Factors affecting Fatigue life

Cyclic stress state: Depending on the complexity of the geometry and the loading, one or more properties of the
stress state need to be considered, such as stress amplitude, mean stress, biaxiality, in-phase or out-of-phase
shear stress, and load sequence,
Geometry: Notches and variation in cross section throughout a part lead to stress concentrations where fatigue
cracks initiate.
Surface quality. Surface roughness cause microscopic stress concentrations that lower the fatigue strength.
Compressive residual stresses can be introduced in the surface by e.g. shot peening to increase fatigue life. Such
techniques for producing surface stress are often referred to as peening, whatever the mechanism used to
produce the stress. Low plasticity burnishing, laser peening, andultrasonic impact treatment can also produce this
surface compressive stress and can increase the fatigue life of the component. This improvement is normally
observed only for high-cycle fatigue.
Material Type: Fatigue life, as well as the behavior during cyclic loading, varies widely for different materials, e.g.
composites and polymers differ markedly from metals.
Residual stresses: Welding, cutting, casting, and other manufacturing processes involving heat or deformation
can produce high levels of tensile residual stress, which decreases the fatigue strength.
Size and distribution of internal defects: Casting defects such as gas porosity, non-metallic inclusions and
shrinkage voids can significantly reduce fatigue strength.
Direction of loading: For non-isotropic materials, fatigue strength depends on the direction of the principal
stress.
Grain size: For most metals, smaller grains yield longer fatigue lives, however, the presence of surface defects or
scratches will have a greater influence than in a coarse grained alloy.
Environment: Environmental conditions can cause erosion, corrosion, or gas-phase embrittlement, which all
affect fatigue life. Corrosion fatigue is a problem encountered in many aggressive environments.
Temperature: Extreme high or low temperatures can decrease fatigue strength.


Why is the difference between Low Cycle fatigue and High Cycle fatigue?

The mechanisms of fatigue crack initiation are often described in terms of the development of regions
of persistent slip.
In LCF, bulk plastic deformation takes place, but this is by no means homogeneous. In single phase
polycrystalline metals with random crystallographic orientations, inhomogeneous stress and plastic
strain elds are established because of orientation, grain shape and size, and geometrical eects (e.g.
surfaces). It is expected, therefore, that localized regions of preferential slip develop, leading to
similarly localized regions of crack initiation.

In HCF, the material undergoes elastic deformation at the macroscopic level, and it is only in small
areas (e.g. near a stress concentration at a free surface) that plastic deformation occurs, if at all. For
the case of a polycrystalline metal subjected to HCF with uniform macroscopic stress, the localized
regions deforming plastically are generated again by the inhomogeneity of the stress resulting from
crystallographic orientation, grain shape, etc. Even in HCF, as very localized plastic straining develops,
hardening can occur, leading to a redistribution of stress and a further localization of plasticity. In
other words, this is shakedown occurring, and it is the basis of the Dang Van criterion for crack
initiation (Dang Van 1993; Ballard et al. 1995; Peridas & Hills 2002).

Dang Van argues that local plastic ow is essential for crack initiation and that, were shakedown to
occur, at the grain level, the material would have an innite fatigue life. While this may be close to the
truth, there are arguments that crack initiation in HCF can occur even if the critical resolved shear
stress within an individual grain is never exceeded. However, it is accepted that irreversible
dislocation motion is, nonetheless, required. In any case, the diculty comes, when using Dang Vans
model, in relating the macroscopic stress state to that which exists at the grain level.

The diculty is side-stepped by Dang Vans approach, which then becomes similar in many ways to
the traditional macro-level correlations. However, Dang Vans method is an attempt to provide a more
fundamental approach to quantifying fatigue crack initiation.

Heating can heal initial crack yet when heated, performance decreases. Explain.

Grain growth thus strength decrease. There is less grain boundary and less resistance to dislocation
movement. The grain can move a larger distance along a particular slip plane. Thus greater grain
weaken the strength of metal.

{The size of the grains within a material also has an effect on the strength of the material. The
boundary between grains acts as a barrier to dislocation movement and the resulting slip because
adjacent grains have different orientations. Since the atom alignment is different and slip planes are
discontinuous between grains. The smaller the grains, the shorter the distance atoms can move along
a particular slip plane. Therefore, smaller grains improve the strength of a material. The size and
number of grains within a material is controlled by the rate of solidification from the liquid phase.}

How to use water at higher temperature?

Increased pressure will increase the boiling point of water. As pressure applied to the surface of water
increases, energy needed for water molecule to expand to gas phase increases. Thus it can be used at a
higher temperature.

The presence of non-volatile impurities such as salts or compounds of a volatility far lower than the main component
compound decreases its mole fraction and the solution's volatility, and thus raises the normal boiling point in
proportion to theconcentration of the solutes. This effect is called boiling point elevation. As a common example, salt
water boils at a higher temperature than pure water.

Formation of RUST

Many times corrosion occurs with just one type of metal present, but the corrosion cell model is
still applicable. Any metal will have microscopic impurities on its surface, especially due to its
refinement and production. These impurities, because of slight potential differences between
them, form the local action cells. The anode is part of the metal that corrodes. Iron is lost to the
water and becomes oxidized to Fe++. As a result of the formation of Fe++, two electrons are
released to flow through the steel to the cathodic area where they are taken up by a depolarizer
(Oxygen) to form hydroxyl ions (OH). The resulting ions react with the Fe++ to form the mixture of
hydrous iron oxide (FeOH). Also known as RUST.


PIPE PROTECTION
Corrosion is natures slow reaction to metal which causes it to rust and deteriorate over time.
A piece of bare metal is buried under ground and comes into direct contact with the soil. As a
result a naturally occurring electric current flows from the metal into the surround soil causing
corrosion.
2 step process: pipe is covered with a coating material known as fusion bonded epoxy. FBE is a
state of the art coating formulation with proven effectiveness as a corrosion resistant coating.
Secondly, after installation, the pipeline is further protected from corrosion through a supple metal
process known as cathodic protection.
Cathodic protection process: the flow of any natural occurring electric current from pipe to the soil
is stopped. The electrical current flow is reversed and subsequently flows to the pipe. The
redirection of the electric current from the pipe known as the cathode to what we are sacrificing on
purpose known as anodes wards of natures ability to create corrosion on the pipe. In this process,
a type of system known as ground beds is placed adjacent to the pipeline. A power supply induces
a low voltage dc charge through the ground beds and into the soil. These electrical charges
introduced at strategic points along the pipeline force the anodes to deteriorate instead of the
pipeline. The electric current used in this process is similar to that generated by a flashlight battery
and is harmless to humans, animals and the surrounding environment.
Transpassive Corrosion
1.Another corrosion-related problem is a mechanism known as transpassive corrosion, which
affects in particular boiling-water reactors. In these reactors the coolant water at the reactor core is
strongly oxidising. Transpassive corrosion involves the dissolution of chromium from the surface of
stainless steel and nickel-base alloys. It is suspected that transpassive corrosion affects the
initiation of irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking.
2.A study has been made of the transpassive dissolution of mild steel in sodium nitrate solution
over a range of current densities from 2 to 100 A cm2. The dissolution current efficiency and the
anode potential free from the electrolyte IR component were measured in a flow cell; optical and
scanning electron microscopy were then used to examine the sample surfaces after the
dissolution tests. The results show that during the early stage of transpassive dissolution, the mild
steel is covered with a compact, electronically conductive Fe3O4 film, and the current is
consumed mainly in oxygen generation on the film/electrolyte interface. With increasing anode
potential and current density, this film is gradually broken and the underlying metal surface
becomes exposed to the electrolyte. At this stage, iron dissolution begins at a high rate. The film
rupturing process is strongly dependent on nitrate concentration; the higher this is, the lower is the
current density required to rupture the film.
Cavanagh Bridge
The anti-corrosion paint is used to protect the cast iron bridge.
Why use oil/grease or metal coating for lubrication?
Everyone knows that proper firearm maintenance is a necessity. Without oil or lubrication a gun
can get premature wearing of the components. Lubrication enables the parts to move around each
other without damaging the important parts. What happens if this oil or grease gets dirty?
Eventually you clean out the old oil or lubricant to remove the grit and grime and then add fresh oil
or lube to protect your firearm until the next cleaning. As a gun owner who believes in proper care
and maintenance the cycle never ends.
But oil or grease? What is the difference in relation to weapons? The main difference between oil
and grease is viscosity. Viscosity is a fancy way of saying thickness. Oil has a low viscosity or
thickness and grease on the other hand a high viscosity. As it seems with all things gun related
many disagree with which is better. Yes, grease stays in place better but oil is more desirable in
most cases. A few even believe a dry gun works best.
Gun oil has many important uses. It protects the guns metal finish from water and rust. You may
want to use grease for long term firearm preservation, but otherwise oil is your best bet.
Most people understand that a firearm needs lubrication to avoid friction of the metal parts rubbing
against one another. One rule of thumb is oil the moving parts and grease where parts dont move.
The internal parts you choose to lubricate vary with each firearm. There are very few parts on a
Glock for instance that need lubrication. Who would believe that gun lubrication would be such a
widely debated and controversial topic with everyone having a personal opinion and preference?
You may use oil only for your Glock 17 but use grease your Kimber 1911.
No matter what oil and grease manufacturers claim all types of lubricants attract debris and
unburned powder and over time can cause a malfunction. In extreme weather conditions or
terrains your lube of choice might be very different. Cold weather can affect grease and make it
thicker. Sand tends to stick to oil and grease so you may want to use a dry silicone spray or
graphite powder.
With so many options and opinions a little background information may help you in choosing the
correct lubricant for your firearm. Oil has corrosion resistance and guns lubricated with oil operate
faster since oil is thinner and has less resistance than grease. Oil however does not last as long
as grease. Grease being thicker has a higher viscosity which can lead to slower cycling and
operation. The staying power of grease can also dictate where you apply it on your weapon for
instance on the slide. Grease is preferred to smooth the movement of the slide during firing since
oil can quickly be dispersed by the rapid movement of the slide.
A final point to consider is proper lubrication. Be careful not to use too much grease or not enough
oil. Need to get into a tight spot? Consider a precision point oiler. Have your gun striped down
completely? Consider a dab of grease on the trigger bar.
I just recently tried MPT Firearm Lubricant and Grease. MPTs lubricant is a synthetic oil that is not
made with conventional petroleum components that can leave behind solids that may gunk up
your gun over time. I was very happy with the performance on my rifles as well as my hand guns.
The MPT gun grease is waterproof and chemical resistant with a wide temperature range. After
using the lubricant I noticed a nice smooth slide action with my hand gun as well as the bolt action
on my rifle. And a lubricant that cleans and protects against rust is always welcome.
My best advice is no matter what - clean and lubricated guns work better. Find a lubricant you like
to use and works well with your firearm. As they say nothing works better than a well oiled
machine and a gun is no different.
PV chart
Page 96
Can friction makes things go faster?
Effects of friction on materials and morphology
IV. Effects of corrosive concentration For Curve B, why is the slope steeper intitally then
less steep subsequently?
What Factors Affect Corrosion with Sulfuric Acid?
Corrosion with sulfuric acid occurs because of three main factors: temperature, concentration and
composition of material. These factors affect two main properties of sulfuric acid, its activity rate
and oxidation rate. Activity rate means how well sulfuric acid dissolves, or breaks things down, and
oxidation rate means how easily it can cause change in the electric charges, which allows new
reactions and more corrosion. Metal rusting is an example of oxidation causing the reaction of iron
with water to form iron oxide, or rust. Both properties increase corrosion with sulfuric acid and both
become more powerful with increasing temperature and concentration of the sulfuric acid solution.
The type of material plays an important factor when considering corrosion with sulfuric acid. Even
diluted sulfuric acid at low temperatures will cause organic materials to corrode, but not metals.
Carbon based materials, such as skin, are severely corrosive when exposed to sulfuric acid,
because of their organic composition. Acid burns are actually like melting in a hot fire; the carbon
is changing to carbon dioxide, and the heat develops from the sulfuric acid mixing with the water
trapped in organic substances. This removal of water, or dehydration, causes corrosion with
sulfuric acid because the cells water is being ripped out, destroying them in the process.
The activity rate and oxidation rate of sulfuric acid are affected by the temperature. With more heat
comes more power to dissolve and cause reactions; thus, more corrosion with sulfuric acid. With
metals, oxidation does not occur with diluted sulfuric acid because not enough of the acid is
allowed to break up. This is because sulfuric acid has two hydrogen atoms that need to be
separated for most oxidation reactions to occur with metals. Under the same conditions, low heat
and low concentration, most metals will not corrode, but sulfuric acid can become very corrosive at
high temperatures.
Above 212Fahrenheit (100Celsius), concentrated sulfuric acid starts automatically releasing
another hydrogen atom, freeing both of the hydrogen atoms. This allows oxidation to occur, which
corrodes most metals by forming a metal sulfate and hydrogen gas. At more than 302Fahrenheit
(150Celsius), the activity rate becomes extreme, and corrosion with sulfuric acid is unstoppable.
Even tantaline, an alloy developed to not corrode in a high-temperature concentrated sulfuric acid
solution, will rapidly corrode under those conditions.

A bizarre event does occur in water-free concentrated sulfuric acid. In this state, found only in a
foam form, most metals experience less corrosion with sulfuric acid because the hydrogen uses
water to separate, or disassociate, from the sulfuric acid. Without water, the sulfuric acid losses it
oxidation capabilities, and corrosion can be caused only by acid activity, which is still extremely
high but does not affect materials in which no water is available. One reason why sulfuric acid is
used every day in various industries is to remove water from products and materials. Nearly any
water-containing material, even sugar crystals, become more dehydrated when exposed to
concentrated sulfuric acid.