Electrical Parameters Electrical Parameters

Voltage :- Force required to move charge from one point

to another.Measured in Volts(V).
Current :- Rate of flow of charge in a conductor.
Measured in Amperes(A).
Resistance :- Opposition to the flow of current. Measured
in Ohms.
If voltage is applied between two terminals of a conductor
, then current starts flowing through that conductor.To
maintain current , the required driving force is called
current.
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Electrical Parameters
Every conducting material offers some resistance
to the flow of current .
These three parameters of electricity are related to
h h b Oh hi h h each other by Ohms Law, which states that
V is directly proportional to I.
V= R * I where R is proportional constant.
Electrical Supply in India
Voltage 240 V , Frequency 50 Hz.
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AC Vs DC Supply
AC Supply : When voltage is varying
with respect to time at some frequency
we call it as AC supply system.
E.g. :- electric supply in our houses.
DC Supply :- If Voltage is constant
with respect to time , it is called DC
Supply E.g. :- a DC Battery used in
torch .
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AC Supply
The AC Voltage and Current is a sine wave
with some phase difference between them.
Phase angle : The distance between voltage
and current waves when measured in terms and current waves when measured in terms
of degrees is called phase angle.
Power Factor : Cosine of phase angle is called
power factor
PF = cosine (phase angle)
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Power Factor
Phase angle can vary from 0 to 360 degree.
PF = cosine (0) = 1
PF = cosine (90) = 0
PF = cosine (180) = -1
When current is lagging the supply voltage ,
we say PF is lagging.
e.g. 0.5 lagging PF = 60 degree phase angle;
cosine (60) = 0.5
When current leads the supply voltage, then
power factor is leading
e.g. 0.8 leading PF = 323.3 degree(-36.67 deg);
cosine (323.3)=0.8
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What is a Load : If an electrical equipment
draws some current from AC supply it
constitutes a load.Like electric iron , tube
lights etc lights etc.
Type of PF (Lead or Lag) depends on the type
of load.
Inductive loads like Induction motors,fans
constitute lagging PF.
Capacitive loads like Synchronous motors have
leading PF.
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Single Phase AC Supply
It has one phase and neutral having 240 V
between phase and neutral.
Neutral : If we measure AC voltage between
neutral and earth it comes out to be 0 Volt neutral and earth , it comes out to be 0 Volt ,
so earth in an electrical equipment is called
neutral.
Earth : It is zero potential point of a
building. All the charge in electrical circuit
flows back to the earth through neutral
terminal.
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Three Phase AC Supply
It has 3 voltages called R , Y , B phase.
In 3 phase 3 wire system , there are only
3 te minals ne t al is absent One of the 3 terminals , neutral is absent . One of the
three phases acts as reference point for
measuring the phase voltage. Voltage
between any two phases called line voltage.
In three phase 4 wire system , R Y B
phase along with neutral is there.
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Types Of Loads In Three Phase
System
There two types of loads
A. Balanced B. Unbalanced Load
A. Balanced Load : When load is connected to all
three phases , in other words , current is
present in all three phases along with voltages,
B. Unbalanced Load :- When Load is present in
either one or two phases , in other words,
current is present only in one or two phases , it
is unbalanced load. Provided all three phase
voltages are present and the same.
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Power Measurement
Power : Rate of supply of electricity
P = V x I x PF
where, V = voltage
I = current
PF = power factor
Because of involvement of PF in the above
expression implies that a voltmeter and
ammeter cant be used. Else a wattmeter is
to be used for power measurement which
takes into account PF also.
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Energy
What is Energy?
Energy is power multiplied by time for
which electricity is consumed which electricity is consumed.
Energy = Power x Time
= V x I x PF x Time
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Types Of Power
Power Measurement
POWER
Active Power : V x I x Cos
Also called as true power
Reactive Power : V x I x Sin
Also called as imaginary power
Apparent Power : V x I
Also called as VA
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Active Power
The active power , also called as the
real power is the rate of energy
dissipation in the load. dissipation in the load.
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Apparent Power
It is the product of the voltage and the
current and is related to the active
power by the PF. It is a useful way of power by the PF. It is a useful way of
rating certain equipments.
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Reactive Power
The reactive power is the peak rate of
energy storage in the reactive elements
of a circuit or load. The average rate of of a circuit or load. The average rate of
energy storage is zero as the energy
continually flowing into and back out
from the reactive components. So thats
why it is also called as imaginary power.
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Why we bill on active power
As seen before , lower the PF , greater
should be the capacity of the generator
to drive it. Hence for low PF loads , to drive it. Hence for low PF loads ,
greater is the cost of generation . This
is the reason supply stations do all what
they can do to improve the PF of their
loads, sometimes by the use of tariffs
which encourage consumers to do so.
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Why equipments are rated in VA and
not KWH
If a generator or transformer is rated to say 800 KVA
, at ref voltage of 400 V , then it means that
maximum it can 2000 A current without exceeding
safe value. The phase difference between current
d l d d h l d d h and voltage depends upon the load and not on the
generator So if the PF of the load is unity then
KW=KVA in that case 800 KVA generator can drive a
load of 800 KVA . But if the PF is 0.5 then with 800
KVA generator, a load of only 800 x 0.5 = 400 KW
can be driven by this generator.Thus it is evident that
higher the PF of the load, the greater is the active
power that can be supplied to the load by a given
generator.
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Energy Measurement
Measurement of energy is essentially the
same process as that of power measurement
except that instrument used must not only
b h ld l k register power but should also take into
account the time for which electricity is
consumed.
So, energy measurement should integrate or
sum up the power consumed over time.
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Energy Meters
What is a KWH meter?
Measurement devices used for
measurement of energy are called measurement of energy are called
KWH meters.Where KW is the unit for
power and H indicates time.
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Types of energy meters
There are two types of energy meters :-
Electromechanical Meters (Ferraris Meter) Electromechanical Meters (Ferraris Meter)
Electronic Meters ( Static KWH meter )
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Electromechanical Meters
Principal Of Operation :
There is a rotating disc that is allowed
to revolve continuously at a speed to revolve continuously at a speed
proportional to power . So by recording
the number of revolutions in a given
time by a counter mechanism , we can
register electricity consumed.
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Electronic Meters
The heart of an electronic meter is an ASIC or
Metering IC which calculates power by multiplying
voltage and current. Metering IC Produces a pulse
output that drives a counter. Counter stores the output that drives a counter. Counter stores the
power over time and hence registers consumed
electricity.
Calibration
Power
Metering IC
( ASIC )
Register
Mechanism
( Counter )
Energy
Voltage
Current
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Meter Constant
Meter Constant is a fixed number that
defines the number of test output or
calibration pulses that are produced for calibration pulses that are produced for
per unit consumption of energy,
e.g. meter constant of 3200 means for
1 KWH consumption of energy ,
calibration LED blinks 3200 times.
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Class Index
Class Index :- A number which gives the
limits of permissible % error for all values of
current.
Meters can be Class 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2
Class 1 meter - which means that when
meter is operated under actual conditions of
usage , the accuracy of % error should be in
limit as specified in IS for class 1 meter
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Standards for energy
measurement
What is IS ?
IS stands for Indian Standards.
What is the need of a standard ? What is the need of a standard ?
Standard specifies the general
requirements and tests which guarantee
the proper function of the meter under
normal working condition.
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Mainly there are 3 standards for ac
static KWH meters:-
- IS 14697:1999
Standards for energy
measurement
- IS 13779:1999
- CBIP 304
- IEC 1036,1996
In addition the above standards also
refer other standards for various tests
and requirements.
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Need of meter standards
Meter should be designed and constructed in
such a way as to avoid introducing any
danger in normal use and under normal
conditions so as to ensure especially conditions so as to ensure especially
- Maintaining specified accuracy under extreme
environmental conditions
- personnel safety against electric shock
- Protection against spread of fire
- Protection against penetration of solid
particles and dust
- Protection against frauds and tampers
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Scope of this Presentation
Mere purpose is awareness among
people related to metering industry
about the importance of relevant
d d h d standards with an introduction to
important clauses of the standard.
Note : For details, pl. refer the actual
standard.
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Electrical Requirements of meter
Standards
Power Consumption
Electromagnetic Compatibility test
Megger Insulation test Megger Insulation test
Impulse Voltage test
AC high voltage test
Starting Current & Running with no load
Repeatability
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Accuracy requirements
Ref. Voltage variation
Short time over current
Influence of heating Influence of heating
Accuracy requirements at different currents
and power factors.
DC magnet test
AC magnet test
Voltage unbalance
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General and Constructional
Requirements
Some of the requirements are :-
Meter should have a case which can be
sealed in such a way that the internal parts of
the meter are accessible only after breaking the meter are accessible only after breaking
the seal.
The material of the terminal block should
pass flammability test as per its relevant
standard IS 11731. The material should be
capable of passing the test given in ISO 75-1-
93 for requirement of 135 deg C and pressure
of 1.8 Mpa.
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General and Constructional
Requirements
The manner of fixing the conductors in the
terminals should ensure adequate and
desirable contact so that there is no risk of
loosening or heating 2 screws should be loosening or heating. 2 screws should be
provided in each terminal for effectively
clamping the current leads.
Provision of sealing should be there on
terminal block
Meters with metal case should have
protective earth terminals.
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General and Constructional
Requirements
Marking on name plate should bear following
information :- manufacturers name, Srl. No. ,
year of mfg, 240 V, KWH, Class index, meter
constant rated current rated freq ref temp constant, rated current, rated freq, ref temp,
No. of phases, No. of wires
Few tests related to mechanical requirements
are:-
- Shock test
- Spring Hammer test
- Glow wire test
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Type of tests done on Energy Meter
for validation
There are basically 3 types of tests
required to be done for every type of
energy meter:- energy meter:
1. Type tests
2. Routine tests
3. Acceptance tests
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Type Tests
Series of tests carried out on one meter or a
number of meters to prove conformity with
all the requirements of this standard for this
relevant class of meters These are intended relevant class of meters. These are intended
to prove the general qualities design of a type
of meter. E.g. vibration test, heating effect
test etc
For all type tests, third party certificates are
required from standard labs like NPL,
CPRI,ERTL,ETDC etc.
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Routine tests
Tests carried out on each meter in
aspects which are likely to vary during
production. production.
E.g. accuracy test, ac high voltage test,
starting condition test etc.
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Acceptance tests
Tests taken out on few samples from a lot for
the purpose of acceptance of the lot.
For energy meters, the inspector from
customer side perform the acceptance tests
for acceptance of the lot. Apart from the
acceptance tests mentioned in the standards,
others tests may also be included as
acceptance tests if desired by the customer.
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Various Type tests are:-
Test of
insulation
properties
Test of
accuracy
requirements
Test of
electrical
requirements
Test of EMC
and climatic
condition
Test for
mechanical
requirements
Impulse Limits of error Power Radio Vibration test
voltage test consumption interference
measurement
AC high voltage
test
Meter constant Variation in
supply voltage
Fast transient
burst test
Shock test
Insulation test Starting
condition
Short time over
current
ESD immunity Spring hammer
test
No load Heating effect EM HF fields Protection
against dust
and water
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Various type tests cont
Test of
insulation
properties
Test of
accuracy
requirements
Test of
electrical
requirements
Test of EMC
and climatic
condition
Test for
mechanical
requirements
Ambient Immunity to Dry heat test Resistance to
temperature
influence
earth fault heat and fire
( GLOW WIRE
Test )
Repeatability Cold test
Test of
influence
quantities
Damp heat
cyclic test
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Various Routine tests are:-
Limits of error
Starting current
No load condition test No load condition test
Insulation test (Megger Test)
AC High Voltage test
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Various acceptance tests are:-
All the routine tests and few more like
Meter Constant (DIAL TEST)
Power Consumption Power Consumption
Repeatability of error
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Tests of Insulation Properties:
Impulse Voltage test ( IS 13779 Cl.
12.7.6.2) , Type test
- Impulse of 5 KV is applied 10 times with both
polarities, with min. time b/w pulses is 3 s.
High power (VA) is involved.
- For ckts and b/w ckts ( between voltage and
current )
- Of ckts relative to earth
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Tests of Insulation Properties:
AC high voltage test (IS 13779 Cl.
12.7.6.3, routine test)
- for Poly,4 KV rms ac voltage applied for 1
minute, for metal pulse magnitude is of 2 KV
- Applied b/w earth and electric ckts
- Applied b/w phase and current terminals
- Meter should show no discharge, puncture,
flashover
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Tests of Insulation Properties:
Insulation resistance test (IS
13779 Cl. 12.7.6.4, routine test)
- Done with the help of megger, an p gg ,
instrument used for measuring high
values of resistances
- By applying 500 V dc , megger should
show >= 5 Mohm
- B/w electric ckts and frame
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Tests of Accuracy Requirements:
Limits of error (IS 13779 Cl. 11.1 ,
routine test)
- done at different tapping of current
h f h - Aim is to measure the accuracy of the meter
at different load conditions
- As the test bench can never be 100 %
accurate, so always a guard band or margin
is given b/w the actual required accuracy
limits and limits followed in real testing
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Tests of Accuracy Requirements:
Limits of error (IS 13779 Cl. 11.1 ,
routine test)
- for single phase and 3 ph. combined load (also called
b l d l d ) h l balanced load ), the limits are
PF Current % error
limit
Unity PF 5 % Ib +/- 1.5 %
10 % Ib to Imax +/- 1 %
0.5 Lag / 0.8
Lead
10 % Ib +/- 1.5 %
Ib to Imax +/- 1.0 %
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Tests of Accuracy Requirements:
Limits of error (IS 13779 Cl. 11.1 ,
routine test)
- for 3 ph. unbalanced load (Voltage to all 3 phases,
h h l l b d d l h ) current in 1 Ph, while calibrating individual phase),
the limits are
PF Current % error
limit
Unity PF 5 % Ib N/A
10 % Ib to Imax +/- 2.0 %
0.5 Lag
/ Lead N/A
10 % Ib N/A
Ib to Imax +/- 2.0 %
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Tests of Electrical Requirement:
Test of starting condition ( IS 13779 Cl. ----)
- 0.4 % of Ib and UPF , the meter should
start registering and should continue to
register.
No load condition - at 115 % of 240 V , the
meter shall not produce more than one
pulse output when tested for long time.
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Tests of Electrical Requirement :
Repeatability error IS 13779 Cl.---
- done at 5 % Ib , 10 % Ib and at IB , UPF ,
error should not be more than 0.5 %
different when taken successive readings different when taken successive readings.
Power Consumption IS 13779 , Cl. 9.1.1
- In Voltage circuits at 240 V
1.5 W, 8 VA
- In Current circuits at basic current
4.0 VA
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Tests of Electrical Requirement :
Short Time over currents IS 13779 Cl.--
- at 30 times of Imax for one half cycle at
240 V and UPF should not damage the 240 V and UPF should not damage the
meter and error should not exceed 1.5
%.
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Tests of Influence Quantities :-
Stray Magnetic Induction of external origin
- AC magnetic field of intensity 0.5 mTesla at Ib
and UPF , the error should not exceed 2 %
f ld f l b - DC magnetic field of intensity 67 mTesla at Ib
UPF , shouldnt show any change in error
more than 3 % or movement of counter or
flickering etc.
- Dc magnetic induction of 0.27 T , should not
show any movement of counter .
- AC abnormal magnetic induction of 0.2 T,
checking conditions as above.
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Tests of Influence Quantities :-
DC component in current circuits at 50
% Imax and UPF , the error should not
exceed 3 % variation. IS 13779 Cl.--- exceed 3 % variation. IS 13779 Cl.
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Tests of Mechanical Requirements:
Glow wire test ( Resistance to fire )-IS 13779
Cl.12.4
- The test temperature for terminal block is 960
Deg C + 15 deg C Deg. C +- 15 deg C
- For meter case and terminal cover the temp
is 650 deg C
- Duration of exposure is 30 s
- The specimen should not catch flame or glow
and if in case catches fire , then it should be
self extinguishing.
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Tests of Mechanical Requirements:
Clearance and creepage distance
- between screw in terminal block fitted
down to max applicable conductor or pp
terminal cover screw and the
surrounding metal parts.
- Clearance min is 3 mm :- distance in air
- Creepage min. is 3.2 mm :- distance in
insulating material
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Test of mechanical requirements
Vibration test IS 13779 Cl.---: - meter in non
operating condition and without packing
- freq should be varied from 10 Hz to 150 Hz
back to 10 Hz back to 10 Hz
- For freq < 60 , vibration with amplitude 0.15
mm and then for freq > 60 , acceleration of
19.6 m/sec. Sq.
- Total 10 cycles in each X,Y , Z direction each
for 75 minutes
- Meter should show no change in error or
screw loosening etc
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Test of mechanical requirements
Shock test IS 13779 Cl.----
- Meter in non operating condition and without
packing with shock pulse of half sine wave of
peak acceleration of 400 m/sec sq and pulse peak acceleration of 400 m/sec sq. and pulse
duration of 18 msec.
- No of shocks :- 2 on both sides in each X,Y,Z
direction , so total 12
- Meter should not show any damage or
change in error
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Introduction to Tests of Mechanical
Requirements:
Protection against penetration of dust
and water IS 13779 Cl.--- :- There
should not be any entry of dust or should not be any entry of dust or
water
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Test of climatic conditions
Dry Heat Test IS 13779 Cl.-- :- Meter in non
operating condition when kept at temp of 72
deg C for 72 hours should show errors in
specified class after it is kept at room temp specified class after it is kept at room temp
for 2 hours after heating.
Cold test IS 13779 Cl.---:- Meter in non
operating condition when kept at 25 deg. C
for 72 hours should show errors in specified
class after it is kept at room temp for 2 hours
after heating.
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