se ther ndvduay
owned ands. The Oneda were then offered a one-tme ump-sum payment of
$60,000 n eu of the $0.52 annuty guaranteed n perpetuty to each member of
the trbe under the Canandagua Treaty.
The efforts of the BIA to "se" read|ustment to the trbe faed because the
Oneda reazed that they had heard smar offers before. The Oneda deegates
reacted negatvey to the BIAs frst suggeston because taxaton of Natve
Amercan ands had been one past vehce for dspossessng the Oneda: after the
dstrbuton of some trba ands to ndvdua Natve Amercans n the ate
nneteenth century, Natve Amercan ands became sub|ect to taxaton, resutng
n new and mpossbe fnanca burdens, forecosures, and subsequent tax saes of
property. The Oneda deegates were equay suspcous of the BIAs emphass on
the rghts of ndvdua andowners, snce n the ate nneteenth century many
ndvdua Natve Amercans had been convnced by unscrupuous specuators to
se ther ands. Fnay, the offer of a ump-sum payment was unanmousy
opposed by the Oneda deegates, who saw that changng the terms of a treaty
mght |eopardze the many pendng and cams based upon the treaty.
As a resut of the 1956 meetng, the Oneda re|ected read|ustment. Instead,
they determned to mprove trba fe by obbyng for federa mones for
postsecondary educaton, for the mprovement of dranage on trba ands, and for
the budng of a convaescent home for trba members. Thus, by earnng the
essons of hstory, the Oneda were abe to survve as a trbe n ther homeand.
-. &hich one of the following would be most consistent with the policy of
read<ustment described in the passage%
(A) the establishment among 9ati'e Americans of a tribal system of a elected
go'ernment
(B) the creation of a national pro<ect to preser'e 9ati'e American language and
oral history
(C) the establishment of programs to encourage 9ati'e Americans to mo'e from
reser'ations to urban areas
() the de'elopment of a large(scale effort to restore 9ati'e American lands to
their original tribes
(#) the reaffirmation of federal treaty obligations to 9ati'e American tribes
6. According to the passage/ after the 1,12 meeting the 8neida resol'ed to
(A) obtain impro'ed social ser'ices and li'ing conditions for members of the
tribe
(B) pursue litigation designed to reclaim tribal lands
(C) secure recognition of their uni"ue status as a self(go'erning 9ati'e American
nation within the :nited ;tates
6.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() establish new kinds of tribal institutions
(#) culti'ate a life(style similar to that of other :nited ;tates citi!ens
,. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the first paragraph in
the conte$t of the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t summari!es the basis of a conflict underlying negotiations described
elsewhere in the passage.
(B) 3t presents two positions/ one of which is defended by e'idence pro'ided in
succeeding paragraphs.
(C) 3t compares competing interpretations of a historical conflict.
() 3t analy!es the causes of a specific historical e'ent and predicts a future
de'elopment.
(#) 3t outlines the history of a go'ernment agency.
15. The author refers to the increased awareness of ci'il rights during the 1,05s and
1,15s most probably in order to
(A) contrast the read<ustment mo'ement with other social phenomena
(B) account for the stance of the 9ati'e American leadership
(C) help e$plain the impetus for the read<ustment mo'ement
() e$plain the moti'es of B3A bureaucrats
(#) foster support for the policy of read<ustment
11. The passage suggests that ad'ocates of read<ustment would most likely agree
with which one of the following statements regarding the relationship between
the federal go'ernment and 9ati'e Americans%
(A) The federal go'ernment should work with indi'idual 9ati'e Americans to
impro'e life on reser'ations.
(B) The federal go'ernment should be no more in'ol'ed in the affaires of 9ati'e
Americans than in the affairs of other citi!ens.
(C) The federal go'ernment should assume more responsibility for pro'iding
social ser'ices to 9ati'e Americans.
() The federal go'ernment should share its responsibility for maintaining 9ati'e
American territories with tribal leaders.
(#) The federal go'ernment should obser'e all pro'isions of treaties made in the
past with 9ati'e Americans.
12. The passage suggests that the 8neida delegates 'iewed the Canandaigua Treaty as
(A) a 'aluable safeguard of certain 8neida rights and pri'ileges
(B) the source of many past problems for the 8neida tribe
(C) a model for the type of agreement they hoped to reach with the federal
go'ernment
() an important step toward recognition of their status as an independent 9ati'e
LSAT 6.1
American nation
(#) an obsolete agreement without rele'ance for their current condition
1.. &hich one of the following situations most closely parallels that of the 8neida
delegates in refusing to accept a lump(sum payment of 725/555%
(A) A uni'ersity offers s a student a four(year scholarship with the stipulation that
the student not accept any outside employmentI the student refuses the offer
and attends a different school because the amount of the scholarship would
not ha'e co'ered li'ing e$penses.
(B) A company seeking to reduce its payroll obligations offers an employee a
large bonus if he will accept early retirementI the employee refuses because
he does not want to compromise an outstanding worker4s compensation suit.
(C) @arents of a teenager offer to pay her at the end of the month for performing
weekly chores rather than paying her on a weekly basisI the teenager refuses
because she has a number of financial obligations that she must meet early in
the month.
() A car dealer offers a customer a 7155 cash payment for buying a new carI the
customer refuses because she does not want to pay ta$es on the amount/ and
re"uests instead that her monthly payments be reduced by a proportionate
amount.
(#) A landlord offers a tenant se'eral months rent(free in e$change for the
tenant4s agreeing not to demand that her apartment be painted e'ery two
years/ as is re"uired by the leaseI the tenant refuses because she would ha'e
to spend her own time painting the apartment.
Drect observaton of contemporary socetes at the threshod of wdespread
teracy has not asssted our understandng of how such teracy atered ancent
Greek socety, n partcuar ts potca cuture. The dscovery of what Goody has
caed the "enabng effects" of teracy n contemporary socetes tends to seduce
the observer nto confusng often rudmentary knowedge of how to read wth
popuar access to mportant books and documents: ths confuson s then
pro|ected onto ancent socetes. "In ancent Greece," Goody wrtes, "aphabetc
readng and wrtng was mportant for the deveopment of potca democracy."
An examnaton of the ancent Greek cty Athens exempfes how ths sort of
confuson s detrmenta to understandng ancent potcs. In Athens, the eary
deveopment of a wrtten aw code was retrospectvey mythoogzed as the
crtca factor n breakng the power monopoy of the od arstocracy: hence the
Greek tradton of the "aw-gver," whch has captured the magnatons of
schoars ke Goody. But the appcaton and effcacy of a aw codes depend on
ther nterpretaton by magstrates and courts, and uness the rght of
nterpretaton s "democratzed," the mere exstence of wrtten aws changes
tte.
In fact, never n antquty dd any but the ete consut documents and books.
6.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Even n Greek courts the |ures heard ony the reevant statutes read out durng
the proceedngs, as they heard verba testmony, and they then rendered ther
verdct on the spot, wthout the beneft of any dscusson among themseves. True,
n Athens the |ures were representatve of a broad spectrum of the popuaton,
and these |ures, drawn from dverse soca casses, both nterpreted what they
had heard and determned matters of fact. However, they guded soey by the
speeches prepared for the partes by professona peaders and by the quotatons
of aws or decrees wthn the speeches, rather than by ther own access to any
knd of document or book.
Granted, peope today aso rey heavy on a truy knowedgeabe mnorty for
nformaton and ts nterpretaton, often transmtted oray. Yet ths s st
fundamentay dfferent from an ancent socety n whch there was no "popuar
terature," .e., no newspapers, magaznes, or other meda that deat wth
socopotca ssues. An ancent aw code woud have been anaogous to the Latn
Bbe, a venerated document but a cosed book. The resstance of the medeva
Church to vernacuar transatons of the Bbe, n the West at east, s therefore a
ponter to the reates of ancent teracy. When fundamenta documents are
accessbe for study ony to an ete, the rest of the socety s sub|ect to the etes
nterpretaton of the rues of behavor, ncudng rght potca behavor. Athens,
nsofar as t functoned as a democracy, dd so not because of wdespread
teracy, but because the ete had chosen to accept democratc nsttutons.
10. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) emocratic political institutions grow organically from the traditions and
con'entions of a society.
(B) emocratic political institutions are not necessarily the outcome of literacy in
a society.
(C) =eligious authority/ like political authority/ can determine who in a gi'en
society will ha'e access to important books and documents.
() Those who are best educated are most often those who control the institutions
of authority in a society.
(#) Those in authority ha'e a 'ested interest in ensuring that those under their
control remain illiterate.
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author assumes which one of the
following about societies in which the people possess a rudimentary reading
ability%
(A) They are more politically ad'anced than societies without rudimentary
reading ability.
(B) They are unlikely to e$hibit the positi'e effects of literacy.
(C) They are rapidly e'ol'ing toward widespread literacy.
LSAT 6..
() ?any of their people might not ha'e access to important documents and
books.
(#) ?ost of their people would not participate in political decision(making.
12. The author refers to the truly knowledgeable minority in contemporary societies
in the conte$t of the fourth paragraph in order to imply which one of the
following%
(A) Because they ha'e a popular literature that closes the gap between the elite
and the ma<ority/ contemporary societies rely far less on the knowledge of
e$perts than did ancient societies.
(B) Contemporary societies rely on the knowledge of e$perts/ as did ancient
societies/ because contemporary popular literature so fre"uently con'eys
specious information.
(C) Although contemporary societies rely hea'ily on the knowledge of e$perts/
access to popular literature makes contemporary societies less dependent on
e$perts for information about rules of beha'ior than were ancient societies.
() &hile only some members of the elite can become e$perts/ popular literature
gi'es the ma<ority in contemporary society an opportunity to become
members of such an elite.
(#) Access to popular literature distinguishes ancient from contemporary societies
because it relies on a le'el of educational achie'ement attainable only be a
contemporary elite.
1-. According to the passage/ each of the following statements concerning ancient
Breek <uries is true #DC#@TE
(A) They were somewhat democratic insofar as they were composed largely of
people from the lowest social classes.
(B) They were e$posed to the law only insofar as they heard rele'ant statutes read
out during legal proceedings.
(C) They ascertained the facts of a case and interpreted the laws.
() They did not ha'e direct access to important books and documents that were
a'ailable to the elite.
(#) They rendered 'erdicts without benefit of pri'ate discussion among
themsel'es.
16. The author characteri!es the Breek tradition of the *law(gi'er+ (line 21) as an
effect mythologi!ing most probably in order to
(A) illustrate the ancient Breek tendency to memoriali!e historical e'ents by
transforming them into myths
(B) con'ey the historical importance of the de'elopment of the early Athenian
written law code
(C) con'ey the high regard in which the Athenians held their legal tradition
6.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() suggest that the de'elopment of a written law code was not primarily
responsible for diminishing the power of the Athenian aristocracy
(#) suggest that the Breek tradition of the *law(gi'er+ should be understood in
the larger conte$t of Breek mythology
1,. The author draws an analogy between the Katin Bible and an early law code
(lines 0,(11) in order to make which one of the following points%
(A) ocuments were considered authoritati'e in premodern society in proportion
to their inaccessibility to the ma<ority.
(B) ocuments that were percei'ed as highly influential in premodern societies
were not necessarily accessible to the society4s ma<ority.
(C) &hat is most re'ered in a nondemocratic society is what is most fre"uently
misunderstood.
() @olitical documents in premodern societies e$erted a social influence similar
to that e$erted by religious documents.
(#) @olitical documents in premodern societies were inaccessible to the ma<ority
of the population because of the language in which they were written.
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) argue that a particular method of obser'ing contemporary societies is
inconsistent
(B) point out the weaknesses in a particular approach to understanding ancient
societies
(C) present the disad'antages of a particular approach to understanding the
relationship between ancient and contemporary societies
() e$amine the importance of de'eloping an appropriate method for
understanding ancient societies
(#) con'ey the difficulty of accurately understanding attitudes in ancient societies
The Engsh who n the seventeenth and eghteenth centures nhabted those
coones that woud ater become the Unted States shared a common potca
vocabuary wth the Engsh n Engand. Steeped as they were n the Engsh
potca anguage, these coonas faed to observe that ther experence n
Amerca had gven the words a sgnfcance qute dfferent from that accepted by
the Engsh wth whom they debated; n fact, they camed that they were more
oya to the Engsh potca tradton than were the Engsh n Engand.
In many respects the potca nsttutons of Engand were reproduced n these
Amercan coones. By the mdde of eghteenth century, a of these coones
except four were headed by Roya Governors apponted by the Kng and perceved
as bearng a reaton to the peope of the coony smar to that of the Kng to the
Engsh peope. Moreover, each of these coones en|oyed a representatve
assemby, whch was conscousy modeed, n powers and practces, after the
Engsh Parament. In both Engand and these coones, ony property hoders
LSAT 6.1
coud vote.
Nevertheess, though Engsh and coona nsttutons were structuray
smar, atttudes toward those nsttutons dffered. For exampe, Engsh ega
deveopment from the eary seventeenth century had been movng steady
toward the absoute power of Parament. The most unmstakabe sgn of ths
tendency was the ega asserton that the Kng was sub|ect to the aw. Together
wth ths resoute dena of the absoute rght of kngs went the asserton that
Parament was unmted n ts power: t coud change even the Consttuton by ts
ordnary acts of egsaton. By the eghteenth century the Engsh had accepted
the dea that the paramentary representatves of the peope were omnpotent.
The ctzens of these coones dd not ook upon the Engsh Parament wth
such fond eyes, nor dd they concede that ther own assembes possessed such
wde powers. There were good hstorca reasons for ths. To the Engsh the word
"consttuton" meant the whoe body of aw and ega custom formuated snce the
begnnng of the kngdom, whereas to these coonas a consttuton was a specfc
wrtten document, enumeratng specfc powers. Ths dstncton n meanng can
be traced to the fact that the foundatons of government n the varous coones
were wrtten charters granted by the Crown. These express authorzatons to
govern were tangbe, defnte thngs. Over the years these coona had often
repared to the charters to |ustfy themseves n the strugge aganst tyrannca
governors or offcas of the Crown. More than a century of government under
wrtten consttutons convnced these coonsts of the necessty for and effcacy of
protectng ther bertes aganst governmenta encroachment by expcty
defnng a governmenta powers n a document.
21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The colonials and the #nglish mistakenly thought that they shared a common
political 'ocabulary.
(B) The colonials and the #nglish shared a 'ariety of institutions.
(C) The colonials and the #nglish had conflicting interpretations of the language
and institutional structures that they shared.
() Colonial attitudes toward #nglish institutions grew increasingly hostile in the
eighteenth century.
(#) ;e'enteenth(century #nglish legal de'elopment accounted for colonial
attitudes toward constitutions.
22. The passage supports all of the following statements about the political conditions
present by the middle of the eighteenth century in the American colonies
discussed in the passage #DC#@TE
(A) Colonials who did not own property could not 'ote.
(B) All of these colonies had representati'e assemblies modeled after the British
@arliament.
6.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) ;ome of these colonies had =oyal Bo'ernors.
() =oyal Bo'ernors could be remo'ed from office by colonial assemblies.
(#) 3n these colonies/ =oyal Bo'ernors were regarded as ser'ing a function like
that of a king.
2.. The passage implies which one of the following about #nglish kings prior to the
early se'enteenth century%
(A) They were the source of all law.
(B) They fre"uently flouted laws made by @arliament.
(C) Their power relati'e to that of @arliament was considerably greater than it
was in the eighteenth century.
() They were more often the sources of legal reform than they were in the
eighteenth century.
(#) They had to combat those who belie'ed that the power of @arliament was
absolute.
20. The author mentions which one of the following as e'idence for the eighteenth(
century #nglish attitude toward @arliament%
(A) The #nglish had become uncomfortable with institutions that could claim
absolute authority.
(B) The #nglish reali!ed that their interests were better guarded by @arliament
than by the Ming.
(C) The #nglish allowed @arliament to make constitutional changes by legislati'e
enactment.
() The #nglish felt that the Ming did not possess the knowledge that could
enable him to rule responsibly.
(#) The #nglish had decided that it was time to reform their representati'e
go'ernment.
21. The passage implies that the colonials discussed in the passage would ha'e
considered which one of the following to be a source of their debates with
#ngland%
(A) their changed use of the #nglish political 'ocabulary
(B) #nglish commitment to parliamentary representation
(C) their uni"uely #nglish e$perience
() their refusal to adopt any #nglish political institutions
(#) their greater loyalty to the #nglish political traditions
22. According to the passage/ the #nglish attitude toward the #nglish Constitution
differed from the colonial attitude toward constitutions in that the #nglish
regarded their Constitution as
(A) the legal foundation of the kingdom
LSAT 6.-
(B) a document containing a collection of customs
(C) a cumulati'e corpus of legislation and legal traditions
() a record alterable by royal authority
(#) an unchangeable body of go'ernmental powers
2-. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$pose the misunderstanding that has characteri!ed descriptions of the
relationship between se'enteenth and eighteenth(century #ngland and
certain of its American colonies
(B) suggest a reason for #ngland4s treatment of certain of its American colonies
in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries
(C) settle an ongoing debate about the relationship between #ngland and certain
of its American colonies in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries
() interpret the e'ents leading up to the independence of certain of #ngland4s
American colonies in the eighteenth century
(#) e$plain an aspect of the relationship between #ngland and certain of its
American colonies in the se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries
LSAT 11 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
O companes needs offshore patforms prmary because the o or natura
gas the companes extract from the ocean foor has to be processed before pumps
can be used to move the substances ashore. But because processng crude
(unprocessed o or gas) on a patform rather than at factes onshore exposes
workers to the rsks of exposon and to an unpredctabe envronment,
researchers are attemptng to dmnsh the need for human abor on patforms and
even to emnate patforms atogether by redesgnng two knds of pumps to
hande crude. These pumps coud then be used to boost the natura pressure
drvng the fow of crude, whch, by tsef, s suffcent ony to brng the crude to
the patform, ocated |ust above the wehead. Currenty, pumps that coud boost
ths natura pressure suffcenty to drve the crude through a ppene to the shore
do not work consstenty because of the crudes content. Crude may consst of o
or natura gas n mutphase states-combnatons of quds, gases, and sods
under pressure-that do not reach the wehead n constant proportons. The fow
of crude o, for exampe, can change qucky from 60 percent qud to 70 percent
gas. Ths surge n gas content causes oss of "head", or pressure nsde a pump,
wth the resut that a pump can no onger mpart enough energy to transport the
6.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
crude mxture through the ppene and to the shore.
Of two pumps beng redesgned, the postve-dspacement pump s promsng
because t s mmune to sudden shfts n the proporton of qud to gas n the
crude mxture. But the pumps desgn, whch conssts of a snge or twn screw
pushng the fud from one end of the pump to the other, brngs crude nto cose
contact wth most parts of the pump, and thus requres that t be made of
expensve, corroson-resstant matera. The aternatve s the centrfuga pump,
whch has a rotatng mpeer that sucks fud n at one end and forces fud out at
the other. Athough ths pump has a proven desgn and has worked for years wth
tte mantenance n waste-dsposa pants, researchers have dscovered that
because the swr of ts mpeer separates gas out from the o that normay
accompanes t, sgnfcant reductons n head can occur as t operates.
Research n the deveopment of these pumps s focused many on tryng to
reduce the cost of the postve-dspacement pump and attemptng to make the
centrfuga pump more toerant of gas. Other researchers are ookng at ways of
adaptng ether knd of pump for use underwater, so that crude coud be moved
drecty from the sea bottom to processng factes onshore, emnatng
patforms.
1. &hich one of following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) 8il companies are e$perimenting with technologies that may help diminish
the danger to workers from offshore crude processing.
(B) 8il companies are seeking methods of installing processing facilities
underwater.
(C) =esearchers are de'eloping se'eral new pumps designed to enhance human
labor efficiency in processing facilities.
() =esearchers are seeking to de'elop e"uipment that would preempt the need
for processing facilities onshore.
(#) =esearchers are seeking ways to separate li"uids from gases in crude in order
to enable safer processing.
2. The passage supports which one of the following statements about the natural
pressure dri'ing the flow of crude%
(A) 3t is higher than that created by the centrifugal pump.
(B) 3t is constant regardless of relati'e proportions of gas and li"uid.
(C) 3t is able to carry the crude only as far as the wellhead.
() 3t is able to carry the crude to the platform.
(#) 3t is able to carry the crude to the shore.
.. &hich one of the following best describes the relationship of the second
paragraph to the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t offers concrete detail designed to show that the argument made in the first
LSAT 6.,
paragraph is flawed.
(B) 3t pro'ides detail that e$pands upon the information presented in the first
paragraph.
(C) 3t enhances the author4s discussion by ob<ecti'ely presenting in detail the pros
and cons of a claim made in the first paragraph.
() 3t detracts from the author4s discussion by presenting 'arious problems that
"ualify the goals presented.
(#) 3t modifies an obser'ation made in the first paragraph by detailing 'iewpoints
against it.
0. &hich one of the following phrases/ if substituted for the word *head+ in line 0-/
would K#A;T change the meaning of the sentence%
(A) the flow of the crude inside the pump
(B) the 'olume of oil inside the pump
(C) the 'olume of gas inside the pump
() the speed of the impeller mo'ing the crude
(#) the pressure inside of the pump
1. &ith which one of the following statements regarding offshore platforms would
the author most likely agree%
(A) 3f a reduction of human labor on offshore platform is achie'ed/ there is no
real need to eliminate platforms altogether.
(B) =educing human labor on offshore platforms is desirable because researchers4
knowledge about the transportation of crude is dangerously incomplete.
(C) The dangers in'ol'ed in working on offshore platforms make their
elimination a desirable goal.
() The positi'e(displacement pump is the better alternati'e for researchers/
because it would allow them to eliminate platforms altogether.
(#) Though researchers ha'e succeeded in reducing human labor on offshore
platforms/ they think that it would be inad'isable to eliminate platforms
altogether/ because these platforms ha'e other uses.
2. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about pumps that
are currently a'ailable to boost the natural pressure of crude%
(A) The efficiency of these pumps depends on there being no gas in the flow of
crude.
(B) These pumps are more efficient when the crude is less sub<ect to sudden
increases in the proportion of gas to li"uid.
(C) A sudden change from solid to li"uid in the flow of crude increases the
efficiency of these pumps.
() The proportion of li"uid to gas in the flow of crude does not affect the
605 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
efficiency of these pumps.
(#) A sudden change from li"uid to gas in the flow of crude increases the risk of
e$plosion due to rising pressure inside these pumps.
-. The passage implies that the positi'e(displacement pump differs from the
centrifugal pump in that the positi'e(displacement pump
(A) is more promising/ but it also is more e$pensi'e and demands more
maintenance
(B) is especially well research/ since it has been used in other settings
(C) in'ol'es the use of a single or twin screw that sucks fluid in at one end of the
pump
() is problematic because it cause rapid shifts from li"uid to gas content in crude
(#) in'ol'es e$posure of many parts of the pump to crude
6. The passage implies that the current state of technology necessitates that crude be
mo'ed to shore
(A) in a multiphase state
(B) in e"ual proportions of gas to li"uid
(C) with small proportions of corrosi'e material
() after ha'ing been processed
(#) largely in the form of a li"uid
To crtcs accustomed to the stye of ffteenth-century narratve pantngs by
Itaan artsts from Tuscany, the Venetan exampes of narratve pantngs wth
regous sub|ects that Patrca Fortn Brown anayzes n a recent book w come
as a great surprse. Whe the Tuscan pantngs present arge-scae fgures, cear
narratves, and smpe settngs, the Venetans fed ther pctures wth dozens of
sma fgures and eaborate budng, n addton to a weath of carefuy observed
anecdota deta often rreevant to the pantngs prncpa sub|ects-the regous
stores they narrate. Athough t occasonay obscured these stores, ths
accumuaton of crcumstanta deta from Venetan fe-the ncuson of
promnent Venetan ctzens, for exampe-was consdered approprate to the
narraton of hstorca sub|ects and underned the authentcty of the hstorca
events depcted. Indeed, Brown argues that the dstnctve stye of the Venetan
pantngs-what she cas the "eyewtness stye"-was nfuenced by Venetan
affnty for a strongy parocha type of hstorca wrtng, consstng amost
excusvey of vernacuar chronces of oca events embrodered wth a knds of
nconsequenta deta.
And yet, whe Venetan atttudes toward hstory that are refected n ther art
account n part for the dfference n stye between Venetan and Tuscan narratve
pantngs, Brown has overooked some practca nfuences, such as cmate.
Tuscan churches are fed wth frescoes that, n contrast to Venetan narratve
pantngs, consst many of arge fgures and easy recognzed regous stores, as
LSAT 601
one woud expect of pantngs that are normay vewed from a dstance and are
desgned prmary to remnd the fathfu of ther regous tenets. In Vence, where
the damp cmate s unsuted to fresco, narratve frescoes n churches were amost
nonexstent, wth the resut that Venetan artsts and ther pubc had no practca
experence of the arge-scae representaton of famar regous stores. Ther
mode for panted stores was the cyce of secuar hstorca pantngs n the
Venetan magstrates paace, whch were ndeed the counterpart of wrtten
hstory and were made a the more authortatve by a proferaton of
crcumstanta deta.
Moreover, because pantng frescoes requres an unusuay sure hand,
partcuary n the representaton of human form, the deveopment of drawng sk
was centra to artstc tranng n Tuscany, and by 1500 the pubc there tended to
dstngush artsts on the bass of how we they coud draw human fgures. In
Vence, a cty vrtuay wthout frescoes, ths knd of sk was acqured and
apprecated much ater. Gente Ben, for exampe, athough regarded as one of
the supreme panters of the day, was feebe at drawng. On the other hand, the
emphass on archtecture so evdent n the Venetan narratve pantngs was
somethng that oca panters obvousy przed, argey because pantng
archtecture n perspectve was seen as a partcuar test of the Venetan panters
sk.
,. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) Tuscan painters4 use of fresco e$plains the prominence of human figures in
the narrati'e paintings that they produced during the fifteenth century.
(B) 3n addition to fifteenth(century Cenetian attitudes toward history/ other factors
may help to e$plain the characteristic features of Cenetian narrati'e
paintings with religious sub<ects produced during that period.
(C) The inclusion of authentic detail from Cenetian life distinguished fifteenth(
century Cenetian narrati'e paintings from those that were produced in
Tuscany.
() Cenetian painters were generally more skilled at painting buildings than
Tuscan painters were at drawing human forms.
(#) The cycle of secular historical paintings in the Cenetian magistrate4s palace
was the primary narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects.
15. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) @ointing out the superiority of one painting style o'er another.
(B) Citing e'idence that re"uires a ree'aluation of a con'entionally held 'iew.
(C) iscussing factors that e$plain a difference in painting styles.
() 8utlining the strengths and weaknesses of two opposing 'iews regarding the
e'olution of a painting style.
(#) Arguing for the irrele'ance of one theory and for its replacement by a more
602 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
plausible alternati'e.
11. As it is described in the passage/ Brown4s e$planation of the use of the
eyewitness style in Cenetian narrati'e painting suggests that
(A) The painting of architecture in perspecti'e re"uires greater drawing skill than
does the representation of a human form in a fresco.
(B) Certain characteristics of a style of painting can reflect a style of historical
writing that was common during the same period.
(C) The eyewitness style in Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects
was largely the result of the influence of Tuscan artists who worked
primarily in fresco.
() The historical detail in Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects
can be traced primarily to the influence of the paintings in the Cenetian
magistrate4s palace.
(#) A style of painting can be dramatically transformed by a sudden influ$ of
artists from another region.
12. The author suggests that fifteenth(century Cenetian narrati'e paintings with
religious sub<ects were painted by artists who
(A) were able to draw human figures with more skill after they were apprenticed
to painters in Tuscany
(B) assumed that their paintings would typically be 'iewed from a distance
(C) were a ma<or influence on the artists who produced the cycle of historical
paintings in the Cenetian magistrate4s palace
() were reluctant to paint frescoes primarily because they lacked the drawing
skill that painting frescoes re"uired
(#) were better at painting architecture in perspecti'e than they were at drawing
human figures
1.. The author implies that Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious sub<ects
included the representation of elaborate buildings in part because
(A) the ability to paint architecture in perspecti'e was seen in Cenice as proof of a
painter4s skill
(B) the sub<ects of such paintings were often religious stories
(C) large frescoes were especially conduci'e to representing architecture in
perspecti'e
() the architecture of Cenice in the fifteenth century was more elaborate than
was the architecture of Tuscany
(#) the paintings were imitations of a kind of historical writing that was popular
in Tuscany
10. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s contention
that fifteenth(century Cenetian artists *had no practical e$perience of the large(
LSAT 60.
scale representation of familiar religious stories+ (line 05(02)%
(A) The style of secular historical paintings in the palace of the Cenetian
magistrate was similar to that of Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious
sub<ects.
(B) The style of the historical writing produced by fifteenth(century Cenetian
authors was similar in its inclusion of anecdotal details to secular paintings
produced during that century in Tuscany.
(C) ?any of the artists who produced Cenetian narrati'e paintings with religious
sub<ects ser'ed as apprentices in Tuscany/ where they had become familiar
with the techni"ue of painting of frescoes.
() >ew of the frescoes painted in Tuscany during the fifteenth century had
secular sub<ects/ and those that did often betrayed the artist4s inability to
represent elaborate architecture in perspecti'e.
(#) >ew of the Cenetian narrati'e paintings produced toward the end of the
fifteenth century show e'idence of the enhanced drawing skill that
characteri!ed the paintings produced in Cenice a century later.
Currenty, ega schoars agree that n some cases ega rues do not specfy a
defnte outcome. These schoars beeve that such ndetermnacy resuts from the
vagueness of anguage: the boundares of the appcaton of a term are often
uncear. Nevertheess, they mantan that the system of ega rues by and arge
rests on cear core meanngs that do determne defnte outcomes for most cases.
Contrary to ths vew, an earer group of ega phosophers, caed "reasts,"
argued that ndetermnacy pervades every part of the aw.
The reasts hed that there s aways a custer of rues reevant to the decson
n any tgated case. For exampe, decdng whether an aunts promse to pay her
nece a sum of money f she refraned from smokng s enforceabe woud nvove
a number of rues regardng such ssues as offer, acceptance, and revocaton.
Lngustc vagueness n any one of these rues woud affect the outcome of the
case, makng possbe mutpe ponts of ndetermnacy, not |ust one or two, n any
ega case.
For the reasts, an even more damagng knd of ndetermnacy stems from the
fact that n a common-aw system based on precedent, a |udges decson s hed
to be bndng on |udges n subsequent smar cases. |udca decsons are
expressed n wrtten opnons, commony hed to consst of two parts: the hodng
(the decson for or aganst the pantff and the essenta grounds or ega reasons
for t, that s, what subsequent |udges are bound by), and the dcta (everythng n
an opnon not essenta to the decson, for exampe, comments about ponts of
aw not treated as the bass of the outcome). The reasts argued that n practce
the common-aw system treats the "hodng/dcta" dstncton oosey. They
ponted out that even when the |udge wrtng an opnon characterzes part of t as
"the hodng," |udges wrtng subsequent opnons, athough unkey to dspute
the decson tsef, are not bound by the orgna |udges percepton of what was
600 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
essenta to the decson. Later |udges have tremendous eeway n beng abe to
redefne the hodng and the dcta n a precedenta case. Ths eeway enabes
|udges to choose whch rues of aw formed the bass of the decson n the earer
case. When |udgng amost any case, then, a |udge can fnd a reevant
precedenta case whch, n subsequent opnons, has been read by one |udge as
statng one ega rue, and by another |udge as statng another, possby
contradctory one. A |udge thus faces an ndetermnate ega stuaton n whch he
or she has to choose whch rues are to govern the case at hand.
11. According to the passage/ the realists argued that which one of the following is
true of a common(law system%
(A) 3t gi'es rise to numerous situations in which the decisions of earlier <udges
are found to be in error by later <udges.
(B) 3t possesses a clear set of legal rules in theory/ but in practice most <udges are
unaware of the strict meaning of those rules.
(C) 3ts strength lies in the re"uirement that <udges decide cases according to
precedent rather than according to a set of abstract principles.
() 3t would be impro'ed if <udges refrained from willfully misinterpreting the
written opinions of prior <udges.
(#) 3t treats the difference between the holding and the dicta in a written opinion
rather loosely in practice.
12. According to the passage/ which one of the following best describes the
relationship between a <udicial holding and a <udicial decision%
(A) The holding is not commonly considered binding on subse"uent <udges/ but
the decision is.
(B) The holding formally states the outcome of the case/ while the decision
e$plains it.
(C) The holding e$plains the decision but does not include it.
() The holding consists of the decision and the dicta.
(#) The holding sets forth and <ustifies a decision.
1-. The information in the passage suggests that the realists would most likely ha'e
agreed with which one of the following statements about the reaction of <udges to
past interpretations of a precedential case/ each of which states a different legal
rule%
(A) The <udges would most likely disagree with one or more of the interpretations
and o'erturn the earlier <udges4 decisions.
(B) The <udges might differ from each other concerning which of the
interpretations would apply in a gi'en case.
(C) The <udges probably would consider themsel'es bound by all the legal rules
stated in the interpretations.
LSAT 601
() The <udges would regard the lack of unanimity among interpretations as
e'idence that no precedents e$isted.
(#) The <udges would point out in their holdings the inherent contradictions
arising from the earlier <udges4 differing interpretations.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that most legal scholars today would agree
with the realists that
(A) Kinguistic 'agueness can cause indeterminacy regarding the outcome of a
litigated case.
(B) 3n any litigated case/ se'eral different and possibly contradictory legal rules
are rele'ant to the decision of the case.
(C) The distinction between holding and dicta in a written opinion is usually
difficult to determine in practice.
() The boundaries of applicability of terms may sometimes be difficult to
determine/ but the core meanings of the terms are well established.
(#) A common(law system gi'es <udges tremendous leeway in interpreting
precedents/ and contradictor readings of precedential cases can usually be
found.
1,. The passage suggests that the realists belie'ed which one of the following to be
true of the dicta in a <udge4s written opinion%
(A) The <udge writing the opinion is usually careful to specify those parts of the
opinion he or she considers part of the dicta.
(B) The appropriateness of the <udge4s decision would be disputed by subse"uent
<udges on the basis of legal rules e$pressed in the dicta.
(C) A consensus concerning what constitutes the dicta in a <udge4s opinion comes
to be fi$ed o'er time as subse"uent similar cases are decided.
() ;ubse"uent <udges can consider parts of what the original <udge saw as the
dicta to be essential to the original opinion.
(#) The <udge4s decision and the grounds for it are usually easily distinguishable
from the dicta.
25. &hich one of the following best describes the o'erall organi!ation of the
passage%
(A) A traditional point of 'iew is e$plained and problems arising from it are
described.
(B) Two conflicting systems of thought are compared point for point and then
e'aluated.
(C) A legal concept is defined and arguments <ustifying that definition are refuted.
() Two 'iewpoints on an issue are briefly described and one of those 'iewpoints
is discussed at greater length.
(#) A theoretical description of how a system de'elops is contrasted with the
602 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
actual practices characteri!ing the system.
21. &hich one of the following titles best reflects the content of the passage%
(A) Kegal 3ndeterminacyE The ebate Continues
(B) )olding Cersus ictaE A istinction &ithout a ifference
(C) Kinguistic CaguenessE 3s 3t Circumscribed in Kegal Terminology%
() Kegal 3ndeterminacyE The =ealist4s Ciew of 3ts ;cope
(#) Kegal =ules and the @recedential ;ystemE )ow Audges 3nterpret the
@recedents
Years after the movement to obtan cv rghts for back peope n the Unted
States made ts most mportant gans, schoars are reachng for a theoretca
perspectve capabe of carfyng ts momentous deveopments. New theores of
soca movements are beng dscussed, not |ust among soca psychoogsts, but
aso among potca theorsts.
Of the many competng formuatons of the "cassca" soca psychoogca
theory of soca movement, three are promnent n the terature on the cv rghts
movement: "rsng expectatons," "reatve deprvaton," and "|-curve." Each
conforms to a causa sequence characterstc of cassca soca movement theory,
nkng some unusua condton, or "system stran," to the generaton of unrest.
When these versons of the cassca theory are apped to the cv rghts
movement, the source of stran s dentfed as a change n back socoeconomc
status that occurred shorty before the wdespread protest actvty of the
movement.
For exampe, the theory of rsng expectatons asserts that protest actvty was
a response to psychoogca tensons generated by gans experenced mmedatey
pror to the cv rghts movement. Advancement dd not satsfy ambton, but
created the desre for further advancement. Ony sghty dfferent s the theory of
reatve deprvaton. Here the mpetus to protest s dentfed as gans acheved
durng the premovement perod, couped wth smutaneous faure to make any
apprecabe headway reatve to the domnant group. The |-curve theory argues
that the movement occurred because a proonged perod of rsng expectatons
and gratfcaton was foowed by a sharp reversa.
Potca theorsts have been dsmssve of these appcatons of cassca
theory to the cv rghts movement. Ther arguments rest on the convcton that,
mpcty, the cassca theory trvazes the potca ends of movement
partcpants, focusng rather on presumed psychoogca dysfunctons: reducton of
compex soca stuatons to smpe paradgms of stmuus and response obvates
the reevance of a but the shortest-term anayss. Furthermore, the theores ack
predctve vaue: "stran" s aways present to some degree, but soca movement
s not. How can we know whch stran w provoke upheava?
These very egtmate compants havng frequenty been made, t remans to
fnd a means of testng the strength of the theores. Probematcay, whe
LSAT 60-
proponents of the varous theores have contradctory nterpretatons of
socoeconomc condtons eadng to the cv rghts movement, examnaton of
varous statstca records regardng the matera status of back Amercans yeds
ampe evdence to support any of the three theores. The steady rse n medan
back famy ncome supports the rsng expectatons hypothess; the stabty of
the economc poston of back vs--vs whte Amercans ends credence to the
reatve deprvaton nterpretaton; unempoyment data are consstent wth the |-
curve theory. A better test s the comparson of each of these economc ndcators
wth the frequency of movement-ntated events reported n the press;
unsurprsngy, none correates sgnfcanty wth the pace of reports about
movement actvty.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the classical theory of social mo'ement
would not be appropriately applied to an annual general election because such an
election
(A) may focus on personalities rather than on political issues
(B) is not pro'oked primarily by an unusual condition
(C) may be decided according to the psychological needs of 'oters
() may not entail momentous de'elopments
(#) actually entails two or more distinct social mo'ements
2.. According to the passage/ the *rising e$pectations+ and *relati'e depri'ation+
models differ in which one of the following ways%
(A) They predict different responses to the same socioeconomic conditions.
(B) They disagree about the rele'ance of psychological e$planations for protest
mo'ements.
(C) They are meant to e$plain different kinds of social change.
() They describe the moti'ation of protesters in slightly different ways.
(#) They disagree about the rele'ance of socioeconomic status to system strain.
20. The author implies that political theorists attribute which one of the following
assumptions to social psychologists who apply the classical theory of social
mo'ements to the ci'il rights mo'ement%
(A) @articipants in any gi'en social mo'ement ha'e conflicting moti'ations.
(B) ;ocial mo'ements are ultimately beneficial to society.
(C) 8nly strain of a socioeconomic nature can pro'oke a social mo'ement.
() The political ends of mo'ement participants are best analy!ed in terms of
participants4 psychological moti'ations.
(#) @sychological moti'ations of mo'ement participants better illuminate the
causes of social mo'ements than do participants4 political moti'ations.
21. &hich one of the following statements is supported by the results of the *better
test+ discussed in the last paragraph of the passage%
606 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) The test confirms the three classical theories discussed in the passage.
(B) The test pro'ides no basis for deciding among the three classical theories
discussed in the passage.
(C) The test shows that it is impossible to apply any theory of social mo'ements
to the ci'il rights mo'ement.
() The test indicates that press co'erage of the ci'il rights mo'ement was
biased.
(#) The test 'erifies that the ci'il rights mo'ement generated socioeconomic
progress.
22. The 'alidity of the *better test+ (line 21) as proposed by the author might be
undermined by the fact that
(A) the press is selecti'e about the mo'ement acti'ities it chooses to co'er
(B) not all economic indicators recei'e the same amount of press co'erage
(C) economic indicators often contradict one another
() a mo'ement(initiated e'ent may not correlate significantly with any of the
three economic indicators
(#) the pace of mo'ement(initiated e'ents is difficult to anticipate
2-. The main purpose of the passage is to
(A) @ersuade historians of the indispensability of a theoretical framework for
understanding recent history.
(B) @resent a new model of social mo'ement.
(C) Account for a shift in a theoretical debate.
() ;how the unity underlying the di'erse classical models of social mo'ement.
(#) iscuss the reasoning behind and shortcomings of certain social
psychological theories.
LSAT 12 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Neary every wrter on the phosophy of cv rghts actvst Martn Luther Kng,
|r., makes a connecton between Kng and Henry Davd Thoreau, usuay va
Thoreaus famous essay, "Cv Dsobedence" (1849). In hs book tride Toward
Freedom (1958), Kng hmsef stated that Thoreaus essay was hs frst nteectua
contact wth the theory of passve resstance to governmenta aws that are
perceved as moray un|ust. However, ths emphass on Thoreaus nfuence on
LSAT 60,
Kng s unfortunate: frst, Kng woud not have agreed wth many other aspects of
Thoreaus phosophy, ncudng Thoreaus utmate acceptance of voence as a
form of protest; second, an overemphass on the nfuence of one essay has kept
hstorans from notng other correspondences between Kngs phosophy and
transcendentasm. "Cv Dsobedence" was the ony exampe of
transcendentast wrtng wth whch Kng was famar, and n many other
transcendentast wrtngs, ncudng works by Raph Wado Emerson and Margaret
Fuer, Kng woud have found deas more neary akn to hs own.
The knd of cv dsobedence Kng had n mnd was, n fact, qute dfferent
from Thoreaus vew of cv dsobedence. Thoreau, ke most other
transcendentasts, was prmary nterested n reform of the ndvdua, whereas
Kng was prmary nterested n reform of socety. As a protest aganst the
Mexcan War, Thoreau refused to pay taxes, but he dd not hope by hs acton to
force a change n natona pocy. Whe he encouraged others to adopt smar
protests, he dd not attempt to mount any mass protest acton aganst un|ust
aws. In contrast to Thoreau, Kng began to advocate the use of mass cv
dsobedence to effect revoutonary changes wthn the soca system.
However, Kngs wrtngs suggest that, wthout reazng t, he was an ncpent
transcendentast. Most transcendentasts subscrbed to the concept of "hgher
aw" and ncuded cv dsobedence to un|ust aws as part of ther strategy. They
often nvoked the concept of hgher aw to |ustfy ther opposton to savery and to
advocate dsobedence to the strengthened Fugtve Save Law of 1850. In hs
second ma|or book, Kngs dscusson of |ust and un|ust aws and the responsbty
of the ndvdua s very smar to the transcendentasts dscusson of hgher aw.
In reference to how one can advocate breakng some aws and obeyng others,
Kng notes that there are two types of aws, |ust and un|ust; he descrbes a |ust
aw as a "code that squares wth the mora aw" and an un|ust aw as a "code that
s out of harmony wth the mora aw." Thus, Kngs opposton to the n|ustce of
egazed segregaton n the twenteth century s phosophcay akn to the
transcendentasts opposton to the Fugtve Save Law n the nneteenth century.
1. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) Ming4s philosophy was more influenced by Thoreau4s essay on ci'il
disobedience than by any other writing of the transcendentalists.
(B) &hile historians may ha'e o'erestimated Thoreau4s influence on Ming/ Ming
was greatly influenced by a number of the transcendentalist philosophers.
(C) Thoreau4s and Ming4s 'iews on ci'il disobedience differed in that Ming was
more concerned with the social reform than with the economic reform of
society.
() Although historians ha'e o'eremphasi!ed Thoreau4s influence on Ming/ there
are parallels between Ming4s philosophy and transcendentalism that ha'e not
been fully appreciated.
(#) Ming4s ideas about law and ci'il disobedience were influenced by
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transcendentalism in general and Thoreau4s essays in particular.
2. &hich one of the following statements about *Ci'il isobedience+ would the
author consider most accurate%
(A) 3t was not Ming4s first contact with the concept of passi'e resistance to un<ust
laws.
(B) 3t was one of many e$amples of transcendentalist writing with which Ming
was familiar.
(C) 3t pro'ided Ming with a model for using passi'e resistance to effect social
change.
() 3t contains a number of ideas with which other transcendentalists strongly
disagreed.
(#) 3t influenced Ming4s philosophy on passi'e resistance to un<ust laws.
.. 3n the first paragraph/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) chronicling the de'elopment of Ming4s philosophy on passi'e resistance to
un<ust law
(B) suggesting that a common emphasis on one influence on Ming4s philosophy
has been misleading
(C) pro'iding new information about the influence of twentieth(century
philosophers on Ming4s work
() summari!ing the work of historians of the most important influences on
Ming4s philosophy
(#) pro'iding background information about nineteenth(century transcendentalist
philosophers
0. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of4 #merson and
>uller%
(A) ;ome of their ideas were less typical of transcendentalism than were some of
Thoreau4s ideas.
(B) They were more concerned with the reform of society than with the reform of
the indi'idual.
(C) They would ha'e been more likely than Thoreau to agree with Ming on the
necessity of mass protest in ci'il disobedience.
() Their ideas about ci'il disobedience and un<ust laws are as well known as
Thoreau4s are.
(#) ;ome of their ideas were more similar to Ming4s than were some of Thoreau4s.
1. According to the passage/ Ming differed from most transcendentalists in that he
(A) opposed 'iolence as a form of ci'il protest
(B) opposed war as an instrument of foreign policy under any circumstances
(C) belie'ed that <ust laws had an inherent moral 'alue
LSAT 611
() was more interested in reforming society than in reforming the indi'idual
(#) protested social and legal in<ustice in :nited ;tates society rather than :nited
;tates foreign policy
2. The passage suggests which one of the following about Thoreau%
(A) )e was the first to de'elop fully the theory of ci'il disobedience.
(B) )is work has had a greater influence on contemporary thinkers than has the
work of #merson and >uller.
(C) )is philosophy does not contain all of the same elements as the philosophies
of the other transcendentalists.
() )e ad'ocated using ci'il disobedience to force the federal go'ernment to
change its policies on war.
(#) )e is better known for his ideas on social and legal reform than for his ideas
on indi'idual reform.
-. The passage pro'ides support for which one of the following statements about the
"uotations in lines 12(11%
(A) They are an e$ample of a way in which Ming4s ideas differed from Thoreau4s
but were similar to the ideas of other transcendentalists.
(B) They pro'ide e'idence that pro'es that Ming4s philosophy was affected by
transcendentalist thought.
(C) They suggest that Ming/ like the transcendentalists/ <udged human laws by
ethical standards.
() They suggest a theoretical basis for Ming4s philosophy of go'ernment.
(#) They pro'ide a paraphrase of Thoreau4s position on <ust and un<ust laws.
In -emocracies and its Critics, Robert Dah defends both democratc vaue
and purast democraces, or poyarches (a rough shorthand term for Western
potca systems). Dah argues convncngy that the dea of democracy rests on
potca equaty-the equaty capacty of a ctzens to determne or nfuence
coectve decsons. Of course, as Dah recognzes, f herarchca orderng s
nevtabe n any structure of government, and f no socety can guarantee perfect
equaty n the resources that may gve rse to potca nfuence, the democratc
prncpe of potca equaty s ncapabe of fu reazaton. So actua systems can
be deemed democratc ony as approxmatons to the dea. It s on these grounds
that Dah defends poyarchy.
As a representatve system n whch eected offcas both determne
government pocy and are accountabe to a broad-based eectorate, poyarchy
renforces a dffuson of power away from any snge center and toward a varety
of ndvduas, groups, and organzatons. It s ths centrfuga characterstc, Dah
argues, that makes poyarchy the nearest possbe approxmaton to the
democratc dea. Poyarchy acheves ths dffuson of power through party
competton and the operaton of pressure groups. Competng for votes, partes
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seek to offer dfferent sectons of the eectorate what they most want; they do not
ask what the ma|orty thnks of an ssue, but what pocy commtments w sway
the eectora decsons of partcuar groups. Equay, groups that have strong
feengs about an ssue can organze n pressure groups to nfuence pubc pocy.
Durng the 1960s and 1970s, crtcsm of the theory of purast democracy
was vgorous. Many crtcs ponted to a gap between the mode and the reaty of
Western potca systems. They argued that the dstrbuton of power resources
other than the vote was so uneven that the potca order systematcay gave
added weght to those who were aready rcher or organzatonay more powerfu.
So the power of some groups to excude ssues atogether from the potca
agenda effectvey countered any dffuson of nfuence on decson-makng.
Athough such crtcsm became subdued durng the 1980s, Dah hmsef
seems to support some of the earer crtcsm. Athough he regrets that some
Western nteectuas demand more democracy from poyarches than s possbe,
and s cautous about the possbty of further democratzaton, he nevertheess
ends hs book by askng what changes n structures and conscousness mght
make potca fe more democratc n present poyarches. One answer, he
suggests, s to ook at the economc order of poyarches from the pont of vew of
the ctzen as we as from that of producers and consumers. Ths woud requre a
crtca examnaton of both the dstrbuton of those economc resources that are
at the same tme potca resources, and the reatonshp between potca
structures and economc enterprses.
6. The characteri!ation of polyarchies as *centrifugal+ (line 22) emphasi!es the
(A) way in which political power is decentrali!ed in a polyarchy
(B) central role of power resources in a polyarchy
(C) kind of concentrated power that political parties generate in a polyarchy
() dynamic balance that e$ists between economic enterprises and elected
officials in a polyarchy
(#) dynamic balance that e$ists between 'oters and elected officials in a
polyarchy
,. 3n the third paragraph/ the author of the passage refers to criticism of the theory
of polyarchy democracy primarily in order to
(A) refute ahl4s statement that &estern intellectuals e$pect more democracy
from polyarchies than is possible
(B) ad'ocate the need for rethinking the basic principles on which the theory of
democracy rests
(C) suggest that the structure of go'ernment within pluralist democracies should
be changed
() point out a flaw in ahl4s argument that the principle of political e"uality
cannot be fully reali!ed
LSAT 61.
(#) point out an ob<ection to ahl4s defense of polyarchy
15. According to the passage/ the aim of a political party in a polyarchy is to do
which one of the following%
(A) determine what the position of the ma<ority of 'oters is on a particular issue
(B) determine what position on an issue will earn the support of particular groups
of 'oters
(C) organi!e 'oters into pressure groups in order to influence public policy on a
particular issue
() ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the party on
specific issue
(#) ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the electorate
on specific issues
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that ahl assumes which one of the following
in his defense of polyarchies%
(A) @olyarchies are limited in the e$tent to which they can embody the idea of
democracy.
(B) The structure of polyarchical go'ernments is free of hierarchical ordering.
(C) The citi!ens of a polyarchy ha'e e"ual access to the resources that pro'ide
political influence.
() @olyarchy is the best political system to foster the growth of political parties.
(#) @olyarchy is a form of go'ernment that is not influenced by the interests of
economic enterprises.
12. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to pluralist democracies as
they are described in relation to the democratic principle of political e"uality%
(A) an e$act copy of an ancient artifact that is on display in a museum
(B) a performance of a musical score whose range of tonality cannot be
completely captured by any actual instruments
(C) a lecture by a former astronaut to a class of young students who would like to
be astronauts
() the commemoration of a historical e'ent each year by a historian presenting a
lecture on a topic related to the e'ent
(#) the mold from which a number of identical castings of a sculpture are made
1.. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most strengthen ahl4s defense of
polyarchy%
(A) The political agenda in a polyarchy is strongly influenced by how power
resources other than the 'ote are distributed.
(B) The outcome of elections is more often determined by the financial resources
candidates are able to spend during campaigns than by their stands on
610 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
political issue.
(C) @ublic policy in a polyarchy is primarily determined by decision(makers who
are not accountable to elected officials.
() @olitical parties in a polyarchy help concentrate political power in the central
go'ernment.
(#) ;mall and di'erse pressure groups are able to e$ert as much influence on
public policy in a polyarchy as are large and powerful groups.
10. The passage can best be described as
(A) an in"uiry into how present(day polyarchies can be made more democratic
(B) a commentary on the means pressure groups employ to e$ert influence within
polyarchies
(C) a description of the relationship between polyarchies and economic
enterprises
() a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of polyarchy as a form of
democracy
(#) an o'er'iew of the similarities between political parties and pressure groups
in a polyarchy
The od beef that cmatc stabty accounts for the hgh eve of speces
dversty n the Amazon Rver basn of South Amerca emerged, strangey enough,
from observatons of the deep sea. Sanders dscovered hgh dversty among the
mud-dweng anmas of the deep ocean. He argued that such dversty coud be
attrbuted to the absence of sgnfcant fuctuatons n cmate and physca
condtons, wthout whch the extncton of speces shoud be rare. In the course of
tme new speces woud contnue to evove, and so the rate of specaton woud be
greater than the rate of extncton, resutng n the accumuaton of great dversty.
Sanders argued that the Amazon tropca ran forest s anaogous to the deep sea:
because the ran forest has a stabe cmate, extncton shoud be rare. Evdence
that some speces of ran-forest trees have perssted for some 30 mon years n
the Amazon basn, added to the absence of wnter and gacaton, supports ths
vew.
Recenty however, severa observatons have cast doubt on the vadty of the
stabty hypothess and suggest that the cmate of the Amazon basn has
fuctuated sgnfcanty n the past. Haffer noted that dfferent speces of brds
nhabt dfferent corners of the basn n spte of the fact that essentay unbroken
green forest spreads from the western edge to the eastern edge of the regon.
Ths pattern presented a puzze to boogsts studyng the dstrbutons of pants
and anmas: why woud dfferent speces nhabt dfferent parts of the forest f the
habtat n whch they ved had a stabe cmate?
Haffer proposed a compeng expanaton for the dstrbuton of speces.
Observng that speces found on hgh ground are dfferent from those on ow
ground and knowng that n the Amazon owands are drer than upands, he
LSAT 611
proposed that durng the ce ages the Amazon owands became a near-desert
ard pan; meanwhe, the more eevated regons became sands of mosture and
hence served as refuges for the fauna and fora of the ran forest. Popuatons that
were once contnuous dverged and became permanenty separated. Haffers
hypothess appears to expan the dstrbuton of speces as we as the unusua
speces dversty. The ce-age refuges woud have protected exstng speces from
extncton. But the perodc geographc soaton of reated popuatons (there have
been an estmated 13 ce ages to date) woud have factated the deveopment of
new speces as exstng speces on the owands adapted to changng cmates.
Athough no concusve proof has yet been found to support Haffers
hypothess, t has ed other researchers to gauge the effects of cmatc changes,
such as storms and foodng, on speces dversty n the Amazon basn. Ther
research suggests that cmatc dsturbances hep account for the spendd
dversty of the Amazon ran forest.
11. As discussed in the first paragraph of the passage/ ;anders4 analogy between the
deep sea and the Ama!on basin in'ol'es which one of the following
assumptions%
(A) Both the Ama!on basin and the deep sea support an unusually high rate of
speciation.
(B) Both the rain(forest trees in the Ama!on basin and the mud(dwelling animals
in the deep sea ha'e sur'i'ed for .5 million years.
(C) Both the deep sea and the Ama!on basin ha'e not e$perienced dramatic
changes in climate or physical conditions.
() A dependable supply of water to the Ama!on basin and the deep sea has
moderated the rate of e$tinction in both habitats.
(#) The rate of speciation in the Ama!on basin is e"ui'alent to the rate of
speciation in the deep sea.
12. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the
following statements about )affer4s hypothesis%
(A) 3t pro'ides an intriguing and complete e$planation for the high rate of species
di'ersity in the Ama!on basin.
(B) 3t is partially correct in that a number of climatic disturbances account for
species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin.
(C) 3t has not yet been 'erified/ but it has had an influential effect on current
research on species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin.
() 3t is better than ;anders4 theory in accounting for the low rate of species
e$tinction in the Ama!on basin.
(#) 3t pro'ides a compelling e$planation for the distribution of species in the
Ama!on basin but does not account for the high species di'ersity.
1-. According to the passage/ lowlands in the Ama!on basin currently differ from
612 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
uplands in which one of the following respects%
(A) Kowlands are desertlike/ whereas uplands are lush.
(B) Kowlands are less 'ulnerable to glaciation during the ice ages than are
uplands.
(C) :plands support a greater di'ersity of species than do lowlands.
() :plands are wetter than are lowlands.
(#) :plands are more densely populated than are lowlands.
16. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A hypothesis is discussed/ e'idence that undercuts that hypothesis is
presented and a new hypothesis that may account for the e'idence is
described.
(B) A recently obser'ed phenomenon is described/ an e$planation for that
phenomenon is discussed/ and the e$planation is e'aluated in light of
pre'ious research findings.
(C) ;e'eral hypotheses that may account for a pu!!ling phenomenon are
described and discounted/ and a more promising hypothesis is presented.
() A hypothesis and the assumptions on which it is based are described/ and
e'idence is pro'ided to suggest that the hypothesis is only partially correct.
(#) Two alternati'e e$planations for a phenomenon are presented and compared/
and e$periments designed to test each theory are described.
1,. The author of the passage mentions the number of ice ages in the third paragraph
most probably in order to
(A) pro'ide proof that cooler and drier temperatures are primarily responsible for
the distribution of species in the Ama!on
(B) e$plain how populations of species were protected from e$tinction in the
Ama!on basin
(C) e$plain how most e$isting species were able to sur'i'e periodic climatic
disturbances in the Ama!on basin
() suggest that certain kinds of climatic disturbances cause more species
di'ersity than do other kinds of climatic disturbances
(#) suggest that geographic isolation may ha'e occurred often enough to cause
high species di'ersity in the Ama!on basin
25. The passage suggests that which one of the following is true of ;anders4
hypothesis%
(A) )e underestimated the effects of winter and glaciation in the Ama!on basin
on the tropical rain forest.
(B) )e failed to recogni!e the similarity in physical conditions of the Ama!on
lowlands and the Ama!on uplands.
LSAT 61-
(C) )e failed to take into a count the relati'ely high rate of e$tinction during the
ice ages in the Ama!on basin.
() )e o'erestimated the length of time that species ha'e sur'i'ed in the Ama!on
basin.
(#) )e failed to account for the distribution of species in the Ama!on basin.
21. &hich one of the following is e'idence that would contribute to the *proof+
mentioned in line 10%
(A) Accurately dated sediment cores from a freshwater lake in the Ama!on
indicate that the lake4s water le'el rose significantly during the last ice age.
(B) ata based on radiocarbon dating of fossils suggest that the Ama!on uplands
were too cold to support rain forests during the last ice age.
(C) Computer models of climate during global ice ages predict only insignificant
reductions of monsoon rains in tropical areas such as the Ama!on.
() >ossils preser'ed in the Ama!on uplands during the last ice age are found
together with minerals that are the products of an arid landscape.
(#) >ossili!ed pollen from the Ama!on lowlands indicates that during the last ice
age the Ama!on lowlands supported 'egetation that needs little water rather
than the rain forests they support today.
Athough surveys of medeva egsaton, gud organzaton, and termnoogy
used to desgnate dfferent medca practtoners have demonstrated that
numerous medca specates were recognzed n Europe durng the Mdde Ages,
most hstorans contnue to equate the term "woman medca practtoner,"
wherever they encounter t n medeva records, wth "mdwfe." Ths common
practce obscures the fact that, athough women were not represented on a
eves of medcne equay, they were represented n a varety of specates
throughout the broad medca communty. A reabe study by Wckershemer and
|acquart documents that of 7,647 medca practtoners n France durng the
twefth through ffteenth centures, 121 were women; of these, ony 44 were
dentfed as mdwves, whe the rest practced as physcans, surgeons,
apothecares, barbers, and other heaers.
Whe preservng termnoogca dstnctons somewhat ncreases the quaty of
the nformaton extracted from medeva documents concernng women medca
practtoners, schoars must aso reopen the whoe queston of why documentary
evdence for women medca practtoners comprses such a tny fracton of the
evdence hstorans of medeva medcne usuay present. Is ths due to the
mtatons of the hstorca record, as has been camed, or does t aso resut from
the methods hstorans use? Granted, apart from medca censes, the prncpa
sources of nformaton regardng medca practtoners avaabe to researchers are
ws, property transfers, court records, and smar documents, a of whch
typcay underrepresent women because of restrctve medeva ega tradtons.
Nonetheess, the parameters researchers choose when they defne ther
616 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
nvestgatons may contrbute to the probem. Studes focusng on the upper
echeons of "earned" medcne, for exampe, tend to excude heaers on the ega
and soca frnges of medca practce, where most women woud have been
found.
The advantages of broadenng the scope of such studes s mmedatey
apparent n Peng and Websters study of sxteenth-century London. Instead of
focusng soey on offcay recognzed and censed practtoners, the researchers
defned a medca practtoner as "any ndvdua whose occupaton s bascay
concerned wth the care of the sck." Usng ths defnton, they found prmary
source nformaton suggestng that there were 60 women medca practtoners n
the cty of London n 1560. Athough ths fgure may be sghty exaggerated, the
evdence contrasts strkngy wth that of Gottfred, whose earer survey dentfed
ony 28 women medca practtoners n a of Engand between 1330 and 1530.
Fnay, such studes provde ony statstca nformaton about the varety and
prevaence of womens medca practce n medeva Europe. Future studes mght
aso make proftabe use of anayses deveoped n other areas of womens hstory
as a bass for exporng the soca context of womens medca practce.
Informaton about economc rvary n medcne, womens teracy, and the contro
of medca knowedge coud add much to our growng understandng of women
medca practtoners roe n medeva socety.
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) =ecent studies demonstrate that women medical practitioners were more
common in #ngland than in the rest of &estern #urope during the ?iddle
Ages.
(B) The "uantity and "uality of the information historians unco'er concerning
women4s medical practice in medie'al #urope would be impro'ed if they
changed their methods of study.
(C) The sparse e'idence for women medical practitioners in studies dealing with
the ?iddle Ages is due primarily to the limitations of the historical record.
() Mnowledge about the social issues that influenced the role women medical
practitioners played in medie'al society has been enhanced by se'eral recent
studies.
(#) Analyses de'eloped in other areas of women4s history could probably be used
to pro'ide more information about the social conte$t of women4s medical
practice during the ?iddle Ages.
2.. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the error the author
belie'es historians make when they e"uate the term *woman medical
practitioner+ with *midwife+%
(A) e"uating pear with apple
(B) e"uating science with biology
LSAT 61,
(C) e"uating super'isor with subordinate
() e"uating member with nonmember
(#) e"uating instructor with trainee
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following assertions regarding Bottfried4s study%
(A) Bottfried4s study would ha'e recorded a much larger number of women
medical practitioners if the time frame co'ered by the study had included the
late si$teenth century.
(B) The small number of women medical practitioners identified in Bottfried4s
study is due primarily to problems caused by inaccurate sources.
(C) The small number of women medical practitioners identified in Bottfried4s
study is due primarily to the loss of many medie'al documents.
() The results of Bottfried4s study need to be considered in light of the social
changes occurring in &estern #urope during the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries.
(#) 3n setting the parameters for his study. Bottfried appears to ha'e defined the
term *medical practitioner+ 'ery narrowly.
21. The passage suggests that a future study that would be more informati'e about
medie'al women medical practitioners might focus on which one of the
following%
(A) the effect of social change on the political and economic structure of
medie'al society
(B) the effect of social constraints on medie'al women4s access to a medical
education
(C) the types of medical specialties that de'eloped during the ?iddle Ages
() the reasons why medie'al historians tend to e"uate the term *woman medical
practitioner+ with midwife
(#) the historical de'elopments responsible for the medie'al legal tradition4s
restrictions on women
22. The author refers to the study by &ickersheimer and Aac"uart in order to
(A) demonstrate that numerous medical specialties were recogni!ed in &estern
#urope during the ?iddle Ages
(B) demonstrate that women are often underrepresented in studies of medie'al
medical practitioners
(C) pro'e that midwi'es were officially recogni!ed as members of the medical
community during the ?iddle Ages
() pro'e that midwi'es were only a part of a larger community of women
medical practitioners during the ?iddle Ages
(#) pro'e that the e$istence of midwi'es can be documented in &estern #urope
625 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
as early as the twelfth century
2-. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) describing new methodological approaches
(B) re'ising the definitions of certain concepts
(C) comparing two different analyses
() arguing in fa'or of changes in method
(#) chronicling certain historical de'elopments
LSAT 13 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Modern archtecture has been crtczed for emphaszng practca and
technca ssues at the expense of aesthetc concerns. The hgh-rse budngs
constructed throughout the ndustrazed word n the 1960s and 1970s provde
ampe evdence that cost-effcency and utty have became the overrdng
concerns of the modern archtect. However, Otto Wagners semna text on
modern archtecture, frst pubshed n Germany n 1896, ndcates that the faure
of modern archtecture cannot be bamed on the deas of ts founders.
Wagners (odern "rchitecture caed for a new stye based on modern
technooges and modes of constructon. He nssted that there coud be no return
to tradtona, prendustra modes; ony by acceptng whoeheartedy the potca
and technoogca revoutons of the nneteenth century coud the archtect
estabsh the forms approprate to a modern, urban socety. "A modern creaton,"
Wagner wrote, "must correspond to the new materas and demands of the
present.must ustrate our own better, democratc, sef-confdent, dea nature,"
and must ncorporate the new "coossa technca and scentfc achevements" of
the age. Ths woud ndeed seem to be the bass of a purey materast defnton
of archtecture, a prototype for the smpstc form-foows-functon dogma that
opponents have dentfed as the nteectua bass of modern archtecture.
But the pcture was more compex, for Wagner was aways carefu to
dstngush between art and engneerng. Utmatey, he envsaged the archtect
deveopng the sks of the engneer wthout osng the powers of aesthetc
|udgment that Wagner fet were unque to the artst. "Snce the engneer s
sedom a born artst and the archtect must earn as a rue to be an engneer,
archtects w n tme succeed n extendng ther nfuence nto the ream occuped
by the engneers, so that egtmate aesthetc demands can be met n a
LSAT 621
satsfactory way." In ths symbotc reatonshp essenta to Modernsm, art was to
exercse the controng nfuence.
No other prospect was magnabe for Wagner, who was frmy rooted as a
desgner and, ndeed, as a teacher n the Cassca tradton. The apparent
nconsstency of a confessed Casscst advsng aganst the mechanca mtaton
of hstorca modes and argung for new forms approprate to the modern age
created exacty the tenson that made Wagners wrtngs and budngs so
nterestng. Whe he |ustfed, for exampe, the choce of a crcuar ground pan for
churches n terms of optma sght-nes and the technoogy of the gasometer, the
true nspraton was derved from the centrazed churches of the Itaan
Renassance. He acknowedged as ratonast that there was no way back to the
soca and technoogca condtons that had produced the work of Mcheangeo or
Fscher von Erach, but he recognzed hs emotona attachment to the great works
of the Itaan Renassance and Austran Baroque.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) ?odern architecture has been critici!ed for emphasi!ing practical and
technical issues and for failing to focus on aesthetic concerns.
(B) Critics ha'e failed to take into account the technological inno'ations and
aesthetic features that architects ha'e incorporated into modern buildings.
(C) &agner4s *odern Architecture pro'ides architects with a chronicle of the
origins of modern architecture.
() &agner4s *odern Architecture indicates that the founders of modern
architecture did not belie'e that practical issues should supersede the
aesthetic concerns of the past.
(#) &agner4s seminal te$t/ *odern Architecture/ pro'ides the intellectual basis
for the purely materialistic definition of modern architecture.
2. According to the passage/ &agner asserts which one of the following about the
roles of architect and engineer%
(A) The architect should make decision about aesthetic issues and lea'e decision
about technical matters to the engineers.
(B) The engineer has often de'eloped the powers of aesthetic <udgment
pre'iously thought to be uni"ue to the architect.
(C) The <udgment of the engineer should be as important as the <udgment of the
architect when decisions are made about aesthetic issues.
() The technical <udgment of the engineer should pre'ail o'er the aesthetic
<udgment of the architect in the design of modern buildings.
(#) The architect should ac"uire the knowledge of technical matters typically held
by the engineer.
.. The passage suggests that &agner would be K#A;T likely to agree with which
one of the following statements about classical architecture and the modern
622 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
architect%
(A) The modern architect should a'oid the mechanical imitation of the models of
the 3talian =enaissance and Austrian Baro"ue.
(B) The modern architect cannot design buildings appropriate to a modern/ urban
society and still retain emotional attachments to the forms of the 3talian
=enaissance and Austrian Baro"ue.
(C) The modern architect should possess knowledge of engineering as well as of
the architecture of the past.
() The modern architect should not base designs on the technological conditions
that underlay the design of the models of the 3talian =enaissance and
Austrian Baro"ue.
(#) The designs of modern architects should reflect political ideals different from
those reflected in the designs of classical architecture.
0. The passage suggests which one of the following about the "uotations from
*odern Architecture cited in the second paragraph%
(A) They represent the part of &agner4s work that has had the least influence on
the architects who designed the high(rise buildings of the 1,25s and 1,-5s.
(B) They describe the part of &agner4s work that is most often e'oked by
proponents of &agner4s ideas on art and technology.
(C) They do not ade"uately reflect the comple$ity of &agner4s ideas on the use of
modern technology in architecture.
() They reflect &agner4s acti'e participation in the political re'olutions of the
nineteenth century.
(#) They pro'ide an o'er'iew of &agner4s ideas on the relationship between art
and technology.
1. The author of the passage states which one of the following about the concerns of
modern architecture%
(A) Cost(efficiency/ utility/ and aesthetic demands are the primary concerns of the
modern architect.
(B) @ractical issues supersede aesthetic concerns in the design of many modern
buildings.
(C) Cost(efficiency is more important to the modern architects than are other
practical concerns.
() The design of many new buildings suggests that modern architects are still
inspired by architectural forms of the past.
(#) ?any modern architects use current technology to design modern buildings
that are aesthetically pleasing.
2. The author mentions &agner4s choice of a *circular ground plan for churches+
(line 10) most likely in order to
LSAT 62.
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of the kinds of technological inno'ations &agner
introduced into modern architecture
(B) pro'ide an e$ample of &agner4s dismissal of historical forms from 3talian
=enaissance
(C) pro'ide an e$ample of a modern building where technological issues were
much less significant than aesthetic demands
() pro'ide e'idence of &agner4s tendency to imitate 3talian =enaissance and
Austrian Baro"ue models
(#) pro'ide e'idence of the tension between &agner4s commitment to modern
technology and to the Classical tradition
-. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) summari!ing the history of a debate
(B) e$plaining a traditional argument
(C) describing and e'aluating a recent approach
() <ustifying a recent criticism by presenting new e'idence
(#) supporting an assertion by discussing an important work
In order to expan the socoeconomc achevement, n the face of
dsadvantages due to raca dscrmnaton, of Chnese and |apanese mmgraton
to the Unted States and ther descendants, socoogsts have typcay apped
ether cuturay based or structuray based theores-but never both together. To
use an economc metaphor, cuturay based expanatons assert the mportance
of the suppy sde of the abor market, emphaszng the quates mmgrant
groups brng wth them for competton n the Unted States abor market. Such
expanatons refect a human-capta perspectve n whch status attanment s
seen as a resut of ndvduas abty to generate resources. Structuray based
expanatons, on the other hand, examne the market condton of the mmgrants
host socety, partcuary ts dscrmnatory practces and ther mpact on the
status attanment process of mmgrant groups. In the economc metaphor,
structura expanatons assert the mportance of the demand sde of the abor
market.
In order to understand the socoeconomc mobty of Chnese and |apanese
mmgrants and ther descendants, ony an anayss of suppy-sde and demand-
sde factors together, n the context of hstorca events, w suffce. On the
cutura or suppy sde, dfferences n mmgraton pattern and famy formaton
resuted n dfferent rates of socoeconomc achevement for Chnese and
|apanese mmgrants. For varous reasons, Chnese mmgrants remaned
so|ourners and dd not (except for urban merchants) estabsh fames. They were
aso hampered by ethnc confct n the abor market. |apanese mmgrants, on the
other hand, were ess constraned, made the transton from so|ourner to setter
wthn the frst two decades of mmgraton, and eft ow-wage abor to estabsh
sma busnesses based on a househod mode of producton. Chnese so|ourners
620 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
wthout fames were more vunerabe to demorazaton, whereas |apanese
mmgrants faced soceta hostty wth the emotona resources provde by a
stabe famy fe. Once Chnese mmgrants began to estabsh nucear fames
and produce a second generaton, nsttutng househod producton smar to that
estabshed by |apanese mmgrants, ther socoeconomc attanment soon
paraeed that of |apanese mmgrants and ther descendants.
On the structura or demand sde, changes n nsttutona constrants,
mmgraton aws, abor markets, and soceta hostty were rooted n the
dynamcs of captast economc deveopment. Eary captast deveopment
generated a demand for ow-wage abor that coud not be fufed. Eary Chnese
and |apanese emgraton was a response to ths demand. In an advanced
captast economy, the demand for mmgrant abor s more dfferentated: sked
professona and technca abor fs empty postons n the prmary abor market
and, wth the tradtona unsked ow-wage abor, creates two mmgrant streams.
The hgh eves of educaton attaned by the descendants of Chnese and |apanese
mmgrants and ther concentraton n strategc states such as Caforna paved
the way for the movement of the second generaton nto the expandng prmary
abor market n the advanced captast economy that exsted after the Second
Word War.
6. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and
their descendants is best e$plained by a historical e$amination of the
economic structures pre'alent in the :nited ;tates when such immigrant
groups arri'ed.
(B) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and
their descendants is best e$plained by an e$amination of their cultural
backgrounds/ in particular their le'el of educational attainment.
(C) The socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and
their descendants has taken place in the conte$t of a culturally based
emphasis on the economic welfare of the nuclear family.
() 8nly the market structure of the capitalist economy of the :nited ;tates in
which supply has historically been regulated by demand can account for the
socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their
descendants.
(#) 8nly an analysis that combines an e$amination of the culture of Chinese and
Aapanese immigrant groups and the socioeconomic structure of the host
country can ade"uately e$plain the socioeconomic achie'ement of Chinese
and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants.
,. &hich one of the following can best be described as a supply(side element in the
labor market/ as such elements are e$plained in the passage%
(A) concentration of small businesses in a gi'en geographical area
LSAT 621
(B) need for workers with 'arying degrees of skill
(C) high 'alue placed by immigrants on work
() e$pansion of the primary labor market
(#) de'elopment of an ad'anced capitalist economy
15. &hich one of the following best states the function of the author4s mention of
*two immigration streams+ (line 22)%
(A) 3t demonstrates the effects of changes in human capital.
(B) 3t illustrates the operation of the primary labor market.
(C) 3t e$plains the nature of early Chinese and Aapanese immigration.
() 3t characteri!es the result of changing demand(side factors.
(#) 3t underscores an influence on the labor market.
11. 3t can be inferred that the author4s analysis of the socioeconomic achie'ement of
Chinese and Aapanese immigrants and their descendants differs from that of most
sociologists primarily in that most sociologists
(A) address the effects of the interaction of causal factors
(B) e$clude the factor of a de'eloping capitalist economy
(C) do not apply an economic metaphor
() emphasi!e the disad'antageous effects of racial discrimination
(#) focus on a single type of theoretical e$planation
12. 3t can be inferred that which one of the following was an element of the
e$perience of both Chinese and Aapanese immigrants in the :nited ;tates%
(A) initial status as so<ourners
(B) slow accumulation of capital
(C) "uick transition from laborer to manager
() rapid establishment of nuclear families
(#) rapid ac"uisition of technical skills
1.. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) ad'ancing a synthesis of approaches to an issue
(B) challenging a tentati'e answer to a "uestion
(C) e'aluating the soundness of theories
() resol'ing the differences between schools of thought
(#) outlining the achie'ements of a group
Athough the ega systems of Engand and the Unted States are superfcay
smar, they dffer profoundy n ther approaches to and uses of ega reasons:
substantve reasons n the Unted States, whereas n Engand the reverse s true.
Ths dstncton refects a dfference n the vsons of aw that preva n the two
countes. In Engand the aw has tradtonay been vewed as a system of rues;
622 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
the Unted States favors a vson of aw as an outward expresson of the
communtys sense of rght and |ustce.
Substantve reasons, as apped to aw, are based on mora, economc,
potca, and other consderatons. These reasons are found both "n the aw" and
"outsde the aw," so to speak. Substantve reasons nform the content of a arge
part of the aw: consttutons, statutes, contracts, verdcts, and the ke. Consder,
for exampe, a statute provdng (to make a provso or stpuaton) that "no
vehces sha be taken nto pubc parks". Suppose that no specfc ratonaes or
purposes were expcty wrtten nto ths statute, but that t was cear (from ts
egsatve hstory) that the substantve purpose of the statute was to ensure quet
and safety n the park. Now suppose that a veterans group mounts a Word War II
|eep (n runnng order but wthout a battery) as a war memora on a concrete sab
n the park, and charges are brought aganst ts members. Most |udges n the
Unted States woud fnd the defendants not guty because what they dd had no
adverse effect on park quet and safety.
Forma reasons are dfferent n that they frequenty prevent substantve
reasons from comng nto pay, even when substantve reasons are expcty
ncorporated nto the aw at hand. For exampe, when a document fas to compy
wth stpuated requrements, the court may render the document egay
neffectve. A w requrng wrtten wtness may be decared nu and vod and
therefore, unenforceabe for the forma reason that the requrement was not
observed. Once the ega rue-that a w s nvad for ack of proper wtnessng-
has been ceary estabshed, and the egaty of the rue s not n queston,
appcaton of that rue precudes from consderaton substantve arguments n
favor of the ws vadty or enforcement.
Lega schoars n Engand and the Unted States have ong bemused
themseves wth extreme exampes of forma and substantve reasonng. On the
one hand, forma reasonng n Engand has ed to wooden nterpretatons of
statutes and an unwngness to deveop the common aw through |udca
actvsm. On the other hand, freewheeng substantve reasonng n the Unted
States has resuted n statutory nterpretatons so bera that the texts of some
statutes have been gnored atogether.
10. &hich one of the following best describes the content of the passage as a whole%
(A) an analysis of similarities and differences between the legal systems of
#ngland and the :nited ;tates
(B) a ree'aluation of two legal systems with the use of e$amples
(C) a contrast between the types of reasons embodied in the :nited ;tates and
#ngland legal systems
() an e$planation of how two distinct 'isions of the law shaped the de'elopment
of legal reasoning
(#) a presentation of two types of legal reasons that shows the characteristics they
LSAT 62-
ha'e in common
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that #nglish <udges would be likely to find the
'eterans4 group discussed in the second paragraph guilty of 'iolating the statute
because
(A) not to do so would encourage others to act as the group did
(B) not to do so would be to 'iolate the substanti'e reasons underlying the law
(C) the 'eterans failed to comply with the substanti'e purpose of the statute
() the 'eterans failed to demonstrate that their acti'ities had no ad'erse effect on
the public
(#) the 'eterans failed to comply with the stipulated re"uirements of the statute
12. >rom the discussion of wills in the third paragraph it can be inferred that
substanti'e arguments as to the 'alidity of a will might be considered under
which one of the following circumstances%
(A) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed in writing does not stipulate
the format of the will.
(B) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed stipulates that the will must
be witnessed in writing by two people.
(C) The legal rule re"uiring that a will be witnessed in writing stipulates that the
witnessing must be done in the presence of a <udge.
() A <udge rules that the law re"uires a will to be witnessed in writing regardless
of e$tenuating circumstances.
(#) A <udge rules that the law can be interpreted to allow for a 'erbal witness to a
will in a case in'ol'ing a medical emergency.
1-. The author of the passage makes use of all of the following in presenting the
discussion of the #nglish and the :nited ;tates legal systems #DC#@T
(A) comparison and contrast
(B) generali!ation
(C) e$plication of term
() a chronology of historical de'elopments
(#) a hypothetical case
16. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph of
the passage%
(A) 3t presents the conse"uences of e$treme interpretations of the two types of
legal reasons discussed by the author.
(B) 3t shows how legal scholars can incorrectly use e$treme e$amples to support
their 'iews.
(C) 3t corrects inaccuracies in legal scholars4 'iews of the nature of the two types
of legal systems.
626 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() 3t suggests how characteri!ations of the two types of legal reasons can
become con'oluted and inaccurate.
(#) 3t presents scholars4 characteri!ations of both legal systems that are only
partially correct.
1,. The author of the passage suggests that in #nglish law a substanti'e interpretation
of a legal rule might be warranted under which one of the following
circumstances%
(A) ;ocial conditions ha'e changed to the e$tent that to continue to enforce the
rule would be to decide contrary to present(day social norms.
(B) The composition of the legislature has changed to the e$tent that to enforce
the rule would be contrary to the 'iews of the ma<ority in the present
legislati'e assembly.
(C) The legality of the rule is in "uestion and its enforcement is open to <udicial
interpretation.
() 3ndi'iduals who ha'e 'iolated the legal rule argue that application of the rule
would lead to unfair <udicial interpretations.
(#) ;uperior court <udges ha'e consistently ruled in decisions regarding the
interpretation of the legal rule.
25. According to the passage/ which one of the following statements about
substanti'e reasons is true%
(A) They may be written into laws/ but they may also e$ert an e$ternal influence
on the law.
(B) They must be e$plicitly written into the law in order to be rele'ant to the
application of the law.
(C) They are legal in nature and determine particular applications of most laws.
() They often pro'ide <udges with specific rationales for disregarding the laws
of the land.
(#) They are peripheral to the law/ whereas formal reasons are central to the law.
How does the bran know when carbohydrates have been or shoud be
consumed? The answer to ths queston s not known, but one eement n the
expanaton seems to be the neurotransmtter serotonn, one of a cass of
chemca medators that may be reeased from a presynaptc neuron and that
cause the transmsson of a nerve mpuse across a synapse to an ad|acent
postsynaptc neuron. In genera, t has been found that drugs that seectvey
factate serotonn-medated neurotransmsson tend to cause weght oss,
whereas drugs that bock serotonn-medated transmsson often have the
opposte effect: they often nduce carbohydrate cravng and consequent weght
gan.
Serotonn s a dervatve of tryptophan, an amno acd that s normay present
at ow eves n the boodstream. The rate of converson s affected by the
LSAT 62,
proporton of carbohydrates n an ndvduas det: carbohydrates stmuate the
secreton of nsun, whch factates the uptake of most amno acds nto
perphera tssues, such as musces. Bood tryptophan eves, however, are
unaffected by nsun, so the proporton of tryptophan n the bood reatve to the
other amno acds ncreases when carbohydrates are consumed. Snce tryptophan
competes wth other amno acds for transport across the bood-bran barrer nto
the bran, nsun secreton ndrecty speeds tryptophans entry nto the centra
nervous system where, n a speca custer of neurons, t s converted nto
serotonn.
The eve of serotonn n the bran n turn affects the amount of carbohydrate
an ndvdua chooses to eat. Rats that are aowed to choose among synthetc
foods contanng dfferent proportons of carbohydrate and proten w normay
aternate between foods contanng mosty proten and those contanng mosty
carbohydrate. However, f rats are gven drugs that enhance the effect of
serotonn, the rats carbohydrate ntake s reduced. On the other hand, when rats
are gven drugs that nterrupt serotonn-medated neurotransmsson, ther brans
fa to respond when carbohydrates are eaten, so the desre for them perssts.
In human bengs a serotonnke drug, d-fenfuramne (whch reease serotonn
nto bran synapses and then proong ts acton by bockng ts reabsorpton nto
the presynaptc neuron), seectvey suppresses carbohydrate snackng (and ts
assocated weght gan) n peope who crave carbohydrates. In contrast, drugs
that bock serotonn-medated transmsson or that nteract wth neurotransmtters
other than serotonn have the opposte effect: they often nduce carbohydrate
cravng and subsequent weght gan. Peope who crave carbohydrates report
feeng refreshed and nvgorated after eatng a carbohydrate-rch mea (whch
woud be expected to ncrease bran serotonn eves), n contrast, those who do
not crave carbohydrates become seepy foowng a hgh-carbohydrate mea.
These fndngs suggest that serotonn has other effects that may be usefu
ndcators of serotonn eves n human bengs.
21. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage
(A) The body4s need for carbohydrates 'aries with the le'el of serotonin in the
blood.
(B) The body4s use of carbohydrates can be regulated by the administration of
serotoninlike drugs.
(C) The role of serotonin in regulating the consumption of carbohydrates is
similar in rats and in humans.
() The body4s desire for carbohydrates can be influenced by serotonin or
serotoninlike drugs.
(#) Tryptophan initiates a chain of e'ents that regulates the body4s use of
carbohydrates.
22. The term *rate+ (line 1-) refers to the rate at which
6-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) serotonin is produced from tryptophan
(B) carbohydrates are taken into the body
(C) carbohydrates stimulate the secretion of insulin
() insulin facilitates the uptake of amino acids into peripheral tissues
(#) tryptophan enters the bloodstream
2.. 3t can be inferred that a person is likely to car'e carbohydrates when
(A) the amount of insulin produced is too high
(B) the amount of serotonin in the brain is too low
(C) more tryptophan than usual crosses the blood(brain barrier
() neurotransmission by neurotransmitters other than serotonin is interrupted
(#) amino acids other than tryptophan are taken up by peripheral tissues
20. The information in the passage indicates that if human beings were gi'en a drug
that inhibits the action of serotonin/ which one of the following might be
e$pected to occur%
(A) ;ub<ects would probably show a preference for carbohydrate(rich snacks
rather than protein(rich snacks.
(B) ;ub<ects would probably become sleepy after eating a carbohydrate(rich
meal.
(C) ;ub<ects would be more likely to lose weight than before they took the drug.
() ;ub<ects4 blood tryptophan le'els would probably increase.
(#) ;ub<ects4 desire for both carbohydrates and proteins would increase.
21. The primary purpose of the second paragraph in the passage is to
(A) pro'ide an o'er'iew of current research concerning the effect of serotonin on
carbohydrate consumption
(B) contrast the role of tryptophan in the body with that of serotonin
(C) discuss the role of serotonin in the transmission of neural impulses
() e$plain how the brain knows that carbohydrates should be consumed
(#) establish a connection between carbohydrate intake and the production of
serotonin
22. 3t can be inferred that after a person has taken d(fenflurarmine/ he or she will
probably be
(A) inclined to gain weight
(B) sleepy much of the time
(C) unlikely to cra'e carbohydrates
() unable to sleep as much as usual
(#) likely to secrete more insulin than usual
LSAT 6-1
2-. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) defend a point of 'iew
(B) correct a misconception
(C) assess conflicting e'idence
() suggest new directions for in'estigation
(#) pro'ide information that helps e$plain a phenomenon
LSAT 1( SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
A ma|or tenet of the neuroscences has been that a neurons (nerve ces) n
the brans of vertebrate anmas are formed eary n deveopment. An adut
vertebrate, t was beeved, must make do wth a fxed number of neurons: those
ost through dsease or n|ury are not repaced, and adut earnng takes pace not
through generaton of new ces but through modfcaton of connectons among
exstng ones.
However, new evdence for neurogeness (the brth of new neurons) has come
from the study of canary song. Young canares and other songbrds earn to sng
much as humans earn to speak, by mtatng modes provded by ther eders.
Severa weeks after brth, a young brd produces ts frst rudmentary attempts at
sngng; over the next few months the song becomes more structured and stabe,
reachng a fuy deveoped state by the tme the brd approaches ts frst breedng
season. But ths repertore of song s not permanenty earned. After each
breedng season, durng ate summer and fa, the brd oses mastery of ts
deveoped "vocabuary," and ts song becomes as unstabe as that of a |uvene
brd. Durng the foowng wnter and sprng, however, the canary acqures new
songs, and by the next breedng season t has deveoped an entrey new
repertore.
Recent neuroogca research nto ths earnng and reearnng process has
shown that the two most mportant regons of the canarys bran reated to the
earnng of songs actuay vary n sze at dfferent tmes of the year. In the sprng,
when the brds song s hghy deveoped and unform, the regons are roughy
twce as arge as they are n the fa. Further experments tracng ndvdua nerve
ces wthn these regons have shown that the number of neurons drops by about
38 percent after the breedng season, but by the foowng breedng season, new
ones have been generated to repace them. A possbe expanaton for ths
contnua repacement of nerve ces may have to do wth the canarys reatvey
ong fe span and the requrements of fght. Its bran woud have to be
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substantay arger and heaver than mght be feasbe for fyng f t had to carry
a the bran ces needed to process and retan a the nformaton gathered over a
fetme.
Athough the dea of neurogeness n the adut mammaan bran s st not
generay accepted, these fndngs mght hep uncover a mechansm that woud
enabe the human bran to repar tsef through neurogeness. Whether such
repacement of neurons woud dsrupt compex earnng processes or ong-term
memory s not known, but songbrd research chaenges scentsts to dentfy the
genes or hormones that orchestrate neurogeness n the young human bran and
to earn how to actvate them n the adut bran.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) 9ew e'idence of neurogenesis in canaries challenges an established
neurological theory concerning brain cells in 'ertebrates and suggests the
possibility that human brains may repair themsel'es.
(B) The brains of canaries differ from the brains of other 'ertebrate animals in
that the brains of adult canaries are able to generate neurons.
(C) =ecent studies of neurogenesis in canaries/ building on established theories of
'ertebrate neurology/ pro'ide important clues as to why researchers are not
likely to disco'er neurogenesis in adult humans.
() =ecent research into neurogenesis in canaries refutes a long(held belief about
the limited supply of brain cells and pro'ides new information about
neurogenesis in the adult human brain.
(#) 9ew information about neurogenesis in canaries challenges older hypotheses
and clarifies the importance of the yearly cycle in learning processes and
neurological replacement among 'ertebrates.
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of the typical adult
canary during the late summer and fall%
(A) The canary4s song repertoire takes on a fully structured and stable "uality.
(B) A process of neurogenesis replaces the song(learning neurons that were lost
during the preceding months.
(C) The canary begins to learn an entirely new repertoire of songs based on the
models of other canaries.
() The regions in the canary4s brain that are central to the learning of song
decrease in si!e.
(#) The canary performs slightly modified 'ersions of the songs it learned during
the preceding breeding season.
.. 3nformation in the passage suggests that the author would most likely regard
which one of the following as K#A;T important in future research on
neurogenesis in humans%
(A) research on possible similarities between the neurological structures of
LSAT 6-.
humans and canaries
(B) studies that compare the ratio of brain weight to body weight in canaries to
that in humans
(C) neurological research on the genes or hormones that acti'ate neurogenesis in
the brain of human infants
() studies about the ways in which long(term memory functions in the human
brain
(#) research concerning the processes by which humans learn complicated tasks
0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the
e$planation proposed by the author in the third paragraph%
(A) A number of songbird species related to the canary ha'e a shorter life span
than the canary and do not e$perience neurogenesis.
(B) The brain si!e of se'eral types of airborne birds with life spans similar to
those of canaries has been shown to 'ary according to a two(year cycle of
neurogenesis.
(C) ;e'eral species of airborne birds similar to canaries in si!e are known to ha'e
brains that are substantially hea'ier than the canary4s brain.
() 3ndi'idual canaries that ha'e larger(than(a'erage repertoires of songs tend to
ha'e better de'eloped muscles for flying.
(#) 3ndi'idual canaries with smaller and lighter brains than the a'erage tend to
retain a smaller(than(a'erage repertoire of songs.
1. The use of the word *'ocabulary+ (line 2.) ser'es primarily to
(A) demonstrate the presence of a rudimentary grammatical structure in canary
song
(B) point out a similarity between the patterned groupings of sounds in a canary4s
song and the syllabic structures of words
(C) stress the stability and uniformity of canary4s song throughout its lifetime
() suggest a similarity between the possession of a repertoire of words among
humans and a repertoire of songs among canaries
(#) imply that the comple$ity of the canary4s song repertoire is e"ual to that of
human language
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following factors may help account
for the occurrence of neurogenesis in canaries%
(A) the life span of the a'erage canary
(B) the process by which canaries learn songs
(C) the fre"uency of canary breeding seasons
() the number of regions in the canary brain related to song learning
(#) the amount of time an a'erage canary needs to learn a repertoire of songs
6-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
-. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third
paragraph%
(A) A theory is presented/ analy!ed/ and modified/ and a <ustification for the
modification is offer.
(B) =esearch results are ad'anced and reconciled with results from other studies/
and a shared principle is described.
(C) =esearch results are presented/ further details are pro'ided/ and a hypothesis
is offered to e$plain the results.
() =esearch results are reported/ their implications are e$plained/ and an
application to a related field is proposed.
(#) =esearch results are reported/ their significance is clarified/ and they are
reconciled with pre'iously established neurological tenets.
6. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely describe the
current understanding of neurogenesis as
(A) e$hausti'e
(B) progressi'e
(C) incomplete
() anti"uated
(#) incorrect
For too many years schoars of Afrcan Amercan hstory focused on the harm
done by savehoders and by the nsttuton of savery, rather than on what
Afrcans n the Unted States were abe to accompsh despte the effects of that
nsttuton. In (yne 4wne .round, T. H. Breen and Stephen Innes contrbute
sgnfcanty to a recent, wecome shft from a whte-centered to a back-centered
nqury nto the roe of Afrcan Amercans n the Amercan coona perod. Breen
and Innes focus not on saves, but on a sma group of freed ndentured servants
n Northampton County (n the Chesapeake Bay regon of Vrgna) who, accordng
to the authors, mantaned ther freedom, secured property, and nteracted wth
persons of dfferent races and economc standng from 1620 through the 1670s.
Afrcan Amercans vng on the Chesapeake were to some extent dsadvantaged,
say Breen and Innes, but ths dd not precude the attanment of status roughy
equa to that of certan whte panters of the area. Contnuousy actng wthn
back soca networks, and formng economc reatonshps wth whte panters,
oca Natve Amercans, ndentured servants, and whte setters outsde the gentry
cass, the free Afrcan Amercans of Northampton County hed ther own n the
rough-hewn word of Chesapeake Bay.
The authors emphasze that n ths eary perod, when the percentage of
Afrcan Amercans n any gven Chesapeake county was st no more than 10
percent of the popuaton, very tte was predetermned so far as raca status or
race reatons were concerned. By schoong themseves n the oca ega process
and by workng prodgousy on the and, Afrcan Amercans acqured property,
LSAT 6-1
estabshed fames, and warded off contentous whte neghbors. Breen and Innes
do acknowedge that potca power on the Chesapeake was asymmetrcay
dstrbuted among back and whte resdents. However, they underemphasze
much evdence that customary aw, ony graduay embodes n statutory aw, was
cosng n on free Afrcan Amercans we before the 1670s: durng the 1660s,
when the proporton of Afrcan Amercans n Vrgna ncreased dramatcay,
Vrgna tghtened a aw reguatng nterraca reatons (1662) and enacted a
statute prohbtng baptsm from aterng save status (1667). Anthony |ohnson, a
eader n the communty of free Afrcan Amercans n the Chesapeake Bay regon,
sod the and he had cutvated for more than twenty years and moved north wth
hs famy around 1665, an acton that the authors attrbute to a search for "fresh,
more productve and." But the answer to why the |ohnsons eft that area where
they had abored so ong may e n ther reazaton that ther whte neghbors
were aready begnnng the transton from a argey whte ndentured abor force
to reance on a argey back save abor force, and that the nsttuton of savery
was threatenng ther descendants chances for freedom and success n Vrgna.
,. The author of the passage ob<ects to many scholarly studies of African American
history for which one of the following reasons%
(A) Their emphases ha'e been on statutory law rather than on customary law.
(B) They ha'e ignored specific historical situations and personages in fa'or of
broad interpretations.
(C) They ha'e focused on the least e'entful periods in African American history.
() They ha'e underemphasi!ed the economic system that was the basis of the
institution of sla'ery.
(#) They ha'e failed to focus to a sufficient e$tent on the achie'ements of African
Americans.
15. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning the
relationship between the African American population and the law in the
Chesapeake Bay region of Cirginia Between 1215 and 12-5%
(A) The laws affecting black citi!ens were embodies in statutes much more
gradually than were lays affecting white citi!ens.
(B) As the percentage of black citi!ens in the population grew/ the legal
restrictions placed on them also increased.
(C) Because of discriminatory laws/ black farmers suffered more economic
setbacks than did white farmers.
() Because of legal constraints on hiring indentured ser'ants/ black farmers
faced a chronic labor shortage on their farms.
(#) The adherence to customary law was more rigid in regions with relati'ely
large numbers of free black citi!ens.
11. The author of the passage most probably refers to Anthony Aohnson and his
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family in order to
(A) pro'ide a specific e$ample of the potential shortcomings of Breen and 3nnes4
interpretation of historical e'ents
(B) pro'ide a specific e$ample of rele'ant data o'erlooked by Breen and 3nnes in
their discussion of historical e'ents
(C) pro'ide a specific e$ample of data that Breen and 3nnes might profitably ha'e
used in pro'ing their thesis
() argue that the standard interpretation of historical e'ents is superior to Breen
and 3nnes4 re'isionist interpretation
(#) argue that a new historiographical method is needed to pro'ide a full and
coherent reading of historical e'ents
12. The attitude of the author of the passage toward Breen and 3nnes4 study can best
be described as one of
(A) condescending dismissal
(B) wholehearted acceptance
(C) contentious challenge
() "ualified appro'al
(#) sincere pu!!lement
1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) summari!e pre'ious interpretations
(B) ad'ocate a new approach
(C) propose and then illustrate a thesis
() present and e'aluate an interpretation
(#) describe a historical e'ent
Late nneteenth-century books about the French artst Watteau (1684-1721)
betray a curous bnd spot: more than any snge artst before or snce, Watteau
provded hs age wth an nfuenta mage of tsef, and nneteenth-century wrters
accepted ths mage as genune. Ths was argey due to the enterprse of
Watteaus frends who, soon after hs death, organzed the prntng of engraved
reproductons of the great buk of hs work-both hs pantngs and hs drawngs-
so that Watteaus tota artstc output became and contnued to be more
accessbe than that of any other artst unt the twenteth-century advent of art
monographs ustrated wth photographs. These engravngs presented arstocratc
(and woud-be arstocratc) eghteenth-century French socety wth an mage of
tsef that was hghy acceptabe and wdey mtate by other artsts, however tte
reatonshp that mage bore to reaty. By 1884, the bcentenary of Watteaus
brth, t was standard practce for bographers to refer to hm as "the
personfcaton of the wtty and amabe eghteenth century."
In fact, Watteau saw tte enough of that "wtty and amabe" century for
LSAT 6--
whch so much nostaga was generay fet between about 1870 and 1920, a
perod durng whch enthusasm for the artst reached ts peak. The eghteenth
centurys frst decades, the perod of hs artstc actvty, were fary caamtous
ones. Durng hs short fe, France was amost contnuay at war: hs natve regon
was overrun wth foregn troops, and Pars was threatened by sege and by a
rampagng army rabbe. The dreadfu wnter of 1709, the year of Watteaus frst
Pars successes, was marked by mtary defeat and a dsastrous famne.
Most of Watteaus nneteenth-century admrers smpy gnored the grm
background of the works they found so yrca and charmng. Those who took the
nconvenent hstorca facts nto consderaton dd so ony n order to refute the
wdey hed determnstc vew that the content and stye of an artsts work were
absoutey dctated by heredty and envronment. (For Watteau admrers, such
determnsm was unthnkabe: the artst was born n a Femsh town ony sx years
after t frst became part of France, yet Watteau was quntessentay French. As
one patrotc French bographer put t, "In Dreden, Potsdam, and Bern I have
never come across a Watteau wthout feeng refreshed by a breath of natve ar."
Even such wrters, however, perssted n accordng Watteaus canvases a
prveged status as representatve "personfcatons" of the eghteenth century.
The dscrepancy between hstorca fact and artstc vson, usefu n refutng the
extreme determnstc poston, merey forced these wrters to seek a new formua
that aowed them to preserve the desred dentty between mage and reaty, ths
tme a rather suspcousy psychc one: Watteau dd not record the socety he
knew, but rather "foresaw" a socety that deveoped shorty after hs death.
10. &hich one of the following best describes the o'erall organi!ation of the
passage%
(A) A particular phenomenon is discussed/ the reasons that it is atypical are put
forward/ and these reasons are e'aluated and refined.
(B) An assumption is made/ results deri'ing from it are compared with what is
known to be true/ and the assumption is finally re<ected as counterfactual.
(C) A point of 'iew is described/ one hypothesis accounting for it is introduced
and re<ected/ and a better hypothesis is offered for consideration.
() A general characteri!ation is offered/ e$amples supporting it are introduced/
and its special applicability to a particular group is asserted.
(#) A particular 'iewpoint is e$plained/ its shortcomings are discussed/ and its
persistence in the face of these is noted.
11. The passage suggests that late(nineteenth(century biographers of &atteau
considered the eighteenth century to be *witty and amiable+ in large part because
of
(A) what they saw as &atteau4s typical eighteenth(century talent for transcending
reality through art
(B) their opposition to the determinism that dominated late(nineteenth(century
6-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
>rench thought
(C) a lack of access to historical source material concerning the early eighteenth
century in >rance
() the nature of the image con'eyed by the works of &atteau and his many
imitators
(#) their political bias in fa'or of aristocratic regimes and societies
12. According to the passage/ e$planations of artistic production based on
determinism were unthinkable to &atteau admirers for which one of the
following reasons%
(A) 3f such e$planations were widely accepted/ too many people who would
otherwise ha'e admired &atteau would cease to appreciate &atteau4s works.
(B) 3f such e$planations were adopted/ they would make it difficult for &atteau
admirers to e$plain why &atteau4s works were purchased and admired by
foreigners.
(C) 3f such e$planations were correct/ many artists who/ like &atteau/ considered
themsel'es >rench would ha'e to e$cluded from histories of >rench art.
() 3f such simple e$planations were offered/ other more comple$ arguments
concerning what made &atteau4s works especially charming would go
une$plored.
(#) 3f such e$planations were true/ &atteau4s works would reflect a *>lemish+
sensibility rather than the especially *>rench+ one these admirers saw in
them.
1-. The phrase *curious blind spot+ (line 2 (.) can best be interpreted as referring to
which one of the following%
(A) some biographers4 persistent inability to appreciate what the author considers
a particularly admirable e"uality
(B) certain writers4 surprising lack of awareness of what the author considers an
ob'ious discrepancy
(C) some writers4 willful refusal to e'aluate properly what the author considers a
'aluable source of information about the past
() an ine$plicable tendency on the part of some writers to under'alue an artist
whom the author considers e$tremely influential
(#) a marked bias in fa'or of a certain painter and a concomitant pre<udice against
contemporaries the author considers e"ually talented
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author4s 'iew of &atteau4s works
differs most significantly from that of most late(nineteen(century &atteau
admirers in which one of the following ways%
(A) :nlike most late(nineteenth(century &atteau admirers/ the author appreciates
the importance of &atteau4s artistic accomplishment.
LSAT 6-,
(B) The author finds &atteau4s works to be much less lyrical and charming than
did most late(nineteenth(century admirers of the works.
(C) 3n contrast to most late(nineteenth(century &atteau admirers/ the author finds
it misleading to see &atteau4s works as accurately reflecting social reality.
() The author is much more willing to entertain deterministic e$planations of the
origins of &atteau4s works than were most late(nineteenth(century &atteau
admirers.
(#) :nlike most late(nineteenth(century admirers of &atteau/ the author considers
it impossible for any work of art to personify or represent a particular
historical period.
1,. The author asserts that during the period of &atteau4s artistic acti'ity >rench
society was e$periencing which one of the following%
(A) widespread social uphea'al caused by war
(B) a per'asi'e sense of nostalgia for an ideali!ed past
(C) increased domination of public affairs by a powerful aristocracy
() rapid adoption by the middle classes of aristocratic manners and life(style
(#) a need to reconcile the >rench self(image with >rench social realities
25. The information gi'en in the passage suggests that which one of the following
principles accurately characteri!es the relationship between an artist4s work and
the impact it is likely to ha'e on a society%
(A) An artist4s recognition by society is most directly determined by the degree to
which his or her works are percei'ed as lyrical and charming.
(B) An artist will ha'e the greatest influence on a society that 'alues art
particularly highly.
(C) The works of an artist who captures the true and essential nature of a gi'en
society will probably ha'e a great impact on that society.
() The degree of influence an artist4s 'ision will ha'e on a society is conditional
on the 'isibility of the artist4s work.
(#) An artist who is much imitate by contemporaries will usually fail to ha'e an
impact on a society unless the imitators are talented.
Faced wth the probems of nsuffcent evdence, of confctng evdence, and
of evdence reayed through the fawed perceptua, retentve, and narratve
abtes of wtnesses, a |ury s forced to draw nferences n ts attempt to ascertan
the truth. By appyng the same cogntve toos they have deveoped and used
over a fetme, |urors engage n the nferenta exercse that awyers ca fact-
fndng. In certan decson-makng contexts that are reevant to the tra of
awsuts, however, these normay reabe cogntve toos may cause |urors to
commt nferenta errors that dstort rather than revea the truth.
Athough |ures can make a varety of nferenta errors, most of these
665 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
mstakes n |udgment nvove the drawng of an unwarranted concuson from the
evdence, that s, decdng that the evdence proves somethng that, n reaty, t
does not prove. For exampe, evdence that the defendant n a crmna
prosecuton has a pror convcton may encourage |urors to presume the
defendants gut, because of ther preconcepton that a person prevousy
convcted of a crme must be ncned toward repeated crmna behavor. That
commony hed beef s at east a parta dstorton of reaty; not a former
convcts engage n repeated crmna behavor. Aso, |ury may gve more probatve
weght than ob|ectve anayss woud aow to vvd photographc evdence
depctng a shootng vctms wounds, or may underestmate the weght of
defense testmony that s not devered n a suffcenty forcefu or persuasve
manner. Fnay, compex or voumnous evdence mght be so confusng to a |ury
that ts members woud draw totay unwarranted concusons or even gnore the
evdence entrey.
Recent emprca research n cogntve psychoogy suggests that peope tend
to commt nferenta errors ke these under certan predctabe crcumstances. By
examnng the avaabe nformaton, the stuaton, and the type of decson beng
made, cogntve psychoogsts can descrbe the knds of nferenta errors a person
or group s key to make. These patterns of human decson-makng may provde
the courts wth a gude to evauatng the effect of evdence on the reabty of the
|urys nferenta processes n certan stuatons.
The noton that |ures can commt nferenta errors that |eopardze the
accuracy of the fact-fndng process s not unknown to the courts. In fact, one of a
presdng |udges dutes s to mnmze |ury nferenta error through expanaton
and carfcaton. Nonetheess, most |udges now empoy ony a mted and
prmtve concept of |ury nferenta error: mted because t fas to recognze the
potenta for error outsde certan tradtona stuatons, prmtve because t
gnores the research and concusons of psychoogsts n favor of notons about
human cognton hed by awyers.
21. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) &hen making decisions in certain predictable situations/ <uries may commit
inferential errors that obscure rather than re'eal the truth.
(B) The 'iews of human cognition taken by cogniti'e psychologists on the one
hand and by the legal profession on the other are demonstrably dissimilar.
(C) &hen confronting powerful preconceptions/ particularly shocking e'idence/
or comple$/ situation/ <urors make errors in <udgment.
() The problem of inferential error by <uries is typical of the difficulties with
cogniti'e processes that people face in their e'eryday li'es.
(#) Auries would probably make more reliable decisions if cogniti'e
psychologists/ rather than <udges/ instructed them about the problems
inherent in drawing unwarranted conclusions.
LSAT 661
22. 8f the following hypothetical reforms in trial procedure/ which one would the
author be most likely to support as the best way to address the problem of <ury
inferential error%
(A) a mo'e away from <ury trial
(B) the institution of minimum formal educational re"uirements for <urors
(C) the de'elopment of strict guidelines for defense testimony
() specific training for <udges in the area of <ury instruction
(#) restrictions on lawyers4 use of psychological research
2.. 3n the second paragraph/ the author4s primary purpose is to
(A) refute the idea that the fact(finding process is a complicated e$ercise
(B) emphasi!e how carefully e'idence must be presented in order to a'oid <ury
inferential error
(C) e$plain how commonly held beliefs affect the <ury4s ability to ascertain the
truth
() pro'ide e$amples of situations that may precipitate <ury errors
(#) recommend a method for minimi!ing mistakes by <uries
20. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward the
ma<ority of <udges today%
(A) apprehensi'e about whether they are consistent in their instruction of <uries
(B) doubtful of their ability to draw consistently correct conclusions based on the
e'idence
(C) critical of their failure to take into account potentially helpful research
() pessimistic about their willingness to make significant changes in trial
procedure
(#) concerned about their allowing the presentation of comple$ and 'oluminous
e'idence in the courtroom
21. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ would most seriously undermine
the author4s suggestion about the use of current psychological research in the
courtroom%
(A) All guidelines about human beha'ior must take account of 'ariations in the
patterns of human decision(making.
(B) Current models of how humans make decisions apply reliably to indi'iduals
but do not hold for decisions made by groups.
(C) The current conception of <ury inferential error employed by <udges has been
in use for nearly a century.
() 3nferential errors can be more easily predicted in controlled situations such as
the trial of lawsuits than in other kinds of decision(making processes.
(#) 3n certain predictable circumstances/ <uries are less susceptible to inferential
662 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
errors than they are in other circumstances.
22. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree
with which one of the following generali!ations about lawyers%
(A) They ha'e a less sophisticated understanding of human cognition than do
psychologists.
(B) They often present comple$ or 'oluminous information merely in order to
confuse a <ury.
(C) They are no better at making logical inferences from the testimony at a trial
than are most <udges.
() They ha'e worked to help <udges minimi!e <ury inferential error.
(#) They are unrealistic about the ability of <urors to ascertain the truth.
2-. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following
generali!ations about a <ury4s decision(making process%
(A) The more e'idence that a <ury has/ the more likely it is that the <ury will reach
a reliable 'erdict.
(B) Auries usually o'erestimate the 'alue of 'isual e'idence such as photographs.
(C) Aurors ha'e preconceptions about the beha'ior of defendants that pre'ent
them from making an ob<ecti'e analysis of the e'idence in a criminal trial.
() ?ost of the <urors who make inferential errors during a trial do so because
they are unaccustomed to ha'ing to make difficult decisions based on
inferences.
(#) The manner in which e'idence is presented to a <ury may influence the <ury
either to o'erestimate or to underestimate the 'alue of that e'idence.
LSAT 15 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
It s a fundamenta tenet of geophyscs that the Earths magnetc fed can
exst n ether of two poarty states: a "norma" state, n whch north-seekng
compass needes pont to the geographc north, and a "reverse" state, n whch
they pont to the geographc south. Geoogca evdence shows that perodcay
the feds poarty reverses, and that these reversas have been takng pace at an
ncreasng rate. Evdence aso ndcates that the fed does not reverse
nstantaneousy from one poarty state to another; rather, the process nvoves a
transton perod that typcay spans a few thousand years.
Though ths much s known, the underyng causes of the reversa
LSAT 66.
phenomenon are not we understood. It s generay accepted that the magnetc
fed tsef s generated by the moton of free eectrons n the outer core, a sowy
churnng mass of moten meta sandwched between the Earths mante (the
regon of the Earths nteror yng beow the crust) and ts sod nner core. In
some way that s not competey understood, gravty and the Earths rotaton,
actng on temperature and densty dfferences wthn the outer core fud, provde
the drvng forces behnd the generaton of the fed. The reversa phenomenon
may be trggered when somethng dsturbs the heat crcuaton pattern of the
outer core fud, and wth t the magnetc fed.
Severa expanatons for ths phenomenon have been proposed. One proposa,
the "heat-transfer hypothess," s that the trggerng process s ntmatey reated
to the way the outer core vents ts heat nto the mante. For exampe, such heat
transfer coud create hotter (rsng) or cooer (descendng) bobs of matera from
the nner and outer boundares of the fud core, thereby perturbng the man
heat-crcuaton pattern. A more controversa aternatve proposa s the asterod-
mpact hypothess. In ths scenaro an extended perod of cod and darkness
resuts from the mpact of an asterod arge enough to send a great coud of dust
nto the atmosphere. Foowng ths cmatc change, ocean temperatures drop and
the poar ce caps grow, redstrbutng the Earths seawater. Ths redstrbuton
ncreases the rotatona acceeraton of the mante, causng frcton and
turbuence near the outer core-mante boundary and ntatng reversa of the
magnetc fed.
How we do these hypotheses account for such observatons as the ong-term
ncrease n the frequency of reversa? In support of the asterod-mpact mode, t
had been argued that the gradua coong of the average ocean temperature
woud enabe progressvey smaer asterod mpacts (whch are known to occur
more frequenty than arger mpacts) to coo the Earths cmate suffcenty to
nduce ce-cap growth and reversas. But theores that depend on extraterrestra
nterventon seem ess convncng than theores ke the frst, whch account for
the phenomenon soey by means of the thermodynamc state of the outer core
and ts effect on the mante.
1. &hich one of the following statements regarding the #arth4s outer core is best
supported by information presented in the passage%
(A) )eat circulation in the outer core controls the growth and diminution of the
polar ice caps.
(B) 3mpact of asteroids on the #arth4s surface alters the way in which the outer
core 'ents its heat into the mantle.
(C) ?otion of electrons within the metallic fluid in the outer core produces the
#arth4s magnetic field.
() >riction and turbulence near the boundary between the outer core and the
mantle are typically caused by asteroid impacts.
(#) Cessation of heat circulation within the outer core brings on multiple re'ersals
660 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
in the #arth4s magnetic field.
2. The author4s ob<ection to the second hypothesis discussed in the passage is most
applicable to which one of the following e$planations concerning the e$tinction
of the dinosaurs%
(A) The e$tinction of the dinosaurs was the result of gradual changes in the
composition of the #arth4s atmosphere that occurred o'er millions of years.
(B) The dinosaurs became e$tinct when their food supply was disrupted
following the emergence of mammals.
(C) The dinosaurs succumbed to the new/ colder en'ironment brought about by a
buildup of 'olcanic ash in the atmosphere.
() After massi'ely o'erpopulation the planet/ dinosaurs disappeared due to
widespread star'ation and the rapid spread of disease.
(#) After radical climatic changes resulted from the impact of a comet/ dinosaurs
disappeared from the #arth.
.. The author mentions the creation of blobs of different temperatures in the #arth4s
outer core (lines .0(.6) primarily in order to
(A) present a way in which the 'enting of heat from the outer core might disturb
the heat(circulation pattern within the outer core
(B) pro'ide proof for the proposal that 'entilation of heat from the outer core into
the mantle triggers polarity re'ersal
(C) gi'e an e$ample of the way in which heat circulates between the #arth4s outer
core and the #arth4s e$terior
() describe how the outer core maintains its temperature by 'enting its e$cess
heat into the #arth4s mantle
(#) argue in fa'or of the theory that heat circulation in the #arth4s interior
produces the magnetic field
0. &hich one of the following statements regarding the polarity of the #arth4s
magnetic field is best supported by information in the passage%
(A) ?ost/ but not all/ geophysicists agree that the #arth4s magnetic field may
e$ist in two distinct polarity states.
(B) Changes in the polarity of the #arth4s magnetic field ha'e occurred more
often in the recent past that in the distant past.
(C) )eat transfer would cause re'ersals of the polarity of the #arth4s magnetic
field to occur more "uickly than would asteroid impact.
() Beophysicists4 understanding of the re'ersal of the #arth4s magnetic field has
increased significantly since the introduction of the heat(transfer hypothesis.
(#) >riction near the boundary of the inner and outer cores brings on re'ersal of
the polarity of the geomagnetic field.
1. &hich one of the following can be inferred regarding the two proposals discussed
LSAT 661
in the passage%
(A) ;ince their introduction they ha'e sharply di'ided the scientific community.
(B) Both were formulated in order to e$plain changes in the fre"uency of polarity
re'ersal.
(C) Although no firm conclusions regarding them ha'e yet been reached/ both
ha'e been e$tensi'ely in'estigated.
() They are not the only proposals scientists ha'e put forward to e$plain the
phenomenon of polarity re'ersal.
(#) Both were introduced some time ago and ha'e since fallen into disfa'or
among geophysicists.
2. The author mentions each of the following as possible contributing causes to
re'ersals of the #arth4s magnetic field #DC#@T
(A) changes in the way heat circulates within the outer core fluid
(B) e$tended periods of colder temperatures on the #arth4s surface
(C) the creation of circulation blobs of outer core material of different
temperatures
() changes in circulation patterns in the #arth4s oceans
(#) clouding of the #arth4s atmosphere by a large amount of dust
Innovatons n anguage are never competey new. When the words used for
famar thngs change, or words for new thngs enter the anguage, they are
usuay borrowed or adapted from stock. Assumng new roes, they drag ther od
meanngs aong behnd them ke fckerng shadow. Ths seems especay true of
the anguage of the contemporary schoo of terary crtcsm that now prefers to
descrbe ts work smpy and rather presumptuousy as theory but s st popuary
referred to as poststructurasm of deconstruction.
The frst neoogsms adopted by ths movement were signifier and signified,
empoyed to dstngush arbtrarness of the term we choose. The use of these
partcuar terms (rather than, respectvey, words and thing) underned the
serousness of the namng process and ts cam on our attenton. Snce n Engsh
"to sgnfy" can aso mean "to portend," these terms aso suggest that words
predct comng events.
Wth the use of the term deconstruction we move nto another and more
compex ream of meanng. The most common use of the terms construction and
deconstruction s n the budng trades, and ther borrowng by terary theorsts
for a new type of crtcsm cannot hep but have certan overtones to the outsder.
Frst, the usage suggests that the creaton and crtca nterpretaton of terature
are not organc but mechanca processes; that the author of any pece of wrtng
s not an nspred, ntutve artst, but merey a aborer who cobbes exstng
materas (words) nto more or ess conventona structures. The term
deconstruction mpes that the text has been put together ke a budng or a
662 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
pece of machnery, and that t s n need of beng taken apart, not so much n
order to repar t as to demonstrate underyng nadequaces, fase assumptons,
and nherent contradctons. Ths process can supposedy be repeated many tmes
and by many terary hard hats; t s expected that each deconstruction w revea
addtona faws and expose the usons or bad fath of the buder. The fact that
deconstructonsts prefer to descrbe ther actvtes as deconstruction rather than
criticism s aso reveang. Criticism and critic derve from the Greek 0ritikos,
"skfu n |udgng, decsve." Deconstructon, on the other hand, has no overtones
of sk or wsdom; t merey suggests demoton of an exstng budng. In popuar
usage crtcsm suggests censure but not change. If we fnd faut wth a budng,
we may condemn t, but we do not carry out the demoton ourseves. The
deconstructonst, by mpcaton, s both |udge and executoner who eaves a text
totay dsmanted, f not reduced to a pe of rubbe.
-. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) 3mplicit in the terminology of the school of criticism known as
deconstruction are meanings that re'eal the true nature of the
deconstructionist4s endea'or.
(B) The appearance of the terms signi+ier and signi+ied in the field of literary
theory anticipated the appearance of an e'en more radical idea known as
deconstruction.
(C) 3nno'ations in language and relations between old and new meanings of
terms are a special concern of the new school of criticism known as
deconstruction.
() econstructionists maintain that it is insufficient merely to <udge a workE the
critic must acti'ely dismantle it.
(#) @rogress in the field of literary theory is best achie'ed by looking for new
terms like signi+ier and deconstruction that might suggest new critical
approaches to a work.
6. &hich one of the following is a claim that the author of the passage makes about
deconstructionists%
(A) econstructionists would not ha'e been able to formulate their 'iews
ade"uately without the terms signi+ier and signi+ied.
(B) econstructionists had no particular purpose in mind in choosing to use
neologisms.
(C) econstructionists do not recogni!e that their own theory contains inherent
contradictions.
() econstructionists find little interest in the relationship between words and
their referents.
(#) econstructionists use the terms signi+ier and signi+ied to stress the
importance of the process of naming.
LSAT 66-
,. &hich one of the following generali!ations about in'entions is most analogous to
the author4s point about inno'ation in language%
(A) A new in'ention usually consists of components that are specifically
manufactured for the new in'ention.
(B) A new in'ention is usually behind the times/ ne'er making as much use of all
the a'ailable modern technology as it could.
(C) A new in'ention usually consists of components that are already a'ailable but
are made to function in new ways.
() A new in'ention is most useful when it is created with attention to the
historical tradition established by implements pre'iously used to do the same
<ob.
(#) A new in'ention is rarely used to its full potential because it is surrounded by
out(of(date technology that hinder its application.
15. The author of the passage uses the word *criticism+ in lines 02(12 primarily in
order to
(A) gi'e an e$ample
(B) introduce a contrast
(C) undermine an argument
() codify a system
(#) dismiss an ob<ection
11. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the second paragraph
within the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t introduces a hypothesis that the author later e$pands upon.
(B) 3t "ualifies a claim made earlier by the author.
(C) 3t de'elops an initial e$ample of the author4s general thesis.
() 3t predicts a de'elopment.
(#) 3t presents a contrasting 'iew.
12. The passage suggests that the author most probably holds the 'iew that an
important characteristic of literary criticism is that it
(A) demonstrate false assumptions and inherent contradictions
(B) employ skill and insight
(C) be carried out by one critic rather than many
() re'eal how a te$t is put together like a building
(#) point out the superiority of con'entional te$t structures
1.. The passage suggests that which one of the following most accurately describes
the author4s 'iew of deconstructionist thought%
(A) The author is guardedly optimistic about the ability of deconstruction to
666 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
re'eal the intentions and biases of a writer.
(B) The author endorses the utility of deconstruction for re'ealing the role of
older meanings of words.
(C) The author is enthusiastic about the significant neologisms that
deconstruction has introduced into literary criticism.
() The author regards deconstruction4s tendency to focus only on the problems
and faults of literary te$ts as too mechanical.
(#) The author condemns deconstruction4s attempts to define literary criticism as
a creati'e act.
(The foowng passage was wrtten n 1986)
The egsaton of a country recenty consdered a b desgned to reduce the
uncertanty nherent n the ownershp of art by specfyng certan condtons that
must be met before an aegedy stoen work of art can be recamed by a pantff.
The b paces the burden of proof n recamaton tgaton entrey on the pantff,
who must demonstrate that the hoder of an tem knew at the tme of purchase
that t had been stoen. Addtonay, the b creates a unform natona statute of
mtatons for recamaton of stoen cutura property.
Testfyng n support of the b, |ames D, Burke, a ctzen of the country and
one of ts eadng art museum drectors, specay prased the ncuson of a
statute of mtatons; otherwse, he sad, other countres coud seek to recam
vauabe art ob|ects, no matter how ong they have been hed by the current
owner or how egtmatey they were acqured. Any country coud enact a
patrmony aw statng that anythng ever made wthn the boundares of that
country s ts cutura property. Burke expressed the fear that ead to runous ega
defense costs for museums.
However, because such recamaton suts have not yet been a probem, there
s tte bass for Burkes concern. In fact, the proposed egsaton woud estabsh
too many un|ustfabe barrers to the ocaton and recovery of stoen ob|ects. The
man barrer s that the b consders the announcement of an art transacton n a
museum pubcaton to be adequate evdence of an attempt to notfy a possbe
owner. There are far too many such pubcatons for the vctm of a theft to survey,
and wth ony ths form of dscosure, a stoen ob|ect coud easy reman unocated
even f assduousy searched for. Another stpuaton requres that a purchaser
show the ob|ect to a schoar for verfcaton that t s not stoen, but t s a rare
academc who s aware of any but the most pubczed art thefts. Moreover, the
tme mt specfed by the statute of mtatons s very short, and the requrement
that the pantff demonstrate that the hoder had knowedge of the theft s
unreastc. Typcay, stoen art changes hands severa tmes before rsng to the
eve n the marketpace where a curator or coector woud see t. At that pont,
the ob|ect bears no trace of the nta transacton between the thef and the frst
purchaser, perhaps the ony one n the chan who knowngy acqured a stoen
work of art.
LSAT 66,
Thus, the need for new egsaton to protect hoders of art s not obvous.
Rather, what s necessary s egsaton remedyng the dffcutes that egtmate
owners of works of art, and countres from whch such works have been stoen,
have n ocatng and recamng these stoen works.
10. &hich one of the following most accurately summari!es the main point of the
passage%
(A) Carious legal disputes ha'e recently arisen that demonstrate the need for
legislation clarifying the legal position of museums in suits in'ol'ing the
repossession of cultural property.
(B) A bill intended to pre'ent other go'ernments from reco'ering cultural
property was recently introduced into the legislature of a country at the
behest of its museum directors.
(C) A bill intended to protect good(faith purchasers of works of art from
reclamation litigation is unnecessary and fails to address the needs of
legitimate owners attempting to reco'er stolen art works.
() Clashes between museum professionals and members of the academic
community regarding go'ernmental legislation of the arts can best be
resol'ed by negotiation and arbitration/ not by litigation.
(#) The desire of some go'ernments to use legislation and litigation to reco'er
cultural property stolen from their countries has led to abuses in international
patrimony legislation.
11. The uncertainty mentioned in line 2 of the passage refers to the
(A) doubt that owners of works of art often harbor o'er whether indi'iduals ha'e
a moral right to possess great art
(B) concern that owners of works of art often ha'e that their possession of such
ob<ects may be legally challenged at any time
(C) "uestions that owners of works of art often ha'e concerning the correct
identification of the age and origin of their ob<ects
() disputes that often arise between cultural institutions 'ying for the
opportunity to purchase a work of art
(#) apprehension that owners of works of art often feel concerning the possibility
that their ob<ects may be damaged or stolen from them
12. &hich one of the following is an e$ample of the kind of action that Burke feared
would pose a serious threat to museums in his country%
(A) the passage of a law by another country forbidding the future e$port of any
archaeological ob<ects unco'ered at sites within its territory
(B) an international accord establishing strict criteria for determining whether a
work of art can be considered stolen and specifying the circumstances under
which it must be returned to its country of origin
6,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) the passage of a law by another country declaring that all ob<ects created by
its aboriginal people are the sole property of that country
() an increase in the ac"uisition of culturally significant works of art by pri'ate
collectors/ who are more capable than museums of bearing the cost of
litigation but who rarely display their collections to the public
(#) the recommendation of a :nited 9ations committee studying the problem of
art theft that all international sales of cultural property be coordinated by a
central regulatory body
1-. According to the passage/ Burke en'isaged the most formidable potential
ad'ersaries of his country4s museums in reclamation litigation to be
(A) commercial dealers in art
(B) law enforcement officials in his own country
(C) go'ernments of other countries
() pri'ate collectors of art
(#) museums in other countries
16. The author suggests that in the country mentioned in line 1/ litigation in'ol'ing
the reclamation of stolen works of art has been
(A) less common than Burke fears it will become without passage of a national
stature of limitations for reclamation of stolen cultural property
(B) increasing as a result of the passage of legislation that aids legitimate owners
of art in their attempts to reco'er stolen works
(C) a serious threat to museums and cultural institutions that ha'e unwittingly
added stolen artifacts to their collections
() a signal of the legitimate frustrations of 'ictims of at theft
(#) increasing as a result of an increase in the amount of art theft
1,. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude towards the
proposed bill%
(A) impassioned support
(B) measured ad'ocacy
(C) fearful apprehension
() reasoned opposition
(#) reluctant appro'al
25. &hich one of the following best e$emplifies the sort of legislation considered
necessary by the author of the passage%
(A) a law re"uiring museums to notify foreign go'ernments and cultural
institutions of all the catalogs and scholarly <ournals that they publish
(B) a law pro'iding for the creation of a national warehouse for storage of works
of art that are the sub<ect of litigation
LSAT 6,1
(C) a law instituting a national fund for assisting museums to bear the e$penses of
defending themsel'es against reclamation suits
() A law declaring in'alid all sales of culture property during the last ten years
by museums of one country to museums of another
(#) A law re"uiring that a central archi'e be established for collecting and
distributing information concerning all reported thefts of cultural property
Unt recenty, few hstorans were nterested n anayzng the smartes and
dfferences between serfdom n Russa and savery n the Unted States. Even
Aexs de Tocqueve, who recognzed the sgnfcant comparabty of the two
natons, never compared ther systems of servtude, despte hs nterest n Unted
States savery. Moreover, the amost smutaneous aboton of Russan serfdom
and Unted States savery n the 1860s-a rvetng concdence that shoud have
drawn more modern schoars to a comparatve study of the two systems of
servtude-has faed to arouse the nterest of schoars. Though some hstorans
may have been put off by the forbddng potca dfferences between nneteenth-
century Russa and the Unted States-one an mpera monarchy, the other a
federa democracy-a recent study by Peter Kochn dentfes dfferences that are
umnatng, especay wth regard to the dfferent knds of rebeon exhbted by
saves and serfs.
Kochn ponts out that nobes ownng serfs n Russa consttuted ony a tny
proporton of the popuaton, whe n the southern Unted States, about a quarter
of a Whte peope were members of save-ownng fames. And athough n the
southern Unted States ony 2 percent of saves worked on pantatons where more
than a hundred saves worked, n Russa amost 80 percent of the serfs worked for
nobes who owned more than a hundred serfs. In Russa most serfs rarey saw
ther owners who tended to rey on ntermedares to manage ther estates, whe
most southern panters ved on ther and and nteracted wth saves on a reguar
bass.
These dfferences n demographcs party expan dfferences n the knds of
resstance that saves and serfs practced n ther respectve countres. Both serfs
and saves engaged n a wde varety of rebeous actvty, from sent sabotage,
much of whch has escaped the hstorca record, to organzed armed rebeons,
whch were more common n Russa. The practce of absentee ownershp,
combned wth the arge numbers n whch serfs were owned, probaby
contrbuted sgnfcanty to the four great rebeons that swept across Russa at
roughy ffty-year ntervas n the seventeenth and eghteenth centures. The ast
of these, occurrng between 1773 and 1774, ensted more than a mon serfs n a
fute attempt to overthrow the Russan nobty. Russan serfs aso partcpated n
smaer acts of coectve defance caed the volnenie, whch typcay started wth
a group of serfs who companed of grevances by petton and went out on strke.
Confrontatons between saves and pantaton authortes were aso common, but
they tended to be much ess coectve n nature than those that occurred n
6,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Russa, probaby n part because the number of workers on each estate was
smaer n the Unted States than was the case n Russa.
21. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ifferences in the demographics of :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian
serfdom can help e$plain the different kinds of resistance practiced by sla'es
and serfs in their respecti'e countries.
(B) )istorians ha'e yet to undertake an ade"uate comparison and contrast of
=ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates sla'ery.
(C) =e'olts by =ussian serfs were commonly characteri!ed by collecti'e action.
() A recent study has "uestioned the 'alue of comparing :nited ;tates sla'ery to
=ussian serfdom/ especially in light of the significant demographic and
cultural differences between the two countries.
(#) e Toc"ue'ille failed to recogni!e the fundamental differences between
=ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates sla'ery which more recent historians
ha'e identified.
22. According to the author/ de Toc"ue'ille was similar to many modern historians in
his
(A) interest in the demographic differences between =ussia and the :nited ;tates
during the nineteenth century
(B) failure to undertake a comparison of =ussian serfdom and :nited ;tates
sla'ery
(C) inability to e$plain why :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian serfdom were
abolished during the same decade
() o'erestimation of the significance of the political differences between =ussia
and the :nited ;tates
(#) recognition of the essential comparability of =ussia and the :nited ;tates
2.. &hich one of the following assertions/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for
Molchin4s principal conclusion regarding the relationship of demographics to
rebellion among =ussian serfs and :nited ;tates sla'es%
(A) Collecti'e defiance by serfs during the nineteenth century was confined
almost e$clusi'ely to their participation in the $olnenie.
(B) The rebellious acti'ity of :nited ;tates sla'es was more likely to escape the
historical record than was the rebellious acti'ity of =ussian serfs.
(C) 8rgani!ed rebellions by sla'es in the &estern )emisphere during the
nineteenth century were most common in colonies with large estates that
normally employed more than a hundred sla'es.
() 3n the southern :nited ;tates during the nineteenth century/ those estates that
were managed by intermediaries rather than by the owner generally relied
upon the labor of at least a hundred sla'es.
LSAT 6,.
(#) The intermediaries who managed estates in =ussia during the nineteenth
century were in general much more competent as managers than the owners
of the estates that they managed.
20. The fact that :nited ;tates sla'ery and =ussian serfdom were abolished during
the same decade is cited by the author in the first paragraph primarily in order to
(A) emphasi!e that rebellions in both countries e'entually led to the demise of the
two institutions
(B) cite a coincidence that de Toc"ue'ille should ha'e been able to foresee
(C) suggest one reason why more historians should ha'e been drawn to a
comparati'e study of the two institutions
() cite a coincidence that Molchin4s study has failed to e$plain ade"uately
(#) emphasi!e the underlying similarities between the two institutions
21. The author cites which one of the following as a factor that might ha'e
discouraged historians from undertaking a comparati'e study of =ussian serfdom
and :nited ;tates sla'ery%
(A) ma<or differences in the political systems of the two countries
(B) ma<or differences in the demographics of the two countries
(C) the failure of de Toc"ue'ille to address the sub<ect
() differences in the si!e of the estates on which sla'es and serfs labored
(#) the comprehensi'eness of Molchin4s own work
22. According to the passage/ Molchin4s study asserts that which one of the following
was true of =ussian nobles during the nineteenth century%
(A) They agreed to the abolition of serfdom in the 1625s largely as a result of
their ha'ing been influenced by the abolition of sla'ery in the :nited ;tates.
(B) They became more directly in'ol'ed in the management of their estates as a
result of the rebellions that occurred in the pre'ious century.
(C) They commonly agreed to at least some of the demands that arose out of the
$olnenie.
() They had relati'ely little direct contact with the serfs who worked on their
estates.
(#) They hastened the abolition of serfdom by failing to de'ise an effecti'e
response to the collecti'e nature of the serfs4 rebellious acti'ity.
2-. The passage suggests that which one of the following was true of southern
planters in the :nited ;tates%
(A) They were as prepared for collecti'e protest as were their =ussian
counterparts.
(B) >ew of them owned plantations on which fewer than a hundred sla'es
worked.
6,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) They managed their estates more efficiently than did their =ussian
counterparts.
() >ew of them relied on intermediaries to manage their estates.
(#) The si!e of their estates was larger on a'erage than the si!e of =ussian estates.
LSAT 16 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Unt the 1980s, most scentsts beeved that noncatastrophc geoogca
processes caused the extncton of dnosaurs that occurred approxmatey 66
mon years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous perod. Geoogsts argued that a
dramatc drop n sea eve concded wth the extncton of the dnosaurs and coud
have caused the cmatc changes that resuted n ths extncton as we as the
extncton of many ocean speces.
Ths vew was serousy chaenged n the 1980s by the dscovery of arge
amounts of rdum n a ayer of cay deposted at the end of the Cretaceous
perod. Because rdum s extremey rare n rocks on the Earths surface but
common n meteortes, researchers theorzed that t was the mpact of a arge
meteorte that dramatcay changed the earths cmate and thus trggered the
extncton of the dnosaurs.
Currenty avaabe evdence, however, offers more support for a new theory,
the vocanc-erupton theory. A vast erupton of ava n Inda concded wth the
extnctons that occurred at the end of the Cretaceous perod, and the reease of
carbon doxde from ths epsode of vocansm coud have caused the cmatc
change responsbe for the demse of the dnosaurs. Such outpourngs of ava are
caused by nstabty n the owest ayer of the Earths mante, ocated |ust above
the Earths core. As the rock that consttutes ths ayer s heated by the Earths
core, t becomes ess dense and portons of t eventuay escape upward as bobs
or moten rock, caed "daprs," that can, under certan crcumstances, erupt
voenty through the Earths crust.
Moreover, the vocanc-erupton theory, ke the mpact theory, accounts for
the presence of rdum n sedmentary deposts; t aso expans matters that the
meteorte-mpact theory does not. Athough rdum s extremey rare on the
Earths surface, the ower regons of the Earths mante have roughy the same
composton as meteortes and contan arge amounts of rdum, whch n the case
of a dapr erupton woud probaby be emtted as rdum hexafuorde, a gas that
woud dsperse more unformy n the atmosphere than the rdum-contanng
matter thrown out from a meteorte mpact. In addton, the vocanc-erupton
LSAT 6,1
theory may expan why the end of the Cretaceous perod was marked by a
gradua change n sea eve. Foss records ndcate that for severa hundred
thousand years pror to the reatvey sudden dsappearance of the dnosaurs, the
eve of the sea graduay fe, causng many marne organsms to de out. Ths
change n sea eve mght we have been the resut of a dstorton n the Earths
surface that resuted from the movement of daprs upward toward the Earths
crust, and the more catacysmc extncton of the dnosaurs coud have resuted
from the exposve vocansm that occurred as matera from the daprs erupted
onto the Earths surface.
1. The passage suggests that during the 1,65s researchers found meteorite impact a
con'incing e$planation for the e$tinction of dinosaurs/ in part because
(A) earlier theories had failed to account for the gradual e$tinction of many ocean
species at the end of the Cretaceous period
(B) geologists had/ up until that time/ underestimated the amount of carbon
dio$ide that would be released during an episode of e$plosi'e 'olcanism
(C) a meteorite could ha'e ser'ed as a source of the iridium found in a layer of
clay deposited at the end of the Cretaceous period
() no theory relying on purely geological processes had/ up until that time/
e$plained the cause of the precipitous drop in sea le'el that occurred at the
end of the Cretaceous period
(#) the impact of a large meteorite could ha'e resulted in the release of enough
carbon dio$ide to cause global climatic change
2. According to the passage/ the lower regions of the #arth4s mantle are
characteri!ed by
(A) a composition similar to that of meteorites
(B) the absence of elements found in rocks on the #arth4s crust
(C) a greater stability than that of the upper regions
() the presence of large amounts of carbon dio$ide
(#) a uniformly lower density than that of the upper regions
.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following was true of
the la'a that erupted in 3ndia at the end of the Cretaceous period%
(A) 3t contained less carbon dio$ide than did the meteorites that were striking the
#arth4s surface during that period.
(B) 3t was more dense than the molten rock/ located <ust abo'e the #arth4s core.
(C) 3t released enough iridium he$afluoride into the atmosphere to change the
#arth4s climate dramatically.
() 3t was richer in iridium than rocks usually found on the #arth4s surface.
(#) 3t was richer in iridium than were the meteorites that were striking the #arth4s
surface during that period.
6,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
0. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) describing three theories and e$plaining why the latest of these appears to be
the best of the three
(B) attacking the assumptions inherent in theories that until the 1,65s had been
largely accepted by geologists
(C) outlining the inade"uacies of three different e$planations of the same
phenomenon
() pro'iding concrete e$amples in support of the more general assertion that
theories must often be re'ised in light of new e'idence
(#) citing e'idence that appears to confirm the skepticism of geologists regarding
a 'iew held prior to the 1,65s
1. The author implies that if the theory described in the third paragraph is true/
which one of the following would ha'e been true of iridium in the atmosphere at
the end of the Cretaceous period%
(A) 3ts le'el of concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere would ha'e been high due
to a slow but steady increase in the atmospheric iridium that began in the
early Cretaceous period.
(B) 3ts concentration in the #arth4s atmosphere would ha'e increased due to the
dramatic decrease in sea le'el that occurred during the Cretaceous period.
(C) 3t would ha'e been directly responsible for the e$tinction of many ocean
species.
() 3t would ha'e been more uniformly dispersed than iridium whose source had
been the impact of a meteorite on the #arth4s surface.
(#) 3t would ha'e been more uniformly dispersed than indium released into the
atmosphere as a result of normal geological processes that occur on #arth.
2. The passage supports which one of the following claims about the 'olcanic(
eruption theory%
(A) 3t does not rely on assumptions concerning the temperature of molten rock at
the lowest pan of the #arth4s mantle.
(B) 3t may e$plain what caused the gradual fall in sea le'el that occurred for
hundreds of thousands of years prior to the more sudden disappearance of
the dinosaurs.
(C) 3t bases its e$planation on the occurrence of periods of increased 'olcanic
acti'ity similar to those shown to ha'e caused earlier mass e$tinctions.
() 3t may e$plain the relati'e scarcity of iridium in rocks on the #arth4s surface
compared to its abundance in meteorites.
(#) 3t accounts for the relati'ely une'en distribution of iridium in the layer of clay
deposited at the end of the Cretaceous period.
LSAT 6,-
-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would cast the most doubt on the theory
described in the last paragraph of the passage%
(A) >ragments of meteorites that ha'e struck the #arth are e$amined and found to
ha'e only minuscule amounts of iridium he$afluoride trapped inside of
them.
(B) ?ost diapir eruptions in the geological history of the #arth ha'e been similar
in si!e to the one that occurred in 3ndia at the end of the Cretaceous period
and ha'e not been succeeded by periods of climatic change.
(C) There ha'e been se'eral periods in the geological history of the #arth/ before
and after the Cretaceous period/ during which large numbers of marine
species ha'e perished.
() The fre"uency with which meteorites struck the #arth was higher at the end
of the Cretaceous period than at the beginning of the period.
(#) ?arine species tend to be much more 'ulnerable to e$tinction when e$posed
to a dramatic and relati'ely sudden change in sea le'el than when they are
e$posed to a gradual change in sea le'el similar to the one that preceded the
e$tinction of the dinosaurs.
It has become somethng of a trusm n fokore studes that unt recenty the
ore was more often studed than the fok. That s, fokorsts concentrated on the
fokore-the songs, taes, and proverbs themseves-and gnored the peope who
transmtted that ore as part of ther ora cuture. However, snce the eary 1970s,
fokore studes have begun to regard fok performers as peope of creatvty who
are as worthy of attenton as are artsts who transmt ther deas n wrtng. Ths
shft of emphass has aso encouraged a growng nterest n women fok
performers.
Unt recenty, fokorsts tended to coect fokore from women on ony a few
topcs such as heath and games. In other areas, as Wege and Farrer have noted,
f fokorsts "had a choce between a story as tod by a man or as tod by a
woman, the mans verson was chosen." It s st too eary to te how profoundy
ths stuaton has changed, but one can pont to severa recent studes n whch
women performers pay centra roes. Perhaps more teng s the focus of the most
recenty pubshed ma|or fokore textbook, The -ynamics of Folklore. Whereas
earer textbooks gave tte attenton to women and ther fokore, ths book
devotes many pages to women fok performers.
Recognton of women as mportant bearers of fokore s not entrey a recent
phenomenon. As eary as 1903, a few outstandng women fok performers were
the focus of schoary attenton. Bur the schoarshp devoted to these women
tended to focus prmary on presentng the performers repertore. Recent works
about women fok artsts, however, have been more bographcay orented. |uha
Pentkanens study of Marna Tokao, a Fnnsh heaer and narrator of foktaes, s
especay extensve and probng. Though nterested n the probems of repertore
anayss, Pentkanen gves consderabe attenton to the detas of Tokaos fe
6,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
and cutura background, so that a fu pcture of a woman and her fokore
emerges. Another notabe work s Roger Abrahams book, whch presents a very
cear pcture of the sgnfcance of tradtona sngng n the fe of noted baad
snger Ameda Rdde. Unfortunatey, unke Pentkanens study, Abrahams study
contans tte repertore anayss.
These recent books refect the current nterest of fokorsts n vewng fokore
n context and thus answerng questons about what fokore means to the peope
who use t. One unexpected resut of ths ne of study has been the dscovery that
women may use the same fokore that men use, but for very dfferent purposes.
Ths reazaton has potenta mportance for future fokore studes n cang
greater attenton to the type of study requred f a fokorst wants truy to
understand the roe fokore pays n a partcuar cuture.
6. &hich one of the following best describes the main point of the passage%
(A) 3t is only since the early 1,-5s that folklore studies ha'e begun to recogni!e
women as important bearers of folklore.
(B) A careful analysis of the repertoires of women folk performers has led to a
new disco'ery with important implications for future folklore studies.
(C) =ecent studies of women folk performers ha'e focused primarily on the
problems of repertoire analysis to the e$clusion of a discussion of the culture
within which the folklore was de'eloped.
() The emphasis in folklore studies has shifted from a focus on the life and the
cultural background of the folk performers themsel'es to a broader
understanding of the role folklore plays in a culture.
(#) A change in the focus of folklore studies has led to increased interest in
women folk performers and to a new understanding of the importance of the
conte$t in which folklore is produced.
,. The author of the passage refers to The !yna-ics o+ Folklore primarily in order
to
(A) support the idea that it is too soon to tell whether or not folklorists are gi'ing
greater attention to women4s folklore
(B) refute &eigle and >arrer4s contention that folklorists prefer to collect folklore
from men rather than from women
(C) support the assertion that scholarship de'oted to women folk performers
tends to focus primarily on repertoire
() present an e$ample of the new emphasis in folklore studies on the performer
rather than on the folklore
(#) suggest that there are some signs that women folk performers are gaining
increased critical attention in the field of folklore
15. The focus of which one of the following books would most clearly reflect the
current interest of the folklorists mentioned in the last paragraph%
LSAT 6,,
(A) an anthology of tales and songs collected e$clusi'ely from women in
different cultures
(B) a compilation of tales and songs from both men and women co'ering a great
'ariety of traditional and nontraditional topics
(C) a study of the purpose and meaning of a tale or song for the men and women
in a particular culture
() an analysis of one particular tale or song that documents changes in the te$t
of the folklore o'er a period of time
(#) a comparison of the creati'e process of performers who transmit folklore with
that of artists who transmit their ideas in writing
11. According to the passage/ which one of the following changes has occurred in the
field of folklore since the early 1,-5s%
(A) increased recognition of the similar ways in which men and women use
folklore
(B) increased recognition of folk performers as creati'e indi'iduals
(C) increased emphasis on the need for repertoire analysis
() less emphasis on the relationship between cultural influences and folklore
(#) less emphasis on the indi'idual performers and more emphasis on the
meaning of folklore to a culture
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that early folklorists assumed that which one
of the following was true%
(A) The people who transmitted the folklore did not play a creati'e role in the
de'elopment of that folklore.
(B) The people who transmitted the folklore were not consciously aware of the
way in which they creati'ely shaped that folklore.
(C) The te$t of a song or tale did not change as the folklore was transmitted from
one generation to another.
() &omen were not in'ol'ed in transmitting folklore e$cept for songs or tales
dealing with a few traditional topics.
(#) The meaning of a piece of folklore could differ depending on whether the tale
or song was transmitted by a man or by a woman.
1.. Based on the information in the passage/ which one of the following is most
closely analogous to the type of folklore studies produced before the early 1,-5s%
(A) An anthropologist studies the implements currently used by an isolated
culture/ but does not in'estigate how the people of that culture designed and
used those implements.
(B) A manufacturer hires a consultant to determine how e$isting e"uipment in a
plant might be modified to impro'e efficiency/ but does not ask employees
for their suggestions on how to impro'e efficiency.
,55 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) A historian studies different types of documents dealing with a particular
historical e'ent/ but decides not to re'iew newspaper accounts written by
<ournalists who li'ed through that e'ent.
() An archaeologist studies the artifacts of an ancient culture to reconstruct the
life(style of that culture/ but does not actually 'isit the site where those
artifacts were unearthed.
(#) An architect designs a pri'ate home for a client/ but ignores many of the
client4s suggestions concerning minor details about the final design of the
home.
10. The author of the passage uses the term *conte$t+ (line 15) to refer to
(A) a holistic assessment of a piece of folklore rather than a critical analysis of its
parts
(B) a study that e$amines a piece of folklore in light of earlier interpretations
pro'ided by other folklorists
(C) the parts of a piece of folklore that can shed light on the meaning of the entire
piece
() the en'ironment and circumstances in which a particular piece of folklore is
used
(#) the location in which the story line of a piece of folklore is set
11. The author4s attitude toward =oger Abraham4s book can best be described as one
of
(A) wholehearted appro'al
(B) "ualified admiration
(C) uneasy ambi'alence
() e$treme skepticism
(#) trenchant criticism
|. G. A. Pococks numerous nvestgatons have a revoved around the frutfu
assumpton that a work of potca thought can ony be understood n ght of the
ngustc constrants to whch ts author was sub|ect, for these prescrbed both the
choce of sub|ect matter and the authors conceptuazaton of ths sub|ect matter.
Ony the occasona epc theorst, ke Machave or Hobbes, succeeded n
breakng out of these bonds by redefnng od terms and nventng new ones. The
task of the modern commentator s to dentfy the "anguage" or "vocabuary"
wth and wthn whch the author operated. Whe hstorans of terature have
aways been aware that wrters work wthn partcuar tradtons, the appcaton of
ths noton to the hstory of potca deas forms a sharp contrast to the
assumptons of the 1950s, when t was navey thought that the cose readng of a
text by an anaytc phosopher was suffcent to estabsh ts meanng, even f the
phosopher had no knowedge of the perod of the texts composton.
The anguage Pocock has most cosey nvestgated s that of "cvc
LSAT ,51
humansm." For much of hs career he has argued that eghteenth-century Engsh
potca thought shoud be nterpreted as a confct between rva versons of the
"vrtue" centra to cvc humansm. On the one hand, he argues, ths vrtue s
descrbed by representatves of the Tory opposton usng a vocabuary of pubc
sprt and sef-suffcency. For these wrters the soceta dea s the sma,
ndependent andowner n the countrysde. On the other hand, Whg wrters
descrbe such vrtue usng a vocabuary of commerce and economc progress; for
them the dea s the merchant.
In makng such ngustc dscrmnatons Pocock has dsassocated hmsef
from hstorans ke Namer, who derde a eghteenth-century Engsh potca
anguage as "cant." But whe Pococks deas have proved ferte when apped to
Engand, they are more controversa when apped to the ate-eghteenth-century
Unted States. Pococks asserton that |effersons attacks on the commerca
poces of the Federasts smpy echo the anguage of the Tory opposton n
Engand s at odds wth the fact that |efferson re|ected the etst mpcatons of
that groups noton of vrtue and asserted the rght of a to partcpate n
commerca socety. Indeed, after promptngs by Ouentn Sknner, Pocock has
admtted that a counteranguage-one of rghts and bertes-was probaby as
mportant n the potca dscourse of the ate-eghteenth-century Unted States as
the anguage of cvc humansm. Fortunatey, t s not necessary to rank the
reatve mportance of a the dfferent vocabuares n whch eghteenth-century
potca argument was conducted. It s suffcent to recognze that any nterestng
text s probaby a mxture of severa of these vocabuares, and to appaud the
hstoran who, though guty of some exaggeraton, has done the most to make us
aware of ther mportance.
12. The main idea of the passage is that
(A) ci'ic humanism/ in any of its manifestations/ cannot entirely e$plain
eighteenth(century political discourse
(B) eighteenth(century political te$ts are less likely to reflect a single 'ocabulary
than to combine se'eral 'ocabularies
(C) @ocock4s linguistic approach/ though not applicable to all eighteenth(century
political te$ts/ pro'ides a useful model for historians of political theory
() @ocock has more successfully accounted for the nature of political thought in
eighteenth(century #ngland than in the eighteenth(century :nited ;tates
(#) @ocock4s notion of the importance of language in political te$ts is a logical
e$tension of the insights of historians of literature
1-. According to the passage/ @ocock most clearly associates the use of a 'ocabulary
of economic progress with
(A) Aefferson
(B) >ederalists
(C) #nglish &higs
,52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() #nglish Tories rural
(#) #nglish landowners
16. The author4s attitude toward @ocock is best re'ealed by which of the following
pairs of words%
(A) *fruitful+ (line 2) and *cant+ (line .,)
(B) *sharp+ (line 12) and *elitist+ (line 02)
(C) *nai'ely+ (line 1-) and *contro'ersial+ (line 01)
() *fertile+ (line 05) and *applaud+ (line 25)
(#) *simply+ (line 00) and *importance+ (line 11)
1,. The passage suggests that one of the *assumptions of the 1,15s+ (line 1-)
regarding the meaning of a political te$t was that this meaning
(A) could be established using an approach similar to that used by literary
historians
(B) could be definiti'ely established without reference to the te$t4s historical
background
(C) could be closely read in se'eral different ways depending on one4s
philosophic approach
() was constrained by certain linguistic preconceptions held by the te$t4s author
(#) could be e$pressed most clearly by an analytic philosopher who had studied
its historical conte$t
25. The author of the passage would most likely agree that which one of the
following is a weakness found in @ocock4s work%
(A) the use of the term *language+ to describe the e$pressi'e features of se'eral
di'erse kinds of discourse
(B) the o'eremphatic denigration of the role of the analytic philosopher in
establishing the meaning of a political/ or indeed any/ te$t
(C) the emphasis on the o'erriding importance of ci'ic humanism in eighteenth(
century #nglish political thought
() the insistence on a single linguistic dichotomy to account for political thought
in eighteenth(century #ngland and the :nited ;tates
(#) the assignment of certain 'ocabularies to particular parties in eighteenth(
century #ngland without taking note of how these 'ocabularies o'erlapped
21. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A description of a thesis is offered/ specific cases are considered/ and an
e'aluation is gi'en.
(B) A thesis is brought forward/ the thesis is "ualified/ and e'idence that calls the
"ualification into "uestion is stated.
(C) A hypothesis is described/ e$amples that suggest it is incorrect are
LSAT ,5.
summari!ed/ and supporting e$amples are offered.
() A series of e'aluations are gi'en/ concrete reasons are put forward/ and a
future direction for research is suggested.
(#) Comparisons and contrasts are made/ some categories of e'aluation are
suggested/ and a framework for applying these categories is implied.
In 1964 the Unted States federa government began attempts to emnate
raca dscrmnaton n empoyment and wages: the Unted States Congress
enacted Tte VII of the Cv Rghts Act, prohbtng empoyers from makng
empoyment decsons on the bass of race. In 1965 Presdent |ohnson ssued
Executve Order 11,246, whch prohbted dscrmnaton by Unted States
government contractors and emphaszed drect montorng of mnorty
representaton n contractors work forces.
Nonetheess, proponents of the "contnuous change" hypothess beeve that
Unted States federa aw had a margna mpact on the economc progress made
by back peope n the Unted States between 1940 and 1975. Instead they
emphasze sowy evovng hstorca forces, such as ong-term trends n educaton
that mproved segregated schoos for back students durng the 1940s and were
operatve durng and after the 1960s. They argue that as the quaty of back
schoos mproved reatve to that of whte schoos, the earnng potenta of those
attendng back schoos ncreased reatve to the earnng potenta of those
attendng whte schoos.
However, there s no drect evdence nkng ncreased quaty of underfunded
segregated back schoos to these mprovements n earnng potenta. In fact,
even the evdence on reatve schoong quaty s ambguous. Athough n the
md-1940s term ength at back schoos was approachng that n whte schoos,
the rapd growth n another mportant measure of schoo quaty, schoo
expendtures, may be expaned by ncreases n teachers saares, and
hstorcay, such ncreases have not necessary ncreased schoo quaty. Fnay,
back ndvduas n a age groups, even those who had been educated at
segregated schoos before the 1940s, experenced post-1960 ncreases n ther
earnng potenta. If mprovements n the quaty of schoong were an mportant
determnant of ncreased returns, ony those workers who coud have benefted
from enhanced schoo quaty shoud have receved hgher returns. The reatve
mprovement n the earnng potenta of educated back peope of a age groups
n the Unted States s more consstent wth a decne n empoyment
dscrmnaton.
An addtona probem for contnuty theorsts s how to expan the rapd
acceeraton of back economc progress n the Unted States after 1964.
Educaton aone cannot account for the rate of change. Rather, the concdence of
ncreased Unted States government antdscrmnaton pressure n the md-1960s
wth the acceeraton n the rate of back economc progress begnnng n 1965
argues aganst the contnuty theorsts vew. True, correatng federa nterventon
,50 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
and the acceeraton of back economc progress mght be ncorrect. One coud
argue that changng attudes about empoyment dscrmnaton sparked both the
adopton of new federa poces and the rapd acceeraton n back economc
progress. Indeed, the shft n natona atttude that made possbe the enactment
of Tte VII was n part produced by the persstence of raca dscrmnaton n the
southern Unted States. However, the fact that the aw had ts greatest effect n
the South, n spte of the vgorous resstance of many Southern eaders, suggests
ts mportance for back economc progress.
22. According to the passage/ Title C33 of the 1,20 Ci'il =ights Act differs from
#$ecuti'e 8rder 11. 202 in that Title C33
(A) monitors employers to ensure minority representation
(B) assesses the work forces of go'ernment contractors
(C) eliminates discriminatory disparities in wages
() focuses on determining minority representation in go'ernment
(#) go'erns hiring practices in a wider 'ariety of workplaces
2.. &hich one of the following statements about schooling in the :nited ;tates
during the mid(1,05s can be inferred from the passage%
(A) ;chool e$penditures decreased for white schools.
(B) The teachers in white schools had more time to co'er material during a school
year than did teachers in black schools.
(C) The basic curriculum of white schools was similar to the curriculum at black
schools.
() &hite schools did not change substantially in "uality.
(#) Although the salaries of teachers in black schools increased/ they did not keep
pace with the salaries of teachers in white schools.
20. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain why an argument about black economic progress is incomplete
(B) describe the impact of education on black economic progress
(C) refute an argument about the factors influencing black economic progress
() describe black economic progress before and after the 1,25s
(#) clarify the current 'iew about the factors influencing black economic progress
21. &hich one of the following best states the position of proponents of the
*continuous change+ hypothesis regarding the relationship between law and racial
discrimination%
(A) 3ndi'iduals cannot be forced by legal means to beha'e in nondiscriminatory
ways.
(B) iscriminatory practices in education ha'e been effecti'ely altered by legal
means.
LSAT ,51
(C) Kegislation alone has had little effect on racially discriminatory beha'ior.
() Kegislation is necessary/ but not sufficient/ to achie'e changes in racial
altitudes.
(#) Kegislation can only e$acerbate conflicts about racially discriminatory
beha'ior.
22. The author concedes that *correlating federal inter'ention and the acceleration of
black economic progress might be incorrect+ (lines 16(25) primarily in order to
(A) strengthen the o'erall argument by anticipating an ob<ection
(B) introduce another factor that may ha'e influenced black economic progress
(C) concede a point to the continuity theorists
() change the o'erall argument in light of the 'iews of the continuity theorists
(#) introduce a discussion about the impact of federal inter'ention on
discrimination
2-. The *continuous change+ hypothesis/ as it is presented in the passage/ can best be
applied to which one of the following situations%
(A) )omes are found for many low(income families because the go'ernment
funds a pro<ect to build subsidi!ed housing in an economically depressed
area.
(B) A depressed economy does not cause the closing of small businesses in a local
community because the go'ernment pro'ides special grants to aid these
businesses.
(C) :nemployed people are able to obtain <obs because pri'ate contractors
recei'e ta$ incenti'es for constructing office buildings in an area with a high
unemployment rate.
() A housing shortage is remedied because the changing state of the economy
permits pri'ate in'estors to finance construction in a depressed area.
(#) A community4s sanitation needs are met because neighborhood organi!ations
lobby aggressi'ely for go'ernment assistance.
LSAT 17 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
For the poet Phps Whtey, who was brought to coona New Engand as a
save n 1761, the forma terary code of eghteenth-century Engsh was thrce
removed: by the nta barrer of the unfamar Engsh anguage, by the
dscrepancy between spoken and terary forms of Engsh, and by the Afrcan
,52 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
tradton of ora rather than wrtten verba art. Wheatey transcended these
barrers-she earned the Engsh anguage and Engsh terary forms so qucky
and we that she was composng good poetry n Engsh wthn a few years of her
arrva n New Engand.
Wheateys experence exempfes the meetng of ora and wrtten terary
cutures. The aesthetc prncpes of the Afrcan ora tradton were preserved n
Amerca by fok artsts n work songs, dancng, fed hoers, regous musc, the
use of the drum, and, after the drum was forbdden, n the perpetuaton of drum
effects n song. Afrcan anguages and the functons of anguage n Afrcan
socetes not ony contrbuted to the emergence of a dstnctve Back Engsh but
aso exerted demonstrabe effects on the manner n whch other Amercans spoke
Engsh. Gven her Afrcan hertage and her facty wth Engsh and the
conventons of Engsh poetry, Wheateys work had the potenta to appy the
deas of a wrtten terature to an ora terary tradton n the creaton of an Afrcan
Amercan terary anguage.
But ths was a potenta that her poetry unfortunatey dd not expot. The
standards of eghteenth-century Engsh poetry, whch tsef refected tte of the
Amercan anguage, ed Wheatey to deveop a noton of poetry as a cosed
system, derved from mtaton of earer wrtten works. No pace exsted for the
rough-and-ready Amercanzed Engsh she heard n the streets, for the Engsh
spoken by Back peope, or for Afrcansms. The conventons of eghteenth-century
neocassca poetry rued out casua tak; her choce and feengs had to be
generazed accordng to rues of poetc dcton and characterzaton; the
partcuars of her Afrcan past, f they were to be deat wth at a, had to be
subordnated to the regnng conventons. Afrcan poetry dd not count as poetry
n her new stuaton, and Afrcan aesthetc canons were rreevant to the new
context because no ngustc or soca framework exsted to renforce them.
Wheatey adopted a foregn anguage and a foregn terary tradton; they were
not extensons of her past experence, but repacements.
Thus mted by the eghteenth-century Engsh terary code, Wheateys
poetry contrbuted tte to the deveopment of a dstnctve Afrcan Amercan
terary anguage. Yet by the standards of the terary conventons n whch she
chose to work, Wheateys poetry s undenaby accompshed, and she s |usty
ceebrated as the frst Back Amercan poet.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) >olk artists employed more principles of African oral tradition in their works
than did @hillis &heatley in her poetry.
(B) Although @hillis &heatley had to o'ercome significant barriers in learning
#nglish/ she mastered the literary con'entions of eighteen(century #nglish as
well as African aesthetic canons.
(C) @hillis &heatley4s poetry did not fulfill the potential inherent in her
e$perience but did represent a significant accomplishment.
LSAT ,5-
() The e'olution of a distincti'e African American literary language can be
traced from the creations of African American folk artists to the poetry of
@hillis &heatley.
(#) @hillis &heatley <oined with African American folk artists in preser'ing the
principles of the African oral tradition.
2. The approach to poetry taken by a modern(day 3talian immigrant in America
would be most analogous to @hillis &heatley4s approach/ as it is described in the
passage/ if the immigrant
(A) translated 3talian literary forms into the American idiom
(B) combined 3talian and American literary traditions into a new form of poetic
e$pression
(C) contributed to the de'elopment of a distincti'e 3talian American literary style
() defined artistic e$pression in terms of eighteenth(century 3talian poetic
con'entions
(#) adopted the language and forms of modern American poetry
.. According to the passage/ African languages had a notable influence on
(A) the religious music of colonists in 9ew #ngland
(B) the folk art of colonists in 9ew #ngland
(C) formal written #nglish
() American speech patterns
(#) eighteen(century aesthetic principles
0. By a *closed system+ of poetry (line .0(.1)/ the author most probably means
poetry that
(A) cannot be written by those who are not raised knowing its con'entions
(B) has little influence on the way language is actually spoken
(C) substitutes its own con'entions for the aesthetic principles of the past
() does not admit the use of street language and casual talk
(#) is ultimately re<ected because its con'entions lea'e little room for further
de'elopment
1. According to the passage/ the standards of eighteenth century #nglish poetry
permitted &heatley to include which one of the following in her poetry%
(A) generali!ed feelings
(B) Americani!ed #nglish
(C) themes from folk art
() casual talk
(#) Black speech
2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most weaken the author4s argument
,56 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
concerning the role that &heatley played in the e'olution of an African American
literary language%
(A) &heatley4s poetry was admired in #ngland for its faithfulness to the
con'entions of neoclassical poetry.
(B) &heatley compiled a history in #nglish of her family4s e$periences in Africa
and America.
(C) The language barriers that &heatley o'ercame were e'entually transcended
by all who were brought from Africa as sla'es.
() ;e'eral modern African American poets acknowledge the importance of
&heatley4s poetry to American literature.
(#) ;cholars trace themes and e$pressions in African American poetry back to the
poetry of &heatley.
-. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would most probably ha'e praised
@hillis &heatley4s poetry more if it had
(A) affected the manner in which sla'es and freed Black people spoke #nglish
(B) defined African American artistic e$pression in terms of earlier works
(C) adopted the standards of eighteenth(century #nglish poetry
() combined elements of the #nglish literary tradition with those of the African
oral tradition
(#) focused on the barriers that written #nglish literary forms presented to Black
artists
6. &hich one of the following most accurately characteri!es the author4s attitude
with respect to @hillis &heatley4s literary accomplishments%
(A) enthusiastic ad'ocacy
(B) "ualified admiration
(C) dispassionate impartiality
() detached ambi'alence
(#) perfunctory dismissal
One scentfc dscpne, durng ts eary stages of deveopment, s often
reated to another as an antthess to ts thess. The thess dscpne tend to
concern tsef wth dscovery and cassfcaton of phenomena, to offer hostc
expanatons emphaszng pattern and form, and to use exstng theory to expan
the wdest possbe range of phenomena. The pared or antdscpne, on the other
hand, can be characterzed by a more focused approach, concentratng on the
unts of constructon, and by a beef that the dscpne can be reformuated n
terms of the ssues and expanatons of the antdscpne.
The reatonshp of cytoogy (ce boogy) to bochemstry n the ate
nneteenth century, when both dscpnes were growng at a rapd pace,
exempfes such a pattern. Researchers n ce boogy found mountng evdence
LSAT ,5,
of an ntrcate ce archtecture. They aso deduced the mysterous choreography
of the chromosomes durng ce dvson. Many bochemsts, on the other hand,
remaned skeptca of the dea that so much structure exsted, argung that the
chemca reactons that occur n cytoogca preparatons mght create the
appearance of such structures. Aso, they stood apart from the debate then ragng
over whether protopasm, the compex of vng matera wthn a ce, s
homogeneous, networkke, granuar, or foamke. Ther nterest ay n the core
"fundamenta" ssues of the chemca nature of protopasm, especay the newy
formuated enzyme theory of fe.
In genera, bochemsts |udged cytoogsts to be too gnorant of chemstry to
grasp the basc processes, whereas cytoogsts consdered the methods of
bochemsts nadequate to characterze the structures of the vng ce. The
renewa of Mendean genetcs and, ater, progress n chromosome mappng dd
tte at frst to effect a synthess.
Both sdes were essentay correct. Bochemstry has more than |ustfed ts
extravagant eary cams by expanng so much of the ceuar machnery. But n
achevng ths feat (mosty snce 1950) t has been partay transformed nto the
new dscpne of moecuar boogy-bochemstry that deas wth spata
arrangements and movements of arge moecues. At the same tme cytoogy has
metamorphosed nto modern ceuar boogy. Aded by eectron mcroscopy, t has
become more smar n anguage and outook to moecuar boogy. The
nteracton of a dscpne and ts antdscpne has moved both scences toward a
synthess, namey moecuar genetcs.
Ths nteracton between pared dscpnes can have mportant resuts. In the
case of ate nneteenth-century ce research, progress was fueed by competton
among the varous atttudes and ssues derved from ce boogy and
bochemstry. |oseph Fruton, a bochemst, has suggested that such competton
and the resutng tensons among researchers are a prncpa source of vtaty and
"are key to ead to unexpected and exctng novetes n the future, as they have
n the past."
,. &hich one of the following best states the central idea of the passage%
(A) Antithetical scientific disciplines can both stimulate and hinder one another4s
research in comple$ ways.
(B) Antithetical scientific disciplines often interact with one another in ways that
can be highly useful.
(C) As disciplines such as cytology and biochemistry ad'ance/ their interaction
necessarily leads to a synthesis of their approaches.
() Cell research in the late nineteenth century was plagued by disagreements
between cytologists and biochemists.
(#) 3n the late nineteenth century/ cytologists and biochemists made many
'aluable disco'eries that ad'anced scientific understanding of the cell.
,15 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
15. The passage states that in the late nineteenth century cytologists deduced the
(A) maps of chromosomes
(B) chemical nature of protoplasm
(C) spatial relationship of molecules within the cell
() role of en!ymes in biological processes
(#) se"uence of the mo'ement of chromosomes during cell di'ision
11. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in the late nineteenth century the debate
o'er the structural nature of protoplasm (line 21(2,) was most likely carried on
(A) among cytologists
(B) among biochemists
(C) between cytologists and biochemists
() between cytologists and geneticists
(#) between biochemists and geneticists
12. According to the passage/ cytologists in the late nineteenth century were critical
of the cell research of biochemists because cytologists belie'ed that
(A) the methods of biochemistry were inade"uate to account for all of the
chemical reactions that occurred in cytological preparations
(B) the methods of biochemistry could not ade"uately disco'er and e$plain the
structures of li'ing cells
(C) biochemists were not interested in the nature of protoplasm
() biochemists were not interested in cell di'ision
(#) biochemists were too ignorant of cytology to understand the basic processes
of the cell
1.. The author "uotes >ruton (lines 22(20) primarily in order to
(A) restate the author4s own conclusions
(B) pro'ide new e'idence about the relationship of cytology to biochemistry
(C) summari!e the position of the biochemists described in the passage
() illustrate the difficulties encountered in the synthesis of disciplines
(#) emphasi!e the ascendancy of the theories of biochemists o'er those of
cytologists
10. &hich one of the following inferences about when the en!yme theory of life was
formulated can be drawn from the passage%
(A) The theory was formulated before the appearance of molecular biology.
(B) The theory was formulated before the initial disco'ery of cell architecture.
(C) The theory was formulated after the completion of chromosome mapping.
() The theory was formulated after a synthesis of the ideas of cytologists and
biochemists had occurred.
LSAT ,11
(#) The theory was formulated at the same time as the beginning of the debate
o'er the nature of protoplasm.
11. &hich one of the following statements about cells is most compatible with the
'iews of late nineteenth(century biochemists as those 'iews are described in the
passage%
(A) The secret of cell function resides in the structure of the cell.
(B) 8nly by disco'ering the chemical composition of protoplasm can the
processes of the cell be understood.
(C) ;cientific knowledge about the chemical composition of the cell can help to
e$plain beha'ioral patterns in organisms.
() The most important issue to be resol'ed with regard to the cell is determining
the physical characteristics of protoplasm.
(#) The methods of chemistry must be supplemented before a full account of the
cell4s structures can be made.
12. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the material
presented in the passage%
(A) An account of a process is gi'en/ and then the reason for its occurrence is
stated.
(B) A set of e$amples is pro'ided and then a conclusion is drawn from them.
(C) A general proposition is stated/ and then an e$ample is gi'en.
() A statement of principles is made/ and then a rationale for them is debated.
(#) A problem is analy!ed/ and then a possible solution is discussed.
There are two ma|or systems of crmna procedure n the modern word-the
adversara and the nqustora. Both systems were hstorcay preceded by the
system of prvate vengeance n whch the vctm of a crme fashoned a remedy
and admnstered t prvatey, ether personay or through an agent.
The modern adversara system s ony one hstorca step removed from the
prvate vengeance system and st remans some of ts characterstc feature. For
exampe, even though the rght to ntate ega acton aganst a crmna has now
been extended to a members of socety (as represented by the offce of the
pubc prosecutor), and even though the poce department has effectvey
assumed the pretra nvestgatve functons on behaf of the prosecuton, the
adversara system st eaves the defendant to conduct hs or her own pretra
nvestgaton. The tra s vews as a forensc due between two adversares,
presded over by a |udge who, at the start, has no knowedge of the nvestgatve
background of the case. In the fna anayss the adversara system of crmna
procedure symbozes and reguarzes puntve combat.
By contrast, the nqustora system begns hstorcay where the adversara
system stopped ts deveopment. It s two hstorca steps removed from the
system of prvate vengeance. From the standpont of ega anthropoogy, then, t
,12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
s hstorcay superor to the adversara system. Under the nqustora system,
the pubc prosecutor has the duty to nvestgate not |ust on behaf of socety but
aso on behaf of the defendant. Addtonay, the pubc prosecutor has the duty to
present the court not ony evdence that woud convct the defendant, but aso
evdence that coud prove the defendants nnocence. The system mandates that
both partes permt fu pretra dscovery of the evdence n ther possesson.
Fnay, an aspect of the system that makes the tra ess ke a due between two
adversara partes s that the nqustora system mandates that the |udge take
an actve part n the conduct of the tra, wth a roe that s both drectve and
protectve.
Fact-fndng s at the heart of the nqustora system. Ths system operate on
the phosophca premse that n a crmna acton the cruca factor s the body of
facts, not the ega rue (n contrast to the adversara system ), and the goa of
the entre procedure s to attempt to recreate, n the mnd of the court, the
commsson of the aeged crme.
Because of the nqustora systems thoroughness n conductng ts pretra
nvestgaton, t can be concuded that, f gven the choce, a defendant who s
nnocent woud prefer to be tred under the nqustora system, whereas a
defendant who s guty woud prefer to be tred under the adversara system.
1-. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the crucial factor in a trial under the
ad'ersarial system is
(A) rules of legality
(B) dramatic reenactments of the crime
(C) the search for rele'ant facts
() the 'ictim4s personal pursuit of re'enge
(#) police testimony about the crime
16. The author sees the <udge4s primary role in a trial under the in"uisitorial system
as that of
(A) passi'e obser'er
(B) biased referee
(C) unin'ol'ed administrator
() aggressi'e in'estigator
(#) in'ol'ed manager
1,. According to the passage/ a central distinction between the system of pri'ate
'engeance and the two modern criminal procedure systems was the shift in
responsibility for initiating legal action against a criminal from the
(A) defendant to the courts
(B) 'ictim to society
(C) defendant to the prosecutor
LSAT ,1.
() courts to a law enforcement agency
(#) 'ictim to the <udge
25. All of the following are characteristics of the in"uisitorial system that the author
cites #DC#@T
(A) 3t is based on cooperation rather than conflict.
(B) 3t encourages full disclosure of e'idence.
(C) 3t re"uires that the <udge play an acti'e role in the conduct of the trial.
() 3t places the defendant in charge of his or her defense.
(#) 3t fa'ors the innocent.
21. The author4s attitude toward the in"uisitorial system can best be described as
(A) doubtful that its <udges can be both directi'e and protecti'e
(B) satisfied that it has potential for unco'ering the rele'ant facts in a case
(C) optimistic that it will replace the ad'ersarial system
() wary about its downplaying of legal rules
(#) critical of its close relationship with the pri'ate 'engeance system
Outsde the medca professon, there are varous efforts to cut medcne down
to sze: not ony wdespread mapractce tgaton and massve governmenta
reguaton, but aso attempts by consumer groups and others to redefne medcne
as a trade rather than as a professon, and the physcan as merey a techncan
for hre under contract. Why shoud physcans (or ndeed a sensbe peope)
resst such efforts to gve the practce of medcne a new meanng? We can gan
some umnaton from etymoogy. "Trade," from Germanc and Ango-Saxon roots
meanng "a course or pathway," has come to mean dervatvey a habtua
occupaton and has been reated to certan sks and crafts. On the other hand,
whe "professon" today aso entas a habt of work, the word "professon" tsef
traces to an act of sef-conscous and pubc-even confessona-speech. "To
profess" preserves the meanng of ts Latn source, to decare pubcy; to
announce, affrm, avow." A professon s an actvty or occupaton to whch ts
practtoner pubcy professes, that s, confesses, devoton. But pubc
announcement seems nsuffcent; pubcy decarng devoton to pumbng or auto
repar woud not turn these trades nto professons.
Some beeve that earnng and knowedge are the dagnostc sgns of a
professon. For reasons probaby nked to the medeva unversty, the term
"professon" has been apped to the so-caed earned professons-medcne, aw,
and theoogy-the practces of whch are founded upon nqury and knowedge
rather than mere "know how." Yet t s not ony the pursut and acquston of
knowedge that makes one a professona. The knowedge nvoved makes the
professon one of the earned varety, but ts professona quaty s rooted n
somethng ese.
Some mstakeny seek to ocate that somethng ese n the prestge and honor
,10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
accorded professonas by socety, evdenced n ther speca ttes and the speca
deference and prveges they receve. But externates do not consttute medcne
a professon. Physcans are not professonas because they are honored; rather,
they are honored because of ther professon. Ther ttes and the respect they are
shown superfcay sgnfy and acknowedge somethng deeper, that physcans
are persons of the professona sort, knowngy and freey devotng themseves to
a way of fe worthy of such devoton. |ust as awyers devote themseves to
rectfyng n|ustces, ookng up to what s awfu and rght; |ust as teachers devote
themseves to the educaton of the young, ookng up to truth and wsdom; so
physcans hea the sck, ookng up to heath and whoesomeness. Beng a
professona s thus rooted n our mora nature and n that whch warrants and
mpes makng a pubc confesson to a way of fe.
Professng onesef a professona s an ethca act because t s not a sent and
prvate act, but an artcuated and pubc one; because t promsed contnung
devoton to a way of fe, not merey announces a present preference or a way to a
vehood; because t s an actvty n servce to some hgh good that nssts on
devoton; because t s dffcut and demandng. A professon engages ones
character and heart, not merey ones mnd and hands.
22. According to the author/ which one of the following is re"uired in order that one
be a professional%
(A) significant prestige and a title
(B) *know(how+ in a particular field
(C) a long and difficult educational endea'or
() a commitment to political <ustice
(#) a public confession of de'otion to a way of life
2.. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point made by the author in
the passage%
(A) ?edicine is defined as a profession because of the etymology of the word
*profession+.
(B) 3t is a mistake to pay special honor to the knowledge and skills of physicians.
(C) The work of physicians is under attack only because it is widely
misunderstood.
() The correct reason that physicians are professionals is that their work
in'ol'es public commitment to a high good.
(#) @hysicians ha'e been encouraged to think of themsel'es as technicians and
need to reorient themsel'es toward ethical concerns.
20. The "uestion posed by the author in lines -(15 of the passage introduces which
one of the following%
(A) the author4s belief that it is futile to resist the trend toward defining the
physician4s work as a trade
LSAT ,11
(B) the author4s dislike of go'ernmental regulation and consumer ad'ocacy
(C) the author4s in"uiry into the nature of the practice of medicine
() the author4s suggestions for rallying sensible people to a concentrated defense
of physicians
(#) the author4s fascination with the origins of words
21. 3n the passage/ the author mentions or suggests all of the following #DC#@T
(A) how society generally treats physicians
(B) that the practice of medicine is analogous to teaching
(C) that being a professional is in part a public act
() the specific knowledge on which trades are based
(#) how a li'elihood is different from a profession
22. The author4s attitude toward professionals is best described as
(A) eager that the work of one group of professionals/ physicians/ be 'iewed from
a new perspecti'e
(B) sympathetic toward professionals who ha'e become demorali!ed by public
opinion
(C) surprised that professionals ha'e been balked by go'ernmental regulations
and threats of litigation
() dismayed that most professionals ha'e come to be considered technicians
(#) certain that professionals confess a commitment to ethical ideals
2-. Based on the information in the passage/ it can be inferred that which one of the
following would most logically begin a paragraph immediately following the
passage%
(A) A skilled handicraft is a manual art ac"uired by habituation that enables
trades people to tread regularly and reliably along the same path.
(B) Critics might argue that being a doctor/ for e$ample/ re"uires no ethical or
public actI thus medicine/ as such/ is morally neutral/ does not bind
character/ and can be used for good or ill.
(C) ;ometimes the pursuit of personal health competes with the pursuit of other
goods/ and it has always been the task of the community to order and define
competing ends.
() 9ot least among the myriad confusions and uncertainties of our time are
those attending efforts to discern and articulate the essential characteristics
of the medial profession.
(#) &hen/ in contrast/ we come to physicians of the whole body/ we come tacitly
acknowledging the meaning of illness and its potential threat to all that we
hold dear.
26. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s purpose in lines 16(02 of
,12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
the passage%
(A) The author locates the *something else+ that truly constitutes a profession.
(B) The author dismisses efforts to redefine the meaning of the term *profession.+
(C) The author considers/ and largely critici!es se'eral definitions of what
constitutes a profession.
() The author clarifies the meaning of the term *profession+ by ad'ocating a
return to its linguistic and historical roots.
(#) The author distinguishes trades such as plumbing and auto repair from
professions such as medicine/ law/ and theology.
LSAT 1' SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The farness of the |udca process depends on the ob|ectve presentaton of
facts to an mparta |ury made up of ones peers. Present the facts, and you have
a far tra. However, fact-fndng, especay for nterpersona dsagreements, s
not so straghtforward and s often contamnated by varabes that reach beyond
the ega doman.
A tra s an attempt to transport |urors to the tme and pace of the dsputed
event, to recreate the dsputed event, or at east to expan that event wth
maxmum accuracy. A tra fas short of ths goa, however, because t presents
seected wtnesses who recte seected portons of ther respectve memores
concernng seected observatons of the dsputed event. These mutpe seectons
are referred to as the abstracton process. Lmtatons n both percepton and
memory are responsbe for the fact that the remembered event contans ony a
fracton of the deta present durng the actua event, and the deay between
observaton and rectaton causes wtnesses memores to ose even more of the
orgna perceptons. Durng the course of a tra, a wtnesss rectaton of the now-
abstracted events may refect seected dscosure based on hs or her atttudes
and motvatons surroundng that testmony. Furthermore, the ncdents reported
are dependent on the nes of nqury estabshed by the attorneys nvoved.
Accordngy, the rected data are a fracton of the remembered data, whch are a
fracton of the observed data, whch are a fracton of the tota data for the event.
After the event that ed to the tra has been abstracted by partcpants n the
tra, |urors are expected to resove factua ssues. Some of the |urors concusons
are based on facts that were drecty rected; others are found nferentay. Here
another abstracton process takes pace. Dscussons durng deberatons add to
the coectve poo of recaed evdentary perceptons; nonetheess, the |urors
LSAT ,1-
abstracton processes further reduce the number of characterstcs traceabe to
the orgna event.
Compcaton can arse from fase abstractons at each stage. Studes have
shown that wtnesses reca havng perceved ncdents that are known to be
absent from a gven event. Conversey, |urors can remember hearng evdence
that s unaccounted for n court transcrpts. Expanatons for these phenomena
range from bas through pror condtonng or observer expectaton to fauty
reportage of the event based on the constrants of anguage. Aberrant
abstractons n percepton or recoecton may not be conscous or deberate, but
reabty s nevertheess duted.
Fnay, deberate untruthfuness has aways been recognzed as a rsk of
testmona evdence. Such ntentonay fase abstractons, however, are ony a
sma part of the naccuraces produced by the abstracton process.
1. 3n this passage/ the author4s main purpose is to
(A) discuss a process that <eopardi!es the fairness of <ury trials
(B) analy!e a methodology that safeguards the indi'idual4s right to fair trial
(C) e$plain why <urors should 'iew eyewitness testimony with skepticism
() defend the trial(by(<ury process/ despite its limitations
(#) point out the una'oidable abuses that ha'e crept into the <udicial process
2. The author considers all of the following obstacles to a fair trial #DC#@T
(A) selecti'e perceptions
(B) faulty communications
(C) partial disclosures
() intentional falsifications
(#) too few abstractions
.. The author would most likely agree that the abstraction process occurs in the
<udicial process primarily because
(A) some <urors4 conclusions are based on facts rather than on inferences
(B) remembered e'ents depend upon an indi'idual4s emotions
(C) human beings are the sources and users of data presented in trials
() it is difficult to distinguish between deliberate falsehood and unintentional
selected disclosure
(#) witnesses often dispute one another4s recollections of e'ents
0. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the ability of <uries to resol'e factual
issues is
(A) limited by any indi'idual <uror4s tendency to draw inferences from the facts
presented during the trial
(B) o'erwhelmed by the collecti'e pool of recalled e'identiary perceptions
,16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) unaffected by the process of trying to reenact the e'ent leading to the trial
() dependent upon the <ury4s ability to understand the influence of the
abstraction process on testimony
(#) sub<ect to the same limitations of perception and memory that affect witnesses
1. &ith which one of the following statements would the author most likely agree%
(A) 3f deliberate untruthfulness were all the courts had to contend with/ <ury trials
would be fairer than they are today.
(B) Kack of moral standards is more of an impediment to a fair trial than human
frailty.
(C) The bulk of the inaccuracies produced by the abstraction process are
innocently presented and rarely ha'e any serious conse"uences.
() 3f the inaccuracies resulting from the abstraction process persist/ the present
trial(by(<ury system is likely to become a thing of the past.
(#) 8nce intentional falsification of e'idence is eliminated from trials/ ensuring
an accurate presentation of facts will easily follow.
2. The author4s attitude toward the abstraction process that occurs when witnesses
testify in a trial can best be described as
(A) confident that witnesses can be conditioned to o'ercome many limitations of
memory
(B) concerned that it may undermine witnesses ability to accurately describe the
original e'ent in dispute
(C) critical of witnesses4 moti'ations when deli'ering testimony
() indifferent toward the effect the abstraction process has on testimony
(#) suspicious of witnesses4 efforts to describe remembered e'ents truthfully
-. Bi'en the information in the passage/ the actual e'ent that is disputed in a <ury
trial is most like
(A) a group of <ob applicants that is narrowed down to a few finalists
(B) a sub<ect that is photographed from 'aried and increasingly distant 'antage
points
(C) scraps of fabric that are sewn together to make an intricately designed "uilt
() a pu!!le that is unsystematically assembled through trial and error
(#) a lie that is compounded by additional lies in order to be maintained
A medca artce once ponted wth great aarm to an ncrease n cancer
among mk drnkers. Cancer, t seems, was becomng ncreasngy frequent n
New Engand, Mnnesota, Wsconsn, and Swtzerand, where a ot of mk s
produced and consumed, whe remanng rare n Ceyon, where mk s scarce. For
further evdence t was ponted out that cancer was ess frequent n some states
of the southern Unted States where ess mk was consumed. Aso, t was ponted
LSAT ,1,
out, mk-drnkng Engsh women get some knds of cancer eghteen tmes as
frequenty as |apanese women who sedom drnk mk.
A tte dggng mght uncover qute a number of ways to account for these
fgures, but one factor s enough by tsef to show them up. Cancer s
predomnanty a dsease that strkes n mdde fe or after. Swtzerand and the
states of the Unted States mentoned frst are ake n havng popuatons wth
reatvey ong spans of fe. Engsh women at the tme the study was made were
vng an average of tweve years onger than |apanese women.
Professor Heen M. Waker has worked out an amusng ustraton of the foy
n assumng there must be cause and effect whenever two thngs vary together. In
nvestgatng the reatonshp between age and some physca characterstcs of
women, begn by measurng the ange of the feet n wakng. You w fnd that the
ange tends to be greater among oder women. You mght frst consder whether
ths ndcates that women grow oder because they toe out, and you can see
mmedatey that ths s rdcuous. So t appears that age ncreases the ange
between the feet, and most women must come to toe out more as they grow
oder.
Any such concuson s probaby fase and certany unwarranted. You coud
ony reach t egtmatey by studyng the same women-or possby equvaent
groups-over a perod of tme. That woud emnate the factor responsbe here,
whch s that the oder women grew up at a tme when a young ady was taught to
toe out n wakng, whe the members of the younger group were earnng posture
n a day when that was dscouraged.
When you fnd somebody-usuay an nterested party-makng a fuss about a
correaton, ook frst of a to see f t s not one of ths type, produced by the
stream of events, the trend of the tmes. In our tme t s easy to show a postve
correaton between any par of thngs ke these: number of students n coege,
number of nmates n menta nsttutons, consumpton of cgarettes, ncdence of
heart dsease, use of X-ray machnes, producton of fase teeth, saares of
Caforna schoo teachers, profts of Nevada gambng has. To ca some one of
these the cause of some other s manfesty sy. But t s done every day.
6. The author4s conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women
walk indicates he belie'es that
(A) toeing out is associated with aging
(B) toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation
(C) toeing out was fashionable for an older generation
() studying e"ui'alent groups pro'es that toeing out increases with age
(#) studying the same women o'er a period of time pro'es that toeing out
increases with age
,. The author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (lines
2,(05) in order to
,25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) illustrate a folly
(B) show how social attitudes toward posture change
(C) e$plain the effects of aging
() illustrate a medical problem
(#) offer a method to determine a woman4s age from her footprints
15. Bi'en the author4s statements in the passage/ his ad'ice for e'aluating statistics
that show a high positi'e correlation between two conditions could include all the
following statements #DC#@T
(A) look for an e$planation in the stream of e'ents
(B) consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions
(C) account for the correlations in some way other than causality
() determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect
(#) decide whether the conclusions ha'e been reached legitimately and the
appropriate groupings ha'e been made
11. Assume that there is a high statistical correlation between college attendance and
indi'idual earnings. Bi'en this/ the author would most probably agree with which
one of the following statements about the cause(effect relationship between
college attendance and income%
(A) ;omeone4s potential earnings may be affected by other 'ariables/ like wealth
or intelligence/ that are also associated with college attendance.
(B) ;omeone who attends graduate school will be rich.
(C) ;omeone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone
who does not.
() ;omeone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does
not attend college.
(#) ;omeone who attends college will earn more money only because she does
attend college.
12. According to the author/ @rofessor &alker belie'es that
(A) women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not
(B) most women toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle
between the feet
(C) older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet
() toeing out is the reason why women grow old
(#) a causal relationship must e$ist whene'er two things 'ary together
1.. The author would re<ect all the following statements about cause(effect
relationships as e$planations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer
rates #DC#@T that the
(A) Ceylonese drink more milk than the #nglish
LSAT ,21
(B) ;wiss produce and consume large "uantities of dairy products
(C) &omen of 9ew #ngland drink more milk than the women who li'e in some
states of the southern :nited ;tates
() @eople of &isconsin ha'e relati'ely high life e$pectancies
(#) @eople who li'e in some states of the southern :nited ;tates ha'e relati'ely
high life e$pectancies
10. )ow would the author be most likely to e$plain the correlation between the
*salaries of California school teachers Uand theV profits of 9e'ada gambling
halls+ (Kines 2.(20)%
(A) There is a positi'e correlation that is probably due to California teachers4
working in Kas Cegas on weekends to increase both their salaries and
increase both their salaries and 9e'ada4s gambling profits.
(B) There is a positi'e correlation that is probably linked to general economic
trends/ but no direct causal relationship e$ists.
(C) There is a negati'e correlation that is probably linked to general economic
trends/ but no direct causal relationship e$ists.
() There is a negati'e correlation because the element that controls Kas Cegas
gambling probably has agents in the California school system.
(#) The author would deny the e$istence of any correlation whatsoe'er.
In most deveoped countres, men have hgher saares, on average, than
women. Much of the saary dfferenta resuts from the tendency of women to be
n ower-payng occupatons. The queston of whether ths occupatona
empoyment pattern can be attrbuted to sex dscrmnaton s a compex one. In
fact, wage dfferentas among occupatons are the norm rather than the
excepton. Successfu athetes commony earn more than Nobe Prze-wnnng
academcs; gfted artsts often cannot earn enough to survve, whe medocre
nvestment bankers prosper. Gven such dfferences, the queston naturay arses:
taent and abty beng equa, why does anyone-man or woman-enter a ow-
payng occupaton? One obvous answer s persona choce. An ndvdua may
prefer, for exampe, to teach math at a modest saary rather than to become a
more hghy pad eectrca engneer.
Some peope argue that persona choce aso expans sex-reated wage
dfferentas. Accordng to ths expanaton, many women, because they pace a
hgh prorty on parentng and performng househod servces, choose certan
careers n whch they are free to enter and eave the work force wth mnmum
penaty. They may choose to acqure sks, such as typng and saescerkng, that
do not deprecate rapdy wth temporary absences from the work force. They may
avod occupatona specates that requre extensve tranng perods, ong and
unpredctabe hours, and wngness to reocate, a of whch make specazaton
n domestc actvtes probematc. By choosng to nvest ess n deveopng ther
career potenta and to expend ess effort outsde the home, women must,
,22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
accordng to ths expanaton, pay a prce n the form of ower saares. But women
cannot be consdered the vctms of dscrmnaton because they prefer the ower-
payng occupatons to hgher-payng ones.
An aternatve expanaton for sex-reated wage dfferentas s that women do
not vountary choose ower-payng occupatons but are forced nto them by
empoyers and soca pre|udces. Accordng to proponents of ths vew, empoyers
who dscrmnate may refuse to hre quafed women for reatvey hgh-payng
occupatons. More generay, subte socety-wde pre|udces may nduce women to
avod certan occupatons n favor of others that are consdered more sutabe.
Indeed, the "choce" of women to specaze n parentng and performng
househod servces may tsef resut from these subte pre|udces. Whether the
dscrmnaton s by empoyers n a partcuar occupaton or by socety as a whoe
s rreevant; the effect w be the same. Further, f such dscrmnaton does
occur, women excuded from certan occupatons w food others, and ths
ncrease n suppy w have a depressng effect on wages n occupatons
domnated by women.
11. &hich one of the following is the best little for the passage%
(A) &age ifferentials Between ?en and &omen
(B) &omen in Kow(@aying 8ccupationsE o They )a'e a Choice%
(C) ;e$ iscrimination in the &orkplace
() The =ole of ;ocial @re<udice in &omen4s Careers
(#) )ome 's. 8fficeE how oes the ?odern &oman Choose%
12. 3n stating that *;uccessful athletes commonly earn more than 9obel @ri!e(
winning academics+ (lines 15(11)/ the author4s primary purpose is to
(A) demonstrate that education has little to do with making money
(B) suggest that people with talent and ability should not enter low(paying
occupations
(C) show that highly paid occupations generally re"uire long hours and e$tensi'e
training
() imply that a person can be successful and still not make much money
(#) gi'e an e$ample of how certain occupations are better paid than others
regardless of inherent worth or talent re"uired
1-. &hich one of the following cases is least likely to in'ol'e se$ discrimination/ as
it is described in the passage%
(A) An employer hires a man rather than an e"ually "ualified woman.
(B) A woman chooses to enter a high(paying occupation that uses her talent and
ability.
(C) A woman chooses an occupation that is already dominated by women.
() A woman chooses a low(paying <ob that allows her to de'ote more time to her
LSAT ,2.
family.
(#) A woman chooses to a'oid the pressure of being in an occupation not
considered *suitable+ for women.
16. @roponents of the *alternati'e e$planation+ (line 02) argue that
(A) employers ha'e difficulty persuading "ualified women to enter relati'ely
high(paying occupations
(B) women choose undemanding <obs because they wish to keep their career
options open
(C) women will flood domestic occupations
() salaries in female(dominated occupations will decrease as more women are
forced into those occupations by their e$clusion from others
(#) women4s choice of occupation is irrele'ant since they ha'e always made less
money than men and are likely to continue to do so
1,. &hich one of the following statements is the best completion of the last
paragraph of the passage%
(A) &age differentials will become more e$aggerated and economic parity
between men and women less and less possible.
(B) >inally/ women will be automatically placed in the same salary range as
unskilled laborers.
(C) The "uestion isE how long will women allow themsel'es to be e$cluded from
male(dominated occupations%
() 3n the last analysis/ women may need to ask themsel'es if they can really
afford to allow se$ discrimination to continue.
(#) :nless society changes its 'iews/ women may ne'er escape the confines of
the few occupations designated *>or &omen 8nly.+
25. The author4s attitude toward se$ discrimination as an e$planation for wage
differentials can best be characteri!ed as
(A) critical of society4s acceptance of discrimination
(B) skeptical that discrimination is a factor
(C) con'inced that the problem will get worse
() neutral with respect to its 'alidity
(#) frustrated by the intractability of the problem
The startng pont for any anayss of nsurance cassfcaton s an obvous but
fundamenta fact: nsurance s ony one of a number of ways of satsfyng the
demand for protecton aganst rsk. Wth few exceptons, nsurance need not be
purchased; peope can forgo t f nsurance s too expensve. Indeed, as the prce
of coverage rses, the amount purchased and the number of peope purchasng
w decne. Instead of buyng nsurance, peope w sef-nsure by accumuatng
savng to serve as a cushon n the event of oss, sef-protect by spendng more on
,20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
oss protecton, or smpy use the money not spent on nsurance to purchase other
goods and servces. An nsurer must compete aganst these aternatves, even n
the absence of competton from other nsurers.
One method of competng for protecton doars s to cassfy potenta
purchasers nto groups accordng to ther probabty of oss and the potenta
magntude of osses f they occur. Dfferent rsk casses may then be charged
dfferent premums, dependng on ths expected oss. Were t not for the need to
compete for protecton doars, an nsurer coud smpy charge each ndvdua a
premum based on the average e3#ected oss of a ts nsureds (pus a margn for
proft and expenses), wthout ncurrng cassfcaton costs. In constructng rsk
casses, the nsurers goa s to cacuate the expected oss of each nsured, and to
pace nsureds wth smar expected osses nto the same cass, n order to charge
each the same rate.
An nsurer can capture protecton doars by cassfyng because, through
cassfcaton, t can offer ow-rsk ndvduas ower prces. Cassfcaton, however,
nvoves two costs. Frst, the process of cassfcaton s costy. Insurers must
gather data and perform statstca operatons on t; marketng may aso be more
costy when prces are not unform. Second, cassfcaton necessary rases
premums for poor rsks, who purchase ess coverage as a resut. In the aggregate,
cassfcaton s thus worthwhe to an nsurer ony when the gans produced from
extra saes and fewer pay-outs outwegh cassfcaton costs pus the costs of ost
saes. Even n the absence of competton from other nsurers, an nsurer who
engages n at east some cassfcaton s key to capture more protecton doars
than t oses.
When there s not ony competton for avaabe protecton doars, but
competton among nsurers for premum doars, the vaue of rsk cassfcaton to
nsurers becomes even cearer. The more refned (and accurate) an nsurers rsk
cassfcatons, the more capabe t s of "skmmng" good rsks away from nsurers
whose cassfcatons are ess refned. If other nsurers do not respond, ether by
refnng ther own cassfcatons or by rasng prces and caterng many to hgh
rsks, ther "book" of rsks w contan a hgher mxture of poor rsks who are st
beng charged premums cacuated for average rsks. These nsurers w attract
addtona poor rsks, and ths resutng adverse seecton w further dsadvantage
ther compettve postons.
21. &hich one of the following best identifies the main topic of the passage%
(A) reduction of competition in the insurance business
(B) classification of potential insurance purchasers
(C) risk a'oidance in insurance sales
() insurance protection and premiums
(#) methods of insurance classifying
22. The passage mentions all of the following as possible or certain costs of
LSAT ,21
classifying #DC#@T the cost of
(A) collecting facts
(B) conducting statistical analyses
(C) selling insurance at different prices
() a decrease in purchases by poor risks
(#) larger/ albeit fewer/ claims
2.. &hich one of the following is closest to the author4s e$pressed position on
competition in the insurance business%
(A) 3t has a significant influence on most aspects of the insurance industry.
(B) 3t is a rele'ant factor/ but it has little practical conse"uence.
(C) 3t is a basic but not 'ery apparent element of the insurance business.
() 3t pro'ides a strong incenti'e for insurers to classify potential customers.
(#) 3t is influential in insurance marketing practices.
20. The passage suggests that if all insurers classified risk/ who among the following
would be ad'ersely affected%
(A) all insurance purchasers
(B) insurance purchasers who would be classified as poor risks
(C) indi'iduals who self(insured or self protected
() insurers who had a high proportion of good risks in their *book+ of risks
(#) insurers with the most refined risk classifications
21. Bi'en the discussion in the first paragraph/ what is the distinction/ if any/ between
*insurance+ and *self(protection+%
(A) There is 'ery little or no distinction between the two terms.
(B) 3nsurance is a kind of self(protection.
(C) ;elf(protection is a kind of insurance.
() 3nsurance and self(protection are two of se'eral alternati'e means to a
specific end.
(#) 3nsurance and self(protection are the only two alternati'e means to a specific
end.
22. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the process of
classification in insurance/ as it is described in the passage%
(A) de'ising a profile of successful employees and hiring on the basis of the
profile
(B) in'estigating the fuel efficiency of a make of automobile and deciding
whether or not to buy on that basis
(C) assessing an in'estor4s willingness to take risks before suggesting a specific
in'estment
,22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() making price comparisons on potential ma<or purchases and then seeking
discounts from competing dealers
(#) comparing prices for numerous minor items and the selecting one store for
future purchases
LSAT 19 SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Three knds of study have been performed on Byron. There s the bographca
study-the very vauabe examnaton of Byrons psychoogy and the events n hs
fe. Escarpts 1958 work s an exampe of ths knd of study and bographers to
ths day contnue to specuate about Byrons fe. Equay vauabe s the study of
Byron as a fgure mportant n the hstory of deas; Russe and Praz have wrtten
studes of ths knd. Fnay, there are studes that prmary consder Byrons
poetry. Such terary studes are vauabe, however, ony when they avod
concentratng soey on anayzng the verba shadngs of Byrons poetry to the
excuson of any dscusson of bographca consderatons. A study wth such a
concentraton woud be of questonabe vaue because Byrons poetry, for the
most part, s smpy not a poetry of subte verba meanngs. Rather, on the whoe,
Byrons poems record the emotona pressure of certan moments n hs fe. I
beeve we cannot often read a poem of Byrons we often can one of
Shakespeares wthout wonderng what events or crcumstances n hs fe
prompted hm to wrte t.
No doubt the fact that most of Byrons poems cannot be convncngy read as
subte verba creatons ndcates that Byron s not a "great" poet. It must be
admtted too that Byrons terary craftsmanshp s rreguar and often hs
temperament dsrupts even hs ax terary method (athough the resut, an
absence of method, has a sgnfcant purpose: t functons as a rebuke to a
cosmos that Byron fees he cannot understand). If Byron s not a "great" poet, hs
poetry s nonetheess of extraordnary nterest to us because of the peasure t
gves us. Our man peasure n readng Byrons poetry s the contact wth a
snguar personaty. Readng hs work gves us umnaton-sef-understandng-
after we have seen our weaknesses and aspratons mrrored n the personaty we
usuay fnd n the poems. Anyone who thnks that ths knd of umnaton s not a
genune reason for readng a poet shoud thnk carefuy about why we read
Donnes sonnets.
It s Byron and Byrons dea of hmsef that hod hs work together (and that
enthraed eary nneteenth-century Europe). Dfferent characters speak n hs
LSAT ,2-
poems, but fnay t s usuay he hmsef who s speakng: a far cry from the
mpersona poet Keats. Byrons poetry audes to Greek and Roman myth n the
context of contemporary affars, but hs work remans generay of a pece
because of hs cose presence n the poetry. In sum, the poetry s a shrewd
persona performance, and to shut out Byron the man s to fabrcate a work of
pseudocrtcsm.
1. &hich one of the following titles best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) An Absence of ?ethod. &hy Byron 3s 9ot a *Breat+ @oet
(B) ByronE The =ecurring @resence in Byron4s @oetry
(C) @ersonality and @oetryE The Biographical imension of 9ineteenth(Century
@oetry
() Byron4s @oetryE 3ts 3nfluence on the imagination of #arly(9ineteenth(Century
#urope
(#) Cerbal ;hadingsE The >atal >law of Twentieth(Century Kiterary Criticism
2. The author4s mention of =ussell and @ra! ser'es primarily to
(A) differentiate them from one another
(B) contrast their conclusions about Byron with those of #scarpit
(C) point out the writers whose studies suggest a new direction for Byron
scholarship
() pro'ide e$amples of writers who ha'e written one kind of study of Byron
(#) gi'e credit to the writers who ha'e composed the best studies of Byron
.. &hich one of the following would the author most likely consider to be a
'aluable study of Byron%
(A) a study that compared Byron4s poetic style with Meats4 poetic style
(B) a study that argued that Byron4s thought ought not to be analy!ed in terms of
its importance in the history of ideas
(C) a study that sought to identify the emotions felt by Byron at a particular time
in his life
() a study in which a literary critic argues that the language of Byron4s poetry
was more subtle than that of Meat4s poetry
(#) a study in which a literary critic drew on e$periences from his or her own life
0. &hich one of the following statements best describes the organi!ation of first
paragraph of the passage%
(A) A generali!ation is made and then gradually refuted.
(B) A number of theories are discussed and then the author chooses the most
con'incing one.
(C) ;e'eral categories are mentioned and then one category is discussed in some
detail.
,26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() A historical trend is delineated and then a prediction about the future of the
trend is offered.
(#) A classification is made and then a ri'al classification is substituted in its
place.
1. The author mentions that *Byron4s literary craftsmanship is irregular+ (lines 2-(
26) most probably in order to
(A) contrast Byron4s poetic skill with that of ;hakespeare
(B) dismiss craftsmanship as a standard by which to <udge poets
(C) offer another reason why Byron is not a *great+ poet
() point out a negati'e conse"uence of Byron4s belief that the cosmos is
incomprehensible
(#) indicate the most(often(cited e$planation of why Byron4s poetry lacks subtle
'erbal nuances
2. According to the author ;hakespeare4s poems differ from Byron4s in that
;hakespeare4s poems
(A) ha'e elicited a wider 'ariety of responses from both literary critics and
biographers
(B) are on the whole less susceptible to being read as subtle 'erbal creations
(C) do not grow out of or are not moti'ated by actual e'ents or circumstances in
the poet4s life
() pro'ide the attenti'e reader with a greater degree of illumination concerning
his or her own weaknesses and aspirations
(#) can often be read without the reader4s being curious about what biographical
factors moti'ated the poet to write them
-. The author indicates which one of the following about biographers4 speculation
concerning Byron4s life%
(A) ;uch speculation began in earnest with #scarpit4s study
(B) ;uch speculation continues today
(C) ;uch speculation is less important than consideration of Byron4s poetry
() ;uch speculation has not gi'en us a satisfactory sense of Byron4s life
(#) ;uch speculation has been carried out despite the ob<ections of literary critics
6. The passage supplies specific information that pro'ides a definiti'e answer to
which one of the following "uestions%
(A) &hat does the author consider to be the primary en<oyment deri'ed from
reading Byron%
(B) &ho among literary critics has primarily studied Byron4s poems%
(C) &hich moments in Byron4s life e$erted the greatest pressure on his poetry%
() )as Byron e'er been considered to be a *great+ poet%
LSAT ,2,
(#) id Byron e$ert an influence on #uropeans in the latter part of the nineteenth
century%
The Unted States Supreme Court has not aways resoved ega ssues of
concern to Natve Amercans n a manner that has peased the Indan natons.
Many of the Courts decsons have been products of potca compromse that
ooked more to the temper of the tmes than to endurng prncpes of aw. But
accommodaton s part of the |udca system n the Unted States, and |udca
decsons must be assessed wth ths fact n mnd.
Despte the "accommodatng" nature of the |udca system, t s worth notng
that the power of the Supreme Court has been exercsed n a manner that has
usuay been benefca to Natve Amercans, at east on mnor ssues and has not
been whoy detrmenta on the arger, more mportant ssues. Certany there
have been decsons that cast doubt on the vadty of ths asserton. Some crtcs
pont to the patronzng tone of many Court opnons and the apparent re|ecton of
Natve Amercan vaues as mportant ponts to consder when revewng a case.
However, the vadty of the asserton can be ustrated by reference to two
mportant contrbutons that have resuted from the exercse of |udca power.
Frst the Court has created rues of |udca constructon that n genera favor
the rghts of Natve Amercan tgants. The Courts atttude has been condtoned
by recognton of the dstnct dsadvantages Natve Amercans faced when deang
wth setters n the past. Treates were nevtaby wrtten n Engsh for the beneft
of ther authors, whereas trba eaders were accustomed to makng treates
wthout any wrtten account, on the strength of mutua promses seaed by
regous commtment and ndvdua ntegrty. The wrtten treates were often
broken and Natve Amercans were confronted wth fraud and potca and mtary
aggresson. The Court recognzes that past unfarness to Natve Amercans cannot
be sanctoned by the force of aw. Therefore, ambgutes n treates are to be
nterpreted n favor of the Natve Amercan camants, treates are to be
nterpreted as the Natve Amercans woud have understood them and, under the
reserved rghts doctrne, treates reserve to Natve Amercans a rghts that have
not been specfcay granted away n other treates.
A second achevement of the |udca system s the protecton that has been
provded aganst encroachment by the states nto trba affars. Federa |udges are
not ncned to vew favoraby efforts to extend states powers and |ursdctons
because of the drect threat that such expanson poses to the exercse of federa
powers. In the absence of a federa statute drecty and ceary aocatng a
functon to the states, federa |udges are ncned to reserve for the federa
government-and the trba governments under ts charge-a those powers and
rghts they can be sad to have possessed hstorcay.
,. According to the passage/ one reason why the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court *has
not always resol'ed legal issues of concern to 9ati'e Americans in a manner that
has pleased the 3ndian nations+ (lines 1(0) is that
,.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) 9ati'e Americans ha'e been pre'ented from presenting their concerns
persuasi'ely
(B) the Court has failed to recogni!e that the 3ndian nations4 concerns are
different from those of other groups or from those of the federal go'ernment
(C) the Court has been reluctant to curtail the powers of the federal go'ernment
() 9ati'e Americans faced distinct disad'antages in dealing with settlers in the
past
(#) the Court has made political compromises in deciding some cases
15. 3t can be inferred that the ob<ections raised by the critics mentioned in line 16
would be most clearly answered by a :nited ;tates ;upreme Court decision that
(A) demonstrated respect for 9ati'e Americans and the principles and "ualities
they consider important
(B) protected the rights of the states in conflicts with the federal go'ernment
(C) demonstrated recognition of the unfair treatment 9ati'e Americans recei'ed
in the past
() reflected consideration of the hardships suffered by 9ati'e Americans
because of unfair treaties
(#) pre'ented repetition of ine"uities e$perienced by 9ati'e Americans in the
past
11. 3t can be inferred that the author calls the <udicial system of the :nited ;tates
*accommodating+ (line 15) primarily in order to
(A) suggest that the decisions of the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court ha'e been less
fa'orable to 9ati'e Americans than most people belie'e
(B) suggest that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court should be more supporti'e of
the goals of 9ati'e Americans
(C) suggest a reason why the decisions of the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court ha'e
not always fa'ored 9ati'e Americans
() indicate that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court has made creditable efforts to
recogni!e the 'alues of 9ati'e Americans
(#) indicate that the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court attempts to be fair to all parties
to a case
12. The author4s attitude toward the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court4s resolution of
legal issues of concern to 9ati'e Americans can best be described as one of
(A) wholehearted endorsement
(B) restrained appreciation
(C) detached ob<ecti'ity
() cautious opposition
(#) suppressed e$asperation
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1.. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es that the e$tension of the states4 powers
and <urisdictions with respect to 9ati'e American affairs would be
(A) possible only with the consent of the 3ndian nations
(B) fa'orably 'iewed by the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court
(C) in the best interests of both state and federal go'ernments
() detrimental to the interests of 9ati'e Americans
(#) discouraged by most federal <udges in spite of legal precedents supporting the
e$tension
10. The author4s primary purpose is to
(A) contrast opposing 'iews
(B) ree'aluate traditional beliefs
(C) reconcile di'ergent opinions
() assess the claims made by disputants
(#) pro'ide e'idence to support a contention
11. 3t can be inferred that the author belie'es the :nited ;tates ;upreme Court4s
treatment of 9ati'e Americans to ha'e been
(A) irreproachable on legal grounds
(B) reasonably supporti'e in most situations
(C) guided by enduring principles of law
() misguided but generally harmless
(#) harmful only in a few minor cases
When catastrophe strkes, anaysts typcay bame some combnaton of
powerfu mechansms. An earthquake s traced to an mmense nstabty aong a
faut ne; a stock market crash s bamed on the destabzng effect of computer
tradng. These expanatons may we be correct. But systems as arge and
compcated as the Earths crust or the stock market can break down not ony
under the force of a mghty bow but aso at the drop of a pn. In a arge
nteractve system, a mnor event can start a chan reacton that eads to a
catastrophe.
Tradtonay, nvestgators have anayzed arge nteractve systems n the
same way they anayze sma ordery systems, many because the methods
deveoped for sma systems have proved so successfu. They beeved they coud
predct the behavor of a arge nteractve system by studyng ts eements
separatey and by anayzng ts component mechansms ndvduay. For ack of a
better theory, they assumed that n arge nteractve systems the response to a
dsturbance s proportona to that dsturbance.
Durng the past few decades, however, t has become ncreasngy apparent
that many arge compcated systems do not yed to tradtona anayss.
Consequenty, theorsts have proposed a "theory of sef-organzed crtcaty":
,.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
many arge nteractve systems evove naturay to a crtca state n whch a
mnor event starts a chan reacton that can affect any number of eements n the
system. Athough such systems produce more mnor events than catastrophes,
the mechansm that eads to mnor events s the same one that eads to ma|or
events.
A deceptvey smpe system serves as a paradgm for sef-organzed
crtcaty: a pe of sand. As sand s poured one gran at a tme onto a fat dsk, the
grans at frst stay cose to the poston where they and. Soon they rest on top of
one another, creatng a pe that has a gente sope. Now and then, when the
sope becomes too steep, the grans sde down, causng a sma avaanche. The
system reaches ts crtca state when the amount of sand added s baanced, on
average, by the amount fang off the edge of the dsk.
Now when a gran of sand s added, t can start an avaanche of any sze,
ncudng a "catastrophc" event. Most of the tme the gran w fa so that no
avaanche occurs. By studyng a specfc area of the pe, one can even predct
whether avaanches w occur there n the near future. To such a oca observer,
however, arge avaanches woud reman unpredctabe because they are a
consequence of the tota hstory of the entre pe. No matter what the oca
dynamcs are, catastrophc avaanches woud persst at a reatve frequency that
cannot be atered: Crtcaty s a goba property of the sandpe.
12. The passage pro'ides support for all of the following generali!ations about large
interacti'e systems #DC#@TE
(A) They can e'ol'e to a critical state.
(B) They do not always yield to traditional analysis.
(C) They make it impossible for obser'ers to make any predictions about them.
() They are sub<ect to the effects of chain reactions.
(#) They are sub<ect to more minor e'ents than ma<or e'ents.
1-. According to the passage/ the criticality of a sandpile is determined by the
(A) si!e of the grains of sand added to the sandpile
(B) number of grains of sand the sandpile contains
(C) rate at which sand is added to the sandpile
() shape of the surface on which the sandpile rests
(#) balance between the amount of sand added to and the amount lost from the
sandpile
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the theory employed by the in'estigators
mentioned in the second paragraph would lead one to predict that which one of
the following would result from the addition of a grain of sand to a sandpile%
(A) The grain of sand would ne'er cause anything more than a minor disturbance.
(B) The grain of sand would usually cause a minor disturbance/ but would
LSAT ,..
occasionally cause a small a'alanche.
(C) The grain of sand would usually cause either minor disturbance or a small
a'alanche/ but would occasionally cause a catastrophic e'ent.
() The grain of sand would usually cause a catastrophic e'ent/ but would
occasionally cause only a small a'alanche or an e'ent more minor
disturbance.
(#) The grain of sand would in'ariably cause a catastrophic e'ent.
1,. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A traditional procedure is described and its application to common situations
is endorsedE its shortcomings in certain rare but critical circumstances are
then re'ealed.
(B) A common misconception is elaborated and its conse"uences are described a
detailed e$ample of one of these conse"uences is then gi'en.
(C) A general principle is stated and supported by se'eral e$amplesI an e$ception
to the rule is then considered and its importance e'aluated.
() A number of seemingly unrelated e'ents are categori!edE the underlying
processes that connect them are then detailed.
(#) A traditional method of analysis is discussed and the reasons for its adoption
are e$plainedI an alternati'e is then described and clarified by means of an
e$ample.
25. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the method of analysis
employed by the in'estigators mentioned in the second paragraph%
(A) A pollster gathers a sample of 'oter preferences and on the basis of this
information makes a prediction about the outcome of an election.
(B) A historian e$amines the sur'i'ing documents detailing the history of a
mo'ement and from these documents reconstructs a chronology of the
e'ents that initiated the mo'ement.
(C) A meteorologist measures the rainfall o'er a certain period of the year and
from this data calculates the total annual rainfall for the region.
() A biologist obser'es the beha'ior of one species of insect and from these
obser'ations generali!es about the beha'ior of insects as a class.
(#) An engineer analy!es the stability of each structural element of a bridge and
from these analyses draws a conclusion about the structural soundness of the
bridge.
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) arguing against the abandonment of a traditional approach
(B) describing the e'olution of a radical theory
(C) reconciling conflicting points of 'iew
() illustrating the superiority of a new theoretical approach
,.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) ad'ocating the reconsideration of an unfashionable e$planation
Hstorans have ong accepted the noton that women of Engsh descent who
ved n the Engsh coones of North Amerca durng the seventeenth and
eghteenth centures were better off than ether the contemporary women n
Engand or the coonsts own nneteenth-century daughters and granddaughters.
The "goden age" theory orgnated n the 1920s wth the work of Ezabeth
Dexter, who argued that there were reatvey few women among the coonsts,
and that a hands-mae and femae-were needed to sustan the growng
settements. Rgd sex-roe dstnctons coud not exst under such crcumstances;
femae coonsts coud accordngy engage n whatever occupatons they wshed,
encounterng few ega or soca constrants f they sought empoyment outsde
the home. The surpus of mae coonsts aso gave women cruca barganng
power n the marrage market snce womens contrbutons were vta to the
survva of coona househods.
Dexters portrat of femae coonsts vng under condtons of rough equaty
wth ther mae counterparts was eventuay ncorporated nto studes of
nneteenth-century mdde-cass women. The contrast between the sef-suffcent
coona woman and the oppressed nneteenth-century woman, confned to her
home by stutfyng deooges of domestcty and by the fact that ndustrazaton
emnated empoyment opportuntes for mdde-cass women, ganed an
extraordnary tenacous hod on hstorans. Even schoars who have questoned
the "goden age" vew of coona womens status have contnued to accept the
paradgm of a nneteenth-century decne from a more desrabe past. For
exampe, |oan Hoff-Wson asserted that there was no "goden age" and yet
emphaszed that the nneteenth century brought "ncreased oss of functon and
authentc status for" mdde-cass women.
Recent pubcatons about coona women have exposed the concept of a
decne n status as smpstc and unsophstcated, a theory that based ts
assessment of coona womens status soey on one factor (ther economc
functon n socety) and assumed a too ready that a reatvey smpe soca
system automatcay brought hgher standng to coona women. The new
schoarshp presents a far more compcated pcture, one n whch defntons of
gender roes, the coona economy, demographc patterns, regon, the aw, and
househod organzaton a contrbuted to defnng the crcumstances of coona
womens ves. Indeed, the prmary concern of modern schoarshp s not to
generaze about womens status but to dentfy the specfc changes and
contnutes n womens ves durng the coona perod. For exampe, whereas
earer hstorans suggested that there was tte change for coona women before
1800, the new schoarshp suggests that a three-part chronoogca dvson more
accuratey refects coona womens experences. Frst was the nta perod of
Engsh coonzaton (from the 1620s to about 1660); then a perod durng whch
patterns of famy and communty were chaenged and reshaped (roughy from
1660 to 1750); and fnay the era of revouton (approxmatey 1750 to 1815),
LSAT ,.1
whch brought other changes to womens ves.
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) An earlier theory about the status of middle(class women in the nineteenth
century has been supported by recent scholarship.
(B) =ecent studies of middle(class nineteenth(century women ha'e altered an
earlier theory about the status of colonial women.
(C) =ecent scholarship has e$posed an earlier theory about the status of colonial
women as too narrowly based and o'ersimplified.
() An earlier theory about colonial women has greatly influenced recent studies
on middle(class women in the nineteenth century.
(#) An earlier study of middle(class women was based on insufficient research on
the status of women in the nineteenth century.
2.. The author discusses )off(&ilson primarily in order to
(A) describe how e$ter4s theory was refuted by historians of nineteenth(century
9orth America
(B) describe how the theory of middle(class women4s nineteenth(century decline
in status was de'eloped
(C) describe an important influence on recent scholarship about the colonial
period
() demonstrate the persistent influence of the *golden age+ theory
(#) pro'ide an e$ample of current research one the colonial period
20. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to
describe the 'iews of the scholars mentioned in line .2 as
(A) unassailable
(B) inno'ati'e
(C) parado$ical
() o'erly sophisticated
(#) without merit
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that in proposing the *three(part chronological
di'ision+ (lines 25(21)/ scholars recogni!ed which one of the following%
(A) The circumstances of colonial women4s li'es were defined by a broad 'ariety
of social and economic factors.
(B) &omen4s li'es in the #nglish colonies of 9orth America were similar to
women4s li'es in se'enteenth(and eighteenth(century #ngland.
(C) Colonial women4s status was ad'ersely affected when patterns of family and
community were established in the late se'enteenth century.
() Colonial women4s status should be assessed primarily on the basis of their
economic function in society.
,.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) Colonial women4s status was low when the colonies were settled but changed
significantly during the era of re'olution.
22. According to the author/ the publications about colonial women mentioned in the
third paragraph had which one of the following effects%
(A) They undermined e$ter4s argument on the status of women colonists during
the colonial period.
(B) They re'ealed the tenacity of the *golden age+ theory in American history.
(C) They pro'ided support for historians/ such as )off(&ilson. &ho study the
nineteenth century.
() They established that women4s status did not change significantly from the
colonial period to the nineteenth century.
(#) They pro'ided support for earlier theories about women colonists in the
#nglish colonies of 9orth America.
2-. @ractitioners of the new scholarship discussed in the last paragraph would be
most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about e$ter4s
argument%
(A) 3t makes the assumption that women4s status is determined primarily by their
political power in society.
(B) 3t makes the assumption that a less comple$ social system necessarily confers
higher status on women.
(C) 3t is based on inade"uate research on women4s economic role in the colonies.
() 3t places too much emphasis on the way definitions of gender roles affected
women colonists in the colonial period.
(#) 3t accurately describes the way women4s status declined in the nineteenth
century.
LSAT 20 SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Muscoogsts concerned wth the "London Panoforte schoo," the group of
composers, pedagogues, pansts, pubshers, and buders who contrbuted to the
deveopment of the pano n London at the turn of the nneteenth century, have
ong encountered a formdabe obstace n the genera unavaabty of musc of
ths "schoo" n modern schoary edtons. Indeed, much of ths repertory has
more or ess vanshed from our hstorca conscousness. Granted, the sonatas and
LSAT ,.-
.radus ad Parnassum of Muzo Cement and the nocturnes of |ohn Fed have
remaned famar enough (though more often than not n edtons ackng
schoary rgor), but the work of other eadng representatves, ke |ohann Baptst
Cramer and |an Ladsav Dussek, has euded serous attempts at revva.
Nchoas Tempereys ambtous new anthoogy decsvey overcomes ths
defcency. What underscores the ntrnsc vaue of Tempereys edtons s that the
anthoogy reproduces neary a of the orgna musc n facsme. Makng avaabe
ths cross secton of Engsh musca fe-some 800 works by 49 composers-
shoud encourage new crtca perspectves about how pano musc evoved n
Engand, an ssue of consderabe reevance to our understandng of how pano
musc deveoped on the European contnent, and of how, fnay, the nstrument
was transformed from the fortepano to what we know today as the pano.
To be sure, the London Panoforte schoo tsef cas for revew. "Schoo" may
we be too strong a word for what was arguaby a group unfed not so much by
stystc prncpes or aesthetc creed as by the geographca crcumstance that
they worked at varous tmes n London and produced panos and pano musc for
Engsh panos and Engsh markets. Indeed, Temperey concedes that ther
"varety may be so great as to cast doubt on the noton of a schoo."
The noton of a schoo was frst propounded by Aexander Rnger, who argued
that aws of artstc survva forced the young, progressve Beethoven to turn
outsde Austra for creatve modes, and that he found nspraton n a group of
pansts connected wth Cement n London. Rngers proposed London Panoforte
schoo dd suggest a crcumscrbed and fary unfed group-for want of a better
term, a schoo-of muscans whose nfuence was fet prmary n the decades
|ust before and after 1800. After a, Beethoven dd respond to the advances of the
Broadwood pano-ts renforced frame, extended compass, trpe strngng, and
pedas, for exampe-and t s reasonabe to suppose that London pansts who
composed musc for such an nstrument durng the crtca phase of ts
deveopment exercsed no sma degree of nfuence on Contnenta muscans.
Nevertheess, perhaps the most sensbe approach to ths ssue s to defne the
schoo by the perod (c. 1766-1873) durng whch t fourshed, as Temperey has
done n the anthoogy.
1. &hich one of the following most accurately states the author4s main point%
(A) Temperley has recently called into "uestion the designation of a group of
composers/ pedagogues/ pianists/ publishers/ and builders as the Kondon
@ianoforte school.
(B) Temperley4s anthology of the music of the Kondon @ianoforte school
contributes significantly to an understanding of an influential period in the
history of music.
(C) The music of the Kondon @ianoforte school has been re'i'ed by the
publication of Temperley4s new anthology.
,.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() @rimary sources for musical manuscripts pro'ide the most reliable basis for
musicological research.
(#) The de'elopment of the modern piano in #ngland influenced composers and
other musicians throughout #urope.
2. 3t can be inferred that which one of the following is true of the piano music of the
Kondon @ianoforte school%
(A) The nocturnes of Aohn >ield typify the Kondon @ianoforte school style.
(B) The #radus ad Parnassu- of ?u!io Clementi is the best(known work of
these composers.
(C) 9o original scores for this music are e$tant.
() @rior to Temperley4s edition/ no attempts to issue new editions of this music
had been made.
(#) 3n modern times much of the music of this school has been little known e'en
to musicians.
.. The author mentions the sonatas of ?u!io Clementi and the nocturnes of Aohn
>ield as e$amples of which one of the following%
(A) works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that ha'e been
preser'ed in rigorous scholarly editions
(B) works that are no longer remembered by most people
(C) works acclaimed by the leaders of the Kondon @ianoforte school
() works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that are relati'ely well
known
(#) works by composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school that ha'e been re'i'ed
by Temperley in his anthology
0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most clearly undermine a portion of
=inger4s argument as the argument is described in the passage%
(A) ?usicians in Austria composed inno'ati'e music for the Broadwood piano as
soon as the instrument became a'ailable.
(B) Clementi and his followers produced most of their compositions between
1-,5 and 1615.
(C) The influence of Continental musicians is apparent in some of the works of
Beetho'en.
() The pianist(composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school shared many of the
same stylistic principles.
(#) ?ost composers of the Kondon @ianoforte school were born on the Continent
and were drawn to Kondon by the work of Clementi and his followers.
1. 3t can be inferred that the author uses the word *ad'ances+ (line 0,) to refer to
(A) enticements offered musicians by instrument manufacturers
LSAT ,.,
(B) impro'ements in the structure of a particular instrument
(C) inno'ations in the forms of music produced for a particular instrument
() stylistic elaborations made possible by changes in a particular instrument
(#) changes in musicians4 opinions about a particular instrument
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage as a whole that the author4s purpose in the
third paragraph is primarily to
(A) cast doubt on the usefulness of Temperley4s study of the Kondon @ianoforte
school
(B) introduce a discussion of the coherency of the Kondon @ianoforte school
(C) summari!e =inger4s argument about the Kondon @ianoforte school
() emphasi!e the comple$ nature of the musicological elements shared by
members of the Kondon @ianoforte school
(#) identify the uni"ue contributions made to music by the Kondon @ianoforte
school
-. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) e$plaining the influence of the de'elopment of the pianoforte on the music of
Beetho'en
(B) describing Temperley4s 'iew of the contrast between the de'elopment of
piano music in #ngland and the de'elopment of piano music elsewhere in
#urope
(C) presenting Temperley4s e'aluation of the impact of changes in piano
construction on styles and forms of music composed in the era of the
Kondon @ianoforte school
() considering an alternati'e theory to that proposed by =inger concerning the
Kondon @ianoforte school
(#) discussing the contribution of Temperley4s anthology to what is known of the
history of the Kondon @ianoforte school
6. 3t can be inferred that Temperley4s anthology treats the Kondon @ianoforte school
as
(A) a group of pianist(composers who shared certain stylistic principles and
artistic creeds
(B) a group of people who contributed to the de'elopment of piano music
between 1-22 and 16-.
(C) a group of composers who influenced the music of Beetho'en in the decades
<ust before and <ust after 1655
() a series of compositions for the pianoforte published in the decades <ust
before and <ust after 1655
(#) a series of compositions that had a significant influence on the music of the
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Continent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
What s "aw"? By what processes do |udges arrve at opnons, those
documents that |ustfy ther beef that the "aw" dctates a concuson one way or
the other? These are among the odest questons n |ursprudence, debate about
whch has tradtonay been domnated by representatves of two schoos of
thought: proponents of natura aw, who see aw as ntertwned wth a mora order
ndependent of socetys rues and mores, and ega postvsts, who see aw soey
as embodyng the commands of a socetys rung authorty.
Snce the eary 1970s, these famar questons have receved some new and
surprsng answers n the ega academy. Ths novety s n part a consequence of
the ncreasng nfuence there of academc dscpnes and nteectua tradtons
prevousy unconnected wth the study of aw. Perhaps the most nfuenta have
been the answers gven by the Law and Economcs schoo. Accordng to these
ega economsts, aw conssts and ought to consst of those rues that maxmze a
socetys matera weath and that abet the effcent operaton of markets
desgned to generate weath. More controversa have been the varous answers
provded by members of the Crtca Lega Studes movement, accordng to whom
aw s one among severa cutura mechansms by whch hoders of power seek to
egtmate ther domnaton. Drawng on reated arguments deveoped n
anthropoogy, socoogy, and hstory, the crtca ega schoars contend that aw s
an expresson of power, but not, as hed by the postvsts, the power of the
egtmate soveregn government. Rather, t s an expresson of the power of etes
who may have no egtmate authorty, but who are ntent on preservng the
prveges of ther race, cass, or gender.
In the md-1970s, |ames Boyd Whte began to artcuate yet another
nterdscpnary response to the tradtona questons, and n so dong spawned
what s now known as the Law and Lterature movement. Whte has nssted that
aw, partcuary as t s nterpreted n |udca opnons, shoud be understood as
an essentay terary actvty. |udca opnons shoud be read and evauated not
prmary as potca acts or as attempts to maxmze socetys weath through
effcent rues, but rather as artstc performances. And ke a such performances,
Whte argues, each |udca opnon attempts n ts own way to promote a
partcuar potca or ethca vaue.
In the recent !ustice as Translation, Whte argues that opnon-wrtng shoud
be regarded as an act of "transaton," and |udges as "transators." As such,
|udges fnd themseves medatng between the authortatve ega text and the
pressng ega probem that demands resouton. A |udge must essentay "re-
consttute" that text by fashonng a new one, whch s fathfu to the od text but
aso responsve to and nformed by the condtons, constrants, and aspratons of
the word n whch the new ega probem has arsen.
,. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) &ithin the last few decades/ a number of no'el approaches to <urisprudence
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ha'e defined the nature of the law in di'erse ways.
(B) &ithin the last few decades/ changes in society and in the number and type of
cases brought to court ha'e necessitated new methods of interpreting the
law.
(C) 8f the many interdisciplinary approaches to <urisprudence that ha'e surfaced
in the last tow decades/ the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement is the most
intellectually coherent.
() The Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement/ first articulated by Aames Boyd &hite in
the mid(1,-5s/ represents a synthesis of the many theories of <urisprudence
inspired by the social sciences.
(#) ;uch traditional legal scholars as legal positi'ists and natural lawyers are
increasingly on the defensi'e against attacks from younger/ more
progressi'e theorists.
15. According to the passage/ <udicial opinions ha'e been described as each of the
following #DC#@TE
(A) political statements
(B) arcane statements
(C) economic statements
() artistic performances
(#) acts of translation
11. &hich one of the following statements is most compatible with the principles of
the Critical Kegal ;tudies mo'ement as that mo'ement is described in the
passage%
(A) Kaws go'erning the succession of power at the death of a head of state
represent a synthesis of legal precedents/ specific situations/ and the 'alues
of lawmakers.
(B) Kaws allowing income ta$ deductions for charitable contributions/ though
ostensibly passed by lawmakers/ were de'ised by and are perpetuated by the
rich.
(C) Kaws go'erning the tariffs placed on imported goods must fa'or the
continuation of mutually beneficial trade arrangements/ e'en at the e$pense
of long(standing legal precedent.
() Kaws go'erning the treatment of the disad'antaged and powerless members
of a gi'en society are an accurate indication of that society4s moral state.
(#) Kaws controlling the electoral processes of a representati'e democracy ha'e
been de'ised by lawmakers to ensure the continuation of that go'ernmental
system.
12. &hich one of the following does the passage mention as a similarity between the
Critical Kegal ;tudies mo'ement and the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement%
,02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(A) Both offer e$planations of how elites maintain their hold on power.
(B) Both are logical e$tensions of either natural law or legal positi'ism.
(C) Both see economic and political primacy as the basis of all legitimate power.
() Both rely on disciplines not traditionally connected with the study of law.
(#) Both see the practice of opinion(writing as a mediating acti'ity.
1.. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the academic
study of <urisprudence before the 1,-5s%
(A) 3t was concerned primarily with codifying and maintaining the pri'ileges of
elites.
(B) 3t re<ected theories that interpreted law as an e$pression of a group4s power.
(C) 3t seldom focused on how and by what authority <udges arri'ed at opinions.
() 3t was concerned primarily with the study of law as an economic and moral
agent.
(#) 3t was not concerned with such disciplines as anthropology and sociology.
10. @roponents of the Kaw and Kiterature mo'ement would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements concerning the relationship between the
law and <udges4 written opinions%
(A) The once(stable relationship between law and opinion(writing has been
undermined by new and radical theoretical de'elopments.
(B) 8nly the most politically conser'ati'e of <udges continue to base their
opinions on natural law or on legal positi'ism.
(C) The occurrence of different legal situations re"uires a <udge to adopt di'erse
theoretical approaches to opinion(writing.
() ifferent <udges will not necessarily write the same sorts of opinions when
confronted with the same legal situation.
(#) Audges who subscribe to di'ergent theories of <urisprudence will necessarily
render di'ergent opinions.
11. &hich one of the following phrases best describes the meaning of *re(constitute+
as that word is used in line 10 of the passage%
(A) categori!e and rephrase
(B) in'estigate and summari!e
(C) interpret and refashion
() paraphrase and announce
(#) negotiate and synthesi!e
12. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) identify differing approaches
(B) discount a no'el trend
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(C) ad'ocate traditional methods
() correct misinterpretations
(#) reconcile seeming inconsistencies
Snce the eary 1920s, most petroeum geoogsts have favored a bogenc
theory for the formaton of o. Accordng to ths theory, organc matter became
bured n sedments, and subsequent condtons of temperature and pressure over
tme transformed t nto o.
Snce 1979 an opposng abogenc theory about the orgn of o has been
promugated. Accordng to ths theory, what s now o began as hydrocarbon
compounds wthn the earths mante (the regon between the core and the crust)
durng the formaton of the earth. O was created when gasses rch n methane,
the ghtest of the hydrocarbons, rose from the mante through fractures and
fauts n the crust, carryng a sgnfcant amount of heaver hydrocarbons wth
them. As the gases encountered ntermttent drops n pressure, the heaver
hydrocarbons condensed, formng o, and were deposted n reservors throughout
the crust. Rock regons deformed by motons of the crusta pates provded the
conduts and fractures necessary for the gases to rse through the crust.
Opponents of the abogenc theory charge that hydrocarbons coud not exst
n the mante, because hgh temperatures woud destroy or break them down.
Advocates of the theory, however, pont out that other types of carbon exst n the
mante: unoxdzed carbon must exst there, because damonds are formed wthn
the mante before beng brought to the surface by eruptve processes. Proponents
of the abogenc theory aso pont to recent expermenta work that suggests that
the hgher pressures wthn the mante tend to offset the hgher temperatures,
aowng hydrocarbons, ke unoxdzed carbon, to contnue to exst n the mante.
If the abogenc theory s correct, vast undscovered reservors of o and gas-
undscovered because the bogenc mode precudes ther exstence-may n
actuaty exst. One company owned by the Swedsh government has found the
abogenc theory so persuasve that t has started exporatory drng for gas or o
n a grante formaton caed the S|an Rng-not the best pace to ook for gas or
o f one beeves they are derved from organc compounds, because grante
forms from magma (moten rock) and contans no organc sedments. The rng was
formed about 360 mon years ago when a arge meteorte ht the 600-mon-
year-od grante that forms the base of the contnenta crust. The mpact fractured
the grante, and the Swedes beeve that f o comes from the mante, t coud
have rsen wth methane gas through ths now permeabe rock. Fueng ther
optmsm further s the fact that pror to the start of drng, methane gas had
been detected rsng through the grante.
1-. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) Although the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil is deri'ed from the
,00 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
con'entional biogenic theory/ it suggests new types of locations for oil
drilling.
(B) The small number of drilling companies that ha'e responded to the new
abiogenic theory about the origin of oil reflects the minimal le'el of
acceptance the theory has met with in the scientific community.
(C) Although the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil fails to e$plain
se'eral enigmas about oil reser'oirs/ it is superior to the con'entional
biogenic theory.
() Although it has yet to recei'e either support or refutation by data gathered
from a drilling pro<ect/ the new abiogenic theory about the origin of oil
offers a plausible alternati'e to the con'entional biogenic theory.
(#) )a'ing answered ob<ections about higher pressures in the earth4s core/
proponents of the new abiogenic theory ha'e gained broad acceptance for
their theory in the scientific community.
16. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph%
(A) 3t presents a 'iew opposed to a theory and points out an internal contradiction
in that opposing 'iew.
(B) 3t describes a criticism of a theory and pro'ides counter'ailing e'idence to
the criticism.
(C) 3t identifies a conflict between two 'iews of a theory and re'ises both 'iews.
() 3t e$plains an argument against a theory and shows it to be a 'alid criticism.
(#) 3t points out the correspondence between an argument against one theory and
arguments against similar theories.
1,. The passage suggests that the opponents of the abiogenic theory mentioned in the
third paragraph would most probably agree with which one of the following
statements%
(A) The formation of oil does not in'ol'e the condensation of hydrocarbons
released from the earth4s mantle.
(B) Karge oil reser'es are often found in locations that contain small amounts of
organic matter.
(C) The erupti'e processes by which diamonds are brought to the earth4s surface
are similar to those that aid in the formation of oil.
() ?otions of the crustal plates often create the pressure necessary to transform
organic matter into oil.
(#) The largest known oil reser'es may ha'e resulted from organic matter
combining with hea'ier hydrocarbons carried by methane gas.
25. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the situation described in the
final paragraph%
(A) A new theory about the annual cycles of breeding and migration of the
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monarch butterfly has led scientists to look for similar patterns in other
butterfly species.
(B) A new theory about the stage at which a star collapses into a black hole has
led astronomers to search for e'idence of black holes in parts of the uni'erse
where they had not pre'iously searched.
(C) A new theory about how the emission of sulfur dio$ide during coal(burning
can be reduced has led se'eral companies to de'elop desulfuri!ation
systems.
() A new theory about photosynthesis has con'inced a research team to e$plore
in new ways the 'arious functions of the cell membrane in plant cells.
(#) A new theory about the distribution of metals in rock formations has
con'inced a sil'er(mining company to keep different types of records of its
operations.
21. According to the passage all of the following are true of the ;il<an =ing
#DC#@TE
(A) 3t was formed from magma.
(B) 3t does not contain organic sediments.
(C) 3ts ring shape e$isted 155 million years ago.
() ?ethane gas has been detected rising through it.
(#) 3t was shaped from the granite that makes up the base of the continental crust.
Most studes of recent Southeast Asan mmgrants to the Unted States have
focused on ther ad|ustment to fe n ther adopted country and on the effects of
eavng ther homeands. |ames Toefsons "lien ,inds examnes the resettement
process from a dfferent perspectve by nvestgatng the educatona programs
offered n mmgrant processng centers. Based on ntervews, transcrpts from
casses, essays by mmgrants, persona vsts to a teacher-tranng unt, and
offca government documents, Toefson rees on an mpressve amount and
varety of documentaton n makng hs arguments about processng centers
educatona programs.
Toefsons man contenton s that the emphass paced on mmedate
empoyment and on teachng the vaues, atttudes, and behavors that the
tranng personne thnk w hep the mmgrants ad|ust more easy to fe n the
Unted States s often counterproductve and demorazng. Because of concerns
that the mmgrants be sef-supportng as soon as possbe, they are traned
amost excusvey for ow-eve |obs that do not requre Engsh profcency. In ths
respect, Toefson cams, the processng centers sut the needs of empoyers more
than they sut the ong-term needs of the mmgrant communty. Toefson aso
detects a fundamenta faw n the attempts by program educators to nst n the
mmgrants the tradtonay Western prncpes of sef-suffcency and ndvdua
success. These efforts often have the effect of undermnng the mmgrants sense
of communty and, n dong so, sometmes soate them from the mora support
,02 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
and even from busness opportuntes afforded by the mmgrant communty. The
programs aso encourage the mmgrants to shed ther cutura tradtons and
ethnc dentty and adopt the festyes, beefs, and characterstcs of ther
adopted country f they wsh to enter fuy nto the natona fe.
Toefson notes that the deoogca nature of these educatona programs has
roots n the turn-of-the-century educatona programs desgned to assmate
European mmgrants nto Unted States socety. Toefson provdes a concse
hstory of the assmatonst movement n mmgrant educaton, n whch
European mmgrants were encouraged to eave behnd the ways of the Od Word
and to adopt nstead the prncpes and practces of the New Word.
Toefson aby shows that the ssues demandng rea attenton n the
educatona programs for Southeast Asan mmgrants are not merey empoyment
rates and government fundng, but aso the assumptons underpnnng the
educatona vaues n the programs. He recommends many mprovements for the
programs, ncudng gvng the mmgrants a stronger voce n determnng ther
needs and how to meet them, redesgnng the currcua, and emphaszng ong-
term anguage educaton and |ob tranng over mmedate empoyment and the
avodng of pubc assstance. Unfortunatey, though, Toefson does not offer
enough concrete soutons as to how these reforms coud be carred out, despte
hs own descrptons of the compcated bureaucratc nature of the programs.
22. &hich one of the following statements best e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) Tollefson4s focus on the economic and cultural factors in'ol'ed in ad<usting
to a new country offers a significant departure from most studies of
;outheast Asian immigration.
(B) 3n his analysis of educational programs for ;outheast Asian immigrants/
Tollefson fails to acknowledge many of the positi'e effects the programs
ha'e had on immigrants4 li'es.
(C) Tollefson con'incingly blames the philosophy underlying immigrant
educational programs for some of the ad<ustment problems afflicting
;outheast Asian immigrants.
() Tollefson4s most significant contribution is his analysis of how ;outheast
Asian immigrants o'ercome the obstacles they encounter in immigrant
educational programs.
(#) Tollefson traces a gradual yet significant change in the attitudes held by
processing center educators toward ;outheast Asian immigrants.
2.. &ith which one of the following statements concerning the educational programs
of the immigration centers would Tollefson most probably agree%
(A) Although the programs offer ade"uate <ob training/ they offer inade"uate
#nglish training.
(B) ;ome of the programs4 attempts to impro'e the earning power of the
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immigrants cut them off from potential sources of income.
(C) 3nclusion of the history of immigration in the :nited ;tates in the programs4
curricula facilitates ad<ustment for the immigrants.
() 3mmigrants would benefit if instructors in the programs were better prepared
to teach the curricula de'eloped in the teacher(training courses.
(#) The programs4 curricula should be redesigned to include greater emphasis on
the shared 'alues/ beliefs/ and practices in the :nited ;tates.
20. &hich one of the following best describes the opinion of the author of the
passage with respect to Tollefson4s work%
(A) thorough but misguided
(B) inno'ati'e but incomplete
(C) no'el but contradictory
() illuminating but unappreciated
(#) well documented but unoriginal
21. The passage suggests that which one of the following is an assumption
underlying the educational approach in immigrant processing centers%
(A) There is a set of 'alues and beha'iors that if adopted by immigrants/ facilitate
ad<ustment to :nited ;tates society.
(B) &hen recent immigrants are self(supporting rather than supported by public
assistance/ they tend to gain #nglish proficiency more "uickly.
(C) 3mmediate employment tends to undermine the immigrants sense of
community with each other.
() Kong(term success for immigrants is best achie'ed by encouraging the
immigrants to maintain a strong sense of community.
(#) The principles of self(sufficiency and indi'idual success are central to
;outheast Asian culture and ethnicity.
22. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the first paragraph of
the passage%
(A) 3t pro'ides the scholarly conte$t for Tollefson4s study and a description of his
methodology.
(B) 3t compares Tollefson4s study to other works and presents the main argument
of his study.
(C) 3t compares the types of documents Tollefson uses to those used in other
studies.
() 3t presents the accepted theory on Tollefson4s topic and the method by which
Tollefson challenges it.
(#) 3t argues for the analytical and technical superiority of Tollefson4s study o'er
other works on the topic.
,06 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2-. The author of the passage refers to Tollefson4s descriptions of the bureaucratic
nature of the immigrant educational programs in the fourth paragraph most
probably in order to
(A) critici!e Tollefson4s decision to combine a description of the bureaucracies
with suggestions for impro'ement
(B) emphasi!e the author4s disappointment in Tollefson4s o'erly general
recommendations for impro'ements to the programs
(C) point out the irony of Tollefson concluding his study with suggestions for
drastic changes in the programs
() support a contention that Tollefson4s recommendations for impro'ements do
not focus on the real sources of the programs4 problems
(#) suggest a parallel between the comple$ity of the bureaucracies and the
comple$ity of Tollefson4s arguments
LSAT 21 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
To many deveopers of technooges that affect pubc heath or the
envronment, "rsk communcaton" means persuadng the pubc that the
potenta rsks of such technooges are sma and shoud be gnored. Those who
communcate rsks n ths way seem to beeve that ay peope do not understand
the actua nature of technoogca rsk, and they can cte studes assertng that
athough peope apparenty gnore mundane hazards that pose sgnfcant danger,
they get upset about exotc hazards that pose tte chance of death or n|ury.
Because some rsk communcators take ths persuasve stance, many ay peope
see "rsk communcaton" as a euphemsm for branwashng done by experts.
Snce, however, the goa of rsk communcaton shoud be to enabe peope to
make nformed decsons about technoogca rsks, a cear understandng about
how the pubc perceves rsk s needed. Lay peopes defntons of "rsk" are more
key to refect sub|ectve ethca concerns than are experts defntons. Lay
peope, for exampe, tend to perceve a sma rsk to chdren as more sgnfcant
than a arge rsk to consentng aduts who beneft from the rsk-creatng
technoogy. However, f asked to rank hazards by the number of annua fatates,
wthout reference to ethca |udgments, ay peope provde qute reasonabe
estmates, demonstratng that they have substanta knowedge about many rsks.
Athough some studes cam to demonstrate that ay peope have napproprate
concerns about exotc hazards, these studes often use questonabe methods,
such as askng ay peope to rank rsks that are hard to compare. In contrast, a
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recent study showed that when ay peope were gven the necessary facts and
tme, they understood the specfc rsks of eectromagnetc feds produced by
hgh-votage power transmsson we enough to make nformed decsons.
Rsk communcaton shoud therefore be based on the prncpe that peope
process new nformaton n the context of ther exstng beefs. If peope know
nothng about a topc, they w fnd messages about that topc ncomprehensbe.
If they have erroneous beefs, they are key to msconstrue the messages. Thus,
communcators need to know the nature and extent of recpents knowedge and
beefs n order to desgn messages that w not be dsmssed or msnterpreted.
Ths need was demonstrated n a research pro|ect concernng the pubcs eve of
knowedge about rsks posed by the presence of radon n the home. Researchers
used open-ended ntervews and questonnares to determne what nformaton
shoud be ncuded n ther brochure on radon. Sub|ects who read the researchers
brochure performed sgnfcanty better n understandng radon rsks than dd a
contro group who read a brochure that was wrtten usng a dfferent approach by
a government agency. Thus, carefu preparaton can hep rsk communcators to
produce baanced matera that tes peope what they need to know to make
decsons about technoogca rsks.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) =isk communicators are effecti'ely addressing the proliferation of comple$
technologies that ha'e increasing impact on public health and safety.
(B) =isk communicators should assess lay people4s understanding of technologies
in order to be able to gi'e them the information they need to make
reasonable decisions.
(C) #$perts who want to communicate to the public about the possible risks of
comple$ technologies must simplify their message to ensure that it is
understandable.
() =isk communication can be percei'ed as the task of persuading lay people to
accept the impact of a particular technology on their li'es.
(#) Kay people can be unduly influenced by sub<ecti'e concerns when making
decisions about technological risks.
2. The authors of the passage would be most likely to agree that the primary purpose
of risk communication should be to
(A) e$plain rather than to persuade
(B) promote rather than to <ustify
(C) influence e$perts rather than to influence lay people
() allay people4s fears about mundane ha!ards rather than about e$otic ha!ards
(#) foster public acceptance of new technologies rather than to acknowledge
people4s ethical concerns
.. According to the passage/ it is probable that which one of the following will
,15 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
occur when risk communicators attempt to communicate with lay people who
ha'e mistaken ideas about a particular technology%
(A) The lay people percei'ing that the risk communicators ha'e pro'ided more(
reliable information/ will discard their mistaken notion.
(B) The lay people will only partially re'ise their ideas on the basis of the new
information.
(C) The lay people fitting the new information into their e$isting framework will
interpret the communication differently that the risk communicators had
intended.
() The lay people misunderstanding the new information will further distort the
information when they communicate it to other lay people.
(#) The lay people will ignore any communication about a technology they
consider potentially dangerous.
0. &hich one of the following is most clearly an e$ample of the kind of risk
perception discussed in the *studies+ mentioned in line 6%
(A) A skydi'er checks the lines on her parachute se'eral times before a <ump
because tangled lines often keep the parachutes from opening properly
(B) A person decides to "uit smoking in order to lesson the probability of lung
damage to himself and his family
(C) A homeowner who decides to ha'e her house tested for radon also decides not
to allow anyone to smoke in her house
() A person who often wea'es in and out of traffic while dri'ing his car at
e$cessi'e speeds worries about meteorites hitting his house
(#) A group of townspeople opposes the building of a nuclear waste dump
outsider their town and proposes that the dump be placed in another town
1. 3t can be inferred that the authors of the passage would be more likely than would
the risk communicators discussed in the first paragraph to emphasi!e which one
of the following%
(A) lay people4s tendency to become alarmed about technologies that they find
new or strange
(B) lay people4s tendency to compare risks that e$perts would not consider
comparable
(C) the need for lay people to adopt scientists4 ad'ice about technological risk
() the inability of lay people to rank ha!ards by the number of fatalities caused
annually
(#) the impact of lay people4s 'alue systems on their perceptions of risk
2. According to the passage many lay people belie'e which one of the following
about risk communication%
(A) 3t focuses e$cessi'ely on mundane ha!ards.
LSAT ,11
(B) 3t is a tool used to manipulate the public.
(C) 3t is a ma<or cause of inaccuracies in public knowledge about science.
() 3t most often functions to help people make informed decisions.
(#) 3ts le'el of effecti'eness depends on the le'el of knowledge its audience
already has.
In Apr 1990 representatves of the Pco Korea Unon of eectroncs workers n
Buchon cty, south Korea, traveed to the Unted States n order to demand |ust
settement of ther cams from the parent company of ther empoyers, who upon
the formaton of the unon had shut down operatons wthout payng the workers.
From the begnnng, the unon cause was champoned by an unprecedented
coaton of Korean Amercan groups and deepy affected the Korean Amercan
communty on severa eves.
Frst, t served as a rayng focus for a dverse communty often dvded by
generaton, cass and potca deooges. Most notaby, the Pco cause mobzed
many young second-generaton Korean Amercans, many of whom had never
been part of a potca campagn before, et aone one nvovng Korean ssues.
Members of ths generaton, unke frst-generaton Korean Amercans, generay
fa wthn the more prveged sectors of the Korean Amercan communty and
often fee aenated from ther Korean roots. In addton to rasng the potca
conscousness of young Korean Amercans, the Pco strugge sparked among them
new nterest n ther cutura dentty. The Pco workers aso suggested new roes
that can be payed by recent mmgrants, partcuary workng-cass mmgrants.
These mmgrants knowedge of workng condtons overseas can hep to
gobaze the perspectve of ther communtes and can hep to estabsh
nternatona tes on a more persona eve, as wtnessed n the especay warm
exchange between the Pco workers and recent workng-cass mmgrants from
Chna. In addton to broadenng the potca base wthn the Korean Amercan
communty, the Pco strugge aso ed to new aances between the Korean
Amercan communty and progressve abor and soca |ustce groups wthn the
arger socety-as evdenced n the support receved from the Coaton of Labor
Unon Women and eadng Afrcan Amercan unonsts.
The reasons for these effects e n the nature of the cause. The ssues rased
by the Pco unonsts had such a strong human component that dfferences wthn
the communty became secondary to arger concerns for soca |ustce and
workers rghts. The workers demands for compensaton and respect were
unencumbered wth strong deoogca trappngs. The economc expotaton faced
by the Pco workers underscored the common nterests of Korean workers, Korean
Amercans, the workng cass more ncusvey, and a broad spectrum of
communty eaders.
The Pco workers campagn thus offers an mportant esson. It demonstrates
that ethnc communtes need more than |ust a knowedge of hstory and cuture
as artfacts of the past n order to strengthen ther ethnc dentty. It shows that
,12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
perhaps the most effectve means of empowerment for many ethnc communtes
of mmgrant dervaton may be an dentfcaton wth and partcpaton n current
strugges for economc and soca |ustce n ther countres of orgn.
-. &hich one of the following best describes the main topic of the passage%
(A) the contribution of the Morean American community to impro'ing the
working conditions of Moreans employed by :nited ;tates companies
(B) the change brought about in the Morean American community by contacts
with Moreans 'isiting the :nited ;tates
(C) the contribution of recent immigrants from Morea to strengthening ethnic
identity in the Morean American community
() the effects on the Morean American community of a dispute between Morean
union workers and a :nited ;tates company
(#) the effect of the politici!ation of second(generation Morean Americans on the
Morean American community as a whole
6. The passage suggests that which one of the following was a significant factor in
the decision to shut down the @ico plant in Buchon City%
(A) the decreasing profitability of maintaining operations in Morea
(B) the failure to resol'e long(standing disputes between the @ico workers and
management
(C) the creation of a union by the @ico workers
() the withholding of workers4 wages by the parent company
(#) the finding of an alternate site for operations
,. &hich one of the following is 98T mentioned in the passage as a recent
de'elopment in the Morean American community%
(A) Houng second(generation Morean Americans ha'e begun to take an interest in
their Morean heritage.
(B) =ecent Morean American immigrants of working(class backgrounds ha'e
begun to enter the more pri'ileged sectors of the Morean American
community.
(C) Morean Americans ha'e de'eloped closer ties with acti'ist groups from other
sectors of the population.
() @re'iously nonpolitical members of the Morean American community ha'e
become more politically acti'e.
(#) The Morean American community has been able to set aside political and
generational disparities in order to support a common cause.
15. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements about ethnic communities of immigrant
deri'ation%
LSAT ,1.
(A) ;uch communities can deri'e important benefits from maintaining ties with
their countries of origin.
(B) ;uch communities should focus primarily on promoting study of the history
and culture of their people in order to strengthen their ethnic identity.
(C) ;uch communities can most successfully mobili!e and politici!e their young
people by addressing the problems of young people of all backgrounds.
() The more pri'ileged sectors of such communities are most likely to maintain
a sense of closeness to their cultural roots.
(#) The politici!ation of such a community is unlikely to affect relations with
other groups within the larger society.
11. 3n the second paragraph/ the author refers to immigrants from China most
probably in order to do which one of the following%
(A) highlight the contrast between working conditions in the :nited ;tates and in
Morea
(B) demonstrate the uni"ueness of the problem faced by the @ico workers
(C) offer an e$ample of the type of role that can be played by recent working(
class immigrants
() pro'ide an analogy for the type of acti'ism displayed by the Morean
American community
(#) compare the disparate responses of two immigrant communities to similar
problems
12. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) describe recent de'elopments in the Morean American community that ha'e
strongly affected other ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation
(B) describe a situation in the Morean American community that presents a model
for the empowerment of ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation
(C) detail the problems faced by the Morean American community in order to
illustrate the need for the empowerment of ethnic communities of immigrant
deri'ation
() argue against economic and social in<ustice in the countries of origin of
ethnic communities of immigrant deri'ation
(#) assess the impact of the unioni!ation mo'ement on ethnic communities of
immigrant deri'ation
1.. &hich one of the following most accurately states the function of the third
paragraph%
(A) 3t e$plains why the @ico workers brought their cause to the :nited ;tates.
(B) 3t e$plains how the @ico cause differed from other causes that had pre'iously
mobili!ed the Morean American community.
(C) 3t e$plains why the @ico workers were accorded such broad support.
,10 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() 3t e$plains how other ethnic groups of immigrant deri'ation in the :nited
;tates ha'e profited from the e$ample of the @ico workers.
(#) 3t e$plains why different generations of Morean Americans reacted in different
ways to the @ico cause.
In recent years, schoars have begun to use soca scence toos to anayze
court opnons. These schoars have |ustfaby crtczed tradtona ega research
for ts focus on a few cases that may not be representatve and ts fascnaton wth
arcane matters that do not affect rea peope wth rea ega probems. Zrke and
Schoenfed, for exampe, have champoned the appcaton of soca scence toos
to the anayss of case aw surroundng dscrmnaton aganst women n hgher
educaton empoyment. Ther studes have demonstrated how these soca scence
toos may be used to serve the nterests of schoars, awyers and prospectve
pantffs as we. However, ther enthusasm for the "outcomes anayss"
technque seems msguded.
Of fundamenta concern s the outcomes anaysts assumpton that smpy
countng the number of successfu and unsuccessfu pantffs w be usefu to
prospectve pantffs. Athough the odds are ceary aganst the pantff n sex
dscrmnaton cases, pantffs who beeve that ther cause s |ust and that they
w preva are not swayed by such evdence. In addton, because awsuts are so
dfferent n the detas of the case, n the quaty of the evdence the pantff
presents, and n the atttude of the |udge toward academc pantffs, gvng
prospectve pantffs statstcs about overa outcomes wthout anayzng the
reason for these outcomes s of margna assstance. Outcomes anayss, for
exampe, gnores the fact that n certan academc sex dscrmnaton cases-
those nvovng serous procedura voatons or ncrmnatng evdence n the form
of wrtten admssons of dscrmnatory practces-pantffs are much more key
to preva.
Two dfferent approaches offer more usefu appcatons of soca scence toos
n anayzng sex dscrmnaton cases. One s a process caed "pocy capturng,"
n whch the researcher reads each opnon, dentfes varabes dscussed n the
opnon, such as the reguarty of empoyer evauatons of the pantff
performance, tranng of evauators, and the knd of evauaton nstrument used,
and then uses mutvarate anayss to determne whether these varabes predct
the outcome of the awsut. The advantage of pocy capturng research s that t
attempts to expan the reason for the outcome, rather than smpy reportng the
outcome, and dentfes factors that contrbute to a pantffs success or faure.
Takng a sghty dfferent approach, other schoars have adopted a technque that
requres readng compete transcrpts of a sex dscrmnaton cases tgated
durng a certan tme perod to dentfy varabes such as the nature of the
aegedy ega conduct, the consequences for empoyers, and the nature of the
remedy, as we as the factors that contrbuted to the verdct and the knd of
evdence necessary for the pantff to preva. Whe the fndngs of these studes
are mted to the perod covered, they assst potenta pantffs and defendants n
LSAT ,11
assessng ther cases.
10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The analysis of a limited number of atypical discrimination suits is of little
'alue to potential plaintiffs.
(B) &hen the number of factors analy!ed in a se$ discrimination suit is increased/
the 'alidity of the conclusions drawn becomes suspect.
(C) ;cholars who are critical of traditional legal research fre"uently offer
alternati'e approaches that are also seriously flawed.
() 8utcomes analysis has less predicti'e 'alue in se$ discrimination cases than
do certain other social science techni"ues.
(#) Bi'en ade"uate information/ it is possible to predict with considerable
certainty whether a plaintiff will be successful in a discrimination suit.
11. 3t can be inferred from the author4s discussion of traditional legal research that
the author is
(A) frustrated because traditional legal research has not achie'ed its full potential
(B) critical because traditional legal research has little rele'ance to those actually
in'ol'ed in cases
(C) appreciati'e of the role traditional legal research played in de'eloping later
more efficient approaches
() derisi'e because traditional legal research has outlasted its pre'iously
significant role
(#) grateful for the ability of traditional legal research to de'elop uni"ue types of
e'idence
12. &hich one of the following statements about Lirkel and ;choenfeld can be
inferred from the passage%
(A) They were the first scholars to use social science tools in analy!ing legal
cases.
(B) They confined their studies to the outcomes analysis techni"ue.
(C) They saw no 'alue in the analysis pro'ided by traditional legal research.
() They re<ected policy capturing as being too limited in scope.
(#) They belie'ed that the information generated by outcomes analysis would be
rele'ant for plaintiffs.
1-. The author4s characteri!ation of traditional legal research in the first paragraph is
intended to
(A) pro'ide background information for the subse"uent discussion
(B) summari!e an opponent4s position
(C) argue against the use of social science tools in the analysis of se$
discrimination cases
,12 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() emphasi!e the fact that legal researchers act to the detriment of potential
plaintiffs
(#) reconcile traditional legal researchers to the use of social science tools
16. The information in the passage suggests that plaintiffs who pursue se$
discrimination cases despite the statistics pro'ided by outcomes analysis can best
be likened to
(A) athletes who continue to employ training techni"ues despite their knowledge
of statistical e'idence indicating that these techni"ues are unlikely to be
effecti'e
(B) lawyers who handle lawsuits for a large number of clients in the hope that
some percentage will be successful
(C) candidates for public office who are more interested in making a political
statement than in winning an election
() supporters of a cause who recruit indi'iduals sympathetic to it in the belief
that large numbers of supporters will lend the cause legitimacy
(#) purchasers of a charity4s raffle tickets who consider the purchase a
contribution because the likelihood of winning is remote
1,. The policy(capturing approach differs from the approach described in lines 06(1,
in that the latter approach
(A) makes use of detailed information on a greater number of cases
(B) focuses more directly on issues of concern to litigants
(C) analy!es information that is more recent and therefore reflects current trends
() allows assessment of aspects of a case that are not specifically mentioned in a
<udge4s opinion
(#) eliminates any distortion due to personal bias on the part of the researcher
25. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A techni"ue is introduced/ its shortcomings are summari!ed/ and alternati'es
are described.
(B) A debate is introduced/ e'idence is presented/ and a compromise is reached.
(C) A theory is presented/ clarification is pro'ided/ and a plan of further
e'aluation is suggested.
() ;tandards are established/ hypothetical e$amples are analy!ed/ and the
criteria are amended.
(#) A position is challenged/ its shortcomings are categori!ed/ and the challenge
is re'ised.
A fake can be defned as an artwork ntended to deceve. The motves of ts
creator are decsve, and the mert of the ob|ect tsef s a separate ssue. The
queston mark n the tte of Mark |oness Fake> The "ct of -ece#tion reveas the
studys broader concerns. Indeed, t mght equay be entted 4riginal>& and the
LSAT ,1-
text begns by notng a varety of possbtes somewhere between the two
extremes. These ncude works by an artsts foowers n the stye of the master,
deberate archasm, copyng for pedagogca purposes, and the producton of
commerca facsmes.
The greater part of Fake> s devoted to a Chronoogca survey suggestng that
fakng feeds on the many dfferent motves peope have for coectng art, and
that, on the whoe, the fakng of art fourshes whenever art coectng fourshes.
In mpera Rome there was a wdespread nterest n coectng earer Greek art,
and therefore n fakng t. No doubt many of the scuptures now exhbted as
"Roman copes" were orgnay passed off as Greek. In medeva Europe, because
art was ceebrated more for ts devotona uses than for ts provenance or the
ngenuty of ts creators, the fakng of art was vrtuay nonexstent. The modern
age of fakng began n the Itaan Renassance, wth two nked deveopments: a
passonate dentfcaton wth the word of antquty and a growng sense of
ndvdua artstc dentty. A patron of the young Mcheangeo prevaed upon the
artst to make hs Scupture lee#ing Cu#ld ook as though t had been bured n
the earth so that "t w be taken for antque, and you w se t much better."
Wthn a few years, however, begnnng wth hs frst masterpece, the Bacchus,
Mcheangeo had shown hs contemporares that great art can assmate and
transcend what came before, resutng n a whoy orgna work. Soon hs genus
made hm the ob|ect of mtators.
Fake> aso remnds us that n certan cutures authentcty s a foregn
concept. Ths s true of much Afrcan art, when the authentcty of an ob|ect s
consdered by coectors to depend on ts functon. As an ustraton, the study
compares two versons of a chi wara mask made by the Bambara peope of Ma.
One has pegs aowng t to be attached to a cap for ts ntended ceremona
purpose. The second, otherwse dentca, acks the pegs and s a repca made for
sae. Afrcan carvng s notorousy dffcut to date, but even f the rtua mask s
recent, made perhaps to repace a damaged predecessor, and the repca much
oder, ony the rtua mask shoud be seen as authentc, for t s ted to the forms
orgna functon. That, at east, s the consensus of the so-caed experts. One
wonders whether the Bambaran artsts woud agree.
21. The passage can best be described as doing which one of the following%
(A) reconciling 'aried points of 'iew
(B) chronicling the e'olution of a phenomenon
(C) e$ploring a comple$ "uestion
() ad'ocating a new approach
(#) re<ecting an inade"uate e$planation
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the author4s main point%(the te$t
begins by noting a 'ariety of possibilities somewhere between the two e$tremes.
These include works by an artist4s followers in the style of the master/ deliberate
,16 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
archaism/ copying for pedagogical purposes/ and the production of commercial
facsimiles)
(A) The faking of art has occurred throughout history and in 'irtually e'ery
culture.
(B) &hether a work of art is fake or not is less important than whether it has
artistic merit.
(C) 3t is possible to show that a work of art is fake/ but the authenticity of a work
cannot be pro'ed conclusi'ely.
() A 'ariety of circumstances make it difficult to determine whether a work of
art can appropriately be called a fake.
(#) &ithout an international market to support it/ the faking of art would cease.
2.. According to the passage an artwork can be definiti'ely classified as a fake if the
person who created it
(A) consciously adopted the artistic style of an influential mentor
(B) deliberately imitated a famous work of art as a learning e$ercise
(C) wanted other people to be fooled by its appearance
() made multiple/ identical copies of the work a'ailable for sale
(#) made the work resemble the art of an earlier era
20. The author pro'ides at least one e$ample of each of the following #DC#@TE
(A) categories of art that are neither wholly fake not wholly original
(B) cultures in which the faking of art flourished
(C) "ualities that art collectors ha'e pri!ed in their ac"uisitions
() cultures in which the categories *fake+ and *original+ do not apply
(#) contemporary artists whose works ha'e inspired fakes
21. The author implies which one of the following about the artistic merits of fakes%
(A) Because of the circumstances of its production/ a fake cannot be said to ha'e
true artistic merit.
(B) A fake can be said to ha'e artistic merit only if the attempted deception is
successful.
(C) A fake may or may not ha'e artistic merit in its own right/ regardless of the
circumstances of its production.
() &hether a fake has artistic merit depends on whether its creator is
accomplished as an artist.
(#) The artistic merit of a fake depends on the merit of the original work that
inspired the fake.
22. By the standard described in the last paragraph of the passage/ which one of the
following would be considered authentic%
LSAT ,1,
(A) an ancient =oman copy of an ancient Breek sculpture
(B) a painting begun by =enaissance master and finished by his assistants after
his death
(C) a print of a painting signed by the artist who painted the original
() a faithful replica of a ceremonial crown that preser'es all the details of and is
indistinguishable from the original
(#) a modern reconstruction of a medie'al altarpiece designed to ser'e its
traditional role in a ser'ice of worship
2-. &hich one of the following best describes how the last paragraph functions in the
conte$t of the passage%
(A) 3t offers a tentati'e answer to a "uestion posed by the author in the opening
paragraph.
(B) 3t summari!es an account pro'ided in detail in the preceding paragraph.
(C) 3t pro'ides additional support for an argument ad'anced by the author in the
preceding paragraph.
() 3t e$amines another facet of a distinction de'eloped in the preceding
paragraphs.
(#) 3t affirms the general principle enunciated at the beginning of the passage.
LSAT 22 SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Many terary schoars beeve that Zora Neae Hurstons Their Eyes ,ere
,atching .od (1937) has been the prmary nfuence on some of the most
accompshed Back women wrtng n the Unted States today. Indeed, Ace
Waker, the author of the prze-wnnng nove The Color Pur#le, has sad of Their
Eyes, "There s no book more mportant to me than ths one." Thus, t seems
necessary to ask why Their Eyes, a work now vewed by a muttude of readers as
remarkaby successfu n ts compex depcton of a Back womans search for sef
and communty, was ever reegated to the margns of the terary canon.
The detas of the noves nta recepton hep answer ths queston. Unke
the recenty redscovered and reexamned work of Harret Wson, Their Eyes was
not totay gnored by book revewers upon ts pubcaton. In fact, t receved a
mxture of postve and negatve revews both from Whte book revewers workng
for promnent perodcas and from mportant fgures wthn Back terary crces.
In the aturday *eview of 'iterature& George Stevens wrote that "the narraton s
exacty rght, because most of t s daogue and the daogue gves us a constant
,25 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
sense of character n acton." The negatve crtcsm was partay a resut of
Hurstons deoogca dfferences wth other members of the Back Amercans n
terature. Back wrters of the 1940s beeved that the Back artsts prmary
responsbty was to create protest fcton that expored the negatve effects of
racsm n the Unted States. For exampe, Rchard Wrght, the author of the much
accamed +ative on (1940), wrote that Their Eyes had "no theme" and "no
message". Most crtcs and readers expectatons of Back terature rendered
them unabe to apprecate Hurstons subte deneaton of the fe of an ordnary
Back woman n a Back communty and the nove went quety out of prnt.
Recent accam for Their Eyes resuts from the emergence of femnst terary
crtcsm and the deveopment of standards of evauaton specfc to the work of
Back wrters; these knds of crtcsm changed readers expectatons of art and
enabed them to apprecate Hurstons nove. The emergence of femnst crtcsm
was cruca because such crtcsm brought new attenton to negected works such
as Hurstons and aerted readers to Hurstons exporaton of womens ssues n her
fcton. The Afrocentrc standards of evauaton were equay mportant to the
redscovery of Their Eyes, for such standards provded readers wth the toos to
recognze and apprecate the Back fokore and ora storyteng tradtons Hurston
ncorporated wthn her work. In one of the most umnatng dscussons of the
nove to date, Henry Lous Gates |r., states that "Hurstons strategy seems to
concern tsef wth the possbtes of representaton of the speakng Back voce n
wrtng."
1. The passage suggests which one of the following about )arriet &ilson4s no'el%
(A) 3t was written at the same time as Their Eyes Were Watching #od/ but it did
not recei'e as much critical attention.
(B) 3t greatly influenced Black women writing after the 1,05s.
(C) 3t was widely read when it was published but it has not recei'ed attention
from literary critics until recently.
() 3t was not formally published/ and the manuscript has only recently been
disco'ered by literary critics.
(#) 3t did not recei'e critical attention when it was published/ but it has recently
become the sub<ect of critical study.
2. The passage offers support for which one of the following statements about
literary re'iewers and Their Eyes Were Watching #od%
(A) Their Eyes was widely acclaimed by re'iewers upon its publication/ e'en
though it e'entually went out of print.
(B) The e'entual obscurity of Their Eyes was not the result of complete neglect
by re'iewers.
(C) ;ome early re'iewers of Their Eyes interpreted the no'el from a point of 'iew
that later became known as Afrocentric.
LSAT ,21
() Their Eyes was more typical of the protest fiction of the 1,05s than re'iewers
reali!ed.
(#) ?ost early re'iewers of Their Eyes did not respond positi'ely to the book.
.. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od had little in common with no'els
written by Blank authors during the 1,05s.
(B) >eminist critics and authors such as Alice &alker were instrumental in
establishing )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od as an important part
of the American literary canon.
(C) Critics and readers were unable to appreciate fully )urston4s Their Eyes Were
Watching #od until critics applied new standards of e'aluation to the no'el.
() )urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od was an important influence on the
protest fiction written by Black writers in the mid(twentieth century.
(#) Afrocentric strategies of analysis ha'e brought attention to the use of oral
storytelling traditions in no'els written by Black Americans such as
)urston4s Their Eyes Were Watching #od.
0. According to the passage which one of the following is true of Black folklore
traditions as used in literature written in the :nited ;tates%
(A) They are an aspect of Black American literature first recogni!ed and written
about by )enry Kouis Bates/ Ar.
(B) They were not widely incorporated into no'els written by Black Americans
until after the 1,05s.
(C) They were first used by a no'elist in Lora 9eale )urston4s Their Eyes Were
Watching #od2
() They were not incorporated into no'els published by Black Americans in the
1,05s.
(#) They are an aspect of Black literature that some readers did not fully
appreciate until relati'ely recently.
1. The passage suggests that Nati$e Son differs from Their Eyes Were Watching #od
in which one of the following ways%
(A) 3t recei'ed fewer positi'e re'iews at the time of its publication than did Their
Eyes2
(B) 3t is less typical of literature written by Black Americans during the 1,05s
than is Their Eyes2
(C) 3t is less focused on an ordinary indi'idual4s search for self within a Black
community than is Then #yes.
() 3t denies more aspects of Black American folklore than does Their Eyes.
(#) 3t has recei'ed more attention from feminist and Afrocentric literary critics
than Their Eyes2
,22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2. &hich one of the following pro'ides the clearest e$ample of the kind of fiction
that many Black writers of the 1,05s/ as their 'iews are described in the passage/
belie'ed should be written%
(A) a no'el that focuses on the interrelationships among four generations of Black
women
(B) a historical no'el that re(creates actual e'ents that occurred as Black people
suffered from oppression and racial in<ustice in a small town
(C) a no'el/ based on biographical stories orally relayed to the author as a child/
that describes the de'elopment of traditions in a Black family
() a no'el that e$plores the psychological aspects of a relationship between a
&hite man and a Black man as they work together to organi!e protests
against un<ust working conditions
(#) a no'el that e$amines the different ways in which three Black children
e$perience their first day of school in a rural community
-. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following
statements about the relationship between art and literary criticism%
(A) The long(term reputation of a work of art is less dependent on the response of
literary critics than on the response of readers and authors.
(B) #$perimental works of fiction are usually poorly recei'ed and misunderstood
by literary critics when they are first published.
(C) The response of literary critics to a work of art can be determined by certain
ideological perspecti'es and assumptions about the purpose of art.
() Kiterary critics do not significantly affect the way most people interpret and
appreciate literature.
(#) The ideological bases of a work of art are the first consideration of most
literary critics.
6. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) correct a misconception
(B) e$plain a reassessment
(C) reconcile two points of 'iew
() critici!e a con'entional approach
(#) announce a new disco'ery
Lega cases can be termed "hard" cases f they rase ssues that are hghy
controversa, ssues about whch peope wth ega tranng dsagree. The ongong
debate over the competeness of the aw usuay concerns the extent to whch
such hard cases are egay determnate, or decdabe accordng to exstng aw.
H. L. A. Harts The Conce#t of 'aw s st the cearest and most persuasve
statement of both the standard theory of hard cases and the standard theory of
aw on whch t rests. For Hart the aw conssts of ega rues formuated n genera
LSAT ,2.
terms; these terms he cas "open textured" whch means that they contan a
"core" of setted meanng and a "penumbra" or "perphery" where ther meanng
s not determnate. For exampe, suppose an ordnance prohbts the use of
vehces n a park. "Vehce" has a core of meanng whch ncudes cars and
motorcyces. But, Hart cams, other vehces, such as bcyces, fa wthn the
perphera meanng of "vehce," so that the aw does not estabsh whether they
are prohbted. There w aways be cases not covered by the core meanng of
ega terms wthn exstng aws. Hart consders these cases to be egay
ndetermnate. Snce courts cannot decde such cases on ega grounds, they must
consder nonega (for exampe, mora and potca) grounds, and thereby exercse
|udca dscreton to make, rather than appy aw.
In Ronad Dworkns vew the aw s rcher than Hart woud grant: he denes
that the aw conssts soey of expct rues. The aw aso ncudes prncpes that
do not depend for ther ega status on any pror offca recognton or enactment.
Dworkn cams that many cases ustrate the exstence of ega prncpes that are
dfferent from ega rues and that Harts mode of rues cannot accommodate. For
Dworkn, ega rues appy n an a-or-nothng fashon, whereas ega prncpes do
not; they provde the ratonae for appyng ega rues. Thus, because Dworkn
thnks there s aw n addton to ega rues, he thnks that ega ndetermnacy
and the need for |udca dscreton do not foow from the exstence of open
texture n ega rues.
It woud be a mstake, though, to dspute Harts theory of hard cases on ths
bass aone. If Harts cam about the "open texture" of genera terms s true, then
we shoud expect to fnd ega ndetermnaces even f the aw conssts of
prncpes n addton to rues. Lega prncpes as we as ega rues contan
genera terms that have open texture. And t woud be absurd to suppose that
wherever the meanng of a ega rue s uncear, there s a ega prncpe wth a
cear meanng. Most nterestng and controversa cases w occur n the
penumbra of both rues and prncpes.
,. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The law will ne'er be complete because new situations will always arise
which will re"uire new laws to resol'e them.
(B) The most difficult legal cases are those concerning contro'ersial issues about
which trained legal minds ha'e differing opinions.
(C) The concept of legal principles does not diminish the usefulness of the
concept of the open te$ture of general terms in deciding whether hard cases
are legally determinate.
() The concept of legal principles is a deleterious addition to the theory of law
since any flaws e$hibited by legal rules could also be shared by legal
principles.
(#) The inherent inconsistency of terms used in laws pro'ides a continuing
opportunity for <udges to e$ercise their discretion to correct defect and gaps
,20 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
in the law.
15. According to the passage the term *legal principles+ as used by workin refers to
(A) a comprehensi'e code of ethics that go'erns the beha'ior of professionals in
the legal system
(B) e$plicit analyses of the terms used in legal rules indicating what meanings the
terms do and do not co'er
(C) legal doctrines that underlie and guide the use of accepted legal rules
() legal rules that ha'e not yet passed through the entire legislati'e procedure
necessary for them to become law
(#) the body of legal decisions regarding cases that re"uired <udicial discretion for
their resolution
11. &hich one of the following e$presses a 'iew that the author of the passage would
most probably hold concerning legal principles and legal rules%
(A) Kegal rules are applied more often than legal principles when a case in'ol'es
issues about which legal professionals disagree.
(B) Both legal rules and legal principles are officially recogni!ed as 'alid parts of
the law.
(C) )art4s *model of rules+ has been superseded by a *model of principles+ that
sheds light on legal determinacy.
() Kegal principles are <ust as likely as legal rules to ha'e terms that ha'e both
core and peripheral meanings.
(#) Kegal principles eliminate the need for <udicial discretion in resol'ing the
problems generated by the open te$ture of legal rules.
12. 3n the passage/ the author uses the e$ample of the word *'ehicle+ to
(A) illustrate a legal rule that necessarily has e$ceptions
(B) show how legal principles are applied in the construction of legal rules
(C) represent the core of settled meaning of a legal term
() ser'e as an e$ample of a legal term with both a core and a periphery of
meaning
(#) pro'ide a countere$ample to )art4s concept of the open te$ture of legal terms
1.. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage regards )art4s theory of hard
cases and the theory of standard law as
(A) e$hausti'e
(B) worthy of respect
(C) interesting but impractical
() plausible but unwieldy
(#) hopelessly outmoded
LSAT ,21
10. &hich one of the following is true of the term *legally determinate+ (line 2) as it
is used in the passage%
(A) 3t represents the idea that e'ery crime should ha'e a fi$ed penalty rather than
a range of penalties within which a <udge can make an arbitrary choice.
(B) 3t refers to a legal case that can be definiti'ely resol'ed in fa'or of one side or
the other according to the law in effect at the time.
(C) 3t describes a legal rule that re"uires <udges to limit their actions to applying
written law when deciding cases o'er which people with legal training
disagree.
() 3t refers to any legal case that in'ol'es terms with imprecise meanings and
thus relies for its resolution only on the determination of <udges.
(#) 3t refers to procedures for determining the legal outcome of comple$ issues in
difficult cases.
11. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with
(A) outlining the problems that might be faced by a legislature attempting to
create a complete body of law that would pre'ent <udges from making rather
than applying the law
(B) <ustifying the idea that *hard+ cases will always e$ist in the practice of law/
no matter what laws are written or how they are applied
(C) presenting e'idence to support workin4s idea that legal rules apply in an all(
or(nothing fashion whereas legal principles apply in more sophisticated
ways
() criti"uing the concept of the open te$ture of legal terms as a conceptual flaw
in )art4s otherwise well(regarded book
(#) demonstrating that workin4s concept of legal principles does not form the
basis for a successful attack on )art4s theory of legally indeterminate cases
One way governments can decrease ar pouton s to mpose a tax on
ndustra carbon doxde emssons. But why shoud governments consder a
carbon tax when they coud contro emssons by estabshng energy effcency
and conservaton standards, by egsatng aganst coa use, or by ncreasng
nvestment n nucear? The great vrtue of such a tax s that t woud provde
ncentves for ndustry to acheve emsson reductons. Because o emts more
carbon doxde per unt of energy generated than does natura gas, and coa more
than o, a carbon tax woud vary wth the type of fue. Such a tax woud nduce
ndustry to substtute ess-poutng fues for those carryng a hgher tax and aso
to reduce the tota use of energy
However, t s not cear how hgh such a tax shoud be or what ts economc
and envronmenta mpcatons woud be. At frst gance, t s not dffcut to
estmate roughy the sze of the tax needed to effect a gven eve of emsson
reducton. One wrter estmates, for exampe, that a tax of 41 percent on the prce
of coa, 33 percent on o, and 25 percent on gas woud reduce the Unted
,22 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Kngdoms emssons by 20 percent (usng 1988 as the base year) by the year
2005, the target recommended by the 1988 Toronto Conference. It shoud be
noted, however, that these numbers gnore the effect of the tax on economc
growth, and hence on emssons, and assume that past responses to a prce rse
w be repcated n the future. These numbers are aso based on the assumpton
that a countres w behave cooperatvey n mposng a carbon tax.
There are very strong reasons to beeve that cooperaton woud be dffcut to
wn. If most countres cooperated, then any country that chose not to cooperate
woud be advantaged: t woud have no abatement costs, and the effect on the
envronment of ts defecton woud be reatvey sma. Because of ths "free rder"
effect, cooperaton on a scae needed to reduce carbon doxde emssons mght
prove eusve.
Shoud countres act unateray to curb emssons? If a country were to act
unateray, the benefts woud be spread across the gobe, whereas the costs
woud fa soey on the country takng the acton. The acton woud reduce
emssons gobay, and the effect of ths woud be to reduce the beneft other
countres woud receve f they reduced emssons. As a consequence, other
countres woud have ess ncentve to reduce emssons and woud probaby emt
more carbon doxde than they woud have f the unatera acton had not been
taken. The entre effect of the emsson reducton may not be ost, but t woud
surey be dmnshed by ths free-rdng behavor.
12. According to the passage/ the si!e of the carbon ta$ le'ied on a gi'en fuel would
'ary with the
(A) amount of that fuel used by a particular industry
(B) amount of pollution caused by the fuel being ta$ed
(C) si!e of the industries using the fuel being ta$ed
() effect that the ta$ would ha'e on a country4s economy
(#) number of users of a particular fuel at a particular time
1-. The author mentions the estimates of *8ne writer+ (line 22) primarily in order to
(A) indicate in a general way the si!e that a carbon ta$ must be for it to be
effecti'e
(B) pro'ide the most accurate information a'ailable about the most practical si!e
for a carbon ta$
(C) suggest that the target recommended by the 1,66 Toronto Conference is an
unrealistic one
() undermine the argument that a carbon ta$ would pro'ide incenti'es for user4s
to achie'e emissions reductions
(#) show how the si!e of an effecti'e carbon ta$ can be calculated
16. &hich one of the following circumstances would most seriously undermine the
conclusion *;uch a ta$ would induce industry to substitute less(polluting fuels for
LSAT ,2-
those carrying a higher ta$+ (lines 1.(11)
(A) The fuel ta$ed a the highest rate costs considerably less to buy than fuels
ta$ed at lower rates.
(B) The goal set by the Toronto Conference cannot be reached unless each fuel it
ta$ed at a much higher rate.
(C) The ta$ on coal represents a much greater cost increase than does the ta$ on
oil or gas.
() 3t is disco'ered that gas produces e'en less carbon dio$ide per unit of energy
generated than was pre'iously thought.
(#) 3t is disco'ered that coal produces e'en more carbon dio$ide per unit of
energy generated than are pre'iously thought.
1,. The passage is primarily intended to answer which one of the following
"uestions%
(A) )ow high a ta$ should a country4s go'ernment impose on carbon dio$ide
emissions%
(B) &hat issues should a country4s go'ernment consider before deciding whether
to impose a ta$ on carbon dio$ide emissions%
(C) &hat assumptions underlie a country4s decision to impose a ta$ on carbon
dio$ide emissions%
() )ow can the effects of industrial pollution on the #arth4s atmosphere be
decreased%
(#) &hat can be done to increase the effecti'eness of any ta$ that a country
imposes on carbon dio$ide emissions%
25. 3n response to the "uestion. *;hould countries act unilaterally to curb emissions%+
(lines 00(01) the author would be most likely to contend that a country should
(A) not act unilaterally because/ although that country would recei'e some
benefits from such action/ other countries would most likely be harmed by it
(B) not act unilaterally because unilateral action would ha'e no benefits for other
countries
(C) not act unilaterally because the cost to that country would not be <ustified by
the limited effect that such action would ha'e on industrial pollution
worldwide
() act unilaterally because that country4s economy would benefit from the
resulting reduction in industrial emissions worldwide
(#) act unilaterally because other countries might well be inspired to follow that
country4s e$ample
21. &hich one of the following is most parallel to the *free rider+ effect mentioned in
line 01%
(A) An industry agrees to base itself in a city where there has been little industrial
,26 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
de'elopment only if the city will re!one the specific property the industry
desires.
(B) Because fares for public transportation are rising/ a commuter decides to
bicycle to work rather than to use public transportation in a city where auto
emissions are a problem.
(C) An apartment dweller begins to recycle newspapers e'en though no one else
in the building does so and recycling is not re"uired by law.
() 3n an area where groundwater has become polluted/ a homeowner continues
to buy bottled water rather than contribute to a neighborhood fund to combat
pollution.
(#) 3n an area where o'ergra!ing is a se'ere problem/ a shepherd allows his sheep
to continue gra!ing common field e'en though his neighbors ha'e agreed to
buy feed for their animals until regrowth occurs.
Some meteoroogsts have nssted that the severty of the drought n sub-
Saharan West Afrca and ts ong duraton (neary 40 years to date) must be a sgn
of a ong term ateraton n cmate. Among the theores proposed to expan ths
change, one hypothess that has ganed wdespread attenton attrbutes the
drought to a coong of the Northern Hemsphere. Ths hypothess s based on the
fact that between 1945 and the eary 1970s, the average annua ar temperatures
over the andmasses of the Northern Hemsphere decreased by about haf a
degree Fahrenhet (approxmatey one quarter of a degree Cesus-a sma but
sgnfcant amount). Severa meteoroogsts have suggested that ths coong was
caused by an ncrease n atmospherc dust emanatng from vocanc eruptons and
from urban and ndustra pouton: the dust refected ncomng sunght, causng
the ground to receve ess soar radaton and to transfer ess heat to the
atmosphere. The coong seemed to be more pronounced n the mdde and hgh
attudes than n the tropcs, an observaton that s consstent wth the fact that
the Suns rays enter the atmosphere at a greater ange farther north and so have
to pass through more dust-aden atmosphere on the way to the Earth.
Snce wnds are set n moton by dfferences n ar pressure caused by unequa
heatng of the atmosphere, supporters of the coong hypothess have argued that
a growng temperature dfferenta between the unusuay coo mdde and hgh
attudes and the warm tropca attudes s causng a southward expanson of the
crcumpoar vortex-the hgh-attude westery wnds that crce the Northern
Hemsphere at mdde attudes. Accordng to ths hypothess, as the crcumpoar
vortex expands, t forces south other components of arge-scae atmospherc
crcuaton and n effect dspaces the northward-movng monsoon that ordnary
brngs sub-Saharan ran. Proponents have further argued that ths change n
atmospherc crcuaton mght be ong-term snce coong n the Northern
Hemsphere coud be perpetuated by ncreases n ce and snow coverage there,
whch woud ead to refecton of more sunght away from the Earth, to further
coong, and, ndrecty, to further drought n sub-Saharan West Afrca.
LSAT ,2,
Despte these are predctons and even though the current Afrcan drought
has asted onger than any other n ths century, the noton that the drought s
caused by coong of the Northern Hemsphere s, n fact, not we supported.
Contrary to the predctons of the coong hypothess, durng one perod of rapd
Northern Hemsphere coong n the eary 1950s, the sub-Sahara was unusuay
rany. Moreover, n the eary 1980s, when the drought was partcuary severe,
Northern Hemsphere ands actuay warmed sghty. And further doubt has been
cast on the hypothess by recent anayses suggestng that, when surface
temperatures of water as we as and are taken nto account, the Northern
Hemsphere may not have cooed at a.
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) There is strong e'idence to support the theory that an increase in atmospheric
dust has contributed to the se'erity of the drought in sub(;aharan &est
Africa.
(B) The suggestion that 9orthern )emisphere cooling is contributing to a decline
of rainfall in sub(;aharan &est Africa is open to "uestion.
(C) The e$pansion of the circumpolar 'orte$ has caused a dramatic shift in the
atmospheric circulation patterns abo'e sub(;aharan &est Africa.
() The drought in sub(;aharan &est Africa represents a long(term permanent
alteration in global climate patterns.
(#) ?eteorologists cannot determine when the drought in sub(;aharan &est
Africa is likely to end.
2.. The author4s attitude toward the cooling hypothesis is best described as one of
(A) 'ehement opposition
(B) cautious skepticism
(C) growing ambi'alence
() guarded enthusiasm
(#) strong support
20. According to the passage proponents of the cooling hypothesis suggested that the
circumpolar 'orte$ is likely to e$pand when which one of the following occurs%
(A) The a'erage annual atmospheric temperature of the tropics is significantly
higher than normal for an e$tended period of time.
(B) The a'erage annual snowfall in the 9orthern )emisphere is lower than
normal for an e$tended period of time.
(C) The a'erage annual surface temperature of 9orthern )emisphere waters is
higher than the a'erage annual surface temperature of 9orthern )emisphere
landmasses.
() There is a significant increase in the difference between the a'erage annual
atmospheric temperature of the tropics and that of the more northern
,-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
latitudes.
(#) There is a significant increase in the difference between the a'erage annual
atmospheric temperatures of the middle and the high latitudes in the
9orthern )emisphere.
21. &hich one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the a'erage
annual temperature of the air o'er 9orthern )emisphere landmasses before 1,01%
(A) 3t was higher than it was between 1,01 and the early 1,-5s.
(B) 3t was lower than it was during the early 1,65s.
(C) 3t was the same as it was between 1,01 and the early 1,-5s.
() 3t was the same as the annual a'erage surface temperature of 9orthern
)emisphere landmasses and bodies of water between 1,01 and the early
1,-5s.
(#) 3t was higher than the annual a'erage surface temperature of 9orthern
)emisphere landmasses and bodies of water between 1,01 and the early
1,-5s.
22. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) 8pposing points of 'iew are presented/ e'idence supporting each point of
'iew is discussed/ and then one point of 'iew is de'eloped into a formal
hypothesis.
(B) A theory is discussed and different points of 'iew about the theory are
discussed/ supported and then reconciled.
(C) A hypothesis is proposed/ contradictory e'idence is discussed and then the
hypothesis is amended.
() A theory e$plaining a phenomenon is proposed/ supporting e'idence is
considered and then the theory is disputed.
(#) A point of 'iew is presented/ a theory supporting the 'iew is proposed/
contradictory e'idence is presented and then a different theory is proposed.
2-. A proponent of the cooling hypothesis would most likely argue that the return of
the monsoon rains to sub(;aharan &est Africa would indicate that which one of
the following has also occurred%
(A) The amount of ice and snow co'erage o'er the landmasses of the 9orthern
)emisphere has increased.
(B) The a'erage annual temperature of the atmosphere o'er the middle and high
latitudes of the 9orthern )emisphere has decreased.
(C) The a'erage annual temperature of the atmosphere o'er the tropics in the
9orthern )emisphere has increased.
() 8ther components of large(scale atmospheric circulation besides the
circumpolar 'orte$ ha'e e$panded and mo'ed southward.
(#) The atmospheric circulation pattern of the high(altitude westerly winds has
LSAT ,-1
resumed its normal pattern.
LSAT 23 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Wherever the crme noves of P. D. |ames are dscussed by crtcs, there s a
tendency on the one hand to exaggerate her merts and on the other to castgate
her as a genre wrter who s gettng above hersef. Perhaps underyng the debate
s that famar, fase opposton set up between dfferent knds of fcton,
accordng to whch en|oyabe noves are hed to be somehow sghty owbrow, and
a nove s not consdered true terature uness t s a tny bt du.
Those commentators who woud eevate |ames books to the status of hgh
terature pont to her panstakngy constructed characters, her eaborate
settngs, her sense of pace, and her ove of abstractons: notons about moraty,
duty, pan, and peasure are never far from the ps of her poce offcers and
murderers. Others fnd her pretentous and tresome; an nverted snobbery
accuses her of abandonng the tme-honored conventons of the detectve genre
n favor of a hghbrow terary stye. The crtc Harret Waugh wants P. D. |ames to
get on wth "the more taxng busness of ayng a trcky tra and then foong the
reader"; Php Oakes n The 'iterary *eview groans, "Coud we pease proceed
wth the busness of cappng the handcuffs on the ker?"
|ames s certany capabe of strkngy good wrtng. She takes mmense
troube to provde her characters wth convncng hstores and passons. Her
descrptve dgressons are part of the peasure of her books and gve them dgnty
and weght. But t s equay true that they frequenty nterfere wth the story; the
patnas and aromas of a country ktchen receve more ovng attenton than does
the pot tsef. Her devces to advance the story can be shameess and thn, and t
s often mpossbe to see how her detectve arrves at the truth; one s eft to
concude that the detectve soves crmes through ntuton. At ths stage n her
career P. D. |ames seems to be ess nterested n the specfcs of detecton than n
her characters vunerabtes and perpextes.
However, once the rues of a chosen genre cramp creatve thought, there s
no reason why an abe and nterestng wrter shoud accept them. In her atest
book, there are sgns that |ames s begnnng to fee constraned by the crme-
nove genre, here her determnaton to eave areas of ambguty n the souton of
the crme and to dstrbute gut among the murderer, vctm, and bystanders
ponts to conscous rebeon aganst the tradtona neatness of detectve fcton.
,-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
It s fashonabe, though reprehensbe, for one wrter to prescrbe to another. But
perhaps the tme has come for P. D. |ames to sde out of her handcuffs and strde
nto the terrtory of the manstream nove.
1. &hich one the following best states the author4s main conclusion%
(A) Because @. . Aames4s potential as a writer is stifled by her chosen genre/ she
should turn her talents toward writing mainstream no'els.
(B) Because the re"uirements of the popular no'el are incompatible with true
creati'e e$pression/ @. . Aames4s promise as a serious author has been
diminished.
(C) The dichotomy between popular and sophisticated literature is well illustrated
in the crime no'els of @. . Aames.
() The critics who ha'e condemned @. . Aames4s lack of attention to the
specifics of detection fail to take into account her carefully constructed plots.
(#) Although her plots are not always neatly resol'ed/ the beauty of her
descripti'e passages <ustifies @. . Aames4s decision to write in the crime(
no'el genre.
2. The author refers to the *patinas and aromas of a county kitchen+ line .2) most
probably in order to
(A) illustrate Aames4s gift for inno'ati'e phrasing
(B) highlight Aames4s interest in rural society
(C) allow the reader to e$perience the pleasure of Aames4s books
() e$plain how Aames typically constructs her plots
(#) e$emplify Aames4s preoccupation with descripti'e writing
.. The second paragraph ser'es primarily to
(A) propose an alternati'e to two e$treme opinions described earlier
(B) present pre'iously mentioned positions in greater detail
(C) contradict an assertion cited pre'iously
() introduce a contro'ersial interpretation
(#) analy!e a dilemma in greater depth
0. The passage supports which one of the following statements about detecti'e
fiction%
(A) There are as many different detecti'e(no'el con'entions as there are writers
of crime no'els.
(B) etecti'e fiction has been characteri!ed by e$tremely high literary "uality.
(C) etecti'e fiction has been largely ignored by literary critics.
() There is 'ery little agreement among critics about the basic elements of
typical detecti'e no'el.
(#) &riters of detecti'e fiction ha'e customarily followed certain con'entions in
LSAT ,-.
constructing their no'els.
1. The passage suggests that both &augh and 8akes consider Aames4s no'els to ha'e
(A) too much material that is e$traneous to the solution of the crime
(B) too little characteri!ation to enable the reader to sol'e the crime
(C) too few suspects to generate suspense
() too simple a plot to hold the attention of the reader
(#) too con'oluted a plot for the reader to understand
2. 3t can be inferred from the passage that/ in the author4s 'iew/ traditional detecti'e
fiction is characteri!ed by
(A) concern for the weaknesses and doubts of the characters
(B) transparent de'ices to ad'ance the plot
(C) the attribution of intuition to the detecti'e
() the straightforward assignment of culpability for the crime
(#) attention to the concepts of morality and responsibility
-. The author characteri!es the position of some critics as *in'erted snobbery+ (line
1-) because they hold which one of the following 'iews%
(A) Critics of literature must acknowledge that they are less talented than creators
of literature.
(B) Critics should hesitate to disparage popular authors.
(C) @. . Aames4s no'els should focus less on characters from the #nglish landed
gentry.
() etecti'e fiction should be content to remain an unambiguous literary genre.
(#) @. . Aames should be less fastidious bout portraying 'iolence.
6. &hich one of the follow "uotations about literature best e$emplifies the
*familiar+ attitude mentioned in lines 1(,%
(A) *The fantasy and whimsy characteristic of this writer4s no'els "ualify them as
truly great works of literature.+
(B) *The greatest work of early #nglish literature happens to be a highly
humorous collection of tales.+
(C) A truly great work of literature should place demand upon its readers/ rather
than di'ert them.+
() *Although many critics are condescending about best(selling no'els/ 3 would
not wish to challenge the opinion of millions of readers.+
(#) *A no'el need only satisfy the re"uirements of its particular genre to be
considered a true work of literature.+
Many Natve Amercans vew the archaeoogca excavaton and museum
dspay of ancestra skeeta remans and tems bured wth them as a sprtua
,-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
desecraton. A number of ega remedes that ether prohbt or reguate such
actvtes may be avaabe to Natve Amercan communtes, f they can estabsh
standng n such cases. In dsnterment cases, courts have tradtonay affrmed
the standng of three casses of pantffs: the deceaseds hers, the owner of the
property on whch the grave s ocated, and partes, ncudng organzatons or
dstant reatves of the deceased, that have a cear nterest n the preservaton of
a partcuar grave. If an archaeoogcay dscovered grave s of recent hstorca
orgn and assocated wth an dentfabe Natve Amercan communty, Natve
Amercans are key to estabsh standng n a sut to prevent dsnterment of the
remans, but n cases where the grave s ancent and ocated n an area where the
communty of Natve Amercans assocated wth the grave has not recenty ved,
they are ess key to be successfu n ths regard. Indeed, n most cases nvovng
ancent graves, to recognze that Natve Amercans have standng woud
represent a sgnfcant expanson of common aw. In cases where standng can be
acheved, however, common aw may provde a bass for some Natve Amercan
cams aganst archaeoogsts and museums.
Property aw, for exampe, can be usefu n estabshng Natve Amercan
cams to artfacts that are retreved n the excavaton of ancent graves and can
be consdered the communa property of Natve Amercan trbes or communtes.
In Charrier v. Bell, a Unted States appeate court rued that the common aw
doctrne of abandonment, whch aows the fnder of abandoned property to cam
ownershp, does not appy to ob|ects bured wth the deceased. The court rued
that the practce of buryng tems wth the body of the deceased "s not ntended
as a means of renqushng ownershp to a stranger" and that to nterpret t as
such "coud render a grave sub|ect to despoaton ether mmedatey after
nterment or.after remova of the descendants of the deceased from the
neghborhood of the cemetery." Ths rung suggests that artfacts excavated from
Natve Amercan ancestra graves shoud be returned to representatves of trba
groups who can estabsh standng n such cases.
More generay, Unted Sates courts have uphed the dstncton between
ndvdua and communa property, hodng that an ndvdua Natve Amercan
does not have tte to communa property owned and hed for common use by hs
or her trbe. As a resut, museums cannot assume that they have vad tte to
cutura property merey because they purchased n good fath an tem that was
orgnay sod n good fath by an ndvdua member of a Natve Amercan
communty.
,. The primary purpose of the passage is to pro'ide an answer to which one of the
following "uestions%
(A) )ow should the legal protection of 9ati'e American burial grounds be
enhanced%
(B) &hat characteristics of 9ati'e American burial grounds enhance their
chances for protection by the law%
LSAT ,-1
(C) 3n what ways does the law protect the rights of 9ati'e Americans in regards
to the contents of ancestral gra'es%
() &hy are the courts concerned with protecting 9ati'e American burial
grounds from desecration%
(#) By what means can 9ati'e Americans establish their rights to land on which
their ancestors are buried%
15. 3t can be inferred that a court would be most likely to deny standing in a
disinterment case to which one of the following 9ati'e American plaintiffs%
(A) one who seeks/ as one of se'eral beneficiaries of his father4s estate/ to protect
the father4s burial site
(B) one who seeks to pre'ent tenants on her land from taking artifacts from a
gra'e located on the property
(C) one who represents a tribe whose members hope to pre'ent the disinterment
of remains from a distant location from which the tribe recently mo'ed
() one who seeks to ha'e artifacts that ha'e been remo'ed from a gra'e
determined to be that of her second cousin returned to the gra'e
(#) one who seeks the return of artifacts taken from the ancient burial grounds of
disparate tribes and now displayed in a museum
11. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of cases in'ol'ing
ancient gra'es%
(A) 8nce a plaintiff4s standing has been established/ such cases are usually more
difficult to resol'e than are cases in'ol'ing more recent gra'es.
(B) The distinction between indi'idual and communal property is usually an issue
in such cases.
(C) #'en when a plaintiff4s standing has been established/ property law cannot be
used as a basis for the claims of 9ati'e Americans in most such cases.
() 3n most such cases/ common law does not currently pro'ide a clear basis for
establishing that 9ati'e Americans ha'e standing.
(#) Common law is rarely used as a basis for the claims of 9ati'e Americans who
ha'e established standing in such cases.
12. The passage suggests that in making the ruling in Charrier $2 %ell the court is
most likely to ha'e considered the answer to which one of the following
"uestions%
(A) Are the descendants of the deceased still ali'e%
(B) &hat was the reason for burying the ob<ects in "uestion%
(C) )ow long after interment had buried ob<ects been claimed by stranger%
() id the descendants of the deceased remain in the neighborhood of the
cemetery%
(#) Could the property on which buried ob<ects were found be legally considered
,-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
to be abandoned property%
1.. The author uses the second paragraph to
(A) illustrate the contention that common law may support the claims of 9ati'e
Americans to the contents of ancestral gra'es
(B) e$emplify the difficulties that 9ati'e Americans are likely to encounter in
claiming ancestral remains
(C) introduce a discussion of the distinction between indi'idual and communal
property
() confirm the contention that cases in'ol'ing ancient gra'es present unresol'ed
legal problems
(#) suggest that property law is applicable in most disinterment cases
10. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) @rior to an appellate court4s ruling in Charrier $2 %ell/ 9ati'e Americans had
no legal grounds for demanding the return of artifacts e$ca'ated from
ancient gra'es.
(B) @roperty law offers the most promising remedies to 9ati'e Americans
seeking to reco'er communally owned artifacts that were sold to museums
without tribal authori!ation.
(C) The older the gra'e/ the more difficult it is for 9ati'e Americans to establish
standing in cases concerning the disposition of archaeologically e$ca'ated
ancestral remains.
() 3n cases in which 9ati'e Americans can establish standing/ common law can
be useful in protecting ancestral remains and the artifacts buried with them.
(#) 9ati'e Americans are unlikely to make significant progress in the reco'ery of
cultural property until common law is significantly e$panded to pro'ide
them with standing in cases in'ol'ing the e$ca'ation of ancient gra'es.
When the same habtat types (forests, oceans, grassands etc.) n regons of
dfferent attudes are compared, t becomes apparent that the overa number of
speces ncreases from poe to equator. Ths attudna gradent s probaby even
more pronounced than current records ndcate, snce researchers beeve that
most undscovered speces ve n the tropcs.
One hypothess to expan ths phenomenon, the "tme theory" hods that
dverse speces adapted to todays cmatc condtons have had more tme to
emerge n the tropca regons, whch, unke the temperate and arctc zones, have
been unaffected by a successon of ce ages. However, ce ages have caused ess
dsrupton n some temperate regons than n others and have not nterrupted
arctc condtons.
Aternatvey, the speces-energy hypothess proposes the foowng postve
correatons: ncomng energy from the Sun correated wth rates of growth and
reproducton; rates of growth and reproducton wth the amount of vng matter
LSAT ,--
(bomass) at a gven moment; and the amount of bomass wth number of speces.
However, snce organsms may de rapdy, hgh producton rates can exst wth
ow bomass. And hgh bomass can exst wth few speces. Moreover, the
mechansm proposed-greater energy nfux eadng to bgger popuatons,
thereby owerng the probabty of oca extncton-remans untested.
A thrd hypothess centers on the tropcs cmatc stabty, whch provdes a
more reabe suppy of resources. Speces can thus survve even wth few types of
food, and competng speces can toerate greater overap between ther
respectve nches. Both capabtes enabe more speces to exst on the same
resources. However, the ecoogy of oca communtes cannot account for the
orgn of the attudna gradent. Locazed ecoogca processes such as
competton do not generate regona poos of speces, and t s the tota number
of speces avaabe regonay for coonzng any partcuar area that makes the
dfference between, for exampe, a forest at the equator and one at hgher
attude.
A fourth and most pausbe hypothess focuses on regona specaton, and n
partcuar on rates of specaton and extncton. Accordng to ths hypothess, f
specaton rates become hgher toward the tropcs, and are not negated by
extncton rates, then the attudna gradent woud resut-and become
ncreasngy steep.
The mechansm for ths rate-of-specaton hypothess s that most new anma
speces, and perhaps pant speces, arse because a popuaton subgroup becomes
soated. Ths subgroup evoves dfferenty and eventuay cannot nterbreed wth
members of the orgna popuaton. The uneven spread of a speces over a arge
geographc area promotes ths mechansm: at the edges, sma popuatons
spread out and form soated groups. Snce subgroups n an arctc envronment
are more key to face extncton than those n the tropcs, the atter are more
key to survve ong enough to adapt to oca condtons and utmatey become
new speces.
11. &hich one of the following most accurately e$pressed the main idea of the
passage%
(A) At present/ no single hypothesis e$plaining the latitudinal gradient in numbers
of species is more widely accepted than any other.
(B) The tropical climate is more conducti'e to promoting species di'ersity than
are arctic or temperate climates.
(C) ;e'eral e$planations ha'e been suggested for global patterns in species
distribution/ but a hypothesis in'ol'ing rates of speciation seems most
promising.
() espite their differences/ the 'arious hypotheses regarding a latitudinal
gradient in species di'ersity concur in prediction that the gradient can be
e$pected to increase.
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(#) 3n distinguishing among the current hypotheses for distribution of species/ the
most important criterion is whether a hypothesis proposes a mechanism that
can be tested and 'alidated.
12. &hich one of the following situations is most consistent with the species(energy
hypothesis as described in the passage%
(A) The many plants in a large agricultural tract represent a limited range of
species.
(B) An animal species e$periences a death rate almost as rapid as its rate of
growth and reproduction.
(C) &ithin the small number of li'ing organisms in a desert habitat/ many
different species are represented.
() 3n a tropical rain forest/ a species with a large population is found to e$hibit
instances of local e$tinction.
(#) 3n an arctic tundra/ the plants and animals e$hibit a slow rate of growth and
reproduction.
1-. As presented in the passage/ the principles of the time theory most strongly
support which one of the following predictions%
(A) 3n the absence of additional ice ages/ the number of species at high latitudes
could e'entually increase significantly.
(B) 9o future ice ages are likely to change the climatic conditions that currently
characteri!e temperate regions.
(C) 3f no further ice ages occur/ climatic conditions at high latitudes might
e'entually resemble those at today4s tropical latitudes.
() =esearchers will continue to find many more new species in the tropics than
in the arctic and temperate !ones.
(#) >uture ice ages are likely to interrupt the climatic conditions that now
characteri!e high(latitude regions.
16. &hich one of the following/ if true/ most clearly weakens the rate(of(speciation
hypothesis as it is described in the passage%
(A) A remote subgroup of a tropical species is reunited with the original
population and pro'es unable to interbreed with members of this original
population.
(B) 3n'estigation of a small area of a tropical rain forest re'eals that many
competing species are able to coe$ist on the same range of resources.
(C) A correlation between higher energy influ$/ larger populations and lower
probability of local e$tinction is definiti'ely established.
() =esearchers find more undisco'ered species during an in'estigation of an
arctic region than they had anticipated.
(#) ?ost of the isolated subgroups of mammalian life within a tropical !one are
LSAT ,-,
found to e$perience rapid e$tinction.
1,. &hich one of the following inferences about the biological characteristics of a
temperate(!one grassland is most strongly supported by the passage%
(A) 3t has more different species than does a tropical(!one forest.
(B) 3ts climatic conditions ha'e been se'erely interrupted in the past by
succession of ice ages.
(C) 3f it has a large amount of biomass/ it also has a large number of different
species.
() 3t has a larger regional pool of species than does an arctic grassland.
(#) 3f population groups become isolated at its edges/ they are likely to adapt to
local conditions and become new species.
25. &ith which one of the following statements concerning possible e$planations for
the latitudinal gradient in number of species would the author be most likely to
agree%
(A) The time theory is the least plausible of proposed hypotheses/ since it does
not correctly assess the impact of ice ages upon tropical conditions.
(B) The rate(of(speciation hypothesis addresses a principal ob<ection to the
climatic(stability hypothesis.
(C) The ma<or ob<ection to the time theory is that it does not accurately reflect the
degree to which the latitudinal gradient e$ists/ especially when undisco'ered
species are taken into account.
() espite the claims of the species(energy hypothesis/ a high rate of biological
growth and reproduction is more likely to e$ist with low biomass than with
high biomass.
(#) An important ad'antage of the rate(of(speciation theory is that it considers
species competition in a regional rather than local conte$t.
Two mpressve studes have reexamned Erc Wams concuson that
Brtans aboton of the save trade n 1807 and ts emancpaton of savers n ts
coones n 1834 were drven prmary by economc rather than humantaran
motves. Bghted by depeted so, ndebtedness, and the neffcency of coerced
abor, these coones, accordng to Wams, had by 1807 become an mpedment
to Brtsh economc progress.
Seymour Drescher provdes a more baanced vew. Re|ectng nterpretatons
based ether on economc nterest or the mora vson of abotonsts, Drescher
has reconstructed the popust characterstcs of Brtsh abotonsm, whch
appears to have cut across nes of cass, party, and regon. Notng that between
1780 and 1830 antsavery pettons outnumbered those on any other ssue,
ncudng paramentary reform, Drescher concudes that such support cannot be
expaned by economc nterest aone, especay when much of t came from the
unenfranchsed masses. Yet, asde from demonstratng that such support must
,65 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
have resuted at east n part from wdespread teracy and a tradton of potca
actvsm, Drescher does not fnay expan how Engand, a naton deepy dvded
by cass strugges, coud mobze popuar support for antsavery measures
proposed by otherwse conservatve potcans n the House of Lords and
approved there wth tte dssent.
Davd Ets answer to that queston actuay supports some of Wams
nsghts. Eschewng Drescher s deazaton of Brtsh tradtons of berty, Ets
ponts to contnung use of ow wages and Draconan vagrancy aws n the
seventeenth and eghteenth centures to ensure the ndustrousness of Brtsh
workers. Indeed, certan notabes even caed for the ensavement of unempoyed
aborers who roamed the Brtsh countrysde-an acceptance of coerced abor that
Ets attrbutes to a prendustra desre to keep abor costs ow and exports
compettve. By the ate eghteenth century, however, a growng home market
began to aert captasts to the mportance of "want creaton" and to ncentves
such as hgher wages as a means of ncreasng both worker productvty and the
number of consumers.
Sgnfcanty, t was products grown by saves, such as sugar, coffee, and
tobacco, that stmuated new wants at a eves of Brtsh socety and were the
forerunners of products ntended n modern captast socetes to satsfy what
Ets descrbes as "nonsubsstence or psychoogca needs." Ets concudes that n
economy that had begun to rey on vountary abor to satsfy such needs, forced
abor necessary began to appear both napproprate and counterproductve to
empoyers. Ets thus concudes that, whe Wams may we have
underestmated the economc vabty of the Brtsh coones empoyng forced
abor n the eary 1800s, hs nsght nto the economc motves for aboton was
party accurate. Brtsh eaders became commtted to coona abor reform ony
when they became convnced, for reasons other than those cted by Wams, that
free abor was more benefca to the mpera economy.
21. &hich one of the following best describes the main idea of the passage%
(A) Although they disagree about the degree to which economic moti'es
influenced Britain4s abolition of sla'ery/ rescher and #ltis both concede
that moral persuasion by abolitionists was a significant factor.
(B) Although both rescher and #ltis ha'e "uestioned &illiams4 analysis of the
moti'ation behind Britain4s abolition of sla'ery/ there is support for part of
&illiams4 conclusion.
(C) Because he has taken into account the populist characteristics of British
abolitionism/ rescher4s e$planation of what moti'ated Britain4s abolition of
sla'ery is finally more persuasi'e than that of #ltis.
() 9either #ltis nor rescher has succeeded in e$plaining why support for
Britain4s abolition of sla'ery appears to ha'e cut across lines of party/ class/
and religion.
(#) Although flawed in certain respects/ &illiams4s conclusions regarding the
LSAT ,61
economic condition of British sla'e colonies early in the nineteenth century
ha'e been largely 'indicated.
22. 3t can be inferred that #ltis cites the 'iews of *certain notables+ (line .1) in order
to
(A) support the claim that British traditions of liberty were not as strong as
rescher belie'ed them to be
(B) support the contention that a strong labor force was important to Britain4s
economy
(C) emphasi!e the importance of sla'ery as an institution in preindustrial Britain
() indicate that the laboring classes pro'ided little support for the abolition of
sla'ery
(#) establish that laborers in preindustrial Britain had few ci'il rights
2.. &hich one of the following best states &illiams4 'iew of the primary reason for
Britain4s abolition of the sla'e trade and the emancipation of sla'es in its
colonies%
(A) British populism appealed to people of 'aried classes/ parties/ and religions.
(B) Both capitalists and workers in Britain accepted the moral precepts of
abolitionists.
(C) >orced labor in the colonies could not produce enough goods to satisfy
British consumers.
() The operation of colonies based on forced labor was no longer economically
ad'antageous.
(#) British workers became con'inced that forced labor in the colonies pre'ented
paid workers from recei'ing higher wages.
20. According to #ltis/ low wages and raconian 'agrancy laws in Britain in the
se'enteenth and eighteenth centuries were intended to
(A) protect laborers against unscrupulous employment practices
(B) counter the mo'e to ensla'e unemployed laborers
(C) ensure a cheap and producti'e work force
() ensure that the work force e$perienced no unemployment
(#) ensure that products produced in British colonies employing forced labor
could compete effecti'ely with those produced in Britain
21. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage 'iews rescher4s presentation of
British traditions concerning liberty as
(A) accurately stated
(B) somewhat unrealistic
(C) carefully researched
() unnecessarily tentati'e
,62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(#) superficially con'incing
22. The information in the passage suggests that #ltis and rescher agree that
(A) people of all classes in Britain supported the abolition of sla'ery
(B) the moti'es behind Britain4s abolition of sla'ery were primarily economic
(C) the moral 'ision of abolitionists played a 'ital part in Britain4s abolition of
sla'ery
() British traditions of liberty ha'e been ideali!ed by historians
(#) Britain4s tradition of political acti'ism was primarily responsible for Britain4s
abolition of sla'ery
2-. According to the passage/ #ltis argues against which one of the following
contentions%
(A) @opular support for antisla'ery measures e$isted in Britain in the early
nineteenth century.
(B) 3n the early nineteenth century/ colonies that employed forced labor were still
economically 'iable.
(C) British 'iews concerning personal liberty moti'ated nineteenth(century
British opposition to sla'ery.
() &idespread literacy in Britain contributed to public opposition to sla'ery in
the early nineteenth century.
(#) Antisla'ery measures proposed by conser'ati'e politicians in the early
nineteenth century met with little opposition.
LSAT 2( SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The career of trumpeter Mes Davs was one of the most astonshngy
productve that |azz musc has ever seen. Yet hs genus has never receved ts
due. The mpatence and artstc restessness that characterzed hs work spawned
one stystc turn after another and made Davs anathema to many crtcs, who
depored hs abandonment frst of bebop and then of "coo" acoustc |azz for ever
more nnovatve sounds.
Havng begun hs career studyng bebop, Davs pued the frst of many
stystc surprses when, n 1948, he became a member of an mpromptu musca
thnk tank that gathered n a New York Cty apartment. The work of ths group not
ony sowed down tempos and featured ensembe payng as much as or even
LSAT ,6.
more than soos-n drect reacton to bebop-t aso became the seedbed for the
"West Coast coo" |azz stye.
In what woud become a characterstc zgzag, Davs ddnt foow up on these
nnovatons hmsef. Instead, n the ate 1950s he formed a new band that broke
free from |azzs restrctve pattern of chord changes. Soosts coud determne the
shapes of ther meodes wthout referrng back to the same unvaryng repetton
of chords. In ths perod, Davs attempted to |on |azz phrasngs, harmones, and
tona quates wth a unfed and ntegrated sound smar to that of a cassca
orchestra pece: n hs recordngs the rhythms, no matter how |azzke, are aways
understated, and the nstrumenta vocngs seem muted.
Davss recordngs from the ate 1960s sgna that, once agan, hs drecton
was changng. On Filles de 0iliman=aro, Davss request that keyboardst Herbe
Hancock pay eectrc rather than acoustc pano caused consternaton among |azz
pursts of the tme. Other abums featured rock-stye beats, heavy eectronc
nstrumentaton, a oose mprovsatona attack and a growng use of studo
edtng to create |agged soundscapes. By 1969 Davss typca studo procedure
was to have muscans mprovse from a base scrpt of matera and then to bud
fnshed peces out of tape, ke a move drector. Rock groups had poneered the
process; to |azz overs, rased on the dea of ve mprovsaton, that approach was
a voaton of the premse that recordngs shoud smpy document the muscans
thought processes n rea tme. Davs agan became the target of ferce poemcs
by purst |azz crtcs, who have contnued to bette hs contrbutons to |azz.
What probaby underes the ntensty of the reactons aganst Davs s fear of
the broadenng of possbtes that he exempfed. Ironcay, he was smpy dong
what |azz exporers have aways done: reachng for somethng new that was hs
own. But because hs career endured, because he ddnt de young or record ony
sporadcay, and because he refused to dwe n whatever nche he had prevousy
carved out, crtcs fnd t dffcut to defntvey rank Davs n the aesthetc
herarchy to whch they cng.
1. &hich one of the following best states the main point the passage%
(A) Because the career of ?iles a'is was characteri!ed by fre"uent shifts in
styles/ he ne'er fulfilled his musical potential.
(B) Because the career of ?iles a'is does not fit neatly into their
preconceptions about the life and music of <a!! musicians/ <a!! critics ha'e
not accorded him the appreciation he deser'es.
(C) Because the career of ?iles a'is was unusually long and producti'e/ he
ne'er recei'ed the popular acclaim generally reser'ed for artists with more
tragic life histories.
() The long and producti'e career of ?iles a'is spawned most of the ma<or
stylistic changes affecting twentieth(century <a!!.
(#) ?iles a'is4 'ersatility and openness ha'e inspired the admiration of most
,60 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
<a!! critics.
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following true of the *&est Coast
cool+ <a!! style%
(A) 3t was populari!ed by ?iles a'is.
(B) 3t was characteri!ed by a unified and integrated sound.
(C) 3t was played primarily by large ensembles.
() 3t introduced a wide 'ariety of chord change patterns.
(#) 3t grew out of inno'ations de'eloped in 9ew Hork City.
.. The passage suggests which one of the following about the kind of <a!! played by
?iles a'is prior to 1,06%
(A) 3t was characteri!ed by rapid tempos and an emphasis on solo playing.
(B) 3t e"ually balanced ensemble and solo playing.
(C) 3t was a reaction against more restricti'e <a!! styles.
() 3t is regarded by purist <a!! critics as the only authentic <a!! style.
(#) 3t was played primarily in 9ew Hork City <a!! clubs.
0. &hich one of the following best describes the author4s attitude toward ?iles
a'is4 music%
(A) uneasy ambi'alence
(B) cautious neutrality
(C) grudging respect
() moderate commendation
(#) appreciati'e ad'ocacy
1. &hich one of the following creati'e processes is most similar to ?iles a'is4
typical studio procedure of the late 1,25s/ as described in the fourth paragraph of
the passage%
(A) The producer of a tele'ision comedy show suggests a setting and general
topic for a comedy sketch and then lets the comedians write their own script.
(B) An actor digresses from the written script and impro'ises during a monologue
in order to introduce a feeling of spontaneity to the performance.
(C) A conductor rehearses each section of the orchestra separately before
assembling them to rehearse the entire piece together.
() An artist has se'eral photographers take pictures pertaining to a certain
assigned theme and then assembles them into a pictorial collage.
(#) A teacher has each student in a writing class write an essay on an assigned
topic and then submits the best essays to be considered for publication in a
<ournal.
2. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most undermine the author4s
LSAT ,61
e$planation for the way ?iles a'is is regarded by <a!! critics%
(A) ?any <a!! musicians who speciali!e in impro'isational playing are greatly
admired by <a!! critics.
(B) ?any <a!! musicians whose careers ha'e been characteri!ed by se'eral
radical changes in style are greatly admired by <a!! critics.
(C) ;e'eral <a!! musicians who perform e$clusi'ely on electronic instruments are
'ery highly regarded by <a!! critics.
() The <a!! inno'ators who are held in the highest regard by <a!! critics had
brief yet brilliant careers.
(#) Aa!! critics are known to ha'e a higher regard for musicality than for mere
technical 'irtuosity.
By the md-fourteenth century, professona assocatons of canon awyers
(ega advocates n Chrstan eccesastca courts, whch deat wth cases nvovng
marrage, nhertance, and other ssues) had appeared n most of Western Europe,
and a body of professona standards had been defned for them. One mght
expect that the professona assocatons woud pay a promnent roe n enforcng
these standards of conduct, as other guds often dd, and as modern professona
assocatons do, but that seems not to have happened. Advocates professona
organzatons showed tte fervor for dscpnng ther errng members. Some
even attempted to hobbe efforts at enforcement. The Forentne gud of awyers,
for exampe, forbade ts members to pay any roe n dscpnary proceedngs
aganst other gud members. In the few recorded epsodes of dscpnary
enforcement, the ntatve for dscpnary acton apparenty came from a
dssatsfed cent, not from feow awyers.
At frst gance, there seem to be two possbe expanatons for the rarty of
dscpnary proceedngs. Medeva canon awyers may have generay observed
the standards of professona conduct scrupuousy. Aternatvey, t s possbe that
devatons from the estabshed standards of behavor were not uncommon, but
that canonca dscpnary mechansms were so neffcent that most denquents
escaped detecton and punshment.
Two consderatons make t cear that the second of these expanatons s
more pausbe. Frst, the Engsh cv aw courts, whose ethca standards were
smar to those of eccesastca courts, show many more exampes of dscpnary
actons aganst ega practtoners than do the records of church courts. Ths
dscrepancy coud we ndcate that the dscpnary mechansms of the cv
courts functoned more effcenty than those of the church courts. The aternatve
nference, namey, that eccesastca advocates were ess prone to ethca apses
than ther counterparts n the cv courts, seems nherenty weak, especay snce
there was some overap of personne between the cv bar and the eccesastca
bar.
Second, church authortes themseves companed about the faure of
advocates to measure up to ethca standards and depored the shortcomngs of
,62 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
the dscpnary system. Thus the Counc of Base decared that canon awyers
faed to adhere to the ethca prescrptons ad down n numerous papa
consttutons and drected Cardna Cesaran to address the probem. In Engand,
where medeva church records are extraordnary rch, smar compants about
the faure of the dscpnary system to reform unethca practces were very
common.
Such crtcsms seem to have had a paradoxca resut, for they apparenty
renforced the professona sodarty of awyers at the expense of the enforcement
of ethca standards. Thus the professons crtcs may actuay have nduced
advocates to organze professona assocatons for sef-defense. The crtcs
attacks may aso have persuaded awyers to assgn a hgher prorty to defendng
themseves aganst attacks by nonprofessonas than to dscpnng wayward
members wthn ther own ranks.
-. &hich one of the following best states the main conclusion of the passage%
(A) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers probably only enforced
ethical standards among their own members when pro'oked to do so by
outside criticisms.
(B) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al ci'il lawyers seem to ha'e maintained
stricter ethical standards for their own members than did professional
organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers.
(C) @rofessional organi!ations of medie'al canon lawyers apparently ser'ed to
defend their members against critics4 attacks rather than to enforce ethical
standards.
() The ethical standards maintained by professional associations of medie'al
canon lawyers were chiefly laid down in papal constitutions.
(#) #thical standards for medie'al canon lawyers were not laid down until
professional organi!ations for these lawyers had been formed.
6. According to the passage/ which one of the following statements about law courts
in medie'al #ngland is true%
(A) ;ome #nglish lawyers who practiced in ci'il courts also practiced in church
courts/ but others ser'ed e$clusi'ely in one court or the other.
(B) #nglish canon lawyers were more likely to initiate disciplinary proceedings
against their colleagues than were #nglish ci'il lawyers.
(C) #nglish ci'il lawyers maintained more stringent ethical standards than did
ci'il lawyers in the rest of #urope.
() #nglish ecclesiastical courts had originally been modeled upon #nglish ci'il
courts.
(#) #nglish ecclesiastical courts kept richer and more thorough records than did
#nglish ci'il courts.
,. The author refers to the >lorentine guild of lawyers in the first paragraph most
LSAT ,6-
probably in order to
(A) introduce a theory about to be promoted
(B) illustrate the type of action referred to in the pre'ious sentence
(C) underline the uni'ersality of a method discussed throughout the paragraph
() point out a flaw in an argument presented earlier in the paragraph
(#) rebut an anticipated ob<ection to a thesis <ust proposed
15. The author refers to the Council of Basel (line 0-) primarily in order to
(A) pro'ide an e$ample of the type of action needed to establish professional
standards for canon lawyers
(B) contrast the reactions of #nglish church authorities with the reactions of other
bodies to 'iolations of professional standards by canon lawyers
(C) bolster the argument that 'iolations of professional standards by canon
lawyers did take place
() e$plain how rules of conduct for canon lawyers were established
(#) describe the de'elopment of a disciplinary system to enforce professional
standards among canon lawyers
11. According to the information in the passage/ for which one of the following
ethical 'iolations would documentation of disciplinary action against a canon
lawyer be most likely to e$ist%
(A) betraying a client4s secrets to the opposing party
(B) bribing the <udge to rule in fa'or of a client
(C) misrepresenting credentials in order to gain admission to the lawyers4 guild
() spreading rumors in order to discredit an opposing lawyer
(#) knowingly helping a client to misrepresent the truth
12. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the *professional solidarity+
referred to in lines 12(1-%
(A) ?embers of a teachers4 union go on strike when they belie'e one of their
colleagues to be falsely accused of using an inappropriate te$tbook.
(B) 3n order to protect the reputation of the press in the face of a largely hostile
public/ a <ournalist conceals distortions in a colleague4s news article.
(C) ;e'eral do!en recording artists agree to participate in a concert to benefit an
endangered en'ironmental habitat.
() 3n order to e$pedite go'ernmental appro'al of a drug/ a go'ernment official is
persuaded to look the other way when a pharmaceutical manufacturer
conceals e'idence that the drug may ha'e minor side effects.
(#) A popular politician agrees to campaign for another/ less popular politician
belonging to the same political party.
1.. The passage suggests that which one of the following is most likely to ha'e been
,66 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
true of medie'al guilds%
(A) >ew guilds of any importance e$isted before the mid(fourteenth century.
(B) ?any medie'al guilds e$ercised influence o'er the actions of their members.
(C) ?ost medie'al guilds maintained more e$acting ethical standards than did the
associations of canon lawyers.
() ?edie'al guilds found it difficult to enforce discipline among their members.
(#) The ethical standards of medie'al guilds 'aried from one city to another.
10. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following
regarding the hypothesis that medie'al canon lawyers obser'ed standards of
professional conduct scrupulously%
(A) 3t is untrue because it is contradicted by documents obtained from the
ecclesiastical courts.
(B) 3t is unlikely because it describes beha'ior markedly different from beha'ior
obser'ed in the same situation in modern society.
(C) 3t is unlikely because it describes beha'ior markedly different from beha'ior
obser'ed in a similar area of medie'al society.
() 3t is impossible to assess intelligently because of the dearth of ci'il and
ecclesiastical documents.
(#) 3t is directly supported by documents obtained from ci'il and ecclesiastical
courts.
Many brds that form focks compete through aggressve nteracton for
prorty of access to resources such as food and sheter. The resut of repeated
nteractons between fock members s that each brd gans a partcuar soca
status reated to ts fghtng abty, wth prorty of access to resources ncreasng
wth hgher status. As the number and ntensty of nteractons between brds
ncrease, however, so ncrease the costs to each brd n terms of energy
expendture, tme, and rsk of n|ury. Thus, brds possessng attrbutes that reduce
the number of costy nteractons n whch they must be nvoved, wthout eadng
to a reducton n status, are at an advantage. An externa sgna, such as a
pumage type, announcng fghtng abty and thereby obvatng the actua need
to fght, coud be one such attrbute.
The zooogst Rohwer asserted that pumage varatons n "Harrs sparrows"
support the status sgnang hypothess (SSH). He reported that amost wthout
excepton brds wth darker throats wn confcts wth ndvduas havng ghter
pumage. He camed that even among brds of the same age and sex the amount
of dark pumage predcts reatve domnance status.
However, Rohwers data do not support hs assertons: n one of hs studes
darker brds won ony 57 out of 75 confcts; wthn another, focusng on confcts
between brds of the same age group or sex, darker brds won 63 and ost 62.
There are ndcatons that pumage probaby does sgna broad age-reated
LSAT ,6,
dfferences n status among Harrs sparrows: aduts, usuay dark throated, have
hgher status than |uvenes, who are usuay ght throated; moreover, |uvenes
dyed to resembe aduts are domnant over undyed |uvenes. However, the Harrs
sparrows age-reated pumage dfferences do not sgna the status of ndvdua
brds wthn an age cass, and thus cannot propery be ncuded under the term
"status sgnang."
The best evdence for status sgnang s from the greater ttmouse.
Experments show a strong correaton between the wdth of the back breast-
pumage strpe and status as measured by success n aggressve nteractons. An
anayss of factors key to be assocated wth breast-strpe wdth (sex, age, wng
ength, body weght) has demonstrated soca status to be the ony varabe that
correates wth strpe wdth when the other varabes are hed constant.
An ngenous experment provded further evdence for status sgnang n the
greater ttmouse. One of three stuffed ttmouse dummes was mounted on a
feedng tray. When a ve brd approached, the dummy was turned by rado contro
to face the brd and present ts breast strpe n "dspay". When presented wth a
dummy havng a narrower breast strpe than ther own, brds approached cosey
and behaved aggressvey. However, when presented wth a dummy havng a
broader breast strpe than ther own, ve brds acted submssve and dd not
approach.
11. According to the passage/ the status signaling hypothesis holds that the ability to
display a recogni!able e$ternal signal would ha'e the effect on an indi'idual bird
of
(A) enabling it to attract a mate of high status
(B) allowing it to a'oid costly aggressi'e interactions
(C) decreasing its access to limited resources
() making it less attracti'e to predatory species
(#) increasing its fighting ability
12. The author refers to the fact that adult )arris sparrows are usually dark throated
(lines .1(.2)/ in order to do which one of the following%
(A) support the conclusion that plumage 'ariation among )arris sparrows
probably does not signal indi'idual status
(B) argue that plumage 'ariation among )arris sparrows helps to confirm the
status signaling hypothesis
(C) indicate that in light of plumage 'ariation patterns among )arris sparrows/
the status signaling hypothesis should probably be modified
() demonstrate that )arris sparrows are the most appropriate sub<ects for the
study of status signaling among birds
(#) suggest that the signaling of age(related differences in status is widespread
among birds that form flocks
,,5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1-. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would most seriously undermine the 'alidity
of the results of the e$periment discussed in the last paragraph%
(A) The li'e birds all came from different titmouse flocks.
(B) The physical characteristics of the stuffed dummies 'aried in ways other than
<ust breast(stripe width.
(C) 9o li'e <u'enile birds were included in the e$periment.
() The food placed in the feeding tray was not the kind of food normally eaten
by titmice in the wild.
(#) #'en the li'e birds that acted aggressi'ely did not actually physically attack
the stuffed dummies.
16. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A hypothesis is introduced and studies rele'ant to the hypothesis are
discussed and e'aluated.
(B) A natural phenomenon is presented and se'eral e$planations for the
phenomenon are e$amined in detail.
(C) Beha'ior is described/ possible underlying causes for the beha'ior are
reported/ and the likelihood of each cause is assessed.
() A scientific conundrum is e$plained and the history of the issue is recounted.
(#) A scientific theory is outlined and opinions for and against its 'alidity as well
as e$periments supporting each side are compared.
1,. According to the passage/ which one of the following true of =ohwer4s
relationship to the status signaling hypothesis (;;))%
(A) Although his research was designed to test the ;;)/ his data pro'ed to be
more rele'ant to other issues.
(B) )e set out to confirm the ;;)/ but ended up re'ising it.
(C) )e set out to dispro'e the ;;)/ but ended up accepting it.
() )e altered the ;;) by e$panding it to encompass 'arious types of signals.
(#) )e ad'ocated the ;;)/ but his research data failed to confirm it.
25. The passage suggests that among birds that form flocks/ a bird of high status is
most likely to ha'e which one of the following%
(A) dark throat plumage
(B) greater(than(a'erage body weight
(C) offspring of high status
() strong fighting ability
(#) fre"uent in<uries
21. &hich one of the following can be inferred about )arris sparrows from the
passage%
LSAT ,,1
(A) Among )arris sparrows/ plumage differences signal indi'idual status only
within age groups.
(B) Among )arris sparrows/ adults ha'e priority of access to food o'er <u'eniles.
(C) Among )arris sparrows/ <u'eniles with relati'ely dark plumage ha'e status
e"ual to that of adults with relati'ely light plumage.
() Au'enile )arris sparrows engage in aggressi'e interaction more fre"uently
than do adult )arris sparrows.
(#) )arris sparrows engage in aggressi'e interaction less fre"uently than do
greater titmice.
In The -ynamics of "#ocaly#se, |ohn Lowe attempts to sove the mystery of
the coapse of the Cassc Mayan cvzaton. Lowe bases hs study on a detaed
examnaton of the known archaeoogca record. Lke prevous nvestgators, Lowe
rees on dated monuments to construct a step-by-step account of the actua
coapse. Usng the erecton of new monuments as a means to determne a stes
occupaton span, Lowe assumes that once new monuments ceased to be but, a
ste had been abandoned. Lowes anayss of the evdence suggests that
constructon of new monuments contnued to ncrease between A. D. 672 and
751, but that the cvzaton stopped expandng geographcay; new constructon
took pace amost excusvey n estabshed settements. The frst sgns of troube
foowed. Monument nscrptons ndcate that between 751 and 790, ong-
standng aances started to break down. Evdence aso ndcates that between
790 and 830, the death rate n Cassc Mayan ctes outstrpped the brthrate. After
approxmatey 830, constructon stopped throughout the area, and wthn a
hundred years, the Cassc Mayan cvzaton a but vanshed.
Havng estabshed ths chronoogy, Lowe sets forth a pausbe expanaton of
the coapse that accommodates the avaabe archaeoogca evdence. He
theorzes that Cassc Mayan cvzaton was brought down by the nteracton of
severa factors, set n moton by popuaton growth. An ncrease n popuaton,
partcuary wthn the ete segment of socety, necesstated ever more ntense
farmng. Agrcutura ntensfcaton exerted stress on the so and ed to a decne
n productvty (the amount of food produced through each unt of abor nvested).
At the same tme, the growth of the ete cass created ncreasng demands for
ceremona monuments and uxures, dvertng needed abor from the feds. The
theory hods that these stresses were communcated-and ampfed-throughout
the area as Mayan states engaged n warfare to acqure aborers and food, and
refugees fed mpovershed areas. The most vunerabe states thus began to break
down, and each downfa trggered others, unt the entre cvzaton coapsed.
If there s a centra faw n Lowes expanaton, t s that the entre edfce rests
on the assumpton that the avaabe evdence pants a true pcture of how the
coapse proceeded. However, t s dffcut to know how accuratey the
archaeoogca record refects hstorc actvty, especay of a compex cvzaton
such as the Mayans, and a hypothess can be tested ony aganst the best
,,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
avaabe data. It s qute possbe that our understandng of the coapse mght be
radcay atered by better data. For exampe, Lowes assumpton about
monument constructon and the occupaton span of a ste mght we be dsproved
f further nvestgatons of Cassc Mayan stes estabshed that some remaned
heavy setted ong after the custom of carvng dynastc monuments had ceased.
22. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A method used to analy!e e'idence is described/ an e$planation of the
e'idence is suggested/ and then a conclusion is drawn from the e'idence.
(B) A hypothesis is presented/ e'idence supporting the hypothesis is pro'ided/
and then the hypothesis is affirmed.
(C) An analysis of a study is presented/ contradictory e'idence is e$amined/ and
then a direction for future studies is suggested.
() The basis of a study is described/ a theory that e$plains the a'ailable e'idence
is presented/ and a possible flaw in the study is pointed out.
(#) An obser'ation is made/ e'idence supporting the obser'ation is presented/ and
then contradictions in the e'idence are discussed.
2.. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe successfully pro'es that the
collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation was set in motion by increasing
population and decreasing producti'ity.
(B) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe breaks new ground in sol'ing the
mystery of the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation through his use of
dated monuments to create a step(by(step account of the collapse.
(C) 3n The !yna-ics o+ Apocalypse/ Aohn Kowe successfully uses e$isting data to
document the reduction and then cessation of new construction throughout
Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation.
() Although Aohn Kowe4s study is based on a careful e$amination of the
historical record/ it does not accurately reflect the circumstances surrounding
the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation.
(#) &hile Aohn Kowe4s theory about the collapse of Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation
appears credible/ it is based on an assumption that cannot be 'erified using
the archaeological record.
20. &hich one of the following is most closely analogous to the assumption Kowe
makes about the relationship between monument construction and Classic ?ayan
cities%
(A) A person assumes that the shortage of fresh produce on the shel'es of a
grocery store is due to the effects of poor weather conditions during the
growing season.
(B) A person assumes that a mo'ie theater only shows foreign films because the
titles of the films shown there are not familiar to the person.
LSAT ,,.
(C) A person assumes that a restaurant is under new ownership because the
restaurant4s menu has changed drastically since the last time the person ate
there.
() A person assumes that a corporation has been sold because there is a new
name for the corporation on the sign outside the building where the company
is located.
(#) A person assumes a friend has sold her stamp collection because the friend
has stopped purchasing new stamps.
21. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would describe the method
Kowe used to construct a step(by(step chronology of the actual collapse of
Classic ?ayan ci'ili!ation as
(A) daringly inno'ati'e but flawed
(B) generally accepted but "uestionable
(C) 'ery reliable but outdated
() unscientific but effecti'e
(#) uncon'entional but brilliant
22. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the
following statements about the use of the archaeological record to reconstruct
historic acti'ity%
(A) &ith careful analysis/ archaeological e'idence can be used to reconstruct
accurately the historic acti'ity of a past ci'ili!ation.
(B) Archaeological e'idence is more useful for reconstructing the day(to(day
acti'ities of a culture than its long(term trends.
(C) The accuracy of the archaeological record for reconstructing historic acti'ity
is dependent on the duration of the particular ci'ili!ation.
() The archaeological record is not an appropriate source of data for
reconstructing historic acti'ity.
(#) )istoric acti'ity can be reconstructed from archaeological e'idence/ but it is
ultimately impossible to confirm the accuracy of the reconstruction.
LSAT 25 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Panter Frda Kaho (1910-1954) often used harrowng mages derved from her
Mexcan hertage to express sufferng caused by a dsabng accdent and a
stormy marrage. Suggestng much persona and emotona content, her works-
,,0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
many of them sef-portrats-have been exhaustvey psychoanayzed, whe ther
potca content has been ess studed. Yet Kaho was an ardent potca actvst
who n her art sought not ony to expore her own roots, but aso to champon
Mexcos strugge for an ndependent potca and cutura dentty.
Kaho was nfuenced by Marxsm, whch appeaed to many nteectuas n the
1920s and 1930s, and by Mexcan natonasm. Interest n Mexcos cuture and
hstory had revved n the nneteenth century, and by the eary 1900s, Mexcan
indigenista tendences ranged from a voenty ant-Spansh deazaton of Aztec
Mexco to an emphass on contemporary Mexcan Indans as the key to authentc
Mexcan cuture. Mexcan natonasm, reactng aganst contemporary Unted
States potca nterventon n abor dsputes as we as aganst past domnaton
by Span, dentfed the Aztecs as the ast ndependent ruers of an ndgenous
potca unt. Kahos form of (e3icanidad, a romantc natonasm that focused
upon tradtona art untng a indigenistas, revered the Aztecs as a powerfu pre-
Coumban socety that had unted a arge area of the Mdde Amercas and that
was thought to have been based on communa abor, the Marxst dea.
In her pantngs, Kaho repeatedy empoyed Aztec symbos, such as skeetons
or beedng hearts that were tradtonay reated to the emanaton of fe from
death and ght from darkness. These mages of destructon couped wth creaton
speak not ony to Kahos persona batte for fe, but aso to the Mexcan strugge
to emerge as a naton-by mpcaton, to emerge wth the potca and cutura
strength admred n the Aztec cvzaton. elf-#ortrait on the Border $etween
(e3ico and the 2nited tates (1932), for exampe, shows Kaho wearng a bone
neckace, hodng a Mexcan fag, and standng between a hghy ndustrazed
Unted States and an agrcutura, prendustra Mexco. On the Unted States sde
are mechanstc and modern mages such as smokestacks, ght bubs, and robots.
In contrast, the organc and ancent symbos on the Mexcan sde-a bood-
drenched Sun, ush vegetaton, an Aztec scupture, a pre-Coumban tempe, and a
sku audng to those that ned the was of Aztec tempes-emphasze the
nterreaton of fe, death, the earth, and the cosmos.
Kaho portrayed Aztec mages n the fokorc stye of tradtona Mexcan
pantngs, thereby heghtenng the cash between modern materasm and
ndgenous tradton; smary, she favored panned economc deveopment, but
not at the expense of cutura dentty. Her use of famar symbos n a ready
accessbe stye aso served her goa of beng popuary understood; n turn, Kaho
s vewed by some Mexcans as a mythc fgure representatve of natonasm
tsef.
1. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main point of the passage%
(A) The doctrines of ?ar$ist ideology and ?e$ican nationalism hea'ily
influenced ?e$ican painters of Mahlo4s generation.
(B) Mahlo4s paintings contain numerous references to the A!tecs as an indigenous
?e$ican people predating #uropean influence.
LSAT ,,1
(C) An important element of Mahlo4s work is con'eyed by symbols that reflect
her ad'ocacy of indigenous ?e$ican culture and ?e$ican political
autonomy.
() The use of A!tec images and symbols in Mahlo4s art can be traced to the late
nineteenth(century re'i'al of interest in ?e$ican history and culture.
(#) Mahlo used A!tec imagery in her paintings primarily in order to foster
contemporary appreciation for the authentic art of traditional ?e$ican
culture.
2. &ith which one of the following statements concerning psychoanalytic and
political interpretations of Mahlo4s work would the author be most likely to
agree%
(A) The psychoanalytic interpretations of Mahlo4s work tend to challenge the
political interpretations.
(B) @olitical and psychoanalytic interpretations are complementary approaches to
Mahlo4s work.
(C) =ecent political interpretations of Mahlo4s work are causing psychoanalytic
critics to re'ise their own interpretations.
() :nlike the political interpretations/ the psychoanalytic interpretations make
use of biographical facts of Mahlo4s life.
(#) Mahlo4s mythic status among the audience Mahlo most wanted to reach is
based upon the psychoanalytic rather than the political content of her work.
.. &hich one of the following stances toward the :nited ;tates does the passage
mention as characteri!ing ?e$ican nationalists in the early twentieth century%
(A) opposition to :nited ;tates in'ol'ement in internal ?e$ican affairs
(B) desire to decrease emigration of the ?e$ican labor force to the :nited ;tates
(C) desire to impro'e ?e$ico4s economic competiti'eness with the :nited ;tates
() reluctance to imitate the :nited ;tates model of rapid industriali!ation
(#) ad'ocacy of a go'ernment based upon that of the ?ar$ist ;o'iet :nion rather
than that of the :nited ;tates
0. 3n the conte$t of the passage/ which one of the following phrases could best be
substituted for the word *romantic+ (line 20) without substantially changing the
author4s meaning%
(A) dreamy and escapist
(B) nostalgic and idealistic
(C) fanciful and imaginati'e
() transcendental and impractical
(#) o'erwrought and sentimental
1. The passage mentions each of the following as an A!tec symbol or image found
,,2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
in Mahlo4s paintings #DC#@T a
(A) skeleton
(B) sculpture
(C) serpent
() skull
(#) bleeding heart
2. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the third
paragraph%
(A) contrast of opposing ideas
(B) reconciliation of conflicting concepts
(C) interrelation of complementary themes
() e$plication of a principle4s implications
(#) support for a generali!ation by means of an e$ample
-. The passage implies that Mahlo4s attitude toward the economic de'elopment of
?e$ico was
(A) enthusiastic
(B) condemnatory
(C) cautious
() noncommittal
(#) uncertain
6. The main purpose of the passage is to
(A) criti"ue an artist4s style
(B) e'aluate opposing theories
(C) reconcile conflicting arguments
() ad'ocate an additional interpretation
(#) reconsider an artist in light of new disco'eries
In recent years, a growng beef that the way socety decdes what to treat as
true s controed through argey unrecognzed dscursve practces has ed ega
reformers to examne the compex nterconnectons between narratve and aw. In
many ega systems, ega |udgments are based on competng stores about
events. Wthout havng wtnessed these events, |udges and |ures must vadate
some stores as true and re|ect others as fase. Ths procedure s rooted n
ob|ectvsm, a phosophca approach that has supported most Western ega and
nteectua systems for centures. Ob|ectvsm hods that there s a snge neutra
descrpton of each event that s unskewed by any partcuar pont of vew and
that has a prveged poston over a other accounts. The aws quest for truth,
therefore, conssts of ocatng ths ob|ectve descrpton, the one that tes what
reay happened, as opposed to what those nvoved thought happened. The
LSAT ,,-
serous faw n ob|ectvsm s that there s no such thng as the neutra, ob|ectve
observer. As psychoogsts have demonstrated, a observers brng to a stuaton a
set of expectatons, vaues, and beefs that determne what the observers are
abe to see and hear. Two ndvduas stenng to the same story w hear dfferent
thngs, because they emphasze those aspects that accord wth ther earned
experences and gnore those aspects that are dssonant wth ther vew of the
word. Hence there s never any escape n fe or n aw from seectve percepton
or from sub|ectve |udgments based on pror experences, vaues, and beefs.
The soceta harm caused by the assumpton of ob|ectvst prncpes n
tradtona ega dscourse s that, hstorcay, the stores |udged to be ob|ectvey
true are those tod by peope who are traned n ega dscourse, whe the stores
of those who are not fuent n the anguage of the aw are re|ected as fase.
Lega schoars such as Patrca Wams, Derrck Be, and Mar Matsuda have
sought empowerment for the atter group of peope through the constructon of
aternatve ega narratves. Ob|ectvst ega dscourse systematcay dsaows
the anguage of emoton and experence by focusng on cognton n ts narrowest
sense. These ega reformers propose repacng such abstract dscourse wth
powerfu persona stores. They argue that the absorbng, nonthreatenng
structure and tone of persona stores may convnce ega nsders for the frst
tme to sten to those not fuent n ega anguage. The compeng force of
persona narratve can create a sense of empathy between ega nsders and
peope tradtonay excuded from ega dscourse and, hence, from power. Such
aternatve narratves can shatter the compacency of the ega estabshment and
dsturb ts tranquty. Thus, the engagng power of narratve mght pay a cruca,
postve roe n the process of ega reconstructon by overcomng dfferences n
background and tranng and formng a new coectvty based on emotona
empathy.
,. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ;ome legal scholars ha'e sought to empower people historically e$cluded
from traditional legal discourse by instructing them in the forms of discourse
fa'ored by legal insiders.
(B) ;ome legal scholars ha'e begun to reali!e the social harm caused by the
ad'ersarial atmosphere that has per'aded many legal systems for centuries.
(C) ;ome legal scholars ha'e proposed alle'iating the harm caused by the
prominence of ob<ecti'ist principles within legal discourse by replacing that
discourse with alternati'e forms of legal narrati'e.
() ;ome legal scholars ha'e contended that those who feel e$cluded from
ob<ecti'ist legal systems would be empowered by the construction of a new
legal language that better reflected ob<ecti'ist principles.
(#) ;ome legal scholars ha'e argued that the basic flaw inherent in ob<ecti'ist
theory can be remedied by recogni!ing that it is not possible to obtain a
single neutral description of a particular e'ent.
,,6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
15. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true about the intellectual
systems mentioned in line 11%
(A) They ha'e long assumed the possibility of a neutral depiction of e'ents.
(B) They ha'e generally remained unskewed by particular points of 'iew.
(C) Their discursi'e practices ha'e yet to be analy!ed by legal scholars.
() They accord a pri'ileged position to the language of emotion and e$perience.
(#) The accuracy of their basic tenets has been confirmed by psychologists.
11. &hich one of the following best describes the sense of *cognition+ referred to in
line 0. of the passage%
(A) logical thinking uninfluenced by passion
(B) the interpretation of 'isual cues
(C) human thought that encompasses all emotion and e$perience
() the reasoning actually employed by <udges to arri'e at legal <udgments
(#) sudden insights inspired by the power of personal stories
12. 3t can be inferred from the passage that &illiams/ Bell/ And ?atsuda belie'e
which one of the following to be central component of legal reform%
(A) incorporating into the law the latest de'elopments in the fields of psychology
and philosophy
(B) eradicating from legal <udgments discourse with a particular point of 'iew
(C) granting all participants in legal proceedings e"ual access to training in the
forms and manipulation of legal discourse
() making the law more responsi'e to the discursi'e practices of a wider 'ariety
of people
(#) instilling an appreciation of legal history and methodology in all the
participants in a legal proceeding
1.. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude toward
proposals to introduce personal stories into legal discourse%
(A) strongly opposed
(B) somewhat skeptical
(C) ambi'alent
() strongly supporti'e
(#) unreser'edly optimistic
10. The passage suggests that &illiams/ Bell/ and ?atsuda would most likely agree
with which one of the following statements regarding personal stories%
(A) @ersonal stories are more likely to adhere to the principles of ob<ecti'ism than
are other forms of discourse.
(B) @ersonal stories are more likely to de(emphasi!e differences in background
LSAT ,,,
and training than are traditional forms of legal discourse.
(C) @ersonal stories are more likely to restore tran"uility to the legal
establishment than are more ad'ersarial forms of discourse.
() @ersonal stories are more likely to lead to the accurate reconstruction of facts
than are traditional forms of legal narrati'e.
(#) @ersonal stories are more likely to be influenced by a person4s e$pectations/
'alues/ and beliefs than are other forms of discourse.
11. &hich one of the following statements about legal discourse in legal systems
based on ob<ecti'ism can be inferred from the passage%
(A) 3n most &estern societies the legal establishment controls access to training
in legal discourse.
(B) #$pertise in legal discourse affords power in most &estern societies.
(C) Kegal discourse has become progressi'ely more abstract for some centuries.
() Kegal discourse has traditionally denied the e$istence of neutral ob<ecti'e
obser'ers.
(#) Traditional legal discourse seeks to reconcile dissonant world 'iews.
12. Those who re<ect ob<ecti'ism would regard *the law4s "uest for truth+ (line 11(
12) as most similar to which one of the following%
(A) a hunt for an imaginary animal
(B) the search for a 'aluable mineral among worthless stones
(C) the painstaking assembly of a <igsaw pu!!le
() comparing an apple with an orange
(#) the scientific analysis of a chemical compound
Many peope compan about corporatons, but there are aso those whose
crtcsm goes further and who hod corporatons moray to bame for many of the
probems n Western socety. Ther crtcsm s not reserved soey for frauduent or
ega busness actvtes, but extends to the basc corporate practce of makng
decsons based on what w maxmze profts wthout regard to whether such
decsons w contrbute to the pubc good. Others, many economsts, have
responded that ths crtcsm s fawed because t nappropratey appes ethca
prncpes to economc reatonshps.
It s ony by extenson that we attrbute the quaty of moraty to corporatons,
for corporatons are not persons. Corporate responsbty s an aggregaton of the
responsbtes of those persons empoyed by the corporaton when they act n
and on behaf of the corporaton. Some corporatons are owner operated, but n
many corporatons and n most arger ones there s a syndcate of owners to
whom the chef executve offcer, or CEO, who runs the corporaton s sad to have
a fducary obgaton.
The economsts argue that a CEOs soe responsbty s to the owners, whose
1555 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
prmary nterest, except n chartabe nsttutons, s the protecton of ther profts.
CEOs are bound, as a condton of ther empoyment, to seek a proft for the
owners. But suppose a nonchartabe organzaton s owner operated, or, for some
other reason, ts CEO s not obgated to maxmze profts. The economsts vew s
that even f such a CEOs purpose s to ook to the pubc good and nothng ese,
the CEO shoud st work to maxmze profts, because that w turn out best for
the pubc anyway.
But the economsts poston does not hod up (to contnue n the same
condton wthout fang or osng effectveness or force "you seem to be hodng
up under the stran") under carefu scrutny. For one thng, athough there are, no
doubt, strong underyng dynamcs n natona and nternatona economes that
tend to make the pursut of corporate nterest contrbute to the pubc good, there
s no guarantee-ether theoretcay or n practce-that a gven CEO w beneft
the pubc by maxmzng corporate proft. It s absurd to deny the possbty, say,
of a paper m egay maxmzng ts profts over a fve-year perod by decmatng
a forest for ts wood or poutng a ake wth ts ndustra waste. Furthermore,
whe obgatons such as those of corporate CEOs to corporate owners are bndng
n a busness or ega sense, they are not moray paramount. The CEO coud make
a case to the owners that certan proftabe courses of acton shoud not be taken
because they are key to detract (to dmnsh the mportance, vaue, or
effectveness of somethng; often used wth from) from the pubc good. The
economc consequences that may befa the CEO for dong so, such as penaty or
dsmssa, utmatey do not excuse the ndvdua from the responsbty for actng
moray.
1-. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage%
(A) Although C#8s may be legally obligated to ma$imi!e their corporations4
profits/ this obligation does not free them from the moral responsibility of
considering the implications of the corporations4 actions for the public good.
(B) Although morality is not easily ascribed to nonhuman entities/ corporations
can be said to ha'e an obligation to act morally in the sense that they are
made up of indi'iduals who must act morally.
(C) Although economists argue that ma$imi!ing a corporation4s profits is likely to
turn out best for the public/ a C#84s true obligations is still to seek a profit
for the corporation4s owners.
() Although some people critici!e corporations for making unethical decisions/
economists argue that such criticisms are unfounded because ethical
considerations cannot be applied to economics.
(#) Although critics of corporations argue that C#8s ought to consider the public
good when making financial decisions/ the results of such decisions in fact
always benefit the public.
16. The discussion of the paper mill in lines 02(02 is intended primarily to
LSAT 1551
(A) offer an actual case of unethical corporate beha'ior
(B) refute the contention that ma$imi!ation of profits necessarily benefits the
public
(C) illustrate that ethical restrictions on corporations would be difficult to enforce
() demonstrate that corporations are responsible for many social ills
(#) deny that corporations are capable of acting morally
1,. &ith which one of the following would the economists mentioned in the passage
be most likely to agree%
(A) #'en C#8s of charitable organi!ations are obligated to ma$imi!e profits.
(B) C#8s of owner(operated noncharitable corporations should make decisions
based primarily on ma$imi!ing profits.
(C) 8wner(operated noncharitable corporations are less likely to be profitable
than other corporations.
() 3t is highly unlikely that the actions of any particular C#8 will benefit the
public.
(#) C#8s should attempt to ma$imi!e profits unless such attempts result in harm
to the en'ironment.
25. The conception of morality that underlies the author4s argument in the passage is
best e$pressed by which one of the following principles%
(A) &hat makes actions morally right is their contribution to the public good.
(B) An action is morally right if it carries the risk of personal penalty.
(C) Actions are morally right if they are not fraudulent or illegal.
() 3t is morally wrong to try to ma$imi!e one4s personal benefit.
(#) Actions are not morally wrong unless they harm others.
21. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) illustrate a parado$
(B) argue for legal reform
(C) refute a claim
() e$plain a decision
(#) define a concept
What t means to "expan" somethng n scence often comes down to the
appcaton of mathematcs. Some thnkers hod that mathematcs s a knd of
anguage-a systematc contrvance of sgns, the crtera for the authorty of
whch are nterna coherence, eegance, and depth. The appcaton of such a
hghy artfca system to the physca word, they cam, resuts n the creaton of
a knd of statement about the word. Accordngy, what matters n the scences s
fndng a mathematca concept that attempts, as other anguage does, to
accuratey descrbe the functonng of some aspect of the word.
1552 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
At the center of the ssue of scentfc knowedge can thus be found questons
about the reatonshp between anguage and what t refers to. A dscusson about
the roe payed by anguage n the pursut of knowedge has been gong on among
ngusts for severa decades. The debate centers around whether anguage
corresponds n some essenta way to ob|ects and behavors, makng knowedge a
sod and reabe commodty; or, on the other hand, whether the reatonshp
between anguage and thngs s purey a matter of agreed-upon conventons,
makng knowedge tenuous, reatve, and nexact.
Latey the atter theory has been ganng wder acceptance. Accordng to
ngusts who support ths theory, the way anguage s used vares dependng
upon changes n accepted practces and theores among those who work n
partcuar dscpne. These ngusts argue that, n the pursut of knowedge, a
statement s true ony when there are no promsng aternatves that mght ead
one to queston t. Certany ths characterzaton woud seem to be appcabe to
the scences. In scence, a mathematca statement may be taken to account for
every aspect of a phenomenon t s apped to, but, some woud argue, there s
nothng nherent n mathematca anguage that guarantees such a
correspondence. Under ths vew, acceptance of a mathematca statement by the
scentfc communty-by vrtue of the statements predctve power or
methodoogca effcency-transforms what s bascay an anaogy or metaphor
nto an expanaton of the physca process n queston, to be hed as true unt
another, more compeng anaogy takes ts pace.
In pursung the mpcatons of ths theory, ngusts have reached the pont at
whch they must ask: If words or sentences do not correspond n an essenta way
to fe or to our deas about fe, then |ust what are they capabe of teng us about
the word? In scence and mathematcs, then, t woud seem equay necessary to
ask: If modes of eectroytes or E=mc
2
, say, do not correspond essentay to the
physca word, then |ust what functons do they perform n the acquston of
scentfc knowedge? But ths queston has yet to be sgnfcanty addressed n the
scences.
22. &hich one of the following statements most accurately e$presses the passage4s
main point%
(A) Although scientists must rely on both language and mathematics in their
pursuit of scientific knowledge/ each is an imperfect tool for percei'ing and
interpreting aspects of the physical world.
(B) The ac"uisition of scientific knowledge depends on an agreement among
scientists to accept some mathematical statements as more precise than
others while acknowledging that all mathematics is ine$act.
(C) 3f science is truly to progress/ scientists must temporarily abandon the pursuit
of new knowledge in fa'or of a systematic analysis of how the knowledge
they already possess came to be accepted as true.
() 3n order to better understand the ac"uisition of scientific knowledge/
LSAT 155.
scientists must in'estigate mathematical statements4 relationship to the world
<ust as linguists study language4s relationship to the world.
(#) &ithout the debates among linguists that preceded them/ it is unlikely that
scientists would e'er ha'e begun to e$plore the essential role played by
mathematics in the ac"uisition of scientific knowledge.
2.. &hich one of the following statements/ if true/ lends the most support to the 'iew
that language has an essential correspondence to things it describes%
(A) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by one language correspond
remarkably to the categories employed by another language that de'eloped
independently of the first.
(B) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by one language correspond
remarkably to the categories employed by another language that deri'es
from the first.
(C) The categories of physical ob<ects employed by speakers of a language
correspond remarkably to the categories employed by other speakers of the
same language.
() The sentence structures of languages in scientifically sophisticated societies
'ary little from language to language.
(#) 9ati'e speakers of many languages belie'e that the categories of physical
ob<ects employed by their language correspond to natural categories of
ob<ects in the world.
20. According to the passage/ mathematics can be considered a language because it
(A) con'eys meaning in the same way that metaphors do
(B) constitutes a systematic collection of signs
(C) corresponds e$actly to aspects of physical phenomena
() confers e$planatory power on scientific theories
(#) relies on pre'iously agreed(upon con'entions
21. The primary purpose of the third paragraph is to
(A) offer support for the 'iew of linguists who belie'e that language has an
essential correspondence to things
(B) elaborate the position of linguists who belie'e that truth is merely a matter of
con'ention
(C) illustrate the differences between the essentialist and con'entionalist position
in the linguists4 debate
() demonstrate the similarity of the linguists4 debate to a current debate among
scientists about the nature of e$planation
(#) e$plain the theory that mathematical statements are a kind of language
22. Based on the passage/ linguists who subscribes to the theory described in lines
1550 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
21(20 would hold that the statement *the ball is red+ is true because
(A) speakers of #nglish ha'e accepted that *the ball is red+ applies to the
particular physical relationship being described
(B) speakers of #nglish do not accept that synonyms for *ball+ and *red+ e$press
these concepts as elegantly
(C) *The ball is red+ corresponds essentially to e'ery aspect of the particular
physical relationship being described
() *ball+ and *red+ actually refer to an entity and a property respecti'ely
(#) *ball+ and *red+ are mathematical concepts that attempt to accurately describe
some particular physical relationship in the world
LSAT 26 SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
It has recenty been dscovered that many attrbutons of pantngs to the
seventeenth-century Dutch artst Rembrandt may be fase. The contested
pantngs are not mnor works, whose remova from the Rembrandt corpus woud
eave t reatvey unaffected: they are at ts very center. In her recent book,
Svetana Apers uses these cases of dsputed attrbuton as a pont of departure
for her provocatve dscusson of the radca dstnctveness of Rembrandts
approach to pantng.
Apers argues that Rembrandt exercsed an unprecedentedy frm contro over
hs art, hs students, and the dstrbuton of hs works. Despte Gary Schwartz
brant documentaton of Rembrandts compcated reatons wth a wde crce of
patrons, Apers takes the vew that Rembrandt refused to submt to the prevang
patronage system. He preferred, she cams, to se hs works on the open market
and to pay the entrepreneur. At a tme when Dutch artsts were organzng nto
professona brotherhoods and academes, Rembrandt stood apart. In fact, Apers
portrat of Rembrandt shows vrtuay every aspect of hs art pervaded by
economc motves. Indeed, so compete was Rembrandts nvovement wth the
market, she argues, that he even presented hmsef as commodty, vewng hs
studos products as extensons of hmsef, sent out nto the word to earn money.
Apers asserts that Rembrandts enterprse s found not |ust n hs pantngs, but n
hs refusa to mt hs enterprse to those pantngs he actuay panted. He
marketed Rembrandt.
Athough there may be some truth n the vew that Rembrandt was an
entrepreneur who made some aesthetc decsons on the bass of what he knew
the market wanted, Apers emphass on economc factors sacrfces dscussons of
LSAT 1551
the aesthetc quates that make Rembrandts work unque. For exampe, Apers
asserts that Rembrandt deberatey eft hs works unfnshed so as to get more
money for ther revson and competon. She mpes that Rembrandt actuay
wshed the Counc of Amsterdam to refuse the great Claudius Civilis, whch they
had commssoned for ther new town ha, and she argues that "he must have
cacuated that he woud be abe to get more money by retouchng |the| pantng."
Certany the pcture s panted wth very broad strokes but there s no evdence
that t was deberatey eft unfnshed. The fact s that the ook of a work ke
Claudius Civilis must aso be understood as the consequence of Rembrandts
powerfu and profound medtatons on pantng tsef. Apers make no menton of
the pctora daectc that can be dscerned between, say, the essons Rembrandt
absorbed from the Haarem schoo of pantngs and the styes of hs natve Leden.
The troube s that whe Rembrandts artstc enterprse may ndeed not be
reducbe to the works he hmsef panted, t s not reducbe to marketng
practces ether.
1. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main conclusion of the author of
the passage%
(A) =embrandt differed from other artists of his time both in his aesthetic
techni"ues and in his desire to meet the demands of the marketplace.
(B) The aesthetic "ualities of =embrandt4s work cannot be understood without
consideration of how economic moti'es per'aded decisions he made about
his art.
(C) =embrandt was one of the first artists to de'elop the notion of a work of art as
a commodity that could be sold in an open marketplace.
() =embrandt4s artistic achie'ement cannot be understood solely in terms of
decisions he made on the basis of what would sell in the marketplace.
(#) =embrandt was an entrepreneur whose artistic enterprise was not limited to
the paintings he actually painted himself.
2. According to the passage/ Alpers and ;chwart! disagree about which one of the
following%
(A) the degree of control =embrandt e$ercised o'er the production of his art
(B) the role that =embrandt played in organi!ing professional brotherhoods and
academies
(C) the kinds of relationships =embrandt had with his students
() the degree of =embrandt4s in'ol'ement in the patronage system
(#) the role of the patronage system in se'enteenth(century )olland
.. 3n the third paragraph/ the author of the passage discusses aesthetic influences on
=embrandt4s work most probably in order to
(A) suggest that many critics ha'e neglected to study the influence of the
)aarlem school painters on =embrandt4s work
1552 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(B) suggest that Claudius Ci$ilis is similar in style to many paintings from the
se'enteen century
(C) suggest that =embrandt4s style was not affected by the aesthetic influences
that Alpers points out
() argue that =embrandt4s style can best be understood as a result of the
influences of his nati'e Keiden
(#) indicate that Alpers has not taken into account some important aspects of
=embrandt4s work
0. &hich one of the following/ if true/ would pro'ide the most support for Alpers4
argument about Claudius Ci$ilis%
(A) =embrandt was constantly re'ising his prints and paintings because he was
ne'er fully satisfied with stylistic aspects of his earlier drafts.
(B) The works of many se'enteenth(century utch artists were painted with
broad strokes and had an unfinished look.
(C) ?any of =embrandt4s contemporaries eschewed the patronage system and
sold their works on the open market.
() Artists were fre"uently able to raise the price of a painting if the buyer
wanted the work re'ised in some way.
(#) =embrandt did not allow his students to work on paintings that were
commissioned by public officials.
1. 3t can be inferred that the author of the passage and Alpers would be most likely
to agree on which one of the following%
(A) =embrandt made certain aesthetic decision on the basis of what he
understood about the demands of the marketplace.
(B) The =embrandt corpus will not be affected if attributions of paintings to
=embrandt are found to be false.
(C) ;tylistic aspects of =embrandt4s painting can be better e$plained in economic
terms than in historical or aesthetic terms.
() Certain aesthetic aspects of =embrandt4s art are the result of his
e$perimentation with different painting techni"ues.
(#) ?ost of =embrandt4s best(known works were painted by his students/ but
were sold under =embrandt4s name.
Medevasts usuay dstngush medeva pubc aw from prvate aw: the
former was concerned wth government and mtary affars and the atter wth the
famy, soca status, and and transactons. Examnaton on medeva womens
ves shows ths dstncton to be overy smpstc. Athough medeva women were
egay excuded from roes that categorzed as pubc, such as soder, |ustce, |ury
member, or professona admnstratve offca, womens contro of and-usuay
consdered a prvate or domestc phenomenon-had mportant potca
mpcatons n the feuda system of thrteenth-century Engand. Snce and
LSAT 155-
equaed weath and weath equaed power, certan women exercsed nfuence by
controng and. Unke unmarred women who were egay sub|ect to ther
guardans or marred women who had no ega dentty separate from ther
husbands, women who were wdows had autonomy wth respect to acqurng or
dsposng of certan property, sung n court, ncurrng abty for ther own debts,
and makng ws.
Athough feuda ands were normay transferred through prmogenture (the
edest son nhertng a), when no sons survved, the survvng daughters
nherted equa shares under what was known as partbe nhertance. In addton
to controng any such and nherted from her parents and any brda dowry-
property a woman brought to the marrage from her own famy-a wdow was
entted to use of one-thrd of her ate husbands ands. Caed "dower" n Engand,
ths grant had greater ega mportance under common aw than dd the brda
dowry; no marrage was ega uness the groom endowed the brde wth ths
property at the weddng ceremony. In 1215 Magna Carta guaranteed a wdows
rght to cam her dower wthout payng a fne; ths document aso strengthened
wdows abty to contro and by prohbtng forced remarrage. After 1272 women
coud aso beneft from |onture: the groom coud agree to hod part or a of hs
ands |onty wth the brde, so that f one spouse ded, the other receved these
ands.
Snce many wdows had nhertances as we as dowers, wdows were
frequenty the fnanca heads of the famy; even though ega theory assumed
the mantenance of the prncpe of prmogenture, the amount of and the wdow
controed coud exceed that of her son or of other mae hers. Anyone who hed
feuda and exercsed authorty over the peope attached to the and-knghts,
renta tenants, and peasants-and had to hre estate admnstrators, oversee
accounts, receve rents, protect tenants from outsde encroachment, punsh
tenants for not payng rents, appont prests to oca parshes, and act as
guardans of tenants chdren and executors of ther ws. Many marred women
fufed these dutes as deputes for husbands away at court or at war, but wdows
coud act on ther own behaf. Wdows ega ndependence s suggested by ther
frequent appearance n thrteenth-century Engsh ega records. Moreover, the
scope of ther sway s ndcated by the fact that some controed not merey snge
estates, but mutpe countes.
2. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) The traditional 'iew of medie'al women as legally e$cluded from many
public offices fails to consider thirteenth(century women in #ngland who
were e$empted from such restrictions.
(B) The economic independence of women in thirteenth(century #ngland was
primarily determined not by their marital status/ but by their status as heirs to
their parents4 estates.
(C) The laws and customs of the feudal system in thirteenth(century #ngland
1556 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
enabled some women to e$ercise a certain amount of power despite their
legal e$clusion from most public roles.
() uring the thirteenth century in #ngland/ widows gained greater autonomy
and legal rights to their property than they had had in pre'ious centuries.
(#) &idows in thirteenth(century #ngland were able to ac"uire and dispose of
lands through a number of different legal processes.
-. &ith which one of the following statements about the 'iews held by the
medie'alists mentioned in line 1 would the author of the passage most probably
agree%
(A) The medie'al role of landowners was less affected by thirteenth(century
changes in law than these medie'alists customarily ha'e recogni!ed.
(B) The realm of law labeled public by these medie'alists ultimately had greater
political implications than that labeled pri'ate.
(C) The amount of wealth controlled by medie'al women was greater than these
medie'alists ha'e recorded.
() The distinction made by these medie'alists between pri'ate law and public
law fails to consider some of the actual legal cases of the period.
(#) The distinction made by these medie'alists between pri'ate and public law
fails to address the political importance of control o'er land in the medie'al
era.
6. &hich one of the following most accurately e$presses the meaning of the world
*sway+ as it is used in line 25 of the passage%
(A) 'acillation
(B) dominion
(C) predisposition
() inclination
(#) mediation
,. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the function of the second
paragraph of the passage%
(A) pro'iding e$amples of specific historical e'ents as support for the conclusion
drawn in the third paragraph
(B) narrating a se"uence of e'ents whose outcomes discussed in the third
paragraph
(C) e$plaining how circumstances described in the first paragraph could ha'e
occurred
() describing the effects of an e'ent mentioned in the first paragraph
(#) e'aluating the arguments of a group mentioned in the first paragraph
15. According to information in the passage/ a widow in early thirteenth(century
LSAT 155,
#ngland could control more land than did her eldest son if
(A) the widow had been granted the customary amount of dower land and the
eldest son inherited the rest of the land
(B) the widow had three daughters in addition to her eldest son
(C) the principle of primogeniture had been applied in transferring the lands
owned by the widow4s late husband
() none of the lands held by the widow4s late husband had been placed in
<ointure
(#) the combined amount of land the widow had ac"uired from her own family
and from dower was greater than the amount inherited by her son
11. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as a reason why a
married woman might ha'e fulfilled certain duties associated with holding feudal
land in thirteenth(century #ngland%
(A) the legal statutes set forth by ?agna Carta
(B) the rights a woman held o'er her inheritance during her marriage
(C) the customary di'ision of duties between husbands and wi'es
() the absence of the woman4s husband
(#) the terms specified by the woman4s <ointure agreement
12. The phrase *in #ngland+ (line .5(.1) does which one of the following%
(A) 3t suggests that women in other countries also recei'ed grants of their
husbands4 lands.
(B) 3t identifies a particular code of law affecting women who were sur'i'ing
daughters.
(C) 3t demonstrates that dower had greater legal importance in one #uropean
county than in others.
() 3t emphasi!es that women in one #uropean country had more means of
controlling property than did women in other #uropean countries.
(#) 3t traces a legal term back to the time at which it entered the language.
1.. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) e$plain a legal contro'ersy of the past in light of modern theory
(B) e'aluate the economic and legal status of a particular historical group
(C) resol'e a scholarly debate about legal history
() trace the historical origins of a modern economic situation
(#) pro'ide new e'idence about a historical e'ent
The debate over the envronment crss s not new: anxety about ndustrys
mpact on the envronment has exsted for over a century. What s new s the
extreme poarzaton of vews. Mountng evdence of humantys capacty to
damage the envronment rreversby couped wth suspcons that government,
1515 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
ndustry, and even scence mght be mpotent to prevent envronmenta
destructon have provoked accusatory poemcs on the part of envronmentasts.
In turn, these poemcs have ected a correspondng backash from ndustry. The
sad effect of ths poarzaton s that t s now even more dffcut for ndustry than
t was a hundred years ago to respond appropratey to mpact anayses that
demand acton.
Unke todays adversares, earer ecoogca reformers shared wth advocates
of ndustra growth a confdence n tmey correctve acton. George P. Marshs
poneerng conservaton tract (an and +ature (1864) ected wde accam
wthout embttered denas. (an and +ature castgated Earths despoers for
heedess greed, decarng that humanty "has brought the face of the Earth to a
desoaton amost as compete as that of the Moon." But no entrepreneur of
ndustrasts sought to refute Marshs accusatons, to defend the guttng of forests
or the saughter of wdfe as economcay essenta, or to dsmss hs ecoogca
warnngs as hysterca. To the contrary, they generay agreed wth hm.
Why? Marsh and hs foowers took envronmenta mprovement and economc
progress as gvens: they dsputed not the desrabty of conquerng nature but the
bungng way n whch the conquest was carred out. Bame was not personazed,
Marsh denounced genera greed rather than partcuar entrepreneurs, and the
meda dd not hound maefactors. Further, correctve measures seemed to enta
no sacrfce, to demand no draconan remedes. Sef-nterest underwrote most
prescrbed reforms. Marshs emphass on future stewardshp was then a wdey
accepted dea (f not practce). Hs ecoogca admontons were n keepng wth
the Enghtenment premse that humantys msson was to subdue and transform
nature.
Not unt the 1960s dd a goomer perspectve gan popuar ground. Fredrc
Cements equbrum mode of ecoogy, deveoped n the 1930s, seemed
consstent wth mountng envronmenta dsasters. In ths vew, nature was most
frutfu when east atered. Left undsturbed, fora and fauna graduay attaned
maxmum dversty and stabty. Despoaton thwarted the cumnaton or
shortened the duraton of ths benefcent cmax: technoogy dd not mprove
nature but destroyed t.
The equbrum mode became an ecoogca mystque: envronmenta
nterference was now taboo, wderness adored. Nature as unfnshed fabrc
perfected by human ngenuty gave way to the mage nature debased and
endangered by technoogy. In contrast to the Enghtenment vson of nature,
accordng to whch ratona managers construct an ever more mproved
envronment, twenteth-century reformers vson of nature cas for a reducton of
human nterference n order to restore envronmenta stabty.
10. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%
(A) ?ounting e'idence of humanity4s capacity to damage the en'ironment should
moti'ate action to pre'ent further damage.
LSAT 1511
(B) The ecological mysti"ue identified with >rederic Clements has become a
religious con'iction among ecological reformers.
(C) Beorge @. ?arsh4s ideas about conser'ation and stewardship ha'e hea'ily
influenced the present debate o'er the en'ironment.
() The 'iews of ecologists and industrial growth ad'ocates concerning the
en'ironment ha'e only recently become polari!ed.
(#) Beneral greed/ rather than particular indi'iduals or industries/ should be
blamed for the en'ironmental crisis.
11. The author refers to the e"uilibrium model of ecology as an *ecological
mysti"ue+ (liens 10(11) most likely in order to do which one of the following%
(A) underscore the fer'or with which twentieth(century reformers adhere to the
e"uilibrium model
(B) point out that the e"uilibrium model of ecology has recently been supported
by empirical scientific research
(C) e$press appreciation for how plants and animals attain ma$imum di'ersity
and stability when left alone
() indicate that the idea of twentieth(century ecological reformers are often so
theoretical as to be difficult to understand
(#) indicate how widespread support is for the e"uilibrium model of ecology in
the scientific community
12. &hich one of the following practices is most clearly an application of >rederic
Clements4 e"uilibrium model of ecology%
(A) introducing a species into an en'ironment to which it is not help control the
spread of another species that no longer has any natural predators
(B) de'eloping incenti'es for industries to take correcti'e measures to protect the
en'ironment
(C) using scientific methods to increase the stability of plants and animals in
areas where species are in danger of becoming e$tinct
() using technology to de'elop plant and animal resources but balancing that
de'elopment with stringent restrictions on technology
(#) setting areas of land aside to be maintained as wilderness from which the use
of e$traction of natural resources is prohibited
1-. The passage suggests that Beorge @. ?arsh and today4s ecological reformers
would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements%
(A) =egulating industries in order to protect the en'ironment does not conflict
with the self interest of those industries.
(B) ;ol'ing the en'ironmental crisis does not re"uire drastic and costly remedies.
(C) )uman despoliation of the #arth has caused widespread en'ironmental
damage.
1512 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() #n'ironmental impro'ement and economic progress are e"ually important
goals.
(#) =ather than blaming specific industries/ general greed should be denounced as
the cause of en'ironmental destruction.
16. The passage is primarily concerned with which one of the following%
(A) pro'iding e$amples of possible solutions to a current crisis
(B) e$plaining how conflicting 'iewpoints in a current debate are e"ually 'alid
(C) determining which of two conflicting 'iewpoints in a current debate is more
persuasi'e
() outlining the background and de'elopment of conflicting 'iewpoints in a
current debate
(#) demonstrating weaknesses in the arguments made by one side in a current
debate
Recenty the focus of hstorca studes of dfferent ethnc groups n the Unted
States has shfted from the transformaton of ethnc dentty to ts preservaton.
Whereas earer hstorans argued that the ethnc dentty of varous mmgrant
groups to the Unted States bended to form an Amercan natona character, the
new schoarshp has focused on the transpantaton of ethnc cutures to the
Unted States. Fugta and OBrens !a#anese "merican Ethnicity provdes an
exampe of ths recent trend; t aso exempfes a probem that s common to such
schoarshp.
In comparng the frst three generatons of |apanese Amercans (the Isse,
Nse, and Sanse), Fugta and OBren concude that assmaton to Unted States
cuture ncreased among |apanese Amercans over three generatons, but that a
sense of ethnc communty endured. Athough the persstence of communty s
stressed by the authors, ther emphass n the book coud |ust as easy have been
on the hgh degree of assmaton of the |apanese Amercan popuaton n the ate
twenteth century, whch Fugta and OBren beeve s demonstrated by the hgh
eves of educaton, ncome, and occupatona mobty acheved by |apanese
Amercans. In addton, ther data revea that the character of the ethnc
communty tsef changed: the ntegraton of Sanses nto new professona
communtes and nonethnc vountary assocatons meant at the very east that
ethnc tes had to accommodate mutpe and ayered denttes. Fugta and
OBren themseves acknowedge that there has been a "weakenng of |apanese
Amercan ethnc communty fe."
Because of the soca changes weakenng the bonds of communty, Fugta and
OBren mantan that the communty coheson of |apanese Amercans s notabe
not for ts nta ntensty but because "there remans a degree of nvovement n
the ethnc communty surpassng that found n most other ethnc groups at smar
ponts n ther ethnc group fe cyce." Ths comparatve dfference s mportant to
LSAT 151.
Fugta and OBren, and they hypothesze that the |apanese Amercan communty
perssted n the face of assmaton because of a partcuary strong preexstng
sense of "peopehood". They argue that ths sense of peopehood extended
beyond oca and famy tes.
Fugta and OBren have expaned persstence of ethnc communty by ctng
a preexstng sense of natona conscousness that s ndependent of how a group
adapts to Unted States cuture. However, t s dffcut to prove as Fugta and
OBren have attempted to do that a sense of peopehood s a dstnct
phenomenon. Hstorans shoud nstead attempt to dentfy drecty the factors
that sustan communty coheson n generatons that have adapted to Unted
States cuture and been exposed to the purasm of Amercan fe.
1,. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main point of the author of the
passage%
(A) >ugita and 84Brien4s study pro'ides a comparison of the degree of
in'ol'ement in ethnic community of different groups in the :nited ;tates.
(B) >ugita and 84Brien4s study describes the assimilation of three generations of
Aapanese Americans to :nited ;tates culture.
(C) >ugita and 84Brien4s study illustrates both a recent trend in historical studies
of ethnic groups and a problem typical of that trend.
() )istorical studies of ethnic preser'ation among Aapanese Americans ha'e
done much to define the interpreti'e frameworks for studies of other ethnic
groups.
(#) )istorical studies are more concerned with the recent de'elopment of ethnic
communities in the :nited ;tates than with the process of adaptation to
:nited ;tates culture.
25. According to the passage/ >ugita and 84Brien4s data indicate which one of the
following about the Aapanese American ethnic community%
(A) Community bonds ha'e weakened primarily as a result of occupational
mobility by Aapanese Americans.
(B) The community is notable because it has accommodated multiple and layered
identities without losing its traditional intensity.
(C) Community cohesion is similar in intensity to the community cohesion of
other ethnic groups that ha'e been in the :nited ;tates for the same period
of time.
() Community in'ol'ement weakened during the second generation/ but
strengthened as the third generation regained an interest in cultural
traditions.
(#) The nature of the community has been altered by Aapanese American
participation in new professional communities and nonethnic 'oluntary
associations.
1510 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
21. &hich one of the following pro'ides an e$ample of a research study that has
conclusion most analogous to that argued for by the historians mentioned in line
0%
(A) a study showing how musical forms brought from other countries ha'e
persisted in the :nited ;tates
(B) a study showing the organi!ation and function of ethnic associations in the
:nited ;tates
(C) a study showing how architectural styles brought from other counties ha'e
merged to form an American style
() a study showing how cultural traditions ha'e been preser'ed for generations
in American ethic neighborhoods
(#) a study showing how different religious practices brought from other
countries ha'e been sustained in the :nited ;tates
22. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true about the focus of
historical studies on ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates%
(A) Current studies are similar to earlier studies in claiming that a sense of
peoplehood helps preser'e ethnic community.
(B) Current studies ha'e clearly identified factors that sustain ethnic community
in generations that ha'e been e$posed to the pluralism of American life.
(C) Current studies e$amine the cultural practices that make up the American
national character.
() #arlier studies focused on how ethnic identities became transformed in the
:nited ;tates.
(#) #arlier studies focused on the factors that led people to immigrate to the
:nited ;tates.
2.. The author of the passage "uotes >ugita and 84Brien in lines .2(., most
probably in order to
(A) point out a weakness in their hypothesis about the strength of community ties
among Aapanese Americans
(B) show how they support their claim about the notability of community
cohesion for Aapanese Americans
(C) indicate how they demonstrate the high degree of adaptation of Aapanese
Americans to :nited ;tates culture
() suggest that they ha'e inaccurately compared Aapanese Americans to other
ethnic groups in the :nited ;tates
(#) emphasi!e their contention that the Aapanese American sense of peoplehood
e$tended beyond local and family ties
20. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to describe the
hypothesis mentioned in line 0- as
LSAT 1511
(A) highly persuasi'e
(B) original but poorly de'eloped
(C) difficult to substantiate
() illogical and uninteresting
(#) too similar to earlier theories
21. The passage suggests which one of the following about the historians mentioned
in line 0,%
(A) They ha'e been unable to pro'ide satisfactory e$planations for the
persistence of #uropean ethnic communities in the :nited ;tates.
(B) They ha'e suggested that #uropean cultural practices ha'e sur'i'ed although
the community ties of #uropean ethnic groups ha'e weakened.
(C) They ha'e hypothesi!ed that #uropean ethnic communities are based on
family ties rather than on a sense of national consciousness.
() They ha'e argued that #uropean cultural traditions ha'e been transformed in
the :nited ;tates because of the pluralism of American life.
(#) They ha'e claimed that the community ties of #uropean Americans are still as
strong as they were when the immigrants first arri'ed.
22. As their 'iews are discussed in the passage/ >ugita and 84Brien would be most
likely to agree with which one of the following%
(A) The community cohesion of an ethnic group is not affected by the length of
time it has been in the :nited ;tates.
(B) An ethnic group in the :nited ;tates can ha'e a high degree of adaptation to
:nited ;tates culture and still sustain strong community ties.
(C) The strength of an ethnic community in the :nited ;tates is primarily
dependent on the strength of local and family ties.
() )igh le'els of education and occupational mobility necessarily erode the
community cohesion of an ethnic group in the :nited ;tates.
(#) 3t has become increasingly difficult for ethnic groups to sustain any sense of
ethnic identity in the pluralism of :nited ;tates life.
LSAT 27 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Most offce workers assume that the messages they send to each other va
eectronc ma are as prvate as a teephone ca or a face-to-face meetng. That
1512 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
assumpton s wrong. Athough t s ega n many areas for an empoyer to
eavesdrop on prvate conversatons or teephone cas-even f they take pace on
a company-owned teephone-there are no cear rues governng eectronc ma.
In fact, the queston of how prvate eectronc ma transmssons shoud be has
emerged as one of the more compcated ega ssues of the eectronc age.
Peopes opnons about the degree of prvacy that eectronc ma shoud have
vary dependng on whose eectronc ma system s beng used and who s readng
the messages. Does a government offce, for exampe, have the rght to destroy
eectronc messages created n the course of runnng the government, thereby
denyng pubc access to such documents? Some hod that government offces
shoud ssue gudenes that aow ther staff to deete such eectronc records, and
defend ths practce by camng that the messages thus deeted aready exst n
paper versons whose destructon s forbdden. Opponents of such practces argue
that the paper versons often omt such nformaton as who receved the
messages and when they receved them, nformaton commony carred on
eectronc ma systems. Government offcas, opponents mantan, are cv
servants; the pubc shoud thus have the rght to revew any documents created
durng the conductng of government busness.
Ouestons about eectronc ma prvacy have aso arsen n the prvate sector.
Recenty, two empoyees of an automotve company were dscovered to have
been communcatng dsparagng nformaton about ther supervsor va eectronc
ma. The supervsor, who had been montorng the communcaton, threatened to
fre the empoyees. When the empoyees fed a grevance companng that ther
prvacy had been voated, they were et go. Later, ther court case for unawfu
termnaton was dsmssed; the companys awyers successfuy argued that
because the company owned the computer system, ts supervsors had the rght
to read anythng created on t.
In some areas, aws prohbt outsde ntercepton of eectronc ma by a thrd
party wthout proper authorzaton such as a search warrant. However, these aws
do not cover "nsde" ntercepton such as occurred at the automotve company. In
the past, courts have rued that nteroffce communcatons may be consdered
prvate ony f empoyees have a "reasonabe expectaton" of prvacy when they
send the messages. The fact s that no absoute guarantee of prvacy exsts n any
computer system. The ony souton may be for users to scrambe ther own
messages wth encrypton codes; unfortunatey, such compex codes are key to
undermne the prncpa vrtue of eectronc ma: ts convenence.
1. &hich one of the following statements most accurately summari!es the main
point of the passage%
(A) :ntil the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in both
the public and pri'ate sectors ha'e been resol'ed/ office workers will need
to scramble their electronic mail messages with encryption codes.
(B) The legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in the work
LSAT 151-
place can best be resol'ed by treating such communications as if they were
as pri'ate as telephone con'ersations or face(to(face meetings.
(C) Any attempt to resol'e the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of
electronic mail in the workplace must take into account the essential
difference between public(sector and pri'ate sector business.
() At present/ in both the public and pri'ate sectors/ there seem to be no clear
general answers to the legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic
mail in the workplace.
(#) The legal "uestions surrounding the pri'acy of electronic mail in the
workplace of electronic mail in the workplace can best be resol'ed by
allowing super'isors in public(sector but not pri'ate(sector offices to
monitor their employees4 communications.
2. According to the passage/ which one of the following best e$presses the reason
some people use to oppose the deletion of electronic mail records at go'ernment
offices%
(A) ;uch deletion re'eals the e$tent of go'ernment4s unhealthy obsession with
secrecy.
(B) ;uch deletion runs counter to the notion of go'ernment4s accountability to its
constituency.
(C) ;uch deletion clearly 'iolates the legal re"uirement that go'ernment offices
keep duplicate copies of all their transactions.
() ;uch deletion 'iolates the go'ernment4s own guidelines against destruction of
electronic records.
(#) ;uch deletion harms relations between go'ernment employees and their
super'isors.
.. &hich one of the following most accurately states the organi!ation of the
passage%
(A) A problem is introduced/ followed by specific e$amples illustrating the
problemE a possible solution is suggested/ followed by an acknowledgment
of its shortcomings.
(B) A problem is introduced/ followed by e$plications of two possible solutions to
the problemE the first solution is preferred to the second/ and reasons are
gi'en for why it is the better alternati'e.
(C) A problem is introduced/ followed by analysis of the historical circumstances
that helped bring the problem about a possible solution is offered and
re<ected as being only a partial remedy.
() A problem is introduced/ followed by enumeration of 'arious "uestions that
need to be answered before a solution can be foundE one possible solution is
proposed and argued for.
(#) A problem is introduced/ followed by descriptions of two contrasting
1516 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
approaches to thinking about the problemE the second approach is preferred
to the first/ and reasons are gi'en for why it is more likely to yield a
successful solution.
0. Based on the passage/ the author4s attitude towards interception of electronic mail
can most accurately be described asE
(A) outright disappro'al of the practice
(B) support for employers who engage in it
(C) support for employees who lose their <obs because of it
() intellectual interest in its legal issues
(#) cynicism about the moti'es behind the practice
1. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely hold which
one of the following opinions about an encryption system that could encodes and
decode electronic mail messages with a single keystroke%
(A) 3t would be an unreasonable burden on a company4s ability to monitor
electronic mail created by its employees.
(B) 3t would significantly reduce the difficulty of attempting to safeguard the
pri'acy of electronic mail.
(C) 3t would create substantial legal complications for companies trying to
pre'ent employees from re'ealing trade secrets to competitors.
() 3t would guarantee only a minimal le'el of employee pri'acy/ and so would
not be worth the cost in'ol'ed in installing such a system.
(#) 3t would re"uire a change in the legal definition of *reasonable e$pectation of
pri'acy+ as it applies to employer(employee relations.
2. Bi'en the information in the passage/ which one of the following hypothetical
e'ents is K#A;T likely to occur%
(A) A court rules that a go'ernment office4s practice of deleting its electronic mail
is not in the public4s best interests.
(B) A pri'ate(sector employer is found liable for wiretapping an office telephone
con'ersation in which two employees e$changed disparaging information
about their super'isor.
(C) A court upholds the right of a go'ernment office to destroy both paper and
electronic 'ersions of its in(house documents.
() A court upholds a pri'ate(sector employer4s right to monitor messages sent
between employees o'er the company4s in(house electronic mail system.
(#) A court rules in fa'or of a pri'ate(sector employee whose super'isor stated
that in(house electronic mail would not be monitored but later fired the
employee for communicating disparaging information 'ia electronic mail.
-. The author4s primary purpose in writing the passage is to
LSAT 151,
(A) demonstrate that the indi'idual right to pri'acy has been eroded by ad'ances
in computer technology
(B) compare the legal status of electronic mail in the public and pri'ate sectors
(C) draw an e$tended analogy between the pri'acy of electronic mail and the
pri'acy of telephone con'ersations or face(to(face meeting
() illustrate the comple$ities of the pri'acy issues surrounding electronic mail in
the workplace
(#) e$plain why the courts ha'e not been able to rule definitely on the issue of the
pri'acy of electronic mail
Whe a new surge of crtca nterest n the ancent Greek poems
conventonay ascrbed to Homer has taken pace n the ast twenty years or so, t
was nonspecasts rather than professona schoars who studed the poetc
aspects of the )liad and the 4dyssey between, roughy, 1935 and 1970. Durng
these years, whe such nonacademc nteectuas as Smone We and Erch
Auerbach were tryng to defne the quates that made these epc accounts of the
Tro|an War and ts aftermath great poetry, the questons that occuped the
specasts were drected esewhere: "Dd the Tro|an War reay happen?" "Does
the bard preserve Indo-European fok memores?" "How dd the poems get wrtten
down?" Somethng was drvng schoars away from the actua works to perphera
ssues. Schoars produced books about archaeoogy, about gft-exchange n
ancent socetes, about the deveopment of ora poetry, about vrtuay anythng
except the )liad and the 4dyssey themseves as unque refectons or dstatons
of fe tsef-as, n short, great poetry. The observatons of the Engsh poet
Aexander Pope seemed as appcabe n 1970 as they had been when he wrote
them n 1715: accordng to Pope, the remarks of crtcs "are rather Phosophca,
Hstorca, Geographc.or rather anythng than Crtca and Poetca."
Ironcay, the modern manfestaton of ths "nonpoetca" emphass can be
traced to the profoundy nfuenta work of Mman Parry, who attempted to
demonstrate n deta how the Homerc poems, beeved to have been recorded
neary three thousand years ago, were the products of a ong and hghy
deveoped tradton of ora poetry about the Tro|an War. Parry proposed that ths
tradton but up ts dcton and ts content by a process of constant accumuaton
and refnement over many generatons of storyteers. But after Parrys death n
1935, hs egacy was taken up by schoars who, unke Parry, forsook ntensve
anayss of the poetry tsef and focused nstead on ony one eement of Parrys
work: the creatve mtatons and possbtes of ora composton, concernng on
fxed eements and nfexbtes, focusng on the thngs that ora poetry aegedy
can and cannot do. The dryness f ths knd of study drove many of the more
nventve schoars away from the poems nto the rapdy deveopng fed of
Homers archaeoogca and hstorca background.
Appropratey, Mman Parrys son Adam was among those schoars
responsbe for a renewed nterest n Homers poetry as terary art. Budng on
1525 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
hs fathers work, the younger Parry argued that the Homerc poems exst both
wthn and aganst a tradton. The )liad and the 4dyssey were, Adam Parry
thought, the benefcares of an nherted store of dcton, scenes, and at the same
tme hghy ndvdua works that surpasses these conventons. Adam Parry heped
prepare the ground for the recent Homerc revva by affrmng hs fathers beef
n a strong nherted tradton, but aso by emphaszng Homers unque
contrbutons wthn that tradton.
6. &hich one of the following best states the main idea of the passage%
(A) The )omeric poems are most fruitfully studied as records of the time and
place in which they were written.
(B) The )omeric poems are the products of a highly de'eloped and complicated
tradition of oral poetry.
(C) The )omeric poems are currently en<oying a resurgence of critical interest
after an age of scholarship largely de'oted to the poems4 nonpoetic elements.
() The )omeric poems are currently en<oying a resurgence of scholarly interest
after am age during which most studies were authored by nonacademic
writers.
(#) Before ?ilman @arry published his pioneering work in the early twentieth
century/ it was difficult to assign a date or an author to the )omeric poems.
,. According to the passage/ the work of ;imone &eil and #rich Auerbach on
)omer was primarily concerned with which one of the following%
(A) considerations of why criticism of )omer had mo'ed to peripheral issues
(B) analyses of the poetry itself in terms of its literary "ualities
(C) studies in the history and nature of oral poetry
() analyses of the already ancient epic tradition inherited by )omer
(#) criti"ues of the highly technical analyses of academic critics
15. The passage suggests which one of the following about scholarship on )omer
that has appeared since 1,-5%
(A) 3t has dealt e$tensi'ely with the )omeric poems as literary art.
(B) 3t is more incisi'e than the work of the @arrys.
(C) 3t has re<ected as irrele'ant the scholarship produced by specialists between
1,.1 and 1,-5.
() 3t has ignored the work of ;imone &eil and #rich Auerbach.
(#) 3t has attempted to confirm that the /liad and the 0dyssey were written by
)omer.
11. The author of the passage most probably "uotes Ale$ander @ope (lines 20(22) in
order to
(A) indicate that the )omeric poems ha'e generally recei'ed poor treatment at
LSAT 1521
the hands of #nglish critics
(B) pro'e that poets as well as critics ha'e emphasi!ed elements peripheral to the
poems
(C) illustrate that the nonpoetical emphasis also e$isted in an earlier century
() emphasi!e the problems inherent in rendering classical Breek poetry into
modern #nglish
(#) argue that poets and literary critics ha'e seldom agreed the interpretation of
poetry
12. According to the passage/ which one of the following is true of ?ilman @arry4s
immediate successors in the field of )omeric studies%
(A) They reconciled )omer4s poetry with archaeological and historical concerns.
(B) They acknowledged the tradition of oral poetry/ but focused on the
uni"ueness of )omer4s poetry within the tradition.
(C) They occupied themsel'es with the "uestion of what "ualities made for great
poetry.
() They emphasi!ed the boundaries of oral poetry.
(#) They called for a re'i'al of )omer4s popularity.
1.. &hich one of the following best describes the organi!ation of the passage%
(A) A situation is identified and its origins are e$amines.
(B) A series of hypotheses is re'iewed and one is ad'ocated.
(C) The works of two influential scholars are summari!ed.
() ;e'eral issues contributing to a currently debate are summari!ed.
(#) Three possible solutions to a long(standing problem are posed.
Even n the mdst of ts resurgence as a vta tradton, many socoogsts have
vewed the current form of the powwow, a ceremona gatherng of natve
Amercans, as a sgn that trba cuture s n decne. Focusng on the dances and
rtuas that have recenty come to be shared by most trbes, they suggest that an
ntertrba movement s now n ascenson and cam the nevtabe outcome of ths
tendency s the eventua dssouton of trbes and the compete assmaton of
natve Amercans nto Euroamercan socety. Proponents of ths "Pan-Indan"
theory pont to the greater frequency of trave and communcaton between
reservatons, the greater urbanzaton of natve Amercans, and, most recenty,
ther ncreasng potczaton n response to common grevances as the chef
causes of the shft toward ntertrbasm.
Indeed, the rapd dffuson of dance styes, outfts, and songs from one
reservaton to another offers compeng evdence that ntertrbasm has been
ncreasng. However, these socoogsts have faed to note the concurrent
revtazaton of many tradtons unque to ndvdua trbes. Among the Lakota, for
nstance, the Sun Dance was revved, after a forty-year hatus, durng the 1950s.
1522 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Smary, the Back Leggng Socety of the Kowa and the Hethuska Socety of the
Ponca-both tradtona groups wthn ther respectve trbes-have ganed new
popuarty. Obvousy, a more compex soceta shft s takng pace than the theory
of Pan-Indansm can account for.
An examnaton of the theorys underpnnngs may be crtca at ths pont,
especay gven that natve Amercans themseves chafe most aganst the Pan-
Indan cassfcaton. Lke other assmatonst theores wth whch t s assocated,
the Pan-Indan vew s predcted upon an a pror assumpton about the nature of
cutura contact: that upon contact mnorty socetes mmedatey begn to
succumb n every respect-boogcay, ngustcay, and cuturay-to the
ma|orty socety. However, there s no evdence that ths s happenng to natve
Amercan groups.
Yet the fact remans that ntertrba actvtes are a ma|or facet of natve
Amercan cutura today. Certan dances at powwows, for nstance, are announced
as ntertrba, others as tradtona. Lkewse, speeches gven at the begnnngs of
powwows are often devered n Engsh, whe the prayer that foows s usuay
spoken n a natve anguage. Cutura borrowng s, of course, od news. What s
mportant to note s the conscous dstncton natve Amercans make between
trba and ntertrba tendences.
Trbasm, athough greaty atered by modern hstory, remans a potent force
among natve Amercans. It forms a bass for trba dentty, and agns musc and
dance wth other soca and cutura actvtes mportant to ndvdua trbes.
Intertrba actvtes, on the other hand, renforce natve Amercan dentty aong a
broader front, where ths dentty s drecty threatened by outsde nfuences.
10. &hich one of the following best summari!es the main idea of the passage%
(A) espite the fact that sociologists ha'e only recently begun to understand its
importance/ intertribalism has always been an influential factor in nati'e
American culture.
(B) 9ati'e Americans are currently struggling with an identity crisis caused
primarily by the two competing forces of tribalism and intertribalism.
(C) The recent growth of intertribalism is unlikely to eliminate tribalism because
the two forces do not oppose one another but instead reinforce distinct
elements of nati'e American interact with the broader community around
them.
() The tendency toward intertribalism/ although pre'alent within nati'e
American culture/ has had a minimal effect on the way nati'e Americans
interact with the broader community around them.
(#) espite the recent re'i'al of many nati'e American tribal traditions/ the
recent trend toward intertribalism is likely to erode cultural differences
among the 'arious nati'e American tribes.
11. The author most likely states that *cultural borrowing is of course/ old news+
LSAT 152.
(line 0-(06) primarily to
(A) acknowledge that in itself the e$istence of intertribal tendencies at powwows
is unsurprising
(B) suggest that nati'e Americans4 use of #nglish in powwows should be
accepted as una'oidable
(C) argue that the deliberate distinction of intertribal and traditional dances is not
a recent de'elopment
() suggest that the recent increase in intertribal acti'ity is the result of nati'e
Americans borrowing from non(nati'e Americans
(#) indicate that the powwow itself could ha'e originated by combining practices
drawn from both nati'e and non(nati'e American cultures
12. The author of the passage would most likely agree with which one of the
following assertions%
(A) Though some belie'e the current form of the powwow signals the decline of
tribal culture/ the powwow contains elements that indicate the continuing
strength of tribalism.
(B) The logical outcome of the recent increase in intertribal acti'ity is the
e'entual disappearance of tribal culture.
(C) 9ati'e Americans who participate in both tribal and intertribal acti'ities
usually base their identities on intertribal rather than tribal affiliations.
() The conclusions of some sociologists about the health of nati'e American
cultures show that these sociologists are in fact biased against such cultures.
(#) :ntil it is balanced by re'itali!ation of tribal customs/ intertribalism will
continue to weaken the nati'e American sense of identity.
1-. The primary function of the third paragraph is to
(A) search for e'idence to corroborate the basic assumption of he theory of @an(
3ndianism
(B) demonstrate the incorrectness of the theory of @an(3ndianism by pointing out
that nati'e American groups themsel'es disagree with the theory
(C) e$plain the origin of the theory of @an(3ndianism by showing how it e'ol'ed
from other assimilationist theories
() e$amine se'eral assimilationist theories in order to demonstrate that they rest
on a common assumption
(#) critici!e the theory of @an(3ndianism by pointing out that it rests upon an
assumption for which there is no supporting e'idence
16. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude
towards the theory of @an(3ndianism%
(A) critical of its tendency to attribute political moti'es to cultural practices
(B) discomfort at its negati'e characteri!ation of cultural borrowing by nati'e
1520 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Americans
(C) hopeful about its chance for preser'ing tribal culture
() offended by its claim that assimilation is a desirable conse"uence of cultural
contact
(#) skeptical that it is a complete e$planation of recent changes in nati'e
American society
1,. &ith which one of the following statements would the author of the passage be
most likely to agree%(3ntertribal acti'ities/ on the other hand/ reinforce nati'e
American identity along a broader front/ where this identity is directly threatened
by outside influences.)
(A) The resurgence of the powwow is a sign that nati'e American customs are
beginning to ha'e an important influence on #uroamerican society.
(B) Although nati'e Americans draw conscious distinctions between tribal and
intertribal acti'ities/ there is no difference in how the two types of acti'ity
actually function within the conte$t of nati'e American society.
(C) &ithout intertribal acti'ities/ it would be more difficult for nati'e Americans
to maintain the cultural differences between nati'e American and
#uroamerican society.
() The powwow was recently re'i'ed/ after an e$tended hiatus/ in order to
strengthen nati'e Americans4 sense of ethnic identity.
(#) The degree of urbani!ation/ intertribal communication/ and politici!ation
among nati'e Americans has been e$aggerated by proponents of the theory
of @an(3ndianism.
25. &hich one of the following situations most clearly illustrates the phenomenon of
intertribalism/ as that phenomenon is described in the passage%
(A) a nati'e American tribe in which a number of powerful societies attempt to
pre'ent the re'i'al of a traditional dance
(B) a nati'e American tribe whose members attempt to learn the nati'e languages
of se'eral other tribes
(C) a nati'e American tribe whose members attempt to form a political
organi!ation in order to redress se'eral grie'ances important to that tribe
() a nati'e American tribe in which a significant percentage of the members
ha'e forsake their tribal identity and become assimilated into #uroamerican
society
(#) a nati'e American tribe whose members often tra'el to other parts of the
reser'ation in order to 'isit friends and relati'es
21. 3n the passage/ the author is primarily concerned with doing which one of the
following%
(A) identifying an assumption common to 'arious assimilationist theories and
LSAT 1521
then critici!ing these theories by showing this assumption to be false
(B) arguing that the recent re'i'al of a number of tribal practices shows
sociologists are mistaken in belie'ing intertribilism to be a potent force
among nati'e American societies
(C) "uestioning the belief that nati'e American societies will e'entually be
assimilated into #uroamerican society by arguing that intertribalism helps
strengthen nati'e American identity
() showing how the recent resurgence of tribal acti'ities is a deliberate attempt
to counteract the growing influence of intertribalism
(#) proposing an e$planation of why the ascension of intertribalism could result
in the e'entual dissolution of tribes and complete assimilation of nati'e
American into #uroamerican society
Scentsts typcay advocate the anaytc method of studyng compex
systems: systems are dvded nto component parts that are nvestgated
separatey. But nneteenth-century crtcs of ths method camed that when a
systems parts are soated ts compexty tends to be ost. To address the
perceved weakness of the anaytc method these crtcs put forward a concept
caed organcsm, whch posted that the whoe determnes the nature of ts parts
and that the parts of a whoe are nterdependent.
Organcsm depended upon the theory of nterna reatons, whch states that
reatons between enttes are possbe ony wthn some whoe that embraces
them, and that enttes are atered by the reatonshps nto whch they enter. If an
entty stands n a reatonshp wth another entty, t has some property as a
consequence. Wthout ths reatonshp, and hence wthout the property, the entty
woud be dfferent-and so woud be another entty. Thus, the property s one of
the enttys defnng characterstcs. Each of an enttys reatonshps kewse
determnes a defnng characterstc of the entty.
One probem wth the theory of nterna reatons s that not a propertes of
an entty are defnng characterstcs: numerous propertes are accompanyng
characterstcs-even f they are aways present, ther presence does not nfuence
the enttys dentty. Thus, even f t s admtted that every reatonshp nto whch
an entty enters determnes some characterstc of the entty, t s not necessary
true that such characterstcs w defne the entty; t s possbe for the entty to
enter nto a reatonshp yet reman essentay unchanged.
The utmate dffcuty wth the theory of nterna reatons s that t renders
the acquston of knowedge mpossbe. To truy know an entty, we must know a
of ts reatonshps; but because the entty s reated to everythng n each whoe
of whch t s a part, these whoes must be known competey before the entty can
be known. Ths seems to be a prerequste mpossbe to satsfy.
Organcsts crtcsm of the anaytc method arose from ther faure to fuy
comprehend the method. In re|ectng the anaytc method, organcsts overooked
1522 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
the fact that before the proponents of the method anayzed the component parts
of a system, they frst determned both the aws appcabe to the whoe system
and the nta condtons of the system; proponents of the method thus dd not
study parts of a system n fu soaton from the system as a whoe. Snce
organcsts faed to recognze ths, they never advanced any argument to show
that aws and nta condtons of compex systems cannot be dscovered. Hence,
organcsts offered no vad reason for re|ectng the anaytc method or for
adoptng organcsm as a repacement for t.
22. &hich one of the following most completely and accurately summari!es the
argument of the passage%
(A) By calling into "uestion the possibility that comple$ systems can be studied
in their entirety/ organicists offered an alternati'e to the analytic method
fa'ored by nineteenth(century scientists.
(B) 8rganicists did not offer a useful method of studying comple$ systems
because they did not acknowledge that there are relationship into which an
entity may enter that do not alter the entity4s identity.
(C) 8rganicism is flawed because it relies on a theory that both ignores the fact
that not all characteristics of entities are defining and ultimately makes the
ac"uisition of knowledge impossible.
() 8rganicism does not offer a 'alid challenge to the analytic method both
because it relies on faulty theory and because it is based on a
misrepresentation of the analytic method.
(#) 3n critici!ing the analytic method/ organicists neglected to dispro'e that
scientists who employ the method are able to disco'er the laws and initial
conditions of the systems they study.
2.. According to the passage/ organicists4 chief ob<ection to the analytic method was
that the method
(A) o'ersimplified systems by isolating their components
(B) assumed that a system can be di'ided into component parts
(C) ignored the laws applicable to the system as a whole
() claimed that the parts of a system are more important than the system as a
whole
(#) denied the claim that entities enter into relationships
20. The passage offers information to help answer each of the following "uestions
#DC#@TE
(A) &hy does the theory of internal relations appear to make the ac"uisition of
knowledge impossible%
(B) &hy did the organicists propose replacing the analytic method%
(C) &hat is the difference between a defining characteristic and an accompanying
LSAT 152-
characteristic%
() &hat did organicists claim are the effects of an entity entering into a
relationship with another entity%
(#) &hat are some of the ad'antages of separating out the parts of a system for
study%
21. The passage most strongly supports the ascription of which one of the following
'iews to scientists who use the analytic method%
(A) A comple$ system is best understood by studying its component parts in full
isolation from the system as a whole.
(B) The parts of a system should be studied with an awareness of the laws and
initial conditions that go'ern the system.
(C) 3t is not possible to determine the laws go'erning a system until the system4s
parts are separated from one another.
() Because the parts of a system are interdependent/ they cannot be studied
separately without destroying the system4s comple$ity.
(#) ;tudying the parts of a system indi'idually eliminate the need to determine
which characteristics of the parts are defining characteristics.
22. &hich one of the following is a principle upon which the author bases an
argument against the theory of the internal relations%
(A) An ade"uate theory of comple$ systems must define the entities of which the
system is composed.
(B) An acceptable theory cannot ha'e conse"uences that contradict its basic
purpose.
(C) An ade"uate method of study of comple$ systems should re'eal the actual
comple$ity of the system it studies.
() An acceptable theory must describe the laws and initial conditions of a
comple$ system.
(#) An acceptable method of studying comple$ systems should not study parts of
the system in isolation from the system as a whole.
LSAT 2' SECTON )
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 27 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Opponents of compusory natona servce cam that such a program s not n
keepng wth the bera prncpes upon whch Western democraces are founded.
Ths reasonng s remnscent of the argument that a tax on ones ncome s
1526 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
undemocratc because t voates ones rght to property. Such conceptons of the
bera state fa to take nto account the ntrcate character of the soca
agreement that undergrds our bertes. It s ony n the context of a communty
that the noton of ndvdua rghts has any appcaton; ndvdua rghts are meant
to defne the mts of peopes actons wth respect to other peope. Impct n
such a context s the concept of shared sacrfce. Were no taxes pad, there coud
be no aw enforcement, and the enforcement of aw s of beneft to everyone n
socety. Thus, each of us must bear a share of the burden to ensure that the
communty s protected.
The responsbty to defend ones naton aganst outsde aggresson s surey
no ess than the responsbty to hep pay for aw enforcement wthn the naton.
Therefore, the state s certany wthn ts rghts to compe ctzens to perform
natona servce when t s needed for the beneft of socety.
It mght be ob|ected that the cases of taxaton and natona servce are not
anaogous: Whe taxaton must be coerced, the mtary s qute abe to fnd
recruts wthout resortng to conscrpton. Furthermore, proponents of natona
servce do not mt ts scope to ony those dutes absoutey necessary to the
defense of the naton. Therefore, t may be contended, compusory natona
servce oversteps the acceptabe boundares of governmenta nterference n the
ves of ts ctzens.
By respondng thus, the opponent of natona servce has aready aowed that
t s a rght of government to demand servce when t s needed. But what s the
true scope of the term "need"? If t s granted, say, that present tax poces are
egtmate ntrusons on the rght to property, then t must aso be granted that
need nvoves more than |ust what s necessary for a sound natona defense.
Even the most conservatve of potcans admts that tax money s rghty spent
on programs that, whe not necessary for the survva of the state, are
nevertheess of great beneft to socety. Can the opponent of natona servce truy
cam that actvtes of the mtary such as queng cv dsorders, rebudng
dams and brdges, or assstng the vctms of natura dsasters-a extraneous to
the defense of socety aganst outsde aggresson-do not provde a smar
beneft to the naton? Upon refecton, opponents of natona servce must
concede that such a broadened concepton of what s necessary s n keepng wth
the deas of shared sacrfce and communty beneft that are essenta to the
functonng of a bera democratc state.
1. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the author4s attitude toward
the relationship between citi!enship and indi'idual rights in a democracy%
(A) confidence that indi'idual rights are citi!ens4 most important guarantees of
personal freedom
(B) satisfaction at how indi'idual rights ha'e protected citi!ens from unwarranted
go'ernment intrusion
(C) alarm that so many citi!ens use indi'idual rights as an e$cuse to take
LSAT 152,
ad'antage of one another
() concern that indi'idual rights represent citi!ens4 only defense against
go'ernment interference
(#) dissatisfaction at how some citi!ens cite indi'idual rights as a way of
a'oiding certain obligations to their go'ernment
2. The author indicates all politicians agree about the
(A) legitimacy of funding certain programs that ser'e the national good
(B) use of the military to pre'ent domestic disorders
(C) similarity of conscription and compulsory ta$ation
() importance of broadening the definition of necessity
(#) compatibility of compulsion with democratic principles
.. &hich one of the following most accurately characteri!es what the author means
by the term *social agreement+ (line 6)%
(A) an agreement among members of a community that the scope of their
indi'idual liberties is limited somewhat by their obligations to one another
(B) an agreement among members of a community that they will not act in ways
that infringe upon each other4s pursuit of indi'idual liberty
(C) an agreement among members of a community that they will petition the
go'ernment for redress when go'ernment actions limit their rights
() an agreement between citi!ens and their go'ernment detailing which
go'ernment actions do or do not infringe upon citi!en4s personal freedoms
(#) an agreement between citi!ens and their go'ernment stating that the
go'ernment has right to suspend indi'idual liberties whene'er it sees fit
0. According to the author/ national ser'ice and ta$ation are analogous in the sense
that both
(A) do not re"uire that citi!ens be compelled to help bring them about
(B) are at odds with the notion of indi'idual rights in a democracy
(C) re"uire different degrees of sacrifice from different citi!ens
() allow the go'ernment to o'erstep its boundaries and interfere in the li'es of
citi!ens
(#) ser'e ends beyond those related to the basic sur'i'al of the state
1. Based on the information in the passage/ which one of the following would most
likely be found ob<ectionable by those who oppose compulsory national ser'ice%
(A) the use of ta$ re'enues to pre'ent the theft of national secrets by foreign
agents
(B) the use of ta$ re'enues to fund relief efforts for 'ictims of natural disasters in
other nations
(C) the use of ta$ re'enues to support the upkeep of the nation4s standing army
15.5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() the use of ta$ re'enues to fund programs for the maintenance of domestic
dams and bridges
(#) the use of ta$ re'enues to aid citi!ens who are 'ictims of natural disasters
|ames Porter (1905-1970) was the frst schoar to dentfy the Afrcan nfuence
on vsua art n the Amercans, and much of what s known about the cutura
egacy that Afrcan-Amercan artsts nherted from ther Afrcan forebears has
come to us by way of hs work. Porter, a panter and art hstoran, began by
studyng Afrcan-Amercan crafts of the eghteenth and nneteenth centures. Ths
research reveaed that many of the househod tems created by Afrcan-Amercan
men and women-wakng stcks, |ugs, and textes-dspayed characterstcs that
nked them conographcay to artfacts of West Afrca. Porter then went on to
estabsh ceary the range of the cutura terrtory nherted by ater Afrcan-
Amercan artsts.
An exampe of ths aspect of Porters research occurs n hs essay "Robert S.
Duncanson, Mdwestern Romantc-Reast." The work of Duncanson, a nneteenth-
century panter of the Hudson Rver schoo, ke that of hs predecessor n the
movement, |oshua |ohnston, was commony thought to have been created by a
Euro-Amercan artst. Porter proved defntvey that both Duncanson and |ohnston
were of Afrcan ancestry. Porter pubshed ths fndng and thousands of others n a
comprehensve voume tracng the hstory of Afrcan-Amercan art. At the tme of
ts frst prntng n 1943, ony two other books devoted excusvey to the
accompshments of Afrcan-Amercan artsts exsted. Both of these books were
wrtten by Aan LeRoy Locke, a professor at the unversty where Porter aso
taught. Whe these earer studes by Locke are nterestng for beng the frst to
survey the fed, nether addressed the crtca ssue of Afrcan precursors; Porters
book addressed ths ssue, panstakngy ntegratng the hstory of Afrcan-
Amercan art nto the arger hstory of art n the Amercas wthout separatng t
from those quates that gave t ts unque tes to Afrcan artsanshp. Porter may
have been especay attuned to these tes because of hs conscous effort to
mantan them n hs own pantngs, many of whch combne the stye of the genre
portrat wth evdence of an extensve knowedge of the cutura hstory of varous
Afrcan peopes.
In hs ater years, Porter wrote addtona chapters for ater edtons of hs
book, constanty revsng and correctng hs fndngs, some of whch had been
based of necessty on fragmentary evdence. Among hs ater achevements were
hs defntve reckonng of the brth year of the panter Patrck Reason, ong a pont
of schoary uncertanty, and hs dentfcaton of an unmarked grave n San
Francsco as that of the scuptor Edmona Lews. At hs death, Porter eft extensve
notes for unfnshed pro|ect amed at exporng the nfuence of Afrcan art on the
art of the Western word generay, a body of research whose rches schoars st
have not exhausted.
2. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%
LSAT 15.1
(A) Because the connections between African(American art and other art in the
Americas had been established by earlier scholars/ @orter4s work focused on
showing African(American art4s connections to African artisanship.
(B) 3n addition to showing the connections between African(American art and
African artisanship/ @orter4s most important achie'ement was illustrating the
links between African(American art and other art in Americas.
(C) espite the fact that his last book remains unfinished/ @orter4s work was the
first to de'ote its attention e$clusi'ely to the accomplishments of African(
American artists.
() Although showing the connections between African(American art and African
artisanship/ @orter4s work concentrated primarily on placing African(
American art in the conte$t of &estern art in general.
(#) &hile not the first body of scholarship to treat the sub<ect of African(
American art/ @orter4s work was the first to show the connections between
African(American art and African artisanship.
-. The discussion of Kocke4s books is intended primarily to
(A) argue that @orte4s book depended upon Kocke4s pioneering scholarship
(B) highlight an important way in which @orter4s work differed from pre'ious
work in his field
(C) suggest an e$planation for why @orter4s book was little known outside
academic circles
() support the claim that @orter was not the first to notice African influences in
African(American art
(#) argue that Kocke4s e$ample was a ma<or influence o @orter4s decision to
publish his findings
6. The passage states which one of the following about the 1,0. edition of @orter4s
book on African(American art%
(A) 3t recei'ed little scholarly attention at first.
(B) 3t was re'ised and impro'ed upon in later editions.
(C) 3t took issue with se'eral of Kocke4s conclusions.
() 3t is considered the definiti'e 'ersion of @orter4s work.
(#) 3t e$plored the influence of African art on western art in general.
,. Bi'en the information in the passage/ @orter4s identification of the ancestry of
uncanson and Aohnston pro'ides conclusi'e e'idence for which one of the
following statements%
(A) ;ome of the characteristics defining the )udson =i'er school are
iconographically linked to &eston African artisanship.
(B) ;ome of the works of uncanson and Aohnston are not in the style of the
)udson =i'er school.
15.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) ;ome of the work of #uro(American painters displays similarities to African(
American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
() ;ome of the works of the )udson =i'er school were done by African(
American painters.
(#) ;ome of the works of uncanson and Aohnston were influenced by &est
African artifacts.
15. &hich one of the following can most reasonably be inferred from the passage
about the study that @orter left unfinished at his death%
(A) 3f completed/ it would ha'e contradicted some of the conclusions contained
in his earlier book.
(B) 3f completed/ it would ha'e amended some of the conclusions contained in
his earlier book.
(C) 3f completed/ it would ha'e brought up to date the comprehensi'e history of
African(American art begun in his earlier book.
() 3f completed/ it would ha'e e$panded upon the pro<ect of his earlier book by
broadening the scope of in"uiry found in the earlier book.
(#) 3f completed/ it would ha'e supported some of the theories put forth by
@orter4s contemporaries since the publication of his earlier book.
11. &hich of the following hypothetical obser'ations is most closely analogous to the
disco'eries @orter made about African(American crafts of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries%
(A) Contemporary )aitian social customs ha'e a uni"ue character dependent on
but different from both their African and >rench origins.
(B) @opular music in the :nited ;tates/ some of which is based on African
musical traditions/ often influences music being composed on the African
continent.
(C) ?any no'els written in Canada by Chinese immigrants e$hibit narrati'e
themes 'ery similar to those found in Chinese folktales.
() #$tensi'e 3ndian immigration to #ngland has made traditional 3ndian foods
nearly as popular there as the traditional #nglish foods that had been popular
there before 3ndian immigration.
(#) ;ome ?e$ican muralists of the early twentieth century consciously imitated
the art of nati'e peoples as a response to the ;panish influences that had
predominated in ?e$ican art.
12. The passage most strongly supports which one of the following inferences about
@orter4s own paintings%
(A) They often contained figures or images deri'ed from the work of African
artisans.
(B) They fueled his interest in pursuing a career in art history.
LSAT 15..
(C) They were used in @orter4s book to show the e$tent of African influence on
African(American art.
() They were a deliberate attempt to pro'e his theories about art history.
(#) They were done after all of his academic work had been completed.
1.. Based on the passage/ which one of the following/ if true/ would ha'e been most
rele'ant to the pro<ect @orter was working on at the time of his death%
(A) African(American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries ha'e
certain resemblances to #uropean folk crafts of earlier periods.
(B) The paintings of some twentieth(century #uropean artists prefigured certain
stylistic de'elopments in 9orth African graphic art.
(C) The designs of many of the "uilts made by African(American women in the
nineteenth century reflect designs of #uropean trade goods.
() After the mo'ement of large numbers of African(Americans to cities/ the
African influences in the work of many African(American painters
increased.
(#) ;e'eral portraits by certain twentieth(century #uropean painters were
modeled after e$amples of Central African ceremonial masks.
Between |une 1987 and May 1988, the bodes of at east 740 bottenose
dophns out of a tota coasta popuaton of 3,000 to 5,000 washed ashore on the
Atantc coast of the Unted States. Snce some of the dead anmas never washed
ashore, the overa dsaster was presumaby worse; perhaps 50 percent of the
popuaton ded. A dophn de-off of ths character and magntude had never
before been observed; furthermore, the dophns exhbted a startng range of
symptoms. The research team that examned the de-off noted the presence of
both skn esons and nterna esons n the ver, ung, pancreas and heart, whch
suggested a massve opportunstc bactera nfecton of aready weakened
anmas.
Tssues from the strcken dophns were anayzed for a varety of toxns.
Brevetoxn, a toxn produced by the boomng of the aga Ptychodiscus $revis, was
present n eght out of seventeen dophns tested. Tests for synthetc poutants
reveaed that poychornated bphenys (PCBs) were present n amost a anmas
tested.
The research team concuded that brevetoxn posonng was the most key
cause of the nesses that ked the dophns. Athough P. $revis s ordnary not
found aong the Atantc coast, an unusua boom of ths organsm-such booms
are caed "red tdes" because of the reddsh coor mparted by the boomng agae
-dd occur n the mdde of the affected coastne n October 1987. These
researchers beeve the toxn accumuated n the tssue of fsh and then was
ngested by dophns that preyed on them. The emacated appearance of many
dophns ndcated that they were metabozng ther bubber reserves, thereby
reducng ther buoyancy and nsuaton (and addng to overa stress) as we as
15.0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
reeasng stores of prevousy accumuated synthetc poutants, such as PCBs,
whch further exacerbated ther condton. The combned mpact made the
dophns vunerabe to opportunstc bactera nfecton, the utmate cause of
death.
For severa reasons, however, ths expanaton s not entrey pausbe. Frst,
bottenose dophns and P. $revis red tdes are both common n the Guf of Mexco,
yet no dophn de-off of a smar magntude has been noted there. Second,
dophns began dyng n |une, hundreds of mes north of and some months earer
than the October red tde boom. Fnay, the specfc effects of brevetoxn on
dophns are unknown, whereas PCB posonng s known to mpar functonng of
the mmune system and ver and to cause skn esons; a of these probems are
observed n the dseased anmas. An aternatve hypothess, whch accounts for
these facts, s that a sudden nfux of poutants, perhaps from offshore dumpng,
trggered a cascade of dsorders n anmas whose systems were aready heavy
aden wth poutants. Athough brevetoxn may have been a contrbutng factor,
the event that actuay precptated the de-off was a sharp ncrease n the
dophns exposure to synthetc poutants.
10. The passage is primarily concerned with assessing
(A) the effects of a de'astating bacterial infection in Atlantic coast bottlenose
dolphins
(B) the progress by which illnesses in Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins were
correctly diagnosed
(C) the weaknesses in the research methodology used to e$plore the dolphin die(
off
() possible alternati'e e$planations for the massi'e dolphin die(off
(#) relati'e effects of 'arious marine pollutants on dolphin mortality
11. &hich one of the following is mentioned in the passage as e'idence for the
e$planation of the dolphin die(off offered in the final paragraph%
(A) the release of stored bre'eto$ins from the dolphins4 blubber reser'es
(B) the date on which offshore dumping was known to ha'e occurred nearby
(C) the presence of dumping sites for @CBs in the area
() the synthetic pollutants that were present in the fish eaten by the dolphins
(#) the effects of @CBs on li'er function in dolphins
12. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the approach taken by author of
the passage with regard to the research described in the third paragraph%
(A) A physics teacher accepts the data from a student4s e$periment but "uestions
the student4s conclusions.
(B) An astronomer pro'ides additional obser'ations to support another
astronomer4s theory.
LSAT 15.1
(C) A cook re'ises a traditional recipe by substituting modern ingredients for
those used in the original.
() A doctor prescribes medication for a patient whose illness was misdiagnosed
by another doctor.
(#) A microbiologist sets out to replicate the e$periment that yielded a classic
theory of cell structure.
1-. &hich one of the following most accurately describes the organi!ation of the last
paragraph%
(A) 8ne e$planation is critici!ed and different e$planation is proposed.
(B) An argument is ad'anced and then refuted by means of an opposing
argument.
(C) 8b<ections against a hypothesis are ad'anced/ the hypothesis is e$plained
more fully/ and then the ob<ections are re<ected.
() 9ew e'idence in fa'or of a theory is described/ and then the theory is
reaffirmed.
(#) iscrepancies between two e$planations are noted/ and a third e$planation is
proposed.
16. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most probably agree
with which one of the following statements about bre'eto$in%
(A) 3t may ha'e been responsible for the dolphins4 skin lesions but could not ha'e
contributed to the bacterial infection.
(B) 3t forms more easily when both P2 bre$is and synthetic pollutants are present
in the en'ironment simultaneously.
(C) 3t damages li'er function and immune system responses in bottlenose
dolphins but may not ha'e triggered this particular dolphin die(off.
() 3t is unlikely to be among the factors that contributed to the dolphin die(off.
(#) 3t is unlikely to ha'e caused the die(off because it was not present in the
dolphins4 en'ironment when the die(off began.
1,. The e$planation for the dolphin die(off gi'en by the research team most strongly
supports which one of the following%
(A) The biological mechanism by which bre'eto$in affects dolphins is probably
different from that by which it affects other marine animals.
(B) &hen P2 bre$is blooms in an area where it does not usually e$ist/ it is more
to$ic than it is in its usual habitat.
(C) 8pportunistic bacterial infection is usually associated with bre'eto$in
poisoning in bottlenose dolphins.
() The dolphins4 emaciated state was probably a symptom of @CB poisoning
rather than of bre'eto$in poisoning.
(#) &hen a dolphin metaboli!es its blubber/ the @CBs released may be more
15.2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
dangerous to the dolphin than they were when stored in the blubber.
25. The author refers to dolphins in the Bulf of ?e$ico in the last paragraph in order
to
(A) refute the assertion that dolphins tend not to inhabit areas where P2 bre$is is
common
(B) compare the effects of synthetic pollutants on these dolphins and on Atlantic
coast dolphins
(C) cast doubt on the belief that P2 bre$is contributes substantially to dolphin die(
offs
() illustrate the fact that dolphins in relati'ely pollution(free waters are healthier
than dolphins in polluted waters
(#) pro'ide e'idence for the argument that P2 bre$is was probably responsible for
the dolphins4 deaths
21. &hich one of the following factors is e$plicitly cited as contributing to the
dolphins4 deaths in both theories discussed in the passage%
(A) the dolphins4 diet
(B) the presence of P2 bre$is in the Bulf of ?e$ico
(C) the wide 'ariety of to$ins released by the red tide bloom of 8ctober 1,6-
() the presence of synthetic pollutants in the dolphins4 bodies
(#) the bacterial infection caused by a generali!ed failure of the dolphins4
immune systems
In Engand before 1660, a husband controed hs wfes property. In the ate
seventeenth and eghteenth centures, wth the shft from and-based to
commerca weath, marrage began to ncorporate certan features of a contract.
Hstoran have tradtonay argued that ths trend represented a gan for women,
one that refects changng vews about democracy and property foowng the
Engsh Restoraton n 1660. Susan Staves contests ths vew; she argues that
whatever gans marrage contracts may brefy have represented for women were
undermned by |udca decsons about womens contractua rghts.
Sftng (to go through especay to sort out what s usefu or vauabe "sfted
the evdence" often used wth through "sft through a pe of od etters") through
the tanged detas of court cases, Staves demonstrates that, despte surface
changes, a rhetorc of equaty, and occasona decsons supportng womens
fnanca power, defntons of mens and womens property remaned nconsstent
-generay to womens detrment. For exampe, dower ands (property nherted
by wves after ther husbands deaths) coud not be sod, but "curtsey" property
(nherted by husbands from ther wves) coud be sod. Furthermore,
comparatvey new concepts that deveoped n con|uncton wth the marrage
contract, such as |onture, pn money (pn money: money gven by a man to hs
wfe for her own use), and separate mantenance, were compromsed by pecuar
LSAT 15.-
rues. For nstance, f a woman spent her pn money (money pad by the husband
accordng to the marrage contract for wfes persona tems) on possessons other
than cothes she coud not se them; n effect they beonged to her husband. In
addton, a wfe coud sue for pn money ony up to a year n arrears-whch
rendered a sut mpractca. Smary, separate mantenance aowances (stated
sums of money for the wfes support f husband and wfe agreed to ve apart)
were compcated by the fact that f a coupe tred to agree n a marrage contract
on an amount, they were admttng that a supposedy ndssoube bond coud be
dssoved, an assumpton courts coud not recognze. Eghteenth-century
hstorans underpayed these nconsstences, cang them "tte contraretes"
that woud soon vansh. Staves shows, however, that as |udges ganed power over
decsons on marrage contracts, they tended to fa back on pre-1660
assumptons about property.
Staves work on womens property has genera mpcatons for other studes
about women n eghteenth-century Engand. Staves revsed her prevous cam
that separate mantenance aowances proved the weakenng of patrarchy; she
now fnds that an oversmpfcaton. She aso chaenges the contenton by
hstorans |eanne and Lawrence Stone that n the ate eghteenth century weathy
men marred wdows ess often than before because coupes began marrng for
ove rather than for fnanca reasons. Staves does not competey undermne ther
contenton, but she does counter ther assumpton that wdows had more money
than never-marred women. She ponts out that |onture property (a wdows
fetme use of an amount of money specfed n the marrage contract) was often
ost on remarrage.
22. &hich one of the following best e$presses the main idea of the passage%
(A) As notions of property and democracy changed in late se'enteenth(and
eighteenth(century #ngland/ marriage settlements began to incorporate
contractual features designed to protect women4s property rights.
(B) Traditional historians ha'e incorrectly identified the contractual features that
were incorporated into marriage contracts in late se'enteenth(and
eighteenth(century #ngland.
(C) The incorporation of contractual features into marriage settlements in late
se'enteen(and eighteenth(century #ngland did not represent a significant
gain of women.
() An e$amination of late se'enteenth(and eighteenth(century #nglish court
cases indicates that most marriage settlements did not incorporate
contractual features designed to protect women4s property rights.
(#) Before marriage settlements incorporated contractual features protecting
women4s property rights/ women were unable to gain any financial power in
#ngland.
2.. &hich one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in
15.6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
the conte$t of the passage as a whole%
(A) 3t suggests that ;ta'es4 recent work has caused significant re'ision of theories
about the rights of women in eighteenth(century #ngland.
(B) 3t discusses research that may "ualify ;ta'es4 work on women4s property in
eighteenth(century #ngland.
(C) 3t pro'ides further support for ;ta'es4 argument by describing more recent
research on women4s property in eighteenth(century #ngland.
() 3t asserts that ;ta'es4 recent work has pro'ided support for two other
hypotheses de'eloped by historians of eighteenth(century #ngland.
(#) 3t suggests the implications ;ta'es4 recent research has for other theories
about women in eighteenth(century #ngland.
20. The primary purpose of the passage to
(A) compare two e$planations for the same phenomenon
(B) summari!e research that refutes an argument
(C) resol'e a long(standing contro'ersy
() suggest that a recent hypothesis should be ree'aluated
(#) pro'ide support for a traditional theory
21. According to the passage/ ;ta'es4 research has which one of the following effects
on the ;tones4 contention about marriage in late eighteenth(century #ngland%
(A) ;ta'es4 research undermines one of the ;tones4 assumptions but does not
effecti'ely in'alidate their contention.
(B) ;ta'es4 research refutes that the ;tones4 contention by pro'iding additional
data o'erlooked by the ;tones.
(C) ;ta'es4 research shows that the ;tones4 contention cannot be correct/ and that
a number of their assumptions are mistaken.
() ;ta'es4 research indicates that the ;tones4 contention is incorrect because it is
based on contradictory data.
(#) ;ta'es4 research "ualifies the ;tones4 contention by indicating that it is based
on accurate out incomplete data.
22. According to the passage/ ;ta'es indicates that which one of the following was
true of <udicial decisions on contractual rights%
(A) Audges fre"uently misunderstood and misapplied laws regarding married
women4s property.
(B) Audges were aware of inconsistencies in laws concerning women4s contractual
rights but claimed that such inconsistencies would soon 'anish.
(C) Audges4 decisions about marriage contracts tended to reflect assumptions
about property that had been common before 1225.
() Audges had little influence on the de'elopment and application of laws
LSAT 15.,
concerning married women4s property.
(#) Audges recogni!ed the patriarchal assumptions underlying laws concerning
married women4s property and tried to interpret the laws in ways that would
protect women.
2-. The passage suggests that the historians mentioned in line 1 would be most likely
to agree with which one of the following statements%
(A) The shift from land(based to commercial wealth changed 'iews about
property but did not significantly benefit married women until the late
eighteenth century.
(B) espite initial <udicial resistance to women4s contractual rights/ marriage
contracts represented a significant gain for married women.
(C) Although marriage contracts incorporated a series of surface changes and a
rhetoric of e"uality/ they did not ultimately benefit married women.
() Changing 'iews about property and democracy in post(=estoration #ngland
had an effect on property laws that was beneficial to women.
(#) Although contractual rights protecting women4s property represented a small
gain for married women/ most laws continued to be more beneficial for men
than for women.
LSAT 2002 SECTON
T!"e 35 "!#$%es 26 &$es%!o#s
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one
of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and
blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
The myth perssts that n 1492 the Western Hemsphere was an untamed
wderness and that t was European setters who harnessed and transformed ts
ecosystems. But schoarshp shows that forests, n partcuar, had been atered to
varyng degrees we before the arrva of Europeans. Natve popuatons had
converted much of the forests to successfuy cutvated stands, especay by
means of burnng. Nevertheess, some researchers have mantaned that the
extent, frequency, and mpact of such burnng was mnma. One geographer
cams that cmatc change coud have accounted for some of the changes n
forest composton; another argues that burnng by natve popuatons was done
ony sporadcay, to augment the effects of natura fres.
However, a arge body of evdence for the routne practce of burnng exsts n
the geographca record. One group of researchers found, for exampe, that
sedmentary charcoa accumuatons n what s now the northeastern Unted
States are greatest where known natve Amercan settements were greatest.
Other evdence shows that, whe the characterstcs and mpact of fres set by
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natve popuatons vared regonay accordng to popuaton sze, extent of
resource management technques, and envronment, a such fres had markedy
dfferent effects on vegetaton patter than dd natura fres. Controed burnng
crated grassy openngs such as meadows and gades. Burnng aso promoted a
mosac quaty to North and south Amercan ecosystems, creatng forests n many
dfferent stages of ecoogca deveopment. Much of the mature forestand was
characterzed by open herbaceous undergrowth, another resut of the cearng
brought about by burnng.
In North Amercan, controed burnng crated condtons favorabe to berres
and other fre-toerant and sun-ovng foods. Burnng aso converted mxed stands
of trees to homogeneous forest, for exampe the ongeaf, sash pne, and scrub
oak forests of the southeastern U.S. natura fres do account for some of ths
vegetaton, but reguar burnng ceary extended and mantaned t. Burnng aso
nfuenced forest composton n the tropcs, where natura fres are rare. An
exampe s the pne-domnant forests of Ncaragua, where warm temperatures and
heavy ranfa naturay favor mxed tropca or ran forests. Whe there are
prmary grow n cooer, drer, hgher eevatons, regons where such vegetaton s
n arge part natura and even prehuman. Today, the Ncaraguan pnes occur
where there has been cearng foowed by reguar burnng, and the same s key
to have occurred n the past: such forests ere present when Europeans arrved
and were found ony n areas where natve settements were substanta; when
these settements were abandoned, the and returned to mxed hardwoods. Ths
successon s aso evdent esewhere n smar ow tropca eevatons n the
Carbbean and Mexco.
1. &hich one of the following most accurately e$presses the main idea of the
passage%
(A) espite e$tensi'e e'idence that nati'e populations had been burning 9orth
and ;outh American forests e$tensi'ely before 10,2/ some scholars persist
in claiming that such burning was either infre"uent or the result of natural
causes.
(B) 3n opposition to the widespread belief that in 10,2 the &estern hemisphere
was unculti'ated/ scholars unanimously agree that nai'e population were
substantially altering 9orth and ;outh American forests well before the
arri'al of #uropeans.
(C) Although some scholars minimi!e the scope and importance of the burning of
forests engaged in by nati'e populations of 9orth and ;outh American
before 10,2/ e'idence of the fre"uency and impact of such burning is
actually "uite e$tensi'e.
() &here scholars had once belie'ed that 9orth and ;outh American forests
remained unculti'ated until the arri'al of #uropeans/ there is now general
agreement that nati'e populations had been culti'ating the forests since well
before 10,2.
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(#) &hile scholars ha'e acknowledged that 9orth and ;outh American forests
were being burned well before 10,2/ there is still disagreement o'er whether
such burning was the result of natural causes or of the deliberate actions of
nati'e populations.
2. 3t can be inferred that a forest burned as described in the passage would ha'e
been K#A;T likely to display
(A) numerous types of hardwood trees
(B) e$tensi'e herbaceous undergrowth
(C) a 'ariety of fire(tolerant plants
() 'arious stages of ecological maturity
(#) grassy opening such as meadows or glades
.. &hich one of the following is a type of forest identified by the author as a
product of controlled burning in recent times%
(A) scrub oak forests in the southeastern :.;.
(B) slash pine forests in the southeastern :.;.
(C) pine forests in Buatemala at high ele'ations
() pine forests in ?e$ico at high ele'ations
(#) pine forests in 9icaragua at low ele'ations
0. &hich one of the following is presented by the author as e'idence of controlled
burning in the tropics before the arri'al of #uropeans%
(A) e$tensi'e homogeneous forests at high ele'ation
(B) e$tensi'e homogeneous forests at low ele'ation
(C) e$tensi'e heterogeneous forests at high ele'ation
() e$tensi'e heterogeneous forests at low ele'ation
(#) e$tensi'e sedimentary charcoal accumulations at high ele'ation
1. &ith which one of the following would the author be most likely to agree%
(A) The long(term effects of controlled burning could <ust as easily ha'e been
caused by natural fires.
(B) )erbaceous undergrowth pre'ents many forests from reaching full maturity.
(C) #uropean settlers had little impact on the composition of the ecosystems in
9orth and ;outh America.
() Certain species of plants may not ha'e been as widespread in 9orth American
without controlled burning.
(#) 9icaraguan pine forests could ha'e been created either by natural fires or by
controlled burning.
2. As e'idence fro the routine practice of forest burning by nati'e populations
before the arri'al of #uropeans/ the author cites all of the following #DC#@TE
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(A) The similar characteristics of fires in different regions.
(B) The simultaneous presence of forests at 'arying stages of maturity
(C) The e$istence of herbaceous undergrowth in certain forests
() The hea'y accumulation of charcoal near populous settlements
(#) The presence of meadows and glades in certain forests.
-. The *succession+ mentioned in line 1- refers to
(A) forest clearing followed by controlled burning of forests
(B) tropical rain forest followed by pine forest
(C) #uropean settlement followed by abandonment of land
() homogeneous pine forest followed by mi$ed hardwoods
(#) correct the geographical record
6. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute certain researchers4 'iew
(B) support a common belief
(C) counter certain e'idence
() synthesi!e two 'iewpoints
(#) correct the geographical record
Inteectua authorty s defned as the authorty of arguments that preva by
vrtue of good reasonng and do not depend on coercon or conventon. A
contrastng noton, nsttutona authorty, refers to the power of soca nsttutons
to enforce acceptance of arguments that may or may not possess nteectua
authorty. The authorty weded by ega systems s especay nterestng because
such systems are nsttutons that nonetheess aspre to a purey nteectua
authorty. One |udge goes so far as to cam that courts are merey passve
vehces for appyng the nteectua authorty of the aw and possess no coercve
powers of ther own.
In contrast, some crtcs mantan that whatever authorty |udca
pronouncements have s excusvey nsttutona. Some of these crtcs go further,
camng that nteectua authorty does not reay exst-.e., t reduces to
nsttutona authorty. But t can be countered that these cams break down when
a suffcenty broad hstorca perspectve s taken: Not a arguments accepted by
nsttutons wthstand the test of tme, and some we-reasoned arguments never
receve nsttutona mprmatur. The reasonabe argument that goes unrecognzed
n ts own tme because t chaenges nsttutona beefs s common n nteectua
hstory; nteectua authorty and nsttutona consensus are not the same thng.
But the crtcs mght respond, nteectua authorty s ony recognzed as such
because of nsttutona consensus. For exampe, f a muscoogst were to cam
that an aeged musca genus who, after severa decades, had not ganed respect
and recognton for hs or her compostons s probaby not a genus, the crtcs
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mght say that basng a |udgment on a unt of tme-"severa decades"-s an
nsttutona rather than an nteectua construct. What, the crtcs mght ask,
makes a partcuar number of decades reasonabe evdence by whch to |udge
genus? The answer, of course, s nothng, except for the fact that such
nsttutona procedures have proved usefu to muscoogsts n makng such
dstnctons n the past.
The anaogous ega concept s the doctrne of precedent, .e., a |udges
merey decdng a case a certan way becomng a bass for decdng ater cases
the same way-a pure exampe of nsttutona authorty. But eh crtcs mss the
cruca dstncton that when a |udca decson s bady reasoned, or smpy no
onger appes n the face of evovng soca standards or practces, the noton of
nteectua authorty s ntroduced: |udges reconsder, revse, or n some cases
throw out n the reconsderaton of decsons, eadng one to draw the concuson
that ega systems contan a sgnfcant degree of nteectua authorty even f the
thrust of ther power s predomnanty nsttutona.
,. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage%
(A) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/
these systems possess a degree of institutional authority due to their ability
to enforce acceptance of badly reasoned or socially inappropriate <udicial
decisions.
(B) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely
institutional/ theses systems are more correctly seen as 'ehicles for applying
the intellectual authority of the law while possessing no coerci'e power of
their own.
(C) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/
these systems in fact wield institutional authority by 'irtue of the fact that
intellectual authority reduces to institutional authority.
() Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely
institutional/ these systems possesses a degree of intellectual authority due to
their ability to reconsider badly reasoned or socially inappropriate <udicial
decisions.
(#) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual/
these systems in fact wield e$clusi'ely institutional authority in that they
possess the power to enforce acceptance of badly reasoned or socially
inappropriate <udicial decisions.
15. That some arguments *ne'er recei'e institutional imprimatur+ (line 22(2.) most
likely means that these arguments
(A) fail to gain institutional consensus
(B) fail to challenge institutional beliefs
(C) fail to conform to the e$ample of precedent
1500 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
() fail to con'ince by 'irtue of good reasoning
(#) fail to gain acceptance e$cept by coercion
11. &hich one of the following/ if true/ most challenges the author4s contention that
legal systems contain a significant degree of intellectual authority%
(A) Audges often act under time constraints and occasionally render a badly
reasoned or socially inappropriate decision.
(B) 3n some legal systems/ the percentage of <udicial decisions that contain faulty
reasoning is far higher than it is in other legal systems.
(C) ?any socially inappropriate legal decisions are thrown out by <udges only
after citi!ens begin to 'oice opposition to them.
() 3n some legal systems/ the percentage of <udicial decisions that are
reconsidered and re'ised is far higher than it is in other legal systems.
(#) Audges are rarely willing to rectify the e$amples of faulty reasoning they
disco'er when re'iewing pre'ious legal decisions.
12. Bi'en the information in the passage/ the author is K#A;T likely to belie'e
which one of the following%
(A) 3nstitutional authority may depend on coercionI intellectual authority ne'er
does.
(B) 3ntellectual authority may accept well(reasoned argumentsI institutional
authority ne'er does.
(C) 3nstitutional authority may depend on con'entionI intellectual authority ne'er
does.
() 3ntellectual authority sometimes challenges institutional beliefsI institutional
authority ne'er does.
(#) 3ntellectual authority sometimes conflicts with precedentI institutional
authority ne'er does.
1.. The author discusses the e$ample from musicology primarily in order to
(A) distinguish the nothing of institutional authority from that of intellectual
authority
(B) gi'en an e$ample of an argument possessing intellectual authority that did not
pre'ail in its own time
(C) identify an e$ample in which the ascription of musical genius did not
withstand the test of time
() illustrate the claim that assessing intellectual authority re"uires an appeal to
institutional authority
(#) demonstrate that the authority wielded by the arbiters of musical genius is
entirely institutional
10. Based on the passage/ the author would be most likely to hold which one of the
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following 'iews about the doctrine of precedent%
(A) it is the only tool <udges should use if they wish to achie'e a purely
intellectual authority.
(B) 3t is a useful tool in theory but in practice it in'ariably conflicts with the
demands of intellectual authority.
(C) 3t is a useful tool but lacks intellectual authority unless it is combined with the
reconsidering of decisions.
() 3t is often an unreliable tool because it pre'ents <udges from reconsidering the
intellectual authority of past decisions.
(#) 3t is an unreliable tool that should be abandoned because it lacks intellectual
authority.
In expanng the foundatons of the dscpne known as hstorca socoogy-
the examnaton of hstory usng the methods of socoogy-hstorca socoogst
Php Abrams argues that, whe peope are made by socety as much as socety s
made by peope, socoogsts approach to the sub|ect s usuay to focus on ony
one of these forms of nfuence to the excuson of the other. Abrams nssts on the
necessty for socoogsts to move beyond these one-sded approaches to
understand socety as an entty constructed by ndvduas who are at the same
tme constructed by ther socety. Abrams refers to ths contnuous process as
"structurng".
Abrams aso sees hstory as the resut of structurng. Peope, both ndvduay
and as members of coectves, make hstory. But our makng of hstory s tsef
formed and nformed not ony by the hstorca condtons we nhert from the past,
but aso by the pror formaton of our own denttes and capactes, whch are
shaped by what Abrams cas "contngences"-soca phenomena over whch we
have varyng degrees of contro. Contngences ncude such thngs as the soca
condtons under whch we come of age, the condton of our househods
economy, the deooges avaabe to hep us make sense of our stuaton, and
accdenta crcumstances. The ways n whch contngences affect our ndvdua or
group denttes create a structure of forces wthn whch we are abe to act, and
that partay determnes the sorts of actons we are abe to perform.
In Abrams anayss, hstorca structurng, ke soca structurng, s manfod
and unremttng. To understand t, hstorca socoogsts must extract from t
certan sgnfcant epsodes, or events, that ther methodoogy can then anayze
and nterpret. Accordng to Abrams, these events are ponts at whch acton and
contngency meet, ponts that represent a cross secton of the specfc soca and
ndvdua forces n pay at a gven tme. At such moments, ndvduas stand forth
as agents of hstory not smpy because they possess a unque abty to act, but
aso because n them we see the force of the specfc soca condtons that
aowed ther actons to come forth. Indvduas can "make ther mark" on hstory,
yet n ndvduas one aso fnds the convergence of wder soca forces. In order to
capture the varous facets of ths mutua nteracton, Abrams recommends a
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fourfod structure to whch he beeves the nvestgatons of hstorca socoogsts
shoud conform: frst, descrpton of the event tsef; second, dscusson of the
soca context that heped brng the event about and gave t sgnfcance; thrd,
summary of the fe hstory of the ndvdua agent n the event; and fourth,
anayss of the consequences of the event both for hstory and for the ndvdua.
11. &hich one of the following most accurately states the central idea of the passage%
(A) Abrams argues that historical sociology re<ects the claims of sociologists who
assert that the sociological concept of structuring cannot be applied to the
interactions between indi'iduals and history.
(B) Abrams argues that historical sociology assumes that/ despite the 'iews of
sociologists to the contrary/ history influences the social contingencies that
affect indi'iduals.
(C) Abrams argues that historical sociology demonstrates that/ despite the 'iews
of sociologists to the contrary/ social structures both influence and are
influenced by the e'ents of history.
() Abrams describes historical sociology as a discipline that unites two
approaches taken by sociologists to studying the formation of societies and
applies the resulting combined approach to the study of history.
(#) Abrams describes historical society as an attempt to compensate for the
shortcoming of traditional historical methods by applying the methods
established in sociology.
12. Bi'en the passage4s argument/ which one of the following sentences most
logically completes the last paragraph%
(A) 8nly if they adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ can historical
sociologists conclude with any certainty that the e'ents that constitute the
historical record are influenced by the actions of indi'iduals
(B) 8nly if they adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ will historical
sociologists be able to counter the standard sociological assumption that
there is 'ery little connection between history and indi'idual agency.
(C) :nless they can agree to adhere to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical
sociologists risk ha'ing their discipline treated as little more than an
interesting but ultimately indefensible ad<unct to history and sociology.
() By adhering to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical sociologists can
shed light on issues that traditional sociologists ha'e chosen to ignore in
their one(sided approaches to the formation of societies.
(#) By adhering to this structure/ Abrams belie'es/ historical sociologists will be
able to better portray the comple$ connections between human agency and
history.
1-. The passage states that a contingency could be each of the following #DC#@TE
(A) a social phenomenon
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(B) a form of historical structuring
(C) an accidental circumstance
() a condition controllable to some e$tent by an indi'idual
(#) a partial determinant of an indi'idual4s actions
16. &hich one of the following is most analogous to the ideal work of a historical
sociologist as outlined by Abrams%
(A) 3n a report on the enactment of a bill into law/ a <ournalist e$plains why the
need for the bill arose/ sketches the biography of the principal legislator who
wrote the bill/ and ponders the effect that the bill4s enactment will ha'e both
one society and on the legislator4s career.
(B) 3n a consultation with a patient/ a doctor re'iews the patient4s medical history/
suggests possible reasons for the patient4s current condition/ and
recommends steps that the patient should take in the future to ensure that the
condition impro'es or at least does not get any worse.
(C) 3n an analysis of a historical no'el/ a critic pro'ides information to support
the claim that details of the work4s setting are accurate/ e$plains why the
sub<ect of the no'el was of particular interest to the author/ and compares the
no'el with some of the author4s other books set in the same period.
() 3n a presentation to stockholders/ a corporation4s chief e$ecuti'e officer
describes the corporations4 most profitable acti'ities during the past year/
introduces the 'ice president largely responsible for those acti'ities/ and
discusses new pro<ects the 'ice president will initiate in the coming year.
(#) 3n de'eloping a film based on a historical e'ent/ a filmmaker conducts
inter'iews with participants in the e'ent/ bases part of the film4s screenplay
on the inter'iews/ and concludes the screenplay with a se"uence of scenes
speculating on the outcome of the e'ent had certain details been different.
1,. The primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to
(A) outline the merits of Abram4s conception of historical sociology
(B) con'ey the details of Abrams4s conception of historical sociology
(C) anticipate challenges to Abrams4s conception of historical sociology
() e$amine the roles of key terms used in Abrams4s conception of historical
sociology
(#) identify the basis of Abrams4s conception of historical sociology
25. Based on the passage/ which one of the following is the K#A;T illustrati'e
e$ample of the effect of a contingency upon an indi'idual%
(A) the effect of the fact that a person e$perienced political in<ustice on that
person4s decision to work for political reform
(B) the effect of the fact that a person was raised in an agricultural region on that
person4s decision to pursue a career in agriculture
1506 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
(C) the effect of the fact that a person li'es in a particular community on that
person4s decision to 'isit friends in another community
() the effect of the fact that a person4s parents practiced a particular religion on
that person4s decision to practice that religion
(#) the effect of the fact that a person grew up in financial hardship on that
person4s decision to help others in financial hardship
One of the greatest chaenges facng medca students today, apart from
absorbng voumes of technca nformaton and earnng habts of scentfc
thought, s that of remanng empathetc to the needs of patents n the face of a
ths rgorous tranng. Requrng students to mmerse themseves competey n
medca coursework rsks dsconnectng them from the persona and ethca
aspects of doctorng, and such strcty scentfc thnkng s nsuffcent for
grappng wth modern ethca demmas. For these reasons, asprng physcans
need to deveop new ways of thnkng about and nteractng wth patents.
Tranng n ethcs that takes narratve terature as ts prmary sub|ect s one
method of accompshng ths.
Athough tranng n ethcs s currenty provded by medca schoos, ths
tranng rees heavy on an abstract, phosophca vew of ethcs. Athough the
conceptua carty provded by a tradtona ethcs course can be vauabe,
theorzng about ethcs contrbutes tte to the understandng of everyday human
experence or to preparng medca students for the mutfarous ethca demmas
they w face as physcans. A true foundaton n ethcs must be predcated on an
understandng of human behavor that refects a wde array of reatonshps and
ready adapts to varous perspectves, for ths s what s requred to deveop
empathy. Ethcs courses drawng on narratve terature can better hep students
prepare for ethca demmas precsey because such terature attaches ts
readers so forcefuy to the concrete and vared woud of human events.
The act of readng narratve terature s unquey suted to the deveopment of
what mght be caed fexbe ethca thnkng. To grasp the deveopment of
character, to tange wth heghtenng mora crses, and to engage onesef wth the
story not as ones own but nevertheess as somethng recognzabe and worthy of
attenton, readers must use ther mora magnaton. Gvng onesef over to the
ethca confcts n a story requres the abandonment of strcty absoute, nvoate
sets of mora prncpes. Readng terature aso demands that the reader adopt
another persons pont of vew -that of the narrator or a character n a story-and
thus requres the abty to depart from ones persona ethca stance and examne
mora ssues from new perspectves.
It does not foow that readers, ncudng medca professonas, must
renqush a mora prncpes, as s the case wth stuatona ethcs, n whch
decsons about ethca choces are made on the bass of ntuton ad are entrey
reatve to the crcumstances n whch they arse. Such an extremey reatvstc
stance woud have as tte beneft for the patent or physcan as woud a
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dogmatcay absoutst one. Fortunatey, the ncorporaton of narratve terature
nto the study of ethcs, whe servng as a correctve to the ater stance, need not
ead to the former. But t can gve us somethng that s ackng n the tradtona
phosophca study of ethcs-namey, a deeper understandng of human nature
that can serve as a foundaton for ethca reasonng and aow greater fexbty n
the appcaton of mora prncpes.
21. &hich one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage%
(A) Training in ethics that incorporates narrati'e literature would better culti'ate
fle$ible ethical thinking and increase medical students4 capacity for
empathetic patient care as compared with the traditional approach of medical
schools to such training.
(B) Traditional abstract ethical training/ because it is too hea'ily focused on
theoretical reasoning/ tends to decrease or impair that medical student4s
sensiti'ity to modern ethical dilemmas.
(C) 8nly a properly designed curriculum that balances situational/ abstract/ and
narrati'e approaches to ethics will ade"uately prepare the medical student
for comple$ ethical confrontations in'ol'ing actual patients.
() 9arrati'e(based instruction in ethics is becoming increasingly popular in
medical schools because it re"uires students to de'elop a capacity for
empathy by e$amining comple$ moral issues from a 'ariety of perspecti'es.
(#) The study of narrati'e literature in medical schools would nurture moral
intuition/ enabling the future doctor to make ethical decisions without appeal
to general principles.
22. &hich one of the following most accurately represents the author4s use of the
term *moral imagination *in line .6%
(A) a sense of curiosity/ aroused by reading/ that leads one to follow acti'ely the
de'elopment of problems in'ol'ing the characters depicted in narrati'es.
(B) A faculty of seeking out and recogni!ing the ethical contro'ersies in'ol'ed in
human relationships and identifying oneself with one side or another in such
contro'ersies
(C) A capacity to understand the comple$ities of 'arious ethical dilemmas and to
fashion creati'e and inno'ati'e solutions to them
() An ability to understand personal aspects of ethically significant situations
e'en if one is not a direct participant and to empathi!e with those in'ol'ed in
them.
(#) An ability to act upon ethical principles different from one4s own for the sake
of 'ariety.
2.. 3t can be inferred from the passage that the author would most likely agree with
which one of the following statements%
(A) The hea'y load of technical coursework in today4s medical schools often
1515 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
keeps them from gi'ing ade"uate emphasis to courses in medical ethics.
(B) ;tudents learn more about ethics through the use of fiction than through the
use of non(fictional readings.
(C) The traditional method of ethical training in medical schools should be
supplemented or replaced by more direct practical e$perience with real(life
patients in ethically difficult situations.
() The failing of an abstract/ philosophical training in ethics can be remedied
only by replacing it with a purely narrati'e(based approach.
(#) 9either scientific training nor traditional philosophical ethics ade"uately
prepares doctors to deal with the emotional dimension of patients4 needs.
20.
21. &hich one of the following is most likely the author4s o'erall purpose in the
passage%
(A) To ad'ise medical schools on how to implement a narrati'e(based approach
to ethics in their curricula.
(B) To argue that the current methods of ethics education are counterproducti'e to
the formation of empathetic doctor(patient relationships.
(C) To argue that the ethical content of narrati'e literature foreshadows the
pitfalls of situational ethics.
() To propose an approach to ethical training in medical school that will
preser'e the human dimension of medicine.
(#) To demonstrate the 'alue of a well(designed ethics education for medical
students.
22. The passage ascribes each of the following characteristics to the use of narrati'e
literature in ethical education #DC#@TE
(A) 3t tends to a'oid the e$treme relati'ism of situational ethics.
(B) 3t connects students to 'aried types of human e'ents.
(C) 3t can help lead medical students to de'elop new ways of dealing with
patients.
() 3t re"uires students to e$amine moral issues from new perspecti'es.
(#) 3t can help insulate future doctors from the shock of the ethical dilemmas they
will confront.
2-. The author4s attitude regarding the traditional method of teaching ethics in
medical school can most accurately be described as
(A) un"ualified disappro'al of the method and disappro'al of all of its effects
(B) reser'ed <udgment regarding the method and disappro'al of all of its effects
(C) partial disappro'al of the method and clinical indifference toward its effects
() partial appro'al of the method and disappro'al of all of its effects
LSAT 1511
(#) partial disappro'al of the method and appro'al of some of its effects

GMAT RC 117Passages
GMAT New 63Passages
Passage 1 (1/63)
1. B 2. # .. C 0. A 1. C
2. B -. # 6. C
Passage 2 (2/63)
1. A 2. B .. C 0. # 1. B
2. C -. B 6. C ,.
Passage 3 (3/63)
1. # 2. B .. A 0. # 1.
2. A -. B 6. B
Passage 4 (4/63)
1. 2. B .. C 0. B 1. A
2. B -. A
Passage 5 (5/63)
1. # 2. .. B 0. C 1. B
2. A -. # 6. ,. A
Passage 6 (6/63)
1. A 2. .. B 0. A 1. #
2. C -. 6. B ,. A
Passage 7 (7/63)
1. # 2. C .. 0. B 1. B
2. -. C
Passage 8 (8/63)
1. A 2. C .. A 0. 1. #
2. A -. # 6. ,. C
1512 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 9 (9/63)
1. # 2. A .. C 0. C 1. B
2. # -. 6. A ,. B
Passage 10 (10/63)
1. 2. .. 0. A 1.
2. # -. B 6. B ,. A
Passage 11 (11/63)
1. B 2. # .. # 0. C 1. A
2. C -. B
Passage 12 (12/63)
1. A 2. .. C 0. C 1. C
2. B -. B 6. # ,.
15.
Passage 13 (13/63)
1. 2. .. C 0. 1. C
2. -. # 6. B
,. 15.
Passage 14 (14/63)
1. # 2. # .. 0. # 1. A
2. B -. C 6. ,.
15.
Passage 15 (15/63)
1. 2. C .. A 0. 1. C
2. -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 16 (16/63)
1. A 2. C .. B 0. B 1. C
2. -. B
6. ,. 15.
Passage 17 (17/63)
1. A 2. # .. # 0. B 1. C
2. -. C 6. A ,. #
15.
Passage 18 (18/63)
LSAT 151.
1. 2. .. B 0. C 1. B
2. C -. # 6. A ,. B
15.
Passage 19 (19/63)
1. # 2. .. B 0. C 1. B
2. -. A 6.
,. 15.
Passage 20 (20/63)
1. C 2. A .. 0. A 1. A
2. C -. B
6. ,. 15.
Passage 21 (21/63)
1. 2. .. B 0. A 1.
2. # -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 22 (22/63)
1. B 2. .. # 0. 1.
2. B -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 23 (23/63)
1. 2. C .. A 0. # 1. C
2. B -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 24 (24/63)
1. B 2. .. A 0. # 1. #
2. C -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 25 (25/63)
1. B 2. # .. B 0. C 1. A
2. C -. A 6. C
,. 15.
Passage 26 (26/63)
1. # 2. C .. # 0. # 1. B
2. -. 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 27 (27/63)
1. B 2. C .. # 0. C 1. B
2. # -.
6. ,. 15.
1510 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 28 (28/63)
1. B 2. B .. 0. 1.
2. C -.
6. ,. 15.
Passage 29 (29/63)
1. # 2. C .. C 0. A 1. #
2. -. B
6. ,. 15.
Passage 30 (30/63)
1. B 2. A .. 0. B 1. A
2. C -. # 6.
,. 15.
Passage 31 (31/63)
1. 2. # .. # 0. C 1. C
2. -. B 6.
,. 15.
Passage 32 (32/63)
1. B 2. C .. C 0. C 1. A
2. B -. B 6.
,. 15.
Passage 33 (33/63)
1. B 2. A .. B 0. 1. B
2. C -. B
6. ,. 15.
Passage 34 (34/63)
1. C 2. .. 0. B 1. A
2. C -. C
6. ,. 15.
Passage 35 (35/63)
1. B 2. # .. C 0. 1. #
2. A -. 6. #
,. 15.
Passage 36 (36/63)
1. B 2. A .. C 0. A 1. A
2. # -. B 6.
,. 15.
Passage 37 (37/63)
LSAT 1511
1. C 2. B .. # 0. C 1. A
2. C -.
6. ,. 15.
Passage 38 (38/63)
1. C 2. B .. A 0. C 1. #
2. # -.
6. ,. 15.
Passage 39 (39/63)
1. C 2. .. # 0. B
1.
Passage 40 (40/63)
1. 2. # .. A 0. 1. C
2. B -. A 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 41 (41/63)
1. # 2. A .. # 0. C 1. B
2. C -. 6. A ,. A
15.
Passage 42 (42/63)
1. C 2. .. C 0. # 1. B
2. #
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 43 (43/63)
1. A 2. B .. 0. B 1. C
2. C -. 6. #
,. 15.
Passage 44 (44/63)
1. B 2. C .. # 0. 1. A
2. C -. # 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 45 (45/63)
1. C 2. B .. B 0. # 1. A
2. A -. C
6. ,. 15.
Passage 46 (46/63)
1. 2. # .. 0. 1. C
2. A
-. 6. ,. 15.
1512 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 47 (47/63)
1. 2. C .. A 0. C 1. #
2. B
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 48 (48/63)
1. C 2. .. B 0. C 1. A
2. B
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 49 (49/63)
1. B 2. C .. # 0. C 1. #
2. C -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 50 (50/63)
1. B 2. A .. C 0. B 1.
2. A -. C 6.
,. 15.
Passage 51 (51/63)
1. 2. A .. # 0. B 1. C
2. # -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 52 (52/63)
1. B 2. A .. B 0. B 1.
2. #
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 53 (53/63)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. C 1.
2. A
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 54 (54/63)
1. 2. .. C 0. # 1. B
2. #
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 55 (55/63)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. # 1. #
2. A -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 56 (56/63)
LSAT 151-
1. # 2. .. A 0. 1. B
2. C
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 57 (57/63)
1. C 2. .. 0. A 1. #
Passage 58 (58/63)
1. C 2. .. # 0. 1. B
Passage 59 (59/63)
1. A 2. .. B 0. # 1. B
2. C
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 60 (60/63)
1. C 2. B .. B 0. B 1. #
2. A -. C
6. ,. 15.
Passage 61 (61/63)
1. B 2. A .. A 0. # 1. C
Passage 62 (62/63)
1. B 2. .. B 0. 1.
2. C -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 63 (63/63)
1. B 2. C .. A 0. 1. #
2. B
-. 6. ,. 15.
GMAT 22Passages
Passage 64 (1/22)
1. # 2. # .. 0. C 1. A
2. B -. A 6. B
,. 15.
Passage 65 (2/22)
1. A 2. # .. C 0. 1. B
2. B -. A 6.
,. 15.
1516 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 66 (3/22)
1. C 2. A .. B 0. A 1. C
2. C -. 6. C
,. 15.
Passage 67 (4/22)
1. A 2. C .. # 0. A 1. C
2. A -. # 6. B ,.
15.
Passage 68 (5/22)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. A 1. B
2. B -. C 6. A ,. A
15.
Passage 69 (6/22)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. A 1.
2. # -. C 6. B ,. B
15.
Passage 70 (7/22)
1. # 2. A .. # 0. A 1. B
2. C -. # 6. A ,.
15.
Passage 71 (8/22)
1. C 2. B .. A 0. A 1. B
2. # -. A
6. ,. 15.
Passage 72 (9/22)
1. C 2. # .. B 0. B 1. A
2. # -. 6. C ,. B
15.
Passage 73 (10/22)
1. # 2. B .. A 0. # 1. C
2. B -. 6. C ,. A
15.
Passage 74 (11/22)
1. C 2. B .. # 0. 1. A
2. C -. # 6. A ,.
15.
Passage 75 (12/22)
LSAT 151,
1. C 2. A .. 0. # 1. C
2. B -. 6. #
,. 15.
Passage 76 (13/22)
1. B 2. # .. 0. A 1. A
2. -. C 6. B
,. 15.
Passage 77 (14/22)
1. C 2. # .. C 0. B 1. B
2. A -. C 6. C ,. B
15.
Passage 78 (15/22)
1. A 2. A .. B 0. A 1. #
2. C -. 6.
,. 15.
Passage 79 (16/22)
1. C 2. # .. A 0. C 1.
2. -. # 6. A ,. B
15.
Passage 80 (17/22)
1. B 2. .. C 0. A 1. B
Passage 81 (18/22)
1. # 2. .. B 0. # 1. C
2. C -. B 6. A ,.
15.
Passage 82 (19/22)
1. C 2. B .. 0. A 1. #
2. A -. # 6. ,.
15.
Passage 83 (20/22)
1. A 2. # .. C 0. 1. B
2. A -. C 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 84 (21/22)
1. B 2. A .. B 0. C 1. C
2. C -. 6. # ,. #
15.
1525 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 85 (22/22)
1. 2. # .. A 0. A 1. C
2. -. B
6. ,. 15.
GMAT 15Passages
Passage 86 (1/15)
1. 2. B .. B 0. # 1. A
2. C -. # 6.
,. 15.
Passage 87 (2/15)
1. B 2. C .. B 0. A 1. #
2. -. B 6. C
,. 15.
Passage 88 (3/15)
1. C 2. A .. 0. B 1. C
2. A -. B 6. ,. C
15.
Passage 89 (4/15)
1. B 2. A .. B 0. # 1. C
2. # -. B 6. C ,. A
15.
Passage 90 (5/15)
1. C 2. # .. # 0. # 1.
2. C -. B 6. ,. 15. A
Passage 91 (6/15)
1. A 2. A .. A 0. B 1. C
2. A
-. 6. ,. 15.
Passage 92 (7/15)
1. # 2. B .. A 0. 1. A
2. # -. B 6. C ,. #
15.
Passage 93 (8/15)
1. A 2. C .. # 0. C 1.
2. B -. # 6. B ,.
15.
LSAT 1521
Passage 94 (9/15)
1. B 2. .. 0. # 1. A
2. # -. C
6. ,. 15.
Passage 95 (10/15)
1. B 2. C .. 0. # 1. C
2. # -. # 6.
,. 15.
Passage 96 (11/15)
1. B 2. # .. A 0. # 1. C
2. -. 6. A ,.
15.
Passage 97 (12/15)
1. C 2. B .. A 0. A 1. A
2. C -. B 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 98 (13/15)
1. 2. C .. A 0. # 1. A
2. B -. A 6. C ,.
15.
Passage 99 (14/15)
1. C 2. C .. # 0. B 1. B
2. A -. # 6. A
,. 15.
Passage 100 (15/15)
1. # 2. .. B 0. 1. #
2. B -. B 6.
,. 15.
OG 17Passages
Passage 101 (1/17)
-.. C -0. # -1. A -2. --. C
-6. A -,.
65. 61. 62.
Passage 102 (2/17)
65. B 61. C 62. 6.. A 60. A
61. 62. C 6-. #
66. 6,.
1522 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
Passage 103 (3/17)
1.1. B 1.2. 1... B 1.0. # 1.1. A
1.2. C
1.-. 1.6. 1.,. 105.
Passage 104 (4/17)
1.-. 1.6. A 1.,. # 105. C 101.
102. B 10.. #
100. 101. 102.
Passage 105 (5/17)
100. # 101. C 102. C 10-. C 106. #
Passage 106 (6/17)
2.1. # 2.2. B 2... 2.0. 2.1. A
Passage 107 (7/17)
2.2. C 2.-. 2.6. B 2.,. # 205. B
Passage 108 (8/17)
201. C 202. A 20.. A 200. C 201. B
202. # 20-. # 206. B
20,. 215.
Passage 109 (9/17)
20,. B 215. 211. C 212. B
21..
Passage 110 (10/17)
21.. 210. B 211. # 212. C
21-.
Passage 111 (11/17)
21-. B 216. A 21,. B 225.
221.
Passage 112 (12/17)
221. 222. B 22.. B 220. B
221.
Passage 113 (13/17)
221. B 222. A 22-. A
226. 22,.
LSAT 152.
Passage 114 (14/17)
226. 22,. 2-5. # 2-1. C
2-2.
Passage 115 (15/17)
2-2. 2-.. B 2-0. 2-1. #
2-2.
Passage 116 (16/17)
2-2. C 2--. B 2-6. 2-,. B 265. C
261. 262. #
26.. 260. 261.
Passage 117 (17/17)
26.. 260. B 261.
262. 26-.
GRE RC (No. 2 No. 9)
No. 2-1
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. 25. # 21. A
22. C 2.. # 20. B 21. # 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. C 1,. 25. # 21. B
22. C 2.. A 20. C 21. # 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 2-2
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. 25. 21. #
22. # 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22.
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. B 1,. 25. C 21. B
22. B 2.. # 20. 21. # 22. #
1520 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 2-3
SECTION A
1-. 16. B 1,. # 25. C 21. A
22. # 2.. 20. B 21. 22. C
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. 1,. B 25. 21. B
22. A 2.. C 20. A 21. C 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 3-1
SECTION A
1-. 16. C 1,. C 25. 21.
22. C 2.. A 20. # 21. 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. B 25. # 21. A
22. 2.. C 20. 21. B 22. A
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 3-2
SECTION A
1-. A 16. B 1,. C 25. 21. A
22. # 2.. C 20. 21. # 22. C
2-. C
SECTION B
1-. # 16. 1,. # 25. 21.
22. # 2.. C 20. 21. A 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
LSAT 1521
No. 3-3
SECTION A
1-. C 16. 1,. C 25. B 21. C
22. B 2.. A 20. C 21. # 22. A
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. B 1,. C 25. 21. C
22. A 2.. B 20. A 21. C 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 4-1
SECTION A
1-. C 16. B 1,. A 25. B 21. C
22. 2.. B 20. B 21. A 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. B 1,. A 25. 21. C
22. A 2.. C 20. 21. A 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 4-2
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. A 25. 21. #
22. C 2.. A 20. # 21. 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. A 1,. 25. B 21. C
22. # 2.. B 20. 21. C 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 4-3
1522 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
SECTION A
1-. # 16. 1,. C 25. # 21. #
22. B 2.. 20. A 21. # 22. A
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. # 1,. C 25. C 21.
22. 2.. 20. A 21. # 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 5-1
SECTION A
1-. 16. B 1,. # 25. # 21. C
22. A 2.. 20. A 21. # 22.
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. A 1,. # 25. A 21. #
22. 2.. B 20. 21. A 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 5-2
SECTION A
1-. 16. 1,. B 25. C 21. #
22. B 2.. A 20. C 21. B 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. C 1,. # 25. B 21.
22. B 2.. C 20. A 21. B 22. #
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 5-3
SECTION A
LSAT 152-
1-. B 16. 1,. A 25. C 21. B
22. A 2.. # 20. C 21. A 22. B
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. B 1,. # 25. C 21. #
22. 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22. A
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 6-1
SECTION A
1-. B 16. A 1,. B 25. A 21.
22. A 2.. # 20. B 21. C 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. B 1,. A 25. # 21. B
22. 2.. 20. A 21. 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 6-2
SECTION A
1-. # 16. 1,. C 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. C 20. # 21. C 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. C 1,. A 25. A 21.
22. # 2.. # 20. B 21. # 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 6-3
SECTION A
1-. C 16. C 1,. A 25. C 21. #
22. C 2.. A 20. C 21. A 22.
1526 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. # 1,. 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. C 20. A 21. C 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 7-1
SECTION A
1-. A 16. # 1,. 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. B 20. C 21. C 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. C 1,. B 25. B 21. A
22. 2.. C 20. 21. A 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 7-2
SECTION A
1-. C 16. A 1,. C 25. A 21. A
22. C 2.. # 20. C 21. 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. A 1,. B 25. 21. C
22. # 2.. B 20. C 21. 22. B
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 7-3
SECTION A
1-. C 16. B 1,. # 25. 21. C
22. 2.. # 20. A 21. B 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
LSAT 152,
SECTION B
1-. 16. # 1,. C 25. B 21.
22. 2.. A 20. C 21. C 22. B
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 8-1
SECTION A
1-. 16. # 1,. C 25. A 21. B
22. # 2.. A 20. C 21. C 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. 25. # 21. C
22. # 2.. B 20. 21. A 22. #
No. 8-2
SECTION A
1-. C 16. 1,. B 25. 21. B
22. A 2.. 20. 21. B 22. #
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. B 1,. A 25. # 21. B
22. 2.. A 20. A 21. B 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 8-3
SECTION A
1-. C 16. B 1,. 25. A 21. B
22. # 2.. B 20. A 21. C 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. # 1,. C 25. C 21. A
15-5 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
22. B 2.. C 20. C 21. A 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-1
SECTION A
1-. 16. B 1,. B 25. B 21. B
22. A 2.. 20. # 21. 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. A 25. 21. C
22. 2.. A 20. B 21. B 22. B
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-2
SECTION A
1-. B 16. B 1,. A 25. 21. A
22. B 2.. # 20. C 21. 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. C 1,. # 25. B 21.
22. # 2.. A 20. A 21. # 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-3
SECTION A
1-. A 16. # 1,. B 25. B 21. #
22. # 2.. C 20. # 21. C 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. B 25. 21. #
22. A 2.. # 20. C 21. A 22. B
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
LSAT 15-1
No. 9-4
SECTION A
1-. A 16. 1,. 25. B 21. B
22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. B 1,. C 25. A 21. #
22. C 2.. B 20. 21. C 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-5
SECTION A
1-. C 16. A 1,. 25. # 21. A
22. 2.. B 20. # 21. A 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. 1,. # 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. A 20. B 21. A 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
No. 9-6
SECTION A
1-. B 16. # 1,. A 25. B 21. A
22. C 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22.
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. C 1,. 25. A 21. A
22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
GRE RC
15-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1990 04
SECTION A
1-. A 16. C 1,. C 25. C 21. B
22. A 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22. A
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. B 1,. A 25. B 21.
22. C 2.. C 20. 21. # 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1990 10
SECTION A
1-. C 16. B 1,. A 25. C 21. #
22. 2.. 20. B 21. A 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. 1,. B 25. 21. B
22. A 2.. B 20. C 21. 22. A
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1991 02
SECTION A
1-. A 16. B 1,. # 25. A 21.
22. # 2.. 782 E 21. # 22.
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. # 1,. # 25. B 21. B
22. A 2.. 20. A 21. C 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1991 04
LSAT 15-.
SECTION A
1-. 16. C 1,. B 25. A 21. A
22. C 2.. B 20. A 21. # 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. B 1,. # 25. B 21. C
22. 2.. 20. B 21. C 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1991 10
SECTION A
1-. A 16. B 1,. # 25. C 21. B
22. C 2.. 20. A 21. 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. # 1,. 25. # 21.
22. B 2.. 20. A 21. C 22. B
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1992 02
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. B 25. # 21.
22. A 2.. A 20. A 21. B 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. A 1,. # 25. 21. B
22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B 22. B
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1992 04
SECTION A
15-0 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
1-. # 16. 1,. # 25. A 21. #
22. B 2.. C 20. 21. C 22. B
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. B 1,. 25. A 21. B
22. B 2.. # 20. C 21. A 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1992 10
SECTION A
1-. A 16. # 1,. 25. B 21. C
22. 2.. B 20. C 21. 22. #
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. 1,. C 25. B 21. A
22. 2.. # 20. 21. B 22.
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1993 02
SECTION A
1-. 16. # 1,. B 25. A 21. #
22. C 2.. # 20. B 21. 22. B
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. A 25. 21. A
22. 2.. B 20. B 21. B 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1993 04
SECTION A
1-. 16. B 1,. A 25. C 21. #
22. # 2.. A 20. C 21. C 22.
LSAT 15-1
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. A 25. B 21. A
22. C 2.. B 20. # 21. # 22. C
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION C
1-. 16. # 1,. 25. # 21. A
22. B 2.. 20. B 21. # 22. A
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1993 10
SECTION A
1-. C 16. 1,. B 25. A 21. B
22. # 2.. C 20. # 21. # 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. A 1,. B 25. # 21. #
22. C 2.. 20. A 21. C 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1994 02
SECTION A
1-. B 16. # 1,. B 25. C 21. C
22. B 2.. B 20. 21. A 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. A 1,. 25. # 21.
22. A 2.. B 20. # 21. A 22.
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1994 04
15-2 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
SECTION A
1-. A 16. 1,. C 25. # 21. B
22. A 2.. B 20. 21. # 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. C 25. # 21. A
22. 2.. B 20. # 21. C 22. #
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1994 10
SECTION A
1-. C 16. A 1,. B 25. B 21. A
22. 2.. # 20. B 21. C 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. # 1,. A 25. A 21.
22. B 2.. 20. 21. 22. A
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1995 04
SECTION A
1-. # 16. A 1,. C 25. 21. B
22. A 2.. # 20. A 21. # 22. B
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. 1,. 25. # 21. C
22. # 2.. A 20. 21. 22. B
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1995 10
SECTION A
LSAT 15--
1-. C 16. B 1,. # 25. 21. C
22. A 2.. # 20. # 21. # 22.
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. 1,. C 25. C 21. B
22. # 2.. A 20. B 21. C 22. C
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1996 04
SECTION A
1-. # 16. C 1,. 25. 21. #
22. 2.. 20. A 21. C 22. B
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. 25. B 21. #
22. # 2.. # 20. B 21. C 22. A
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1996 04
SECTION A
1-. # 16. C 1,. C 25. 21. C
22. 2.. B 20. 21. A 22.
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. C 1,. C 25. A 21. C
22. C 2.. A 20. A 21. C 22. #
2-. #
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1996 10
SECTION A
1-. # 16. C 1,. B 25. B 21. C
22. B 2.. A 20. C 21. A 22.
15-6 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. 16. # 1,. C 25. B 21.
22. A 2.. B 20. C 21. A 22. A
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1997 04
SECTION A
1-. C 16. # 1,. C 25. # 21. A
22. A 2.. A 20. # 21. B 22. A
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. C 16. A 1,. B 25. C 21. #
22. 2.. # 20. A 21. 22. B
2-. A
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1997 11
SECTION A
1-. 16. 1,. # 25. 21.
22. A 2.. A 20. B 21. B 22. C
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. B 16. A 1,. 25. # 21. #
22. C 2.. C 20. 21. C 22.
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1998 04
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. C 25. C 21. A
22. # 2.. B 20. # 21. C 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
LSAT 15-,
SECTION B
1-. C 16. B 1,. # 25. 21. C
22. B 2.. B 20. C 21. # 22. A
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1998 11
SECTION A
1-. B 16. C 1,. B 25. A 21. #
22. A 2.. # 20. C 21. A 22. B
2-. C
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. # 16. 1,. B 25. C 21. B
22. C 2.. A 20. # 21. A 22. A
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
1999 04
SECTION A
1-. A 16. A 1,. # 25. # 21. C
22. B 2.. B 20. 21. 22. #
2-.
26. 2,. .5. .1.
SECTION B
1-. A 16. # 1,. B 25. # 21.
22. C 2.. A 20. C 21. A 22. C
2-. B
26. 2,. .5. .1.
LSAT 01 SECTON
1. B 2. .. # 0. A 1. A
2. C -. C 6. A ,. B 15.
11. B 12. A 1.. 10. 11. B
12. B 1-. B 16. # 1,. # 25. A
21. B 22. 2.. A 20. 21. #
22. A
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 02 SECTON
1. C 2. B .. 0. B 1. A
1565 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2. -. # 6. B ,. B 15. #
11. C 12. 1.. A 10. 11.
12. A 1-. A 16. B 1,. # 25. C
21. A 22. B 2.. # 20. B 21. B
22. C 2-. A 26.
2,. .5.
LSAT 03 SECTON
1. B 2. C .. A 0. C 1. C
2. -. # 6. # ,. 15. B
11. B 12. A 1.. C 10. 11. C
12. B 1-. 16. A 1,. # 25. B
21. B 22. C 2.. C 20. A 21.
22. 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 0( SECTON )
1. A 2. .. 0. # 1. #
2. C -. 6. A ,. C 15. C
11. C 12. B 1.. # 10. B 11.
12. B 1-. # 16. # 1,. C 25. B
21. A 22. C 2.. # 20. B 21. #
22. C 2-. C
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 05 SECTON
1. # 2. .. A 0. C 1.
2. C -. C 6. C ,. # 15. C
11. 12. A 1.. 10. A 11.
12. # 1-. # 16. 1,. B 25. A
21. # 22. A 2.. C 20. 21.
22. C 2-. B 26. B
2,. .5.
LSAT 06 SECTON
1. # 2. C .. A 0. # 1. B
2. -. # 6. ,. A 15. A
11. 12. 1.. 10. A 11.
12. B 1-. B 16. 1,. 25. C
21. C 22. A 2.. C 20. # 21. #
22. A 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 07 SECTON
1. # 2. .. C 0. B 1.
2. A -. A 6. ,. A 15. B
11. C 12. C 1.. # 10. 11. B
12. 1-. C 16. # 1,. A 25.
21. C 22. C 2.. 20. # 21. B
LSAT 1561
22. B 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 0' SECTON
1. A 2. # .. A 0. C 1. B
2. A -. A 6. C ,. A 15. C
11. # 12. B 1.. 10. A 11.
12. B 1-. 16. # 1,. C 25.
21. B 22. B 2.. # 20. 21. C
22. B 2-. B 26. #
2,. .5.
LSAT 09 SECTON
1. 2. A .. 0. A 1. #
2. B -. A 6. ,. B 15. A
11. B 12. C 1.. C 10. 11. #
12. B 1-. 16. A 1,. C 25. B
21. C 22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B
22. 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 10 SECTON
1. B 2. A .. 0. # 1. C
2. # -. C 6. A ,. A 15. C
11. B 12. A 1.. B 10. B 11.
12. C 1-. A 16. 1,. B 25. B
21. C 22. 2.. C 20. C 21. #
22. C 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 11 SECTON
1. A 2. .. B 0. # 1. C
2. B -. # 6. ,. B 15. C
11. B 12. # 1.. A 10. C 11. #
12. # 1-. B 16. A 1,. 25.
21. 22. B 2.. 20. # 21. B
22. A 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 12 SECTON
1. 2. # .. B 0. # 1.
2. C -. C 6. A ,. # 15. B
11. A 12. B 1.. # 10. 11. C
12. C 1-. 16. A 1,. # 25. #
21. # 22. B 2.. B 20. # 21. B
22. 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 13 SECTON
1. 2. # .. B 0. C 1. B
1562 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2. # -. # 6. # ,. C 15.
11. # 12. A 1.. A 10. C 11. #
12. # 1-. 16. A 1,. C 25. A
21. A 22. A 2.. B 20. A 21. #
22. C 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 1( SECTON
1. A 2. .. B 0. C 1.
2. A -. C 6. C ,. # 15. B
11. A 12. 1.. 10. # 11.
12. # 1-. B 16. C 1,. A 25.
21. A 22. 2.. 20. C 21. B
22. A 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 15 SECTON
1. C 2. # .. A 0. B 1.
2. -. A 6. # ,. C 15. B
11. C 12. B 1.. 10. C 11. B
12. C 1-. C 16. A 1,. 25. #
21. A 22. B 2.. C 20. C 21. A
22. 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 16 SECTON
1. C 2. A .. 0. A 1.
2. B -. B 6. # ,. # 15. C
11. B 12. A 1.. A 10. 11. B
12. C 1-. C 16. 1,. B 25.
21. A 22. # 2.. B 20. C 21. C
22. A 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 17 SECTON
1. C 2. # .. 0. 1. A
2. # -. 6. B ,. B 15. #
11. A 12. B 1.. A 10. A 11. B
12. C 1-. A 16. # 1,. B 25.
21. B 22. # 2.. 20. C 21.
22. # 2-. B 26. C
2,. .5.
LSAT 1' SECTON
1. A 2. # .. C 0. # 1. A
2. B -. B 6. C ,. A 15.
11. A 12. C 1.. 10. B 11. B
12. # 1-. B 16. 1,. A 25.
21. B 22. # 2.. 20. B 21.
LSAT 156.
22. A
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 19 SECTON )
1. B 2. .. C 0. C 1. C
2. # -. B 6. A ,. # 15. A
11. C 12. B 1.. 10. # 11. B
12. C 1-. # 16. A 1,. # 25. #
21. 22. C 2.. 20. C 21. A
22. A 2-. B
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 20 SECTON )
1. B 2. # .. 0. A 1. B
2. B -. # 6. B ,. A 15. B
11. B 12. 1.. # 10. 11. C
12. A 1-. 16. B 1,. A 25. B
21. C 22. C 2.. B 20. B 21. A
22. A 2-. B
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 21 SECTON
1. B 2. A .. C 0. 1. #
2. B -. 6. C ,. B 15. A
11. C 12. B 1.. C 10. 11. B
12. # 1-. A 16. A 1,. 25. A
21. C 22. 2.. C 20. # 21. C
22. # 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 22 SECTON )
1. # 2. B .. C 0. # 1. C
2. B -. C 6. B ,. C 15. C
11. 12. 1.. B 10. B 11. #
12. B 1-. A 16. A 1,. B 25. C
21. # 22. B 2.. B 20. 21. A
22. 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 23 SECTON
1. A 2. # .. B 0. # 1. A
2. -. 6. C ,. C 15. #
11. 12. B 1.. A 10. 11. C
12. # 1-. A 16. # 1,. 25. B
21. B 22. A 2.. 20. C 21. B
22. A 2-. C
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 2( SECTON
1. B 2. # .. A 0. # 1.
1560 GMAT, GRE, LSAT RC
2. B -. C 6. A ,. B 15. C
11. A 12. B 1.. B 10. C 11. B
12. A 1-. B 16. A 1,. # 25.
21. B 22. 2.. # 20. # 21. B
22. #
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 25 SECTON
1. C 2. B .. A 0. B 1. C
2. # -. C 6. ,. C 15. A
11. A 12. 1.. 10. B 11. B
12. A 1-. A 16. B 1,. B 25. A
21. C 22. 2.. A 20. B 21. B
22. A
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 26 SECTON )
1. 2. .. # 0. 1. A
2. C -. # 6. B ,. C 15. #
11. 12. A 1.. B 10. 11. A
12. # 1-. C 16. 1,. C 25. #
21. C 22. 2.. B 20. C 21. A
22. B
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 27 SECTON
1. 2. B .. A 0. 1. B
2. C -. 6. C ,. B 15. A
11. C 12. 1.. A 10. C 11. A
12. A 1-. # 16. # 1,. C 25. B
21. C 22. 2.. A 20. # 21. B
22. B
2-. 26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 2' SECTON )
1. # 2. A .. A 0. # 1. B
2. # -. B 6. B ,. 15.
11. C 12. A 1.. # 10. 11. #
12. A 1-. A 16. # 1,. # 25. C
21. 22. C 2.. # 20. B 21. A
22. C 2-.
26. 2,. .5.
LSAT 2002 SECTON
1. C 2. A .. # 0. B 1.
2. A -. 6. A ,. 15. A
11. # 12. B 1.. 10. C 11.
12. # 1-. B 16. A 1,. # 25. C
21. A 22. 2.. # 20. 9JA 21. #
LSAT 1561
22. C 2-. #
26. 2,. .5.