The Identification Of Pharaoh During The Time Of Moses

M S M Saifullah, Abdullah David & Mohammad Ghoniem

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Assalamu ala,.um wa rahamatullahi wa bara.atuhu#
-. Introduction
!reated for the "ur"ose of evangelising the native "eo"les the colonialists
were encountering as the, e/"anded across the globe, the missions of the
!hristian missionaries were one of the breeding grounds for biblical
archaeolog, in the nineteenth centur,0-1 2 and remain so until this "resent
da,. Although the earliest e/cavations in 3g,"t were not "ur"osel, develo"ed
with the intention to underwrite the biblical narrative, scholars were cogni4ant
of the fact that ancient 3g,"t had been mentioned in the 5ld 6estament,
"articularl, in the boo.s of Genesis and 3/odus.0%1 As the mass e/cavation
of 3g,"t bec.oned, the colonial "owers rushed forth to anal,4e a countr, full
of ancient treasures s"anning different religions and cultures over several
millennia. In 7ictorian 8ritain much of the "o"ular interest revolved around
the ancient 3g,"tian connections with the 8ible, es"eciall, the 3/odus
narrative. It is in such a conte/t that Amelia 3dwards, an amateur
3g,"tologist, and Reginald Stuart 9oole of the De"artment of !oins and
Medals at the 8ritish Museum, founded the 3g,"t 3/"loration und :now
3g,"t 3/"loration Societ,; in -''%.0<1 Man, of the earl, financial donors to
the fund were from the clerg, and those interested in finding archaeological
evidence that would su""ort the biblical narratives in res"ect of ancient
3g,"t.0*1 Demonstrating the "ower of the biblical motivations in the
establishment of the und, one need loo. no further than its first ob=ective, >...
to organise e/cavations in 3g,"t, with a view to further elucidation of the
?istor, and Arts of Ancient 3g,"t, and to the illustration of the 5ld 6estament
narrative, in so far as it has to do with 3g,"t and the 3g,"tians@ ...A0B1 5ne of
the first "ublications of the und was an e/amination of the geogra"h, of the
3/odus based on their first e/"edition to the 3astern Delta of the Cile in the
s"ring2time of -''<.0D1 5ver -&& ,ears later, it need hardl, be stated the
geogra"h, of the 3/odus still commands the utmost attention amongst
!hristians worldwide, interested in under"inning the archaeological stratum of
the 3/odus stor, as found in the 5ld 6estament.0$1
Intertwined with the geogra"h, of the 3/odus is the identification of the
9haraoh:s; during the time of Moses in ancient 3g,"t 2 a sub=ect of intense
debate amongst biblical scholars. 6hese !hristian scholars can be broadl,
divided into two grou"s# one which believes that the 8ible should be the sole
basis of dating and the other grou" which uses ancient near eastern
archaeolog, to date the 3/odus. 8oth these grou"s em"lo, certain
assum"tions and overloo. certain details in order to reach their conclusions.
Eith regard to the veracit, and consistenc, of the biblical te/t the choice of
either "osition is ultimatel, immaterial@ ado"ting one of the two "ositions
results in contradicting andFor dismissing "arts of the biblical stor,
fundamental to the other "osition as we shall soon observe. 6he !hristian
missionaries and a"ologists shrewdl, ignorant of the historical "roblems
associated with the biblical stor, of Moses as "resented in the 8ible, Guic.l,
turn their attention to the HurIan. According to them, the HurIan mentions that
there was onl, one 9haraoh during the time of Moses, i.e., the 9haraoh who
was "resent during the time of Moses was the same one who died while
"ursuing the !hildren of Israel. 6he 8ible on the other hand mentions that
Moses saw "arts of the reigns of two 9haraohs :3/odus %#%<;. Since the
HurIan differs from the 8ible on this "oint, b, the "ower of circular argument,
the resultant conclusion of missionaries and a"ologists is that there is a
historical contradiction in the HurIan. 6he relevant Guestion which the, forgot
to consider during their "eriods of contem"lation is whether the biblical stor,
has an, historical basis to "rove this "oint. Eith this in mind, the identification
of the 9haraoh:s; during the time of Moses according to the 8ible and the
HurIan forms the sub=ect of the foregoing discussion.
%. 6he 9haraohs During 6he 6ime 5f Moses According 6o 6he 8ible
6here has been a long tradition of resolving the statements made in the 5ld
6estament with actual archaeological discoveries.0'1 5ne of the most ve/ing
Guestions is the identification of the 9haraoh during MosesI e/odus from
ancient 3g,"t, a sub=ect of intense debate among biblical scholars from a
wide variet, of theological bac.grounds. 6hese scholars can be broadl,
divided into two grou"s# one which believes that the 8ible should be the sole
basis of dating and the other grou" which uses ancient near eastern
archaeolog, to date the 3/odus. 8oth these grou"s em"lo, certain
assum"tions and overloo. certain details in order to reach their conclusions.
As one will observe, "roving the efficac, of the statements contained in the
5ld 6estament is not without "roblems. Ehat at first a""ears a seemingl,
harmless tas. has now thrust itself into the limelight once again and
highlights the grave theological "roblems associated with editorial u"dating
as well as numbers in the 5ld 6estament, and the modern scholarsI ingenious
attem"ts to harmonise them with the archaeological data. 6here are two
models current for dating the 3/odus, the earl,2date model and the late2date
model.0J1 8oth models are based on a considered amount of data both
biblical and archaeological. Cevertheless, each model contains a single
Kfoundational te/tL that is a te/t on which the "ro"onents of each res"ective
model "rinci"all, ground their entire argument and it is to this we now turn
our attention.
WHEN IS A NUMBER NOT A NUMBER?
Identif,ing the 9haraoh of the 3/odus according to the MconservativeM
evangelical "osition, the earl,2date model, is relativel, straightforward and is
"rimaril, based on a set reading of a single verse from the ?ebrew Masoretic
te/t being the boo. of I Nings D#-,
In the four hundred eightieth ,ear after the Israelites came out of the land of
3g,"t, in the fourth ,ear of SolomonIs reign over Israel, in the month of Oiv,
which is the second month, he began to build the house of the (5RD.0-&1
It is generall, agreed that Solomon ruled c. J$& 8!3 due to s,nchronisms
with 3g,"tian and Ass,rian historical records.0--1 6herefore, according to the
MconservativeM evangelical "osition, one sim"l, adds *'& to JDDF$ 8!3
:fourth ,ear of SolomonIs reign; to arrive at the figure -**DF$ 8!3.0-%1 All
archaeological evidence is strictl, inter"reted in light of this date, i.e., one
arrives at the date before one adduces su""orting archaeological evidence.
6he 9haraoh of the 3/odus according to the ancient 3g,"tian chronological
data is thus 6uthmosis III :sometimes also written as 6hutmose III; who
reigned in the "eriod -*$J2-*%B 8!3 0igure <:a;1. 6his sim"listic solution,
a""ealing though it ma, be, overloo.s a large number of "roblems that s"an
a wide range of disci"lines from te/tual criticism to archaeolog,, even
contradicting certain verses contained within the 5ld 6estament itself. irstl,,
although -**DF$ 8!3 has been claimed as Mthe biblicalM date,0-<1 it is worth
"ointing out that I Nings D#- re"orts that the 3/odus ha""ened *'& ,ears ago
in SolomonIs fourth ,ear but it does not "rovide an actual date for SolomonIs
reign from which one can rec.on bac. in histor, in order to establish the date
of the 3/odus. 6hus the 8ible alone does not "rovide a date for the event of
the 3/odus. Secondl,, let us now loo. at the same verse again according to
the Gree. Se"tuagint III Reigns D#-,
And it ha""ened, in the four hundred fortieth ,ear of the de"arture of the sons
of Israel from 3g,"t, in the fourth ,ear in the second month, when Ning
Salomon reigned over Israel, that the .ing commanded, and the, too. great,
costl, stones for the foundation of the house, and unhewn stones, and the
sons of Salomon and the sons of !hiram hewed and laid them. In the fourth
,ear he laid the foundation of the house of the (ord in the month Ciso, the
second month@ in the eleventh ,ear in the month 8aal :this is the eighth
month; the house was finished in all its "lan and in all its arrangement.0-*1
Does one follow the length of time "rovided b, the ?ebrew Masoretic te/t,
*'& ,ears, or the Gree. Se"tuagint, **& ,earsP Ehat are the te/tual reasons
for "referring one te/t over the otherP Ehich reading is the ins"ired, infallible
and inerrant MEord of GodMP 6hirdl,, irres"ective if one follows either of these
numbers, none of them matches the number tallied when one ado"ts a
straightforward literal reading of individual =udge reigns and other "eriods of
time given in the 5ld 6estament from I Nings D bac. to the boo. of 3/odus.
ensham neatl, summarises,
6he "eriod of the =udges e/tends from the death of +oshua to the death of
Samson or the beginning of the activities of Samuel. 6he total of all the dates
given in +udges is *-& ,ears. 8ut - N. D#- states that the tem"le of Solomon
was constructed in his fourth ,ear, *'& ,ears after the 3/odus. If we ta.e *-&
,ears and add the *& ,ears s"ent in the desert, then the ,ears of +oshua, 3li,
Samuel, Saul, and David, then add SolomonLs ,ears, a figure of
a""ro/imatel, BJJ ,ears emerges, which is --J ,ears in e/cess of the *'&
,ears given in Nings.0-B1
Similar calculation b, ?offmeier of reigns derived from tall,ing the ,ears in
retrograde order from I Nings D bac. to the boo. of 3/odus gave D<< ,ears.
0-D1 6his number was achieved b, assuming a minimal number where the
8ible does not s"ecif, an, number for a reign or =udgeshi". 6his discre"anc,
between counting the ,ears in the above fashion and I Nings D#- has led to a
number of ingenious solutions of overla""ing reigns being read dogmaticall,
into the te/t, which, ultimatel,, bases its authorit, on the creative
inter"retation of its theori4er.0-$1 8, doing this, one abandons a
straightforward and literal reading of the +udges through 3/odus narratives.
In essence, we have three dates for the 3/odus, i.e., from the ?ebrew
Masoretic te/t, *'& ,ears, the Gree. Se"tuagint, **& ,ears, and c. D&& ,ears,
the "eriod derived from tall,ing the ,ears bac.wards from I Nings D to the
boo. of 3/odus. 6hese chronologies b, themselves do not give an absolute
date for the 3/odus because the biblical data does not disclose when
Solomon reigned. 6hese dates, when combined with c. JDDF$ 8!3, the fourth
,ear of SolomonIs reign :as obtained from s,nchronisms with 3g,"tian and
Ass,rian historical records discussed earlier;, would give the date of the
3/odus as -**DF$ 8!3, -*&DF$ 8!3 and c. -BDDF$ 8!3, res"ectivel,. 6he
rulers of ancient 3g,"tian for these dates would be 6uthmosis III :-*$J2-*%B
8!3;, Amenhote" II :-*%B2-*&& 8!3;, both from the Cew Ningdom 9eriod,
and A"o"his :c. -B$B2-B*& 8!3;, a ?,.sos ruler from the Second
Intermediate 9eriod, res"ectivel,.0-'1 6he !hristian missionariesI tacit
"reference however is Amenhote" II.
If the numbers re"orted in the ?ebrew 8ible do not add u" or cannot be
harmonised in a fashion suitable for the conte/t, then the various theories of
biblical ins"iration, infallibilit, and inerranc, are necessaril, rendered void
and the divine authorshi" of the 5ld 6estament overstated. Additionall,, one
should note the theological convictions and "resu""ositions of those
"ro"onents of the earl,2date model mean the, dogmaticall, adhere to the
Masoretic te/t re"orting of numbers and are unable to "rovide a reasonable
e/"lanation of their "reference for the numbers re"orted there as o""osed to
the Se"tuagint or Dead Sea Scrolls. 6he following two re"resentative
e/am"les will serve to illustrate the fact that such an a/iomatic standard
cannot be ado"ted without difficult,. In - Samuel -$#*, is Goliath si/ cubits
and a s"an tall :c. JI JM;, or four cubits and a s"an tall :c. DI JM;P 6he
Se"tuagint and the oldest e/tant ?ebrew witness Dead Sea Scroll *HSama,
which "redates the oldest Masoretic ?ebrew manuscri"t b, around -,&&&
,ears, agree with each other against the Masoretic 6e/t.0-J1 Remaining in the
boo. of - Samuel, how man, vessels are re"orted in verse %#-*F-DP Given
the choice of two vessels as "er Dead Sea Scroll *HSama, three vessels as
"er the Se"tuagint and four vessels as "er the Masoretic te/t, 9arr, o"ts for
one vesselQ0%&1 Such e/am"les could easil, be multi"lied manifold.
E?3C IS A 9(A!3 CAM3 C56 A 9(A!3 CAM3P
6he "roof te/t of those scholars ado"ting the late2date model is based on a
set reading of the boo. of 3/odus -#--,
6herefore the, set tas.masters over them to o""ress them with forced labor.
6he built su""l, cities, 9ithom and Rameses, for 9haraoh.0%-1
Ramesses II was .nown to have constructed the cit, of 9i2Ramesses :or 9r2
Ramesses, lit. Mhouse or dwelling of RamessesM; and it became the ca"ital of
his .ingdom. 8, stud,ing the usage of the name 9i2Ramesses in its
eg,"tological conte/t, scholars of ancient near eastern archaeolog, Guic.l,
identified the residence named in 3/odus -#-- must be referring to the same
cit,. Attem"ts have been made b, those scholars who su""ort the earl,2date
model to M"roveM that the name Ramesses e/isted before the advent of
Ramesses.0%%1 ?owever, of those cities that used the name Ramesses, none
of them "redate the reign of Ramesses II. 6his "articular issue was studied
in2de"th b, "rominent 3g,"tologist Sir Alan Gardiner over J& ,ears ago.0%<1
?e concluded that#
6o sum u"# whether or no the 8ible narrative be strict histor,, there is not the
least reason for assuming that an, other cit, of Ramesses e/isted in the
Delta besides those elicited from the 3g,"tian monuments. In other words,
the 8iblical Raamses2Rameses is identical with the Residence2cit, of 9i2
Ramesses near 9elusium.0%*1
6he 9entateuchal occurrences of Ramesses omits the initial element 9r2F9i2.
6his should not seen as a reason for distinguishing the biblical references
from the Ramesside residence of the northeast Delta as the writing
KRamessesL is attested in 3g,"tian records and was a well2.nown
abbreviation for this cit,.0%B1 !onseGuentl,, with this data in hand, "ro"onents
of the late2date model hold the 9haraoh of the 3/odus to be Ramesses II
who reigned from -%$J2-%-< 8!3. 6his dating of the 3/odus en=o,s
"o"ularit, among scholars.0%D1
A""reciating their "osition is confounded b, the numerical data given in the
Masoretic and Se"tuagint te/t of - Nings D#-, the "ro"onents of the late2date
model deal with this contradiction b, resorting to a numerical substitution
theor, as follows. irst, the, start with the number *'& as re"orted in the
Masoretic te/t of the 5ld 6estament. Second, *& ,ears is =udged as being the
KidealL generation, giving *'& F *& R -% generations in total. ?owever, the
value *& is substituted for its actual real mathematical value of %B, as this is
McloserM to the MactualM length of a generation. 6hird, the mathematical
calculation continues to its conclusion giving -% / %B R <&&. 5ne is thus
treated to a master class of number transformation whereb, the number *'&
reall, re"resents the actual mathematical numerical value <&&. SubseGuentl,,
this actual mathematical numerical value <&& is added to the fourth ,ear of
SolomonIs reign JDDF$ to give the date -%DDF$ 8!3 or -%*-F% 8!3 if one
follows the Se"tuagint S a date in consonance with the data "rovided in
3/odus -#--. 6he value %B has been chosen due to its "o"ularit,. 5ne will
sometimes find %%, %& and other numbers of the inter"retersI choosing.0%$1
6he "ro"onents of the earl,2date model argue that should the numerical
substitution theor, be carried forward to its logical conclusion, other numbers
contained in the 5ld 6estament become meaningless and o"en to
inter"retation according to the whim and fanc, of the inter"reter. 6herefore,
dogmaticall, ado"ting the earl,2date model becomes the onl, meaningful
solution for them.
Realising the "roblem such an inter"retation of 3/odus -#-- "oses in that it
directl, contradicts the data "rovided elsewhere in the 5ld 6estament
regarding number of ,ears ela"sed since the Israelites came out of 3g,"t, the
"ro"onents of the "reviousl, discussed earl,2date model, in order to esca"e
the charge of historical contradiction or anachronism, affirm that Meditorial
u"datingM has occurred.0%'1 According to them, this means that the name of
the storeFsu""l, cit, built b, the 9haraoh called Rameses in 3/odus -#-- was
originall, named something else. 6hat is, the theoretical original reading,
which is "resentl, un.nowable and cannot be ascertained from the e/tant
biblical manuscri"ts, has in fact been u"dated b, an un.nown, unnamed
editor:s; centuries after Moses allegedl, com"osed his te/t. 5ther well2.nown
historical anachronisms in the 8ible due to Meditorial u"datingM, to name but a
few, are mention of the 9haraohs when the rulers of ancient 3g,"t were not
even called 9haraohs, a""earance of the name 9oti"har in the time of
+ose"h when the name 9oti"har itself "ost2dates both +ose"h and Moses,
and the anachronistic mention of the coin daric in the time of David. 6hus the
issue of Meditorial u"datingM leaves Moses seeing "arts of the reigns of two
9haraohs as mentioned in the 8ible :3/odus %#%<; in a "osition where its
historicit, is as dubious as the numbers and the names mentioned in the
stor,.
?ow can "ro"onents of the earl,2date model acce"t that boo.s of the 5ld
6estament have been edited after their su""osed com"letion b, their ins"ired
authorsP 6he answer is Guite sim"le# Mins"ired te/tual u"datingM.0%J1 Scholars
of all theological "ersuasions have long since acce"ted that boo.s of the 5ld
6estament have been u"dated and changed long after their su""osed
com"letion b, their ins"ired authors. Ceedless to sa,, the multitude of creeds
arising from the 9rotestant Reformation, some of which the !hristian
missionaries and a"ologists affirm as "art of their !hurch constitutions and
membershi"s, contain no hint of Mins"ired te/tual u"datingM and im"licitl,
teach otherwise.0<&1 (et us consider the following statements of three creeds
"o"ular amongst the 3nglish s"ea.ing evangelical "rotestant !hurches of
which man, of the modern da, !hristian missionaries and a"ologists are an
integral functioning "art. A"art from minor s"elling and "unctuation
differences and the :unintentionalP; omission of a single word in the Savo,
Declaration, article 7III of the Eestminster !onfession of aith, the Savo,
Declaration and the 8a"tist !onfession of aith states,
6he 5ld 6estament in ?ebrew :which was the Cative (anguage of the "eo"le
of God of old,; and the Cew 6estament in Gree., :which at the time of the
writing of it was most generall, .nown to the Cations; being immediatel,
ins"ired b, God, and b, his singular care and "rovidence .e"t "ure in all
Ages, are therefore authenticall@ so as, in all !ontroversies of Religion, the
!hurch is finall, to A""eale unto them.0<-1
All three confessions s"ea. about the eternal "urit, and ins"iration of the
biblical te/t and the absence of an, errors therein as a function of GodIs
singular care and "rovidence. or the "ur"oses of our discussion, one will
also note the final a""eal in an, religious controvers, should be to the
?ebrew te/t of the 5ld 6estament. Eith a head start of a few hundred ,ears
of biblical criticism, modern declarations such as the -J$' !hicago Statement
on 8iblical Inerranc, are ver, carefull, worded so as to avoid "resent and
"otential "roblems in light of current and future biblical research. 5ne need
loo. no further than the "enultimate sentence of the denial clause :i.e., the
Kget outL clause; of the final article TIT,
Ee den, that such confession 0of the full authorit,, infallibilit,, and inerranc,
of Scri"ture1 is necessar, for salvation. ?owever, we further den, that
inerranc, can be re=ected without grave conseGuences, both to the individual
and to the church.0<%1
6he framers of the confession, the International !ouncil on 8iblical Inerranc,
:I!8I; "ublished their official commentar, on the statement in -J'& after it
was decided in -J$J b, a draft committee of the I!8I that the statement itself
should not be modified. 6his commentar, is es"eciall, useful in that its stated
intention is to clarif, the "recise "osition being "roclaimed in the nineteen
articles of affirmation and denial. Eith regard to the denial statement of article
TIT, the author of the commentar, and the first draft of the nineteen articles
R. !. S"roul sa,s,
6he denial in Article TIT is ver, im"ortant. 6he framers of the confession are
sa,ing unambiguousl, that confession of belief in the inerranc, of Scri"ture is
not an essential of the !hristian faith necessar, for salvation... Ee do not
regard acce"tance of inerranc, to be a test for salvation.0<<1
Ehen one reflects on the statement one can better understand wh, the
!hristian missionaries and a"ologists are comfortable in their own self2
"roclaimed faith whilst ac.nowledging there are grave "roblems and insoluble
errors in the 8ible. (et us now move from the last article to the first article.
?ere the I!8I "ur"osefull, omitted reference to the number of boo.s
com"rising the canon of the 8ible due to established historical variances on
the com"osition of the canon throughout !hristendom.0<*1 Ehat remains is a
cleverl, develo"ed "ragmatic solution whereb, one ma, believe in an
undelineated 8ible that contains errors whilst maintaining oneIs right to
MsalvationM S a "arado/ical com"romise, one though that is heartil, acce"ted.
As Kinerranc,L has been dubbed the MshibbolethM of the 9rotestant evangelical
communit,, it is recognised there are a multitude of different e/"lanations of
Kinerranc,L, its relevance and sco"e. 6he I!8I statement en=o,s "o"ularit,
and wide acce"tance among "rominent evangelical leaders whom the
missionaries and a"ologists regularl, reference as s"iritual and academic
authorities.
As has been observed, Meditorial u"datingM and Mins"ired te/tual u"datingM
function as two o""ortune devices to e/"licate the 5ld 6estament from
historical, geogra"hical and linguistic errors, and becomes an indis"ensable
tool for those "ro"onents of the earl,2date model. Integrated within a fle/ible
creedal s,stem of beliefs, this inherentl, contradictor, "osition is mitigated b,
the "ros"ect of MsalvationM.
6?3 KC3E !?R5C5(5GUL ACD 6?3 DA63 5 3T5D)S
5ne of the hallmar.s of the !hristian a"ologistsI claim about the MhistoricalM
dating of the event of 3/odus is inconsistenc,. 3arlier, we have seen how the
missionaries tacitl, subscribe to the earl,2date model, which, according to
them, gives Amenhote" II as the 9haraoh of the 3/odus. 6his conclusion is
arrived at b, using the acce"ted chronolog, of the rulers of ancient 3g,"t. At
the same time the missionaries also subscribe to the Mnew chronolog,M of
ancient 3g,"t as "ut forth b, David Rohl.0<B1 6he reason for their acce"tance
of the Mnew chronolog,M is Guite sim"le 2 giving historical credence to the
events mentioned in the 8ible. Rohl attem"ted to "roduce a revision of the
acce"ted chronolog, of ancient 3g,"t that would ma.e "ossible the
s,nchroni4ation of events found in 3g,"tian te/ts with those in the 8ible. In
doing so, he ma.es a drastic revision of the acce"ted ancient 3g,"tian
chronolog,.
igure -# 6he Mnew chronolog,M :left column; as "ro"osed b, David Rohl and
the biblical chronolog, :right column;.0<D1
Rohl uncriticall, acce"ts the chronolog, of the 3/odus mentioned in the
?ebrew 8ible even though there e/ists serious contradictions. 6herefore, not
sur"risingl,, according to him, the 3/odus ha""ened c. -**$ 8!3 0igure -1.
In effect, RohlIs attem"t ma, be considered as a subset to the earl,2date
model. Eith his Mnew chronolog,M the ruler during the event of the 3/odus
was not Amenhote" II as tacitl, subscribed to b, the missionaries, but
Dudimose from the -<th D,nast, of the Second Intermediate 9eriod. 6he
"recise dates of the reign of Dudimose in the acce"ted chronolog, of ancient
3g,"t are uncertain.0<$1 ?owever, according to RohlIs Mnew chronolog,M,
Dudimose lived around c. -*B& 8!3. 3ven more startling is the case of the
widel,2acce"ted identification of MShishaG :or IShisha.I;, .ing of 3g,"tM :I
Nings -*#%B, II !hronicles -%#%2J; with the 3g,"tian ruler ShoshenG I of the
%%nd D,nast, in the 6hird Intermediate 9eriod. Rohl argues instead that
ShishaG should be identified with Ramesses II,0<'1 which would move the
date of Ramesses IIIs reign forward b, almost <&& ,earsQ
E?A6 A85)6 6?3 AR!?A35(5GI!A( 37ID3C!3P
As "reviousl, mentioned, the archaeological evidence adduced b, both
grou"s is "receded b, certain te/ts in the 5ld 6estament. Ceither grou" can
function in a vacuum and must adduce the biblical evidence first which directs
one to the relevant time "eriod from which one can begin to assess the
archaeological evidence. 6his is not something unusual and is the
methodolog, utilised in this article for identif,ing the 9haraoh according to the
HurIanic data. or an in2de"th discussion of the strengths and wea.nesses of
the archaeological assessments made b, both grou"s 2 in "articular b, those
who still believe the 5ld 6estament to be the ins"ired, infallible and inerrant
word of God S as well as those to"ics covered above, one can consult the
following recent flurr, of discussion.0<J1 In short, whether one ascribes to the
earl, or late2date model, certain assum"tions are em"lo,ed and certain
details are overloo.ed in order to arrive at the dating. In either case the
doctrines of biblical ins"iration, infallibilit, and inerranc, become confusing
and ineffectual as numbers mean other different numbers and "lace names
mean other different "lace names. Although certain assum"tions must be
formed in absence of information su""lied, inter"reting the HurIan does not
reGuire one to de"end u"on Meditorial u"datingM, Mins"ired te/tual u"datingM,
assigning different numerical values to m,sterious numbers or deciding
between which t,"e of manuscri"ts and translations to rel, u"on to calculate
those numbers.
Cotwithstanding the e/istence of dubious data in the 5ld 6estament, the
!hristian missionaries su"erciliousl, claimed that the 9haraoh de"icted in the
HurIan was MA 9haraoh Eho orgot to Die in 6imeM. 6he missionaries,
however, did not realise that the law of unintended conseGuences would
result in their own "erceived Schadenfreude encom"assing them. As it turns
out, the contradictor, data in the ?ebrew 8ible ma.es their "referred dating
of the 3/odus c. -**B 8!3 intrinsicall, defective. )sing the missionaries own
language, one ma, characterise the 9haraoh of the 8ible as not onl, Ma
9haraoh who failed to a""ear on timeM but also Ma 9haraoh who forgot to
a""ear at the right "laceM.
<. 6he HurIan And 6he 9haraoh During 6he 6ime 5f Moses
(i.e the 8ible, the HurIan does not mention the name of the 9haraoh during
the time of Moses. ?owever, it does "rovide sufficient clues to wor. out which
9haraoh it could be. In the sub2sections below, we will anal,se various clues
offered b, the HurIan to identif, the ruler of 3g,"t. At the outset, we would
li.e to sa, that our a""roach involves starting from a broader "ers"ective,
ultimatel, narrowing down the name of the ruler. After that we will use the
su""orting evidence from the HurIan itself to strengthen our case. It will be
seen that the evidence from the HurIan hardl, reGuires an, su""ort from the
8ible to inter"ret the data. In fact, much of the HurIanic information can be
inter"reted from the eg,"tological data to arrive at a firm conclusion.
6?3 S366ICG 5 6?3 S65RU# 9?ARA5? 2 6?3 R)(3R 5 3GU96
6he .ings of ancient 3g,"t during the time of Abraham 0Genesis -%#-&2%&1,
+ose"h 0Genesis *-1 and Moses 0e.g., 3/odus %#-B1 are constantl, addressed
with the title M9haraohM in the 8ible. 6he HurIan, however, differs from the
8ible# the sovereign of 3g,"t who was a contem"orar, of +ose"h is named
MNingM :Arabic, mali.;@ whereas the 8ible has named him M9haraohM. As for
the .ing who ruled during the time of Moses, the HurIan re"eatedl, calls him
M9haraohM :Arabic, fir awn;. Ehat do modern linguistic studies and
3g,"tolog, reveal about the word M9haraohM and its use in ancient 3g,"tP
6he famous 8ritish 3g,"tologist Sir Alan Gardiner discusses the term
M9haraohM and cites the earliest e/am"le of its a""lication to the .ing, during
the reign of Ameno"his I7 :c. -<B< 2 -<<D 8!3; as recorded in the Nahun
9a",rus. Regarding the term 9haraoh, Gardiner sa,s#
igure %# Sir Alan GardinerIs discussion on the word M9haraohM.0*&1
Gardiner also cites two "ossible earlier e/am"les under 6uthmosis III :-*$J 2
-*%B 8!3; and 6uthmosis I7 :-*&& 2 -<J& 8!3; :as mentioned in his
footnote -& above;, while ?a,es has "ublished an ostracon from the =oint
reign of ?atshe"sut :-*$J2-*B' 8!3; and 6uthmosis III that twice refers to
the latter sim"l, as M9haraohM. 6herefore, the setting of the HurIanic stor, of
Moses is from the time when rulers of ancient 3g,"t were addressed as
9haraohs, i.e., from the -'th D,nast, of the Cew Ningdom 9eriod :c. -B<J 2
-&$$ 8!3; onwards until the 6hird Intermediate 9eriod :c. -&$D 2 $*D 8!3;.
After the 6hird Intermediate 9eriod, 3g,"t was ruled b, wea. %Bth and %Dth
D,nasties and later b, the 9ersians and then the Romans. 6hese "eriods will
not be ta.en into consideration for our stud,. So, we have narrowed almost c.
<&&& ,ears of ancient 3g,"tian histor, to a s"ecific timescale, i.e., Cew
Ningdom 9eriod :c. -B<J 2 -&$$ 8!3; and the 6hird Intermediate 9eriod :c.
-&$D 2 $*D 8!3; which is c. $J& ,ears, for the setting of the HurIanic stor, of
Moses.
8efore we go an, further, a valid Guestion to as. is how can we trust the
chronolog, of the Cew Ningdom 9eriod :c. -B<J 2 -&$$ 8!3; of ancient
3g,"t mentioned hereP Recentl,, Ramse, et al. "resented a com"rehensive
and so"histicated radiocarbon dating stud, on the chronolog, of ancient
3g,"t, involving %-- sam"les.0*-1 6he short2lived "lant sam"les for -*!
dating were selected from individual funerar, conte/ts in various museum
collections. 3ach sam"le could be associated with the reign of a "articular
ruler or with a s"ecific section of the historical chronolog,. More s"ecificall,,
the Cew Ningdom dating, based on -%' -*! dates, had an average
calendrical "recision of %* ,ears. Modelling of the date with JBV confidence
suggests the beginning of the Cew Ningdom 9eriod with the -'th D,nast,
between -B$& 8!3 and -B*& 8!3.0*%1 Giving and ta.ing a few ,ears, the
Cew Ningdom chronolog,, suggested b, eg,"tologists, is now validated
scientificall, using -*! dating.
6?3 9?ARA5? E?5 R3IGC3D (5CG
Cow that we have identified the s"ecific timescale for the stor, of Moses, let
us .now loo. into the ne/t and "erha"s the most im"ortant of all clues. )nli.e
the 8ible, the HurIan s"ea.s about onl, one 9haraoh who ruled 3g,"t before
the birth of Moses until the 3/odus and his :i.e., 9haraohIs; death. 6he
evidence for this comes from the HurIan %'#$2J and HurIan %D#-'2%%.
So Ee sent this ins"iration to the mother of Moses# MSuc.le :th, child;, but
when thou hast fears about him, cast him into the river, but fear not nor
grieve# for Ee shall restore him to thee, and Ee shall ma.e him one of 5ur
messengers.M 6hen the "eo"le of 9haraoh "ic.ed him u" :from the river;# :It
was intended; that :Moses; should be to them an adversar, and a cause of
sorrow# for 9haraoh and ?aman and :all; their hosts were men of sin. 6he
wife of 9haraoh said# M:?ere is; =o, of the e,e, for me and for thee# sla, him
not. It ma, be that he will be use to us, or we ma, ado"t him as a son.M And
the, "erceived not :what the, were doing;Q 0HurIan %'#$2J1
?ere God is narrating the event after the birth of Moses and how he was cast
in the river onl, to be "ic.ed u" b, "eo"le of the 9haraoh. 9art of the
dialogue between Moses after his return from Midian and 9haraoh, as cited in
the HurIan %D#-'2%%, ma.es it "erfectl, clear that this 9haraoh is the same
9haraoh who too. custod, of Moses in his infanc,.
:9haraoh; said# MDid we not cherish thee as a child among us, and didst thou
not sta, in our midst man, ,ears of th, lifeP MAnd thou didst a deed of thine
which :thou .nowest; thou didst, and thou art an ungrateful :wretch;QM Moses
said# MI did it then, when I was in error. MSo I fled from ,ou :all; when I feared
,ou@ but m, (ord has :since; invested me with =udgment :and wisdom; and
a""ointed me as one of the messengers. MAnd this is the favour with which
thou dost re"roach me,2 that thou hast enslaved the !hildren of IsraelQM
0HurIan %D#-'2%%1
?ere 9haraoh reminds Moses of the time that he s"ent as a child in his
household and the event when he .illed a man 0HurIan %'#<<1 that led to his
flight to Midian. 6he answer of Moses to 9haraohIs argument is a clear
confirmation that this 9haraoh is the same one in whose "alace he was
brought u". urthermore, Moses re=ected 9haraohIs claim that he had done
him a favour b, letting him live in his household. ?e reminded 9haraoh that
the reason wh, he ended u" in 9haraohIs household was because the latter
had enslaved the !hildren of Israel, which included the "rohibition of the
!hildren of Israel leaving 3g,"t and .illing of their new born males. In
essence, the same 9haraoh who enslaved the !hildren of Israel was in
"ower when Moses went bac. to 3g,"t.
Nee"ing in mind that Moses was born when 9haraoh was alread, in "ower
and that the latter died in his "ursuit of Moses and the !hildren of Israel, the
length of 9haraohIs reign can be estimated b, adding together the following#
6he number of ,ears that 9haraoh reigned before Moses was born@
6he age of Moses when he left for Midian@
6he number of ,ears he sta,ed in Midian@ and
6he length of Moses second so=ourn in 3g,"t after returning from Midian.
irstl,, the HurIan does not state in which ,ear of rule of 9haraoh that Moses
was born. 6his means that we can onl, wor. out the minimum length of the
reign of the monarch. Secondl,, the age of Moses when he left for Midian can
be drawn from the commentaries of the HurIan %'#-*.
Ehen he reached full age 0balagha ashuddah1, and was firml, established :in
life; 0istawW1, Ee bestowed on him wisdom and .nowledge# for thus do Ee
reward those who do good. 0HurIan %'#-*1
6he HurIanic "hrase balagha ashuddah in the above verse has given rise to
differences in inter"retation of what e/act age is meant b, it. urthermore,
this "hrase is con=oined with the word istawW meaning settled or firml,
established. 6his suggests that the "hrase balagha ashuddah wa istawW
refers to a stage of Moses life in which he attained his full "h,sical as well as
s"iritualF"s,chological strength. 6he commentators inter"ret this as
bestowing of 9ro"hethood on Moses and the corres"onding age of *& ,ears
:See the commentaries such as 6afsXr al26abarX, 6afsXr al2HurtubX, 6afsXr al2
+alal,n, Al2NashshWf of al2Oama.hsharX, etc.;.
6hirdl,, after .illing of one of the 3g,"tians, Moses immediatel, fled to Midian
after learning that the officials in 3g,"t were "lanning to sla, him. ?owever,
what is not clear is the time that ela"sed between the conferment of wisdom
and .nowledge on Moses and his .illing of the 3g,"tian.
Ehen he reached full age, and was firml, established :in life;, Ee bestowed
on him wisdom and .nowledge# for thus do Ee reward those who do good.
And he entered the cit, at a time when its "eo"le were not watching# and he
found there two men fighting,2 one of his own religion, and the other, of his
foes. Cow the man of his own religion a""ealed to him against his foe, and
Moses struc. him with his fist and made an end of him. ?e said# M6his is a
wor. of 3vil :Satan;# for he is an enem, that manifestl, misleadsQM ?e "ra,ed#
M5 m, (ordQ I have indeed wronged m, soulQ Do 6hou then forgive meQM So
:Allah; forgave him# for ?e is the 5ft2orgiving, Most Merciful. ?e said# M5 m,
(ordQ or that 6hou hast bestowed 6h, Grace on me, never shall I be a hel"
to those who sinQM So he saw the morning in the cit,, loo.ing about, in a state
of fear, when behold, the man who had, the da, before, sought his hel" called
aloud for his hel" :again;. Moses said to him# M6hou art trul,, it is clear, a
Guarrelsome fellowQM 6hen, when he decided to la, hold of the man who was
an enem, to both of them, that man said# M5 MosesQ Is it th, intention to sla,
me as thou slewest a man ,esterda,P 6h, intention is none other than to
become a "owerful violent man in the land, and not to be one who sets things
rightQM And there came a man, running, from the furthest end of the !it,. ?e
said# M5 MosesQ the !hiefs are ta.ing counsel together about thee, to sla,
thee# so get thee awa,, for I do give thee sincere advice.M ?e therefore got
awa, therefrom, loo.ing about, in a state of fear. ?e "ra,ed M5 m, (ordQ save
me from "eo"le given to wrong2doing.M 6hen, when he turned his face
towards :the land of; Mad,an, he said# MI do ho"e that m, (ord will show me
the smooth and straight 9ath.M 0HurIan %'#-*2%%1
6he events surrounding the conferment of wisdom and .nowledge on Moses
and his .illing of the 3g,"tian in the HurIan are mentioned successivel,
suggesting that the, were "erha"s se"arated b, a shorter "eriod of time. As it
stands, this "eriod of time is an un.nown. In Midian, Moses offered to hel"
two girls to water their floc.s. 6he father of the girls agreed to marr, one of
them to Moses under the condition that he serves him for ' ,ears and
voluntaril, for % more ,ears to ma.e it -& ,ears as stated in HurIan %'#%B2%J.
Afterwards one of the :damsels; came :bac.; to him, wal.ing bashfull,. She
said# MM, father invites thee that he ma, reward thee for having watered :our
floc.s; for us.M So when he came to him and narrated the stor,, he said# Mear
thou not# :well; hast thou esca"ed from un=ust "eo"le.M Said one of the
:damsels;# M5 m, :dear; fatherQ engage him on wages# trul, the best of men
for thee to em"lo, is the :man; who is strong and trust,M ?e said# MI intend to
wed one of these m, daughters to thee, on condition that thou serve me for
eight ,ears@ but if thou com"lete ten ,ears, it will be :grace; from thee. 8ut I
intend not to "lace thee under a difficult,# thou wilt find me, indeed, if Allah
wills, one of the righteous.M ?e said# M8e that :the agreement; between me
and thee# whichever of the two terms I fulfill, let there be no ill2will to me. 8e
Allah a witness to what we sa,.M Cow when Moses had fulfilled the term, and
was travelling with his famil,, he "erceived a fire in the direction of Mount 6ur.
?e said to his famil,# M6arr, ,e@ I "erceive a fire@ I ho"e to bring ,ou from
there some information, or a burning firebrand, that ,e ma, warm
,ourselves.M 0HurIan %'#%B2%J1
It is not clear from the above verses if Moses fulfilled ' or -& ,ears in Midian.
In an, case, we can ta.e a minimum of '2-& ,ears as MosesI sta, in Midian.
ourthl,, there is no mention of an e/"licit length of Moses second so=ourn in
3g,"t after returning from Midian. Conetheless, there are number of verses in
the HurIan which can hel" to give us an idea of the length of time of Moses
second so=ourn in 3g,"t.
Said the chiefs of 9haraohIs "eo"le# MEilt thou leave Moses and his "eo"le,
to s"read mischief in the land, and to abandon thee and th, godsPM ?e said#
M6heir male children will we sla,@ :onl,; their females will we save alive@ and
we have over them :"ower; irresistible.M Said Moses to his "eo"le# M9ra, for
hel" from Allah, and :wait; in "atience and constanc,# for the earth is AllahIs,
to give as a heritage to such of ?is servants as ?e "leaseth@ and the end is
:best; for the righteous. 6he, said# MEe have had :nothing but; trouble, both
before and after thou camest to us.M ?e said# MIt ma, be that ,our (ord will
destro, ,our enem, and ma.e ,ou inheritors in the earth@ that so ?e ma, tr,
,ou b, ,our deeds.M Ee "unished the "eo"le of 9haraoh with ,ears :of
droughts; and shortness of cro"s@ that the, might receive admonition. 8ut
when good :times; came, the, said, M6his is due to us@M Ehen gri""ed b,
calamit,, the, ascribed it to evil omens connected with Moses and those with
himQ 8eholdQ in truth the omens of evil are theirs in AllahIs sight, but most of
them do not understandQ 6he, said :to Moses;# MEhatever be the Signs thou
bringest, to wor. therewith th, sorcer, on us, we shall never believe in thee.
So Ee sent :"lagues; on them# Eholesale death, (ocusts, (ice, rogs, And
8lood# Signs o"enl, self2e/"lained# but the, were stee"ed in arrogance,2 a
"eo"le given to sin. 3ver, time the "enalt, fell on them, the, said# M5 MosesQ
on ,our behalf call on th, (ord in virtue of his "romise to thee# If thou wilt
remove the "enalt, from us, we shall trul, believe in thee, and we shall send
awa, the !hildren of Israel with thee.M 8ut ever, time Ee removed the
"enalt, from them according to a fi/ed term which the, had to fulfil,2 8eholdQ
the, bro.e their wordQ So Ee e/acted retribution from them# Ee drowned
them in the sea, because the, re=ected 5ur Signs and failed to ta.e warning
from them. And Ee made a "eo"le, considered wea. :and of no account;,
inheritors of lands in both east and west, 2 lands whereon Ee sent down 5ur
blessings. 6he fair "romise of th, (ord was fulfilled for the !hildren of Israel,
because the, had "atience and constanc,, and Ee levelled to the ground the
great wor.s and fine buildings which 9haraoh and his "eo"le erected :with
such "ride;. 0HurIan $#-%$2-<$1
Several "ieces of information can be obtained from the above verses which
suggest that Moses sta,ed in 3g,"t for a considerable "eriod of time,
measured in ,ears. irstl,, the reference to the affliction of ,ears of droughts
and shortage of cro"s 0HurIan $#-<-1 and then a "eriod of good time. 6hus
the "eo"le of 9haraoh had changing s"ells of bad and good fortune so that
the, might receive admonition. Instead the, blamed Moses and his "eo"le for
their calamities and claimed the good times were due to them. Secondl,,
"lagues 0HurIan $#-<<1 themselves must have e/tended over a certain "eriod
of time. 6hirdl,, a catastro"he li.e a flood or swarm of locusts leaves effects,
including indirect effects, that last for several months at least.0*<1
:a;
:b;
igure <# :a; 6he timeline of the Cew Ningdom 9eriod in ancient 3g,"t and
:b; the reign of rulers therein.0**1
(et us now reca"itulate the time "eriod of the reign of the 9haraoh during the
time of Moses. 3/clusivel, rel,ing on data found the HurIan and its
commentaries, we have an account of *'2B& ,ears of reign of the 9haraoh.
6his gives the minimum length of the reign of the 9haraoh. Ehat is
unaccounted for is the number of ,ears that the 9haraoh reigned before
Moses was born, the "eriod between the conferment of wisdom and
.nowledge on Moses and his .illing of the 3g,"tian, and the length of Moses
second so=ourn in 3g,"t after returning from Midian. )sing the data in hand,
let us e/amine the length of the reign of the 9haraohs in the Cew Ningdom
and the 6hird Intermediate 9eriods. igures <:a; and <:b; give the timeline of
the Cew Ningdom 9eriod in ancient 3g,"t and the reign of rulers therein,
res"ectivel,. It is observed that the rulers of 3g,"t who had reigned for close
to B& ,ears are 6uthmosis III :YB* ,ears, -*$J2-*%B 8!3; and Ramesses II
:YDD ,ears, -%$J2-%-< 8!3;. In the 6hird Intermediate 9eriod, the rule of
9susennes I :Y*B ,ears, c. -&B-2-&&D 8!3; comes close 0igure *1.
igure *# 6he length of reign of rulers in the 6hird Intermediate 9eriod.0*B1
If we consider the case of 6uthmosis III from the Cew Ningdom 9eriod, we
find that *2$ ,ears are not enough to account for the 9haraohIs reign before
Moses was born, the "eriod between the conferment of wisdom and
.nowledge on Moses and his .illing of the 3g,"tian, and the length of Moses
second so=ourn in 3g,"t after returning from Midian. urthermore, there are
other "roblems associated with this "eriod too. 6uthmosis III was still a ,oung
child when he succeeded to the throne of 3g,"t after the death of his father
6uthmosis II :-*'%2-*'& 8!3;. ?owever, ?atshe"sut :-*$J2-*B' 8!3; was
a""ointed regent due to the bo,Is ,oung age. 6he, ruled =ointl, until -*$<
8!3 when she declared herself a 9haraoh. She is shown dressed in menIs
attire and administered affairs of the nation with the full su""ort of im"ortant
officials. ?atshe"sut disa""eared in -*B' 8!3 when 6uthmosis III, wanting to
reclaim the throne, led a revolt. After 6uthmosis III became the sole ruler, he
had her statues and reliefs mutilated. 6hus the actual reign of 6uthmosis III
was for onl, Y<< ,ears.
It must be added that in the (ate 9eriod :c. $%%2<<% 8!3; com"rising of %Bth
and %Dth D,nasties and later the 9ersians and then the Romans, there
e/isted no ruler who could match the length of reign of Ramesses II. 6he
longest reign during the (ate 9eriod was that of 9samti. I :YB* ,ears, DD*2
D-& 8!3;.0*D1 6his is a ver, late and im"robable date for the 3/odus and the
length of reign suffers from similar "roblems as that with 6uthmosis III :i.e.,
without considering the issue of coregenc, with ?atshe"sut; discussed
earlier. 6hat leaves us onl, with Ramesses II.
As mentioned earlier, Ramesses II ruled for the longest "eriod of time as
com"ared to an, other 9haraoh 2 a total of YDD ,ears. 6o this we can also
add Ramesses IIIs "ro"osed co2regenc, with this father Seti I which lasted
for about - to % ,ears before the former formall, assumed the duties of
rulershi" of 3g,"t after the latterIs death.0*$1 6his would e/tend the reign of
Ramesses II to around D' ,ears. Nitchen and others "refer not to tal. of co2
regenc, but of "rince2regenc, which meant Ramesses II had all the attributes
of .ingshi", including his own harem, e/ce"t his own regnal ,ears.0*'1
Ehatever the case ma, be we can account for *'2B& ,ears of his reign from
the HurIan. Ee are still left with about -'2%& ,ears of Ramesses IIIs reign
before his death, which can be used to account for the 9haraohIs reign
before Moses was born, the "eriod between the conferment of wisdom and
.nowledge on Moses and his .illing of the 3g,"tian, and the length of Moses
second so=ourn in 3g,"t after returning from Midian. 6hus with the available
evidence Ramesses II a""ears to fit well with the statements mentioned in
the HurIan. In order to further strengthen the case that the HurIan indeed
s"ea.s of 9haraoh Ramesses II, let us loo. at the su""orting evidence from
the HurIan and see if it fits the descri"tion of Ramesses II of histor,.
6?3 9?ARA5? AS 6?3 9RIC!I9A( G5D 5 AC!I3C6 3GU96
5ne of the "rinci"al themes which a""ear in the HurIan in the stor, of Moses
is that of 9haraoh claiming himself to be the "rinci"al god. Does Ramesses II
fit the descri"tion of a 9haraoh who claimed to be "rinci"al god of 3g,"tP (et
us investigate.
Ehen Moses calls 9haraoh to worshi" one true God, the call is re=ected.
Instead 9haraoh collects his men and "roclaims that he is their (ord, most
high.
?as the stor, of Moses reached theeP 8ehold, th, (ord did call to him in the
sacred valle, of 6uwa, MGo thou to 9haraoh for he has indeed transgressed
all bounds# And sa, to him, KEouldst thou that thou shouldst be "urified :from
sin;P 2 And that I guide thee to th, (ord, so thou shouldst fear ?imPIM 6hen
did :Moses; show him the Great Sign. 8ut :9haraoh; re=ected it and
disobe,ed :guidance;@ urther, he turned his bac., striving hard :against
God;. 6hen he collected :his men; and made a "roclamation, Sa,ing, MI am
,our (ord, Most ?ighM. 0HurIan $J#-B2%*1
urthermore, when Moses goes to 9haraoh with clear signs, the, are
re=ected as being Mfa.eM. 9haraoh then addresses his chiefs b, sa,ing that he
.nows of no god for them e/ce"t him.
9haraoh said# M5 !hiefsQ no god do I .now for ,ou but m,self... 0HurIan
%'#<'1
6he last statement comes in connection with the victor, of 9ro"het Moses.
Since the setting of the stor, of Moses and 9haraoh in the HurIan is in the
Cew Ningdom 9eriod, it is worthwhile mentioning one of the characteristics in
this "eriod was deification of the 9haraohs and how it started to become the
norm.
8, the earl, Cew Ningdom, deification of the living .ing had become an
established "ractice, and the living .ing could himself be worshi""ed and
su""licated for aid as a god.0*J1
During the time of Ramesses II, the deification of the 9haraoh reached its
"ea. as evidenced in numerous cult statues as well as su""orting
hierogl,"hs and "a",ri.0B&1 6he hierogl,"hs give good information about the
him. (et us consider three hierogl,"hs from the time of Ramesses II :who had
"renomen )sermaatre2sete"enre and nomen Ramesses mer,amun;.
Stela no. *-& of ?ildesheim Museum shows two "eo"le, one is standing
wearing the double crown with the uraeus, a short s.irt, a nec.lace and holds
the so2called hand.erchief or seal in one hand 0igure B:a;1. ?e is called#
MNing of )""er and (ower 3g,"t, the (ord of the 6wo (ands KRamesses2
mer,amun, the GodLM.0B-1
:a;
:b;
:c;
igure B# Stela no. :a; *-&, :b; -&$J of the ?ildesheim Museum. :c; 6hese
have an im"ortant inscri"tion sa,ing MRamesses2mer,amun, the godM. 6his
inscri"tion is mar.ed inside a red bo/ in both the stelas :a; and :b;.0B%1
5n stela no. -&$J of ?ildesheim Museum a man is de"icted wearing a long
garment tied at the waist, offering two flowers with his right hand. In front of
him is a table laden with various .inds of offerings, and two stands with a
vase between them 0igure B:b;1. 5""osite him are two statues, each
wearing a short .ilt, an artificial beard and the crown of )""er 3g,"t, with
uraeus in front. Above these two statues and before them are the words#
M(ord of the two (ands K)sermaatre2set"enreL Monthu2in2the26wo2(andsM and
M(ord of the diadems KRamesses2mer,amunL, the GodM.0B<1
igure D# A relief in the Great 6em"le of Abu Simbel showing Ramesses II
venerating Ramesses II.0B*1
5ur last e/am"le of the divine .ingshi" in ancient 3g,"t comes from the
Great 6em"le at Abu Simbel 0igure D1. An interesting relief in the Great
6em"le of Abu Simbel shows the M(ord of 6wo (ands K)sermare2set"enreLM :R
Ramesses II; offering to MRamesses2mer,amunM :R Ramesses II;. 5bviousl,,
Ramesses II is worshi""ing Ramesses II here. ?owever, we also note that
the worshi""er and the one who is worshi""ed have two different names and
that these names are "ronomen and nomen of Ramesses II, res"ectivel,. A
closer loo. at the iconogra"h, reveals that the worshi""er and he who is
worshi""ed are not identical. ?e, to whom the offering is made, is adorned
with a sun2dis. and has a curved horn around his ear, de"icting his divinit,.
6herefore, Ramesses II is not sim"l, worshi""ing himself, but his divine self.
0BB1 !oncerning the 9haraoh, the HurIan also mentions that he e/alted
himself in the land and that he was e/travagant.
8ut none believed in Musa e/ce"t the offs"ring of his "eo"le, on account of
the fear of 9haraoh and their chiefs, lest he should "ersecute them@ and most
surel, 9haraoh was loft, in the land 0Arabic# fir awn la2 Wlin fi2al2ardh1@ and
most surel, he was of the e/travagant 0Arabic# innahu lamin al2musrifXn1.
0HurIan -&#'<1
Ee have alread, seen how Ramesses II e/alted himself as the "rinci"al god
of 3g,"t. Ehat are the other wa,s he could have e/alted himselfP 6he
answer to this Guestion comes from 9a",rus Anastasi II dated to the time of
Merne"tah, successor of Ramesses II.0BD1 9a",rus Anastasi II begins b,
M9raise of the Delta ResidenceM of the Ramesside .ings. 6he te/tual content
of this section is similar to that of 9a",rus Anastasi I7, :D,-2D,-&;. Ehat is
interesting in this "a",rus is the mention of e/alted "osition of Ramesses II.
:-,-; 8eginning of the Recital of the 7ictories of the (ord of 3g,"t. ?is
Ma=est, :l.".h; has built himself a castle whose name is Great2of27ictories.
:-,%; It lies between D=ah, and 6o2meri, and is full of food and victuals. It is
after the fashion of 5n of )""er 3g,"t, and its duration is li.e :-,<; that of ?e2
Na29tah. 6he sun arises in its hori4on and sets within it. 3ver,one has
foresa.en his :-,*; :own; town and settled in its neighbourhood. Its western
"art is the ?ouse of Amun, its southern "art the ?ouse of Seth. Astarte is
:-,B; in its (evant, and 3d=o in its northern "art. :-,D; Ramesse2miamum :l.h;
is in it as god, Mont2in2the26wo2(ands as herald, Sun2of2Rulers as vi4ier, +o,2
of23g,"t :%,-; 8eloved2of2Atum as ma,or. 6he countr, has gone to its "ro"er
"lace.0B$1
?ere we see Ramesses II in e/alting himself in four different as"ects, vi4., as
god, herald, vi4ier and ma,or. 6his is as if to show that he was ever,thing to
the ca"ital, and commanded ever,thing.
igure $# 9ortra,al of Ramesses II as the living god at the Great 6em"le of
Abu Simbel.
?ow was Ramesses II e/travagantP 6he Arabic word musrifXn is derived from
the root sarafa which means Mto e/ceed all bounds, be immoderate, be
e/travagant...@ to waste, sGuander, dissi"ate, s"end lavishl,M.0B'1 In order to
"romote himself as the living god, Ramesses II built colossal monuments
throughout 3g,"t, which he furnished with numerous large2scale images of
himself. 9erha"s the best e/am"le of his e/travagant wa,s to "romote his
divinit, comes from the Great 6em"le at Abu Simbel where Ramesses II is
de"icted as god, and the deit, Re2?ora.ht, is "ortra,ed on a diminutive scale
in the centre of the .ingIs four colossal statues 0igure $1. It is here, the cult of
the living god was "racticed.0BJ1 6hus, Ramesses II a""ears to fit the
HurIanic descri"tion of the 9haraoh who e/alted himself and was e/travagant
in his wa,s to de"ict himself as a divinit,. 6he issue of Ramesses II building
colossal structures brings us to another im"ortant statement made in the
HurIan concerning the 9haraoh 2 he is called the 9haraoh of the awtWd or
(ord of the sta.es.
9?ARA5? 2 (5RD 5 6?3 AE6ZD
6he HurIan "rovides another ver, uniGue and interesting descri"tion of the
9haraoh which can be shown to be "articularl, a""licable to Ramesses II.
6his is the HurIanic reference to 9haraoh in a cou"le of verses as dhul2awtWd
:Mof the awtWdM or usuall, translated as M(ord of the sta.esM;. 6he relevant
verses are#
5r have the, the dominion of the heavens and the earth and all betweenP If
so, let them mount u" with the ro"es and means :to reach that end;Q 8ut
there 2 will be "ut to flight even a host of confederates. 8efore them :were
man, who; re=ected messengers,2 the "eo"le of Coah, and KAd, and 9haraoh,
the (ord of Sta.es, and 6hamud, and the "eo"le of (ut, and the !om"anions
of the Eood@ 2 such were the !onfederates. 0HurIan <'#-&2-<1
Seest thou not how th, (ord dealt with the KAd :"eo"le;,2 5f the :cit, of; Iram,
with loft, "illars, the li.e of which were not "roduced in :all; the landP And
with the 6hamud :"eo"le;, who cut out :huge; roc.s in the valle,P 2 And with
9haraoh, lord of sta.esP :All; these transgressed be,ond bounds in the
lands, and hea"ed therein mischief :on mischief;. 6herefore did th, (ord "our
on them a scourge of diverse chastisements. 0HurIan 'J#D2-<1
6he commentators of the HurIan have "ut forth different views for the
meaning of the HurIanic descri"tion of the 9haraoh as dhul2awtWd :Mof the
awtWdM;, as the word awtWd, "lural of watad, has different meanings. 6he
o"inion which attracted most agreement is that the 9haraoh used the sta.es
to torture and crucif, his o""onents, es"eciall, those who abandoned him
and converted to the religion of Moses. 9erha"s the widest "ossible
inter"retation of HurIan <'#-% comes from al2HurtubX. ?e sa,s in his
commentar, of HurIan <'#-%#

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... He described Pharaoh as (the lord) of the stakes. This statement received
various interpretations. Ibn Abb s said: It means the lord of the secure
building. Al!"ah"h"k said: He o#ned man$ buildings% buildings are called
a#td. Also according to Ibn Abbs as #ell as &atdah and At" _: He o#ned
stakes and ropes and pla$grounds #here he #as entertained. According to
al!"ah"h"k also (it means): the one #ho has strength and strong hand. Al
'alb( and )u*til said: He used to torture people #ith the stakes. +hen he
got angr$ #ith someone, he #ould la$ him do#n on the ground and fasten
him to four stakes. Then he #ould release scorpions and snakes onto him
until he died. It #as also said: he #ould stretch the tortured bet#een four
pillars, each of his limbs #ould be nailed to that pillar #ith an iron stake and
he #ould be left to die. It #as also said: the lord of the stakes means the lord
of man$ soldiers #here the soldiers #ere called stakes because the$ uphold
his command like the stakes uphold the house. Ibn &uta$bah said: The Arabs
sa$, -their po#er has got stable stakes-, meaning that it is strong and
permanent.
The meaning #hich #e are concerned #ith here is the description of the
Pharaoh being -of the buildings-. The &ur.an.s choice of this phrase could not
have been more accurate. This is #hat distinguishes /amesses II from all
other Pharaohs. /amesses II #as involved in more building pro0ects than an$
other Pharaoh throughout the histor$ of ancient 1g$pt. 2ommenting on
/amesses II.s incredible obsession #ith building, 'itchen notes that:
He desired to #ork not merel$ on the grand scale #itness the /amesseum,
3u4or, Abu 5imbel, and the no# vanished splendours of Pi/amesse but on
the #idest possible front as the $ears passed.... 6ut certainl$ in his building
#orks for the gods the entire length of 1g$pt and 7ubia, /amesses II
surpassed not onl$ the 1ighteenth !$nast$ but ever$ other period in 1g$ptian
histor$. In that realm, he certainl$ fulfilled the d$nast$.s aim for satiet$.89:;
5imilarl$, 2la$ton ackno#ledges /amesses II as a preeminent builder
among the Pharaohs of ancient 1g$pt and states that his greatest feat #as
the building of t#o temples at Abu 5imbel, especiall$ the <reat Temple.
As a monument builder /amesses II stands preeminent amongst the
pharaohs of 1g$pt. Although 'hufu had created the <reat P$ramid,
/amesses. hand la$ over the #hole land. True, he thought nothing of adding
his name to other kings. monuments and statues right back to the )iddle
'ingdom, so that no#ada$s the ma0orit$ of cartouches seen on almost an$
monument proclaim his throne name =sermaatre (.the 0ustice of /e is
strong.). >et his genuine building achievements are on a Herculean scale. He
added to the great temples at 'arnak and 3u4or, completed his father 5eti.s
mortuar$ temple at <ourna (Thebes) and also his Ab$dos temple, and built
his o#n temple nearb$ at Ab$dos. ?n the #est bank at Thebes he
constructed a giant mortuar$ temple, the /amesseum. Inscriptions in the
sandstone *uarries at <ebel el5ilsila record at least @::: #orkmen
emplo$ed there cutting the stone for the /amesseum alone. ?ther ma0or
mortuar$ temples rose in 7ubia at 6eit el+ali, <erf Hussein, +adi es 5ebua,
!err and even as far south as 7apata.
/amesses. greatest building feat must be counted not one of these, but the
carving out of the mountainside of the t#o temples at Abu 5imbel in 7ubia.
The grandeur of the larger, the <reat Temple, is over#helming, fronted as it is
b$ four colossal 9:ft (ABm) high seated figures of the king that flanked the
entrance in t#o pairs. It is strange to reflect that #hilst the smaller temple,
dedicated to Hathor and /amesses. favourite *ueen 7efertari, has lain open
for centuries, the <reat Temple #as onl$ discovered in ABA@ b$ the 5#iss
e4plorer Cean 3ouis 6urckhardt and first entered b$ <iovanni 6elDoni on A
August ABAE. A miracle of ancient engineering, its orientation #as so e4act
that the rising sun at the e*uino4 on FF Gebruar$ and FF ?ctober flooded
directl$ through the great entrance to illuminate three of the four gods carved
seated in the sanctuar$ over F:: ft (9: m) inside the mountain (the fourth of
the seated gods, Ptah, does not become illuminated as, appropriatel$, he is a
god associated #ith the under#orld).89A;
It is also #orth noting that the phrase -Pharaoh, 3ord of the a#td- is
mentioned along #ith Iram #hich had loft$ pillars, most likel$ cut from rocks,
and people of Thamud #ho built houses in the mountains. This suggests that
Pharaoh /amesses II also did something similar, i.e., built structures out of
rocks. Indeed /amesses II built t#o temples at Abu 5imbel in 7ubia #hich
#ere cut in the living rock of the mountainside 8Gigure B;. ?ne is called the
<reat Temple, a huge building #ith four colossal statues of seated figures of
/amesses II, about F: meters high, flanking its entrance. The other is the
5mall Temple dedicated to Hathor and 7efertari, about one hundred meters
northeast of the <reat Temple of /amesses II and #as dedicated to the
goddess Hathor and /amesses II.s chief consort, 7efertari. These temples
are considered to be /amesses II greatest building achievements. 5ince
/amesses II #anted to eternaliDe himself, he also ordered changes to the
methods used b$ his masons. =nlike the shallo# reliefs of previous Pharaohs
#hich could easil$ be transformed, #ith their images and #ords easil$
erased, /amesses II had had his carvings deepl$ engraved in stone, #hich
made them less susceptible to alterations.
Gigure B: The <reat Temple (left) and the 5mall Temple (right) at Abu 5imbel.
To understand the importance of the t#o temples at Abu 5imbel, it is
#orth#hile adding that the =7152? made an international appeal bet#een
AH9: and AHB: to save the monuments in 7ubia #hen the$ #ere threatened
b$ submergence as a result of the As#an High !am. The response to the
appeal came fast and the international communit$ contributed mone$ and
effort to relocate the historic sites. To create a #orld#ide a#areness for
saving the 7ubian monuments, a philatelic campaign featuring the temples at
Abu 5imbel, /amesses II and his *ueen 7efertari #as launched in #hich
numerous countries participated 8Gigure H;.89F; The operation, inter alia,
included dismantling Abu 5imbel Temple, and moving it to another area to be
reassembled once again. Abu 5imbel Temple #as completel$ dismantled to
A:@9 pieces, each #ith average of E to @: tons, as the$ #ere rebuilt on the
top of the mountain overlooking the genuine spots, dra#n b$ the ancient
1g$ptians @,::: $ears ago. It is not surprising that the operation of saving the
7ubian monuments #as described as the greatest in the histor$ of saving
monuments.
Gigure H: A philatelic melange sho#ing the campaign to create #orld#ide
a#areness to save the anti*uities of 7ubia. /amesses II and his temples at
Abu 5imbel #ere prominentl$ featured on the stamps in man$ countries.
5ome stamps also sho# his *ueen 7efertari. In the above figure, the are
stamps from (from top ro#, left to right) 1g$pt (=A/), 5omalia, )onaco, the
Iatican, Ira*, 7igeria, <hana, /epublic of 2entral Africa, &atar, Pakistan and
Argentina. ?ther countries such as )orocco, 2Jte d.Ivoire (Ivor$ 2oast),
<uatemala, <abon, )aladive Islands, /epublic of <uinea among others also
issued stamps.89@;
Apart from the <reat Temple at Abu 5imbel, the cit$ of Pr/amesses founded
b$ /amesses II must stand out as one of the most ambitious construction
efforts the #orld has ever kno#n. Previousl$ Pr/amesses had been
variousl$ placed at Tell er/etabeh, Pelusium, Tanis and Tehel in 3o#er
1g$pt.89K; Ho#ever, archaeological e4cavations b$ the 1g$ptian scholars
3abib Habachi and )ahmoud HamDa identified modern da$ cit$ 'hatana
&antir as the prime candidate 8Gigure A:;.89L; 5ubse*uentl$ due to the 0oint
cooperation of the 1g$ptian Anti*uities ?rganisation, the Austrian mission
headed b$ )anfred 6ietak of the universit$ of Iienna and the <erman
mission headed b$ 1dgar Pusch of the PeliDaeus )useum, modern
archaeological investigations also converge on the cit$ of &antirMTell el
!abNa899; #hich is in agreement #ith the descriptions of Pr/amesses
gathered from the literar$ evidence and other primar$ and secondar$ sources
from that period.
Gigure A:: 3ocation of Pithom and Pi/amesses in the 7ile delta region.
=phill noted the follo#ing nine ke$ features of Pr/amesses from said
sources including: a cit$ containing monuments naming Pr/amesses, a
central position for ro$al residence and governance, access route to Asia for
the armies, suitabl$ large area for correspondingl$ large population, suitable
for the core functions of the Arm$ such as head*uarters etc., monuments of
/amesses II, relevant deities present, scale of site and monuments ade*uate
and containing a river port.89E; In the timeline of the ancient near east, the
construction of Pr/amesses is certainl$ unprecedented as =phill informs us,
Per /amesses #as probabl$ the vastest and most costl$ ro$al residence ever
erected b$ the hand of man. As can no# be seen its kno#n palace and
official centre covered an area of at least four s*uare miles, and its temples
#ere in scale #ith this, a colossal assemblage forming perhaps the largest
collection of chapels built in the preclassical #orld b$ a single ruler at one
time.89B;
+ith the use of a caesium magnetometer, the first geoph$sical
measurements of Pr/amesses took place in AHH9.89H; =sing the data
gathered from the recent magnetometer inspections, the latest pro0ections
have sho#n the cit$ centreMro$al residence comprised at least A: s*uare
kms, around @.L s*uare kms more than had been previousl$ estimated. It is
hoped that continued magnetic investigation #ill eventuall$ lead to a map of
Pr/amesses covering at a minimum the cit$ centreMro$al residence.8E:; +ith
all the focus on the cit$ centreMro$al residence, one should also not forget to
consider the large suburban Done, #hich, #hen factored into the calculations,
sho#s the ancient cit$ of Pr/amesses comprised at least @: s*uare kms.
8EA; 5ometimes numbers alone do not conve$ the sheer scale of the
construction. If #e consider the area of Pr/amesses in comparison to other
celebrated cities in the ancient near east such as the famous ancient
)esopotamian cities of 'horsabad, 7imrud, 7ineveh and 6ab$lon, the area
bounded b$ Pr/amesses easil$ eclipses them all.8EF; 2ommenting on such
a gigantic feat of human engineering =phill further remarks,
The uni*ue feature about Per /amesses is that it is the onl$ cit$ of imperial
siDe in the ancient near east, rivalling Heliopolis, )emphis and Thebes in
splendour, kno#n to have been entirel$ planned, built and full$ completed
under one 'ing.8E@;
Pr/amesses, #hich once had magnificent splendour, no# lies in ruins. )ost
likel$, the destruction of this magnificent cit$ is alluded to in the &ur.an E:A@E
and <od kno#s best:
And +e made a people, considered #eak (and of no account), inheritors of
lands in both east and #est, lands #hereon +e sent do#n ?ur blessings.
The fair promise of th$ 3ord #as fulfilled for the 2hildren of Israel , because
the$ had patience and constanc$, and +e levelled to the ground the great
#orks and fine buildings #hich Pharaoh and his people erected (#ith such
pride) 8m kna $as"na u fir a#na #a *a#humO #a m knO $a rishOn;.
8&ur.an E:A@E;
<od sa$s that He levelled to the ground the great #orks and fine buildings
#hich Pharaoh and his people erected. It is interesting this verse is tied to the
period of #eakness of the 2hildren of Israel #hich the$ endured #ith patience
and steadfastness% the time #hen the$ #ere under Pharaoh, toiling for him.
Grom the discussion, it is undoubtedl$ clear that /amesses II fits the
description of the Pharaoh of the a#td.
PTHI5 !A> 5HA33 +1 5AI1 >?= I7 TH1 6?!>, THAT >?= )A>15T 61 A
5I<7 T? TH?51 +H? 2?)1 AGT1/ >?=...Q
+e took the 2hildren of Israel across the sea: Pharaoh and his hosts
follo#ed them in insolence and spite. At length, #hen over#helmed #ith the
flood, he said: -I believe that there is no god e4cept Him +hom the 2hildren
of Israel believe in: I am of those #ho submit (to Allah in Islam).- (It #as said
to him): -Ah no#R 6ut a little #hile before, #ast thou in rebellionR and thou
didst mischief (and violence)R -This da$ shall +e save thee in the bod$, that
thou ma$est be a sign to those #ho come after theeR but veril$, man$ among
mankind are heedless of ?ur 5ignsR- 8&ur.an A::H:HF;
The &ur.an and the 6ible 814odus AK:FA@: and 14odus AL:AHFA; state that
the Pharaoh #as dro#ned in the sea. Ho#ever, the &ur.an differs from the
6ible and it makes a ver$ uni*ue statement that the bod$ of the dro#ned
Pharaoh #as saved as a sign for future generations. The &ur.anic statement
about rescuing Pharaoh.s bod$ #ould be in total agreement #ith the fact that
the bod$ of /amesses II has survived in a mummified form. It #as discovered
in ABBA among a group of ro$al mummies that had been removed from their
original tombs for fear of theft. Priests of the FAst !$nast$ had reburied them
in a cache at !eir al6ahari on 3u4or.s #est bank.8EK; The mumm$ of
/amesses II formed one of the cache and its resting place #as Tomb 'IE in
the Ialle$ of 'ings. 7othing #hatsoever #as kno#n at the time of the
revelation of the &ur.an about the mumm$ of /amesses II.
A fe# #ords also need to be said about the preservation of the mumm$ of
/amesses II 8Gigure AA;. In AHEK, 1g$ptologists at the 1g$ptian )useum,
2airo, noticed that the mumm$.s condition #as #orsening rapidl$. The$
decided to fl$ /ameses II to Paris so that a team of e4perts could give the
mumm$ a medical e4amination. ?n 5eptember F9, AHE9, a Grench Air Gorce
plane touched do#n at 3e 6ourget airport 0ust outside Paris carr$ing the
mummified bod$. /amesses II ma$ have been dead for more than @,:::
$ears but his mummified bod$ #as #elcomed #ith a ceremon$ fit for an$
living head of state.
(a)
(b)
Gigure AA: )umm$ of /amesses II sho#ing (a) top and (b) side vie#s.
The idea of bringing the mumm$ of /amesses II to Paris for an e4haustive
scientific investigation #as the brainchild of !r. )aurice 6ucaille. The pro0ect
#as codirected b$ 2hristiane !esroche7oblecourt, curator of 1g$ptian
Anti*uities at the )usSe du 3ouvre, and Professor 3ionel 6alout, !irector of
the )usSe de l.Homme.8EL; ?ne of goals of the pro0ect #as to stud$ the
remains of the Pharaoh.s mumm$ for evidence that #ould complement that
from other archaeological and #ritten sources. Ho#ever, the main mission
#as to rescue the mumm$ from ph$sical deterioration caused b$ fungus,
bacteria and insects.8E9; !uring the e4amination, scientific anal$sis revealed
battle #ounds and old fractures, as #ell as other medical conditions. Grom
the 4ra$ anal$sis, it #as concluded that /amesses II #as suffering from
atherosclerosis and an 4ra$ of his pelvis sho#ed calcification of both femoral
arteries.8EE; In the last decades of his life, /amesses II #as apparentl$
crippled #ith arthritis and #alked #ith a hunched back.8EB; It #as suggested
that /amesses II suffered from ank$losing spond$litis, no# part of
rheumatologic folklore.8EH; All these led 6ucaille to infer that /amesses II
could have not pla$ed an$ role in the 14odus as he #as crippled.8B:; He
claimed, using the biblical data (14odus F:F@), that his son )erenptah #as
the Pharaoh involved in the 14odus after /amesses II.s death. Ho#ever, a
recent stud$ using better 4ra$ imaging and unpublished radiographs has
concluded that the diagnosis of ank$losing spond$litis as reported in the
literature is unsupported. The authors prefer a diagnosis of diffuse idiopathic
skeletal h$perostosis8BA; (or !I5H) #hich is corroborated b$ the
archaeological and historical studies about the ph$sical attributes and
e4ploits of /amesses II.8BF; Thus, the possibilit$ cannot be re0ected out of
hand that /amesses II #as the Pharaoh #ho perished in the sea #hile
chasing the 2hildren of Israel.8B@; Ho#ever, it must be emphasiDed that the
process of mummification itself convolutes the information of actual cause of
death. Therefore, the cause of death of /amesses II can.t be verified from his
mumm$.
<od refers in the &ur.an to man$ peoples #hom He had punished, for
e4ample, of TAd and Thamud (&ur.an FH:@B, FE:LALF), and #hom He made
signs for later generations. Ho#ever, #ith the sole e4ception of Pharaoh, <od
never stated that He #ould save the bodies of those people and make their
bodies signs for future generations. In the case of Pharaoh.s bod$ being
saved for future generations, this is a statement #hich is not 0ust confined to
the people of 1g$pt or to those #ho lived at that time, but to all people #ho
came after him. The mumm$ of /amesses II is available even toda$ for
people from ever$#here to see at the 1g$ptian )useum in 2airo.
)?/1 1<>PTIA7 )I52133A7I15 G/?) TH1 &=/.A7
There are other details too #hich the &ur.an mentions about the Pharaoh.
Ho#ever, the identification of these using the ancient 1g$ptian histor$
remains elusive or incomplete. Gor e4ample, the &ur.an sa$s that the
Pharaoh had companions called Haman and &arun. The name Haman #as
alleged to be a historical contradiction in the &ur.an because the 6ible places
it in the stor$ of 1sther. 7ot#ithstanding the fla#ed logic of using a fictitious
book to find a historical character, it #as noted that Haman ma$ be simpl$ an
ArabiDed version of the ancient 1g$ptian amana. The ancient 1g$ptian deit$
NI)7 (or amana) #as used in the title for a High Priest as #ell as an architect.
It #ould be akin to the king #ho ruled during the time of )oses being called
fir a#n #hich is the ArabiDed form of the ancient 1g$ptian #ord PperaaQ, the
title used to refer to the king of 1g$pt from the 7e# 'ingdom Period on#ards.
5hould our proposed identification of /amesses II be correct, a historical
investigation has sho#n that 6akenkhons, the High Priest of Amun during
/amesses II reign, can be considered a good candidate for Haman
mentioned in the &ur.an.
Another interesting detail #hich the &ur.an mentions is the da$ of encounter
bet#een )oses and the magicians.
-6ut #e can surel$ produce magic to match thineR 5o make a tr$st bet#een
us and thee, #hich #e shall not fail to keep neither #e nor thou in a place
#here both shall have even chances.- )oses said: ->our tr$st is the !a$ of
the Gestival 8$aum alD(na;, and let the people be assembled #hen the sun is
#ell up.- 8&ur.an F::LBLH;
The da$ of the encounter in the &ur.an is called $aum alD(na. U(na means a
thing #ith #hich or b$ #hich one is adorned, ornamented, decorated, etc.8BK;
5o, the phrase $aum alD(na can mean a da$ #hen people are dressed up
smartl$, or the cit$ is adorned or perhaps both. It could even mean a da$ of
pompous celebration or more precisel$ a da$ of festival.8BL; 2ould it refer to
the Heb5ed (or simpl$ 5ed) festivalV The Heb5ed Gestival,8B9; also called a
0ubilee, #as usuall$ celebrated @: $ears after a king.s rule and thereafter,
ever$ three $ears. /amesses II celebrated a record AA or AF of these after his
Heb5ed festival in $ear @:. It #as to rene# the potenc$ of the Pharaoh and
to assure a long reign in the afterlife. ?ne of the most important aspects of
this festival is that it #as probabl$ #itnessed b$ ordinar$ citiDens onl$ ver$
rarel$.
K. 2onclusions
Those 2hristian scholars #ho date the 14odus can be broadl$ divided into
t#o groups: one #hich believes that the 6ible should be the sole basis of
dating and the other group #hich uses ancient near eastern archaeolog$.
6oth these groups emplo$ certain assumptions and overlook certain details in
order to reach their conclusions. As #e have observed, proving the efficac$ of
the statements contained in the ?ld Testament is problematic. The biblical
account is inherentl$ contradictor$ as the information provided simultaneousl$
points to#ards divergent time periods and thus divergent Pharaohs. The
2hristian scholars, #hom the missionaries and apologists depend upon, rush
to e4plain a#a$ these contradictions b$ making ingenious reinterpretations of
the te4t and using concepts such as -editorial updating- and its corollar$
-inspired te4tual updating-. Gor e4ample, the number KB: does not actuall$
stand for KB: and the place name /amesses does not actuall$ stand for the
place name /amesses. !oes it reall$ matterV /ealising the$ have no other
choice, the missionaries and apologists have long since approved -editorial
updating- and its occurrence throughout the 6ible. ?ne such missionar$
casuall$ states, -In the final an$lsis, I do not mind if the placeMperson names
#ere updated in 5criptures- W #hich begs the *uestion #hat other te4ts the
missionaries and apologists -do not mind- being updatedV It should be clear
b$ no# that such approval is integrated #ithin a fle4ible creedal s$stem of
beliefs #here one can believe in an undelineated 6ible that contains errors
and still maintain ones right to -salvation-. 2onse*uentl$, the doctrines of
biblical inspiration, infallibilit$ and inerranc$ become confusing and ineffectual
as numbers mean other different numbers and place names mean other
different place names.
Although certain assumptions must be formed in absence of information
supplied, interpreting the &ur.an does not re*uire one to depend upon
-editorial updating-, -inspired te4tual updating-X assigning different numerical
values to m$sterious numbers or deciding bet#een #hich t$pe of manuscripts
and translations to rel$ upon to calculate those numbers. The &ur.an does
not mention the name of the Pharaoh #ho un0ustl$ oppressed )oses and the
2hildren of Israel. +hen combined, the information provided b$ the &ur.an
and the ancient 1g$ptian sources including the archaeological and
documentar$ evidence, there are a sufficient number of clues that point
to#ards the 7e# 'ingdom period in general and to the Pharaoh /amesses II
in particular #ho reigned for about 99 $ears from AFEHWAFA@ 621. Although
the scientific e4amination of /amesses II.s mumm$ is inconclusive regarding
the precise nature of his death, he did not, as #as previousl$ thought, have a
debilitating rheumatic condition that #ould have ph$sicall$ prevented him
from engaging )oses and the 2hildren of Israel in the final stages of his life.
In conclusion, the &ur.anic presentation of the Pharaoh of the 14odus is
internall$ consistent and fits #ell #ith the e4tant eg$ptological data. This is
also in line #ith the earlier studies b$ Hamidullah8BE; and Gatoohi et al.8BB;
#ho have arrived at similar conclusions, albeit using less e4haustive and
sometimes shak$ evidence, that the Pharaoh #ho ruled 1g$pt before the
birth of )oses until the 14odus and his (i.e., Pharaoh.s) death #as /amesses
II.
And Allah kno#s bestR
6ookmark and 5hare
/eferences Y 7otes
8A; ). !ZaDAndreu, A +orld Histor$ ?f 7ineteenth2entur$ Archaeolog$:
7ationalism, 2olonialism, And The Past, F::E, ?4ford =niversit$ Press Inc.,
7e# >ork, pp. A@AA@K. It #ould come as a surprise to man$ that even a
scientific discipline such as archaeolog$ had to find its place amongst
contemporar$ political events in 0u4taposition #ith #estern imperial and
nationalistic ideologies current in the nineteenth centur$. Hence, in the #ords
of !ZaDAndreu, -... archaeolog$ is not a valuefree and neutral social
science as previousl$ presumed.- 8ibid., p. K;. 5een b$ man$ as the
archaeolog$ of the 3evant #ith a (evangelical) 6iblical bias, it is of course an
entirel$ different discussion if such a discipline named biblical archaeolog$ is
even appropriate. Gor some topical vie#s see P. /. 5. )oore$, A 2entur$ ?f
6iblical Archaeolog$, AHHA, The 3utter#orth Press: 2ambridge (=')% ). 2.
)oreland (1d.), 6et#een Te4t And Artifact: Integrating Archaeolog$ In 6iblical
5tudies Teaching, F::@, 5ociet$ ?f 6iblical 3iterature: Atlanta% T. +. !avis,
5hifting 5ands: The /ise And Gall ?f 6iblical Archaeolog$, F::K, ?4ford
=niversit$ Press Inc.: 7e# >ork% C. '. Hoffmeier Y A. )illard (1ds.), The
Guture ?f 6iblical Archaeolog$: /eassessing )ethodologies And
Assumptions, F::K, The Proceedings ?f A 5$mposium August AFAK, F::A
At Trinit$ International =niversit$, +m. 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2o.: <rand
/apids ()I) Y 2ambridge (=').
8F; ). !ZaDAndreu, A +orld Histor$ ?f 7ineteenth2entur$ Archaeolog$:
7ationalism, 2olonialism, And The Past, F::E, op. cit., p. A@E.
8@; '. 'itchen, -Ancient 7ear 1astern 5tudies: 1g$pt-, in C. +. /ogerson Y C.
). 3ieu (1ds.), The ?4ford Handbook ?f 6iblical 5tudies, F::9, ?4ford
=niversit$ Press Inc., 7e# >ork, pp. BHH:.
8K; The 5ociet$ W Histor$ ?f The 5ociet$ (The 6eginnings), The 1g$pt
14ploration 5ociet$ (?fficial +ebsite), available online (accessed AKth
7ovember F::B).
8L; 1g$pt 14ploration Gund, /eport ?f Gourth Annual <eneral )eeting And
6alance 5heet, ABBLB9, TrZbner Y 2o.: 3ondon Y C. +. Arro#smith: 6ristol,
p. K.
89; 1. 7aville, The 5tore2it$ ?f Pithom And The /oute ?f The 14odus, ABBL,
1g$pt 14ploration Gund 14cavation )emoirs W Iolume I, )essrs TrZbner Y
2o.: 3ondon, p. vii.
8E; Gor a ver$ recent e4ample see C. '. Hoffmeier, -)a0or <eographical
Issues In The Accounts ?f The 14odus-, in !. I. 6lock (1d.), Israel: Ancient
'ingdom ?r 3ate InventionV, F::B, 6YH Publishing <roup: 7ashville (T7) pp.
HEAFH.
8B; Gor some e4amples see '. A. 'itchen, ?n The /eliabilit$ ?f The ?ld
Testament, F::@, +m. 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2o.: <rand /apids ()I)% C. '.
Hoffmeier, Israel In 1g$pt: The 1vidence Gor The Authenticit$ ?f The 14odus
Tradition, AHHH, ?4ford =niversit$ Press: ?4ford (=')% 2. C. Humphre$s, The
)iracles ?f 14odus: A 5cientist.s !iscover$ ?f The 14traordinar$ 7atural
2auses ?f The 6iblical 5tories, F::@, 2ontinuum: 3ondon.
8H; These are the t#o most accepted models although presentl$ a fe# others
do e4ist. Gor e4ample see <. A. /endsburg, -The !ate ?f The 14odus And
The 2on*uestM5ettlement: The 2ase Gor The AA::s-, Ietus Testamentum,
AHHF, Iolume [3II, 7o. K, pp. LA:LFE.
8A:; 6. ). )etDger Y /. 1. )urph$ (1ds.), The 7e# ?4ford Annotated 6ible
+ith The Apocr$phal M !euterocanonical 6ooks, AHHA, ?4ford =niversit$
Press, Inc., p. K@F (I 'ings 9:A). 7. 6. The 7/5I translation has been used
to allo# better comparison #ith the 5eptuagint translation cited belo# #hich
uses the 7/5I translation modif$ing the 1nglish as necessar$ according to
the <reek. The same verse in the 7II reads:
In the four hundred and eightieth $ear after the Israelites had come out of
1g$pt, in the fourth $ear of 5olomon.s reign over Israel, in the month of Uiv,
the second month, he began to build the temple of the 3?/!.
8AA; '. A. 'itchen, -Ho# +e 'no# +hen 5olomon /uled-, 6iblical
Archaeological /evie#, F::A, Iolume FE (5eptemberM?ctober), 7o. L, pp.
@F@E, p. LB.
8AF; 5ee, for e4ample, +. H. 5hea , -14odus, !ate ?f The - in <. +. 6romile$
(<en. 1d.), The International 5tandard 6ible 1nc$clopedia, AHBF (Gull$
/evised, Illustrated), Iolume II, +illiam 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2ompan$:
<rand /apids ()I), pp. F@:F@B% <. 3. Archer Cr., 7e# International
1nc$clopedia ?f 6ible !ifficulties, AHBF, Uondervan: <rand /apids ()I), pp.
AALAA9% <. 3. Archer, A 5urve$ ?f ?ld Testament Introduction, AHHK, )ood$
Press: 2hicago, pp. F@HFLF% A. 1. Hill Y C. H. +alton, A 5urve$ ?f The ?ld
Testament, F:::, Uondervan: <rand /apids ()I), p. BK. Hill and +alton
-assumes- the historical validit$ of the biblical numbers #hile recogniDing the
-slipper$- nature of the evidence gathered b$ earl$ and latedate models
from the selective appeal to e4trabiblical and archaeological data. Also see
their e4cellent summar$ of both models on pp. BLB9% 7. 3. <eisler Y /. ).
6rooks, +hen 5keptics Ask, F::A, 6aker 6ooks: <rand /apids ()I), pp. AEA
AE@ and pp. ABBAH9% 7. 3. <eisler, 6aker 1nc$clopedia ?f 2hristian
Apologetics, F::F, 6aker 6ooks: <rand /apids ()I), pp. LBBLHA% 7. <eisler
Y T. Ho#e, +hen 2ritics Ask: A Popular Handbook ?n 6ible !ifficulties, F::K
(Eth Printing), 6aker 6ooks: <rand /apids ()I), pp. 9E9B% G. 7. Cones,
2hronolog$ ?f The ?ld Testament, F::L, )aster 6ooks, pp. KHL@.
8A@; A good refutation of those #ho take the position that there e4ists -the
biblical- date of the 14odus #as made b$ C. '. Hoffmeier, -/ameses ?f The
14odus 7arratives Is The A@th 2entur$ 6.2. /o$al /amesside /esidence-,
Trinit$ Cournal, F::E, Iolume FB (75), 7o. F, pp. FBAFBF.
8AK; P. !. )c3ean Y 6. A. Ta$lor (Trans.), -@ /eigns-, in A. Pitersma Y 6. <.
+right (1ds.), A 7e# 1nglish Translation ?f The 5eptuagint And The ?ther
<reek Translations Traditionall$ Included =nder That Title, F::E, ?4ford
=niversit$ Press: 7e# >ork, p. @:@ (@ /eigns 9:A).
8AL; G. 2. Gensham, -Cudges, 6ook ?f-, in <. +. 6romile$ (1d.), The
International 5tandard 6ible 1nc$clopedia, AHBF, Iolume T#o: 1C, Gull$
/evised, +m. 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2o.: <rand /apids ()I), p. AALB.
8A9; C. '. Hoffmeier, -+hat Is The 6iblical !ate Gor The 14odusV A /esponse
To 6r$ant +ood-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::E,
Iolume L:, 7o. F, pp. FFEFFB.
8AE; 5ee for e4ample, A. 1. 5teinmann, -The )$sterious 7umbers ?f The
6ook ?f Cudges-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::L,
Iolume KB, 7o. @, pp. KHAL::.
8AB; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The
!$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient
1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F::9, Handbook ?f ?riental 5tudies 5ection A, The
7ear And )iddle 1ast Iolume B@, 6rill: 3eiden Y 6oston, p. KHF.
8AH; C. !. Ha$s, -/econsidering The Height ?f <oliath-, Cournal ?f The
1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::L, Iolume KB, 7o. K, pp. E:AEAK.
8F:; !. +. Parr$, -PHo# )an$ IesselsQV An 14amination ?f )T A 5am F:AK M
K&5ama A 5am F:A9-, in P. +. Glint, 1. Tov Y C. 2. Iander'am (1ds.),
5tudies In The Hebre# 6ible, &umran, And The 5eptuagint Presented To
1ugene =lrich, F::9, 'oninkli0ke 6rill 7I, 3eiden: The 7etherlands, pp. BK
HL. These verses have $et to make an appearance in the #hole host of
volumes devoted to P6ible difficultiesQ.
8FA; 6. ). )etDger Y /. 1. )urph$ (1ds.), The 7e# ?4ford Annotated 6ible
+ith The Apocr$phal M !euterocanonical 6ooks, AHHA, op. cit., p. E: (14odus
A:AA). The same verse in the 7II reads:
5o the$ put slave masters over them to oppress them #ith forced labor, and
the$ built Pithom and /ameses as store cities for Pharaoh.
8FF; <. 3. Archer, -An 1ighteenth !$nast$ /ameses-, Cournal ?f The
1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, AHEK, Iolume AE, 7o. A, pp. KHL:.
8F@; 5ee A. H. <ardiner, -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal
?f 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHAB, Iolume L, 7o. F, pp. AFEA@B (Parts I Y II)%
idem., -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f 1g$ptian
Archaeolog$, AHAB, Iolume L, 7o. @, pp. AEHF:: (Part III)% idem., -The !elta
/esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHAB,
Iolume L, 7o. K, pp. FKFFEA (Parts II, I Y II).
8FK; A. H. <ardiner, -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f
1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHAB, op. cit., p. F99 (Parts II, I Y II). The impact of
this *uotation has not gone unnoticed. /ecentl$ utilised b$ Professor
Hoffmeier of Trinit$ 1vangelical !ivinit$ 5chool, he has cut off the first part of
the first sentence of the *uotation and capitalised TthereN as if it #ere the
beginning of <ardiner.s sentence. He has also left out the last t#o #ords of
the final sentence retaining the full stop. Additionall$, he has mistakenl$ cited
<ardiner.s *uote as coming from Part II #hen it is in fact from Part I. 5ee C.
'. Hoffmeier, -/ameses ?f The 14odus 7arratives Is The A@th 2entur$ 6.2.
/o$al /amesside /esidence-, Trinit$ Cournal, F::E, op. cit., pp. FBEFBB.
8FL; +. Helck, -Tk# =nd /amses5tadt-, Ietus Testamentum, AH9L, Iolume
AL, pp. @LKB.
8F9; 5ee for e4ample, -)oses- in ?. ?delain and /. 5Sguineau (Trans. ). C.
?.2onnell), !ictionar$ ?f Proper 7ames And Places In The 6ible, AHBA,
/obert Hale 3td.: 3ondon, p. FE:% -)oses-, 1nc$clopaedia Cudaica, AHEA,
Iolume AF, 1nc$clopaedia Cudaica Cerusalem, col. @EA% -)oses-, The
=niversal Ce#ish 1nc$clopedia, AH9H, Iolume B, 'tav Publishing House, Inc.:
7e# >ork, p. K% P. Ale4ander and !. Ale4ander (1ds.), The 3ion Handbook To
The 6ible, AHHH, Third 1dition (/evised Y 14panded), 3ion Publishing Inc.:
?4ford (='), p. AL9% '. A. 'itchen, -)oses- in C. !. !ouglas (?rganiDing
1ditor), 7e# 6ible !ictionar$, AHBF, 5econd 1dition, InterIarsit$ Press:
3eicester (=') and T$ndale House Publishers, Inc.: +heaton (I3), p. EHL%
-)oses- in A. 2. )$ers (1d.), The 1erdmans 6ible !ictionar$, AHBE, +illiam
6. 1erdmans Publishing 2ompan$: <rand /apids ()I), p. E@A% -14odus, The
6ook ?f- in P. C. Achtemeier, Harper.s 6ible !ictionar$, AHBL, Harper Y /o#
Publishers: 5an Grancisco, p. @AE% G. 6. Hue$, Cr., -)oses- in +. A. 1l#ell
(<en. 1d.), 1nc$clopedia ?f The 6ible, AHBB, Iolume II, )arshall Pickering:
3ondon, p. AKH:% /. G. Cohnson, -)oses- in <. A. 6uttrick (1d.), The
Interpreter.s !ictionar$ ?f The 6ible, AH9F (AHH9 Print), Iolume @, Abingdon
Press, 7ashville, p. KKL% C. '. Hoffmeier, -)oses- in <. +. 6romile$ (<en.
1d.), The International 5tandard 6ible 1nc$clopedia, AHB9 (Gull$ /evised,
Illustrated), Iolume III, +illiam 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2ompan$: <rand
/apids ()I), p. KA9. Hoffmeier provides a good overvie# of all possible
datings proposed so far% P. )ontet, 3.Bg$pte 1t 3a 6ible, AHLH, 2ahiers
!.ArchSologie 6ibli*ue 7o. AA, !elachau4 Y 7iestlS 5. A.: 7euch\tel
(5#itDerland), pp. FK@E and pp. A@FA@F for chronological listing of biblical
events% '. A. 'itchen, Ancient ?rient And ?ld Testament, AH99, The T$ndale
Press: 3ondon (='), pp. LE9:% idem., ?n The /eliabilit$ ?f The ?ld
Testament, F::@, op. cit., p. F:E and p. L::% C. '. Hoffmeier, Israel In 1g$pt:
The 1vidence Gor The Authenticit$ ?f The 14odus Tradition, AHHH, op. cit., p.
AF9.
8FE; '. A. 'itchen, ?n The /eliabilit$ ?f The ?ld Testament, F::@, op. cit., pp.
@:E@:B.
8FB; 2. G. Aling, -The 6iblical 2it$ ?f /amses-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical
Theological 5ociet$, AHBF, Iolume FL, 7o. F, pp. AFHA@E, especiall$ pp.
A@9A@E% 6. <. +ood, -The /ise And Gall ?f The A@th2entur$ 14odus
2on*uest Theor$-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::L,
Iolume KB, 7o. @, pp. KEBKEH% idem., -The 6iblical !ate Gor The 14odus Is
AKK9 62: A /esponse To Cames Hoffmeier-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical
Theological 5ociet$, F::E, Iolume L:, 7o. F, pp. FL:FLA.
8FH; ). A. <risanti, -Inspiration, Inerranc$, And The ?T 2anon: The Place ?f
Te4tual =pdating In An Inerrant Iie# ?f 5cripture-, Cournal ?f The
1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::A, Iolume KK, 7o. K, pp. LEELHB.
<risanti gives no indication as to the anti*uit$ of his vie#s. A paper delivered
at the LHth national meeting of the 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$ in F::E
suggests that a basic conception of -Inspired Te4tual =pdating- reaches at
least as far back as Augustine (@LK 21 W K@: 21). 5ee +. !. 6arrick, -P=r ?f
The 2haldeansQ (<en AA:FB@A): A )odel Gor !ealing +ith !ifficult Te4ts-,
F::E, 7ovember AK, 1T5 Annual )eeting, pp. F@.
8@:; P. 5chaff, The 2reeds ?f 2hristendom, +ith A Histor$ And 2ritical 7otes,
ABEE, Gourth 1dition /evised and 1nlarged, The 1vangelical Protestant
2reeds +ith Translations, Iolume III, Harper Y 6rothers: 7e# >ork.
8@A; The Humble Advice ?f The Assembl$ ?f !ivines, 7o# 6$ Authorit$ ?f
Parliament 5itting At +estminster, 2oncerning A 2onfession ?f Gaith,
Presented 6$ Them 3atel$ To 6oth Houses ?f Parliament, A9K9, Printed for
the 2ompan$ of 5tationers.: 3ondon, pp. L9% A !eclaration ?f The Gaith And
?rder ?#ned And Practiced In The 2ongregational 2hurches In 1ngland%
Agreed =pon And 2onsented =nto 6$ Their 1lders And )essengers In Their
)eeting At The 5avo$, ?ctob. AF. A9LB, A9LH, Printed for !. 3. And are to be
sold in Pauls 2hurch >ard, Gleet5treet, and +estminsterHall: 3ondon, pp. F
@% A 2onfession ?f Gaith. Put Gorth 6$ The 1lders And 6rethren ?f )an$
2ongregations ?f 2hristians (6aptiDed =pon Profession ?f Their Gaith) In
3ondon And The 2ountr$, A9EE, Printed for 6en0amin Harris, and are to be
sold at his shop at the 5tationers Arms in 5#eetings /ents, in 2ornhill, near
the /o$al 14change: 3ondon, p. E.
8@F; /. 2. 5proul, 14plaining Inerranc$, AHH9, 3igonier )inistries: ?rlando
(G3), p. L9. 7.6. This book #as previousl$ published in AHB: #ith the title
14plaining Inerranc$: A 2ommentar$, b$ the International 2ouncil on 6iblical
Inerranc$.
8@@; ibid.
8@K; ibid., pp. A:AF.
8@L; !. ). /ohl, A Test ?f Time, AHHL, Iolume I: The 6ible Grom )$th To
Histor$, /andom House =' 3td.: 3ondon.
8@9; ibid., p. @@:.
8@E; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The
!$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient
1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F::9, op. cit., p. KHF% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical
2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in ). 6ietak (1d.), The
5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern )editerranean In The 5econd
)illennium 6.2., F:::, Proceedings ?f An International 5$mposium At 5chlo
6 Haindorf, ALthAEth ?f 7ovember AHH9 And At The Austrian Academ$,
Iienna, AAthAFth ?f )a$ AHHB, 2ontributions To The 2hronolog$ ?f The
1astern )editerranean Iolume I, Qsterreichischen Akademie !er
+issenschaften: +ien, pp. KLK9 Y p. KH. This is a ne# revised version of
'itchen.s article originall$ published in '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical
2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment-, Acta Archaeologica,
AHH9, Iolume 9E, pp. AA@.
8@B; !. ). /ohl, A Test ?f Time, AHHL, Iolume I: The 6ible Grom )$th To
Histor$, op. cit., p. @FE.
8@H; 6. <. +ood, -The /ise And Gall ?f The A@th2entur$ 14odus2on*uest
Theor$-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::L, op. cit., pp.
KELKBH% !. Petrovich, -Amenhotep II And The Historicit$ ?f The 14odus
Pharaoh-, )aster.s 5eminar$ Cournal, F::9, Iolume AE, 7o. A, pp. BAAA:% /.
>oung, -The Talmud.s T#o Cubilees And Their /elevance To The !ate ?f The
14odus-, +estminster Theological Cournal, F::9, Iolume 9B, pp. EAB@% /. I.
IasholD, -?n The !ating ?f The 14odus-, Presb$terion, F::9, Iolume @F,
7o. F, pp. AAAAA@% /. '. Ha#kins, -Propositions Gor 1vangelical Acceptance
?f A 3ate!ate 14odus2on*uest: 6iblical !ata And The /o$al 5carabs Grom
)t. 1bal-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::E, Iolume L:,
7o. A, pp. @AK9% C. '. Hoffmeier, -+hat Is The 6iblical !ate Gor The 14odusV
A /esponse To 6r$ant +ood-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological
5ociet$, F::E, op. cit., pp. FFLFKE% idem., -/ameses ?f The 14odus
7arratives Is The A@th 2entur$ 6.2. /o$al /amesside /esidence-, Trinit$
Cournal, F::E, op. cit., pp. FBAFBH% 6. <. +ood, -The 6iblical !ate Gor The
14odus Is AKK9 62: A /esponse To Cames Hoffmeier-, Cournal ?f The
1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, F::E, op. cit., pp. FKHFLB% /. 2. >oung Y 6.
<. +ood, -A 2ritical Anal$sis ?f The 1vidence Grom /alph Ha#kins Gor A
3ate!ate 14odus2on*uest-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological
5ociet$, F::B, Iolume LA, 7o. F, pp. FFLFKK% /. '. Ha#kins, -The !ate ?f
The 14odus2on*uest Is 5till An ?pen &uestion: A /esponse To /odger
>oung And 6r$ant +ood-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$,
F::B, Iolume LA, 7o. F, pp. FKLF99.
8K:; 5ir A. <ardiner, 1g$ptian <rammar: 6eing An Introduction To The 5tud$
?f Hierogl$phs, AHLE, @rd 1dition (/evised), ?4ford =niversit$ Press:
3ondon, p. EL.
8KA; 2. 6. /amse$, ). +. !ee, C. ). /o#land, T. G. <. Higham, 5. A. Harris,
G. 6rock, A. &uiles, 1. ). +ild, 1. 5. )arcus Y A. C. 5hortland, -/adiocarbon
6ased 2hronolog$ Gor !$nastic 1g$pt-, 5cience, F:A:, Iolume @FB, pp.
ALLKALLE. Also see the comment on this article b$ H. C. 6ruins, -!ating
Pharaonic 1g$pt-, 5cience, F:A:, Iolume @FB, pp. AKBHAKH:.
8KF; 2. 6. /amse$, ). +. !ee, C. ). /o#land, T. G. <. Higham, 5. A. Harris,
G. 6rock, A. &uiles, 1. ). +ild, 1. 5. )arcus Y A. C. 5hortland, -/adiocarbon
6ased 2hronolog$ Gor !$nastic 1g$pt-, 5cience, F:A:, op. cit., p. ALL9.
8K@; Gor the recorded effects of some of these pests in a late anti*ue setting
#ith a bearing on the rise of Islam see !. 2h 5tathakopoulos, Gamine And
Pestilence In The 3ate /oman And 1arl$ 6$Dantine 1mpire: A 5$stematic
5urve$ ?f 5ubsistence 2rises And 1pidemics, F::K, 6irmingham 6$Dantine
And ?ttoman )onographs: Iolume H, Ashgate Publishing 3td: Hampshire.
1ven in our modern advanced technological era hundreds of millions of
dollars are spent on locust control due to the #idespread devastation plagues
of locusts can cause. Ho# much more so the impact thousands of $ears agoR
Gor a rigorous scientific stud$ on modern methods of locust control one can
consult 5. 'rall, /. Peveling Y !. 6a !iallo (1ds.), 7e# 5trategies In 3ocust
2ontrol, AHHE, 6irkh user Ierlag: 6asel (5#itDerland).
8KK; The plots are dra#n using the latest data given in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss
Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The !$nastic Period- in 1.
Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient 1g$ptian 2hronolog$,
F::9, op. cit., pp. KHFKHK. Also see '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical
2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in ). 6ietak (1d.), The
5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern )editerranean In The 5econd
)illennium 6.2., F:::, op. cit., pp. KAKK. The dating here ma$ be slightl$
different but it should not make an$ impact on our argument.
8KL; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The
!$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient
1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F::9, op. cit., pp. KHFKHK% '. A. 'itchen, -The
Historical 2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in ). 6ietak
(1d.), The 5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern )editerranean In
The 5econd )illennium 6.2., F:::, op. cit., pp. @HKA.
8K9; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The
!$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient
1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F::9, op. cit., p. KHK% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical
2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in ). 6ietak (1d.), The
5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern )editerranean In The 5econd
)illennium 6.2., F:::, op. cit., p. L:.
8KE; +. C. )urnane, -The 1arlier /eign ?f /amesses II And His 2oregenc$
+ith 5et$ I-, Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, AHEL, Iolume @K, 7o. @, pp.
AL@AH:% idem., Ancient 1g$ptian 2oregencies, AHEE, 5tudies In Ancient
?riental 2iviliDation 7o. K:, The ?riental Institute: 2hicago (I3), pp. LEBE%
A. 5palinger, -Traces ?f The 1arl$ 2areer ?f /amesses II-, Cournal ?f 7ear
1astern 5tudies, AHEH, Iolume @B, 7o. K, pp. FEAFB9.
8KB; '. A. 'itchen, -/amesses II- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford
1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F::A, Iolume III, ?4ford =niversit$ Press:
?4ford (='), p. AA9.
8KH; !. P. 5ilverman,-!ivinities And !eities In Ancient 1g$pt- in 6. 1. 5hafer
(1d.) /eligion In Ancient 1g$pt: <ods )$ths, And Personal Practice, AHHA,
/outledge: 3ondon, p. 9K.
8L:; Gor an e4haustive discussion please see 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The
!eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, Abhandlungen !es !eutschen
Archa`logischen Instituts 'airo ag$ptische /eihe Iolume L, Ierlag C. C.
Augustin: <lZckstadt% idem., -'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u
5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Bg$pte, AHLK, Iolume LF, pp. KK@LLH, Plates I
[[[III. ?ther important #orks are <. /oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach
!en Hildesheimer !enksteinen Aus Horbet-, Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische
5prache =nd Altertumskunde, AHF9, Iolume 9A, pp. LE9E, Plates II and I%
). HamDa, -14cavations ?f The !epartment ?f Anti*uities At &ant]r (Ga*us
!istrict) (5eason, )a$ FAst Cul$ Eth, AHFB)-, Annales !u 5ervice !es
Anti*uitSs !e 3.Bg$pte, AH@:, Iolume @:, pp. @A9B, Plates III.
8LA; 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit., p.
@F% <. /oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach !en Hildesheimer !enksteinen Aus
Horbet-, Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd Altertumskunde, AHF9, op.
cit., pp. 9F9@% 3. Habachi, -'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u
5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Bg$pte, AHLK, op. cit., pp. L@EL@B.
8LF; Gor (a) see <. /oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach !en Hildesheimer
!enksteinen Aus Horbet-, Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd
Altertumskunde, AHF9, op. cit., Tafel I(@)% 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The
!eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit., p. @A% Gor (b) see <. /oeder,
-/amses II Als <ott: 7ach !en Hildesheimer !enksteinen Aus Horbet-,
Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd Altertumskunde, AHF9, op. cit., Tafel
I(K)% 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit.,
p. @A% Gor (c) see 3. Habachi, -'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u
5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Bg$pte, AHLK, op. cit., p. LL:.
8L@; 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit., p.
@A% <. /oeder, -/amses II Als <ott: 7ach !en Hildesheimer !enksteinen Aus
Horbet-, Ueitschrift GZr ag$ptische 5prache =nd Altertumskunde, AHF9, op.
cit., pp. 9F9@% 3. Habachi, -'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u
5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Bg$pte, AHLK, op. cit., pp. L@HLK:.
8LK; 3. Habachi, Geatures ?f The !eification ?f /amesses II, AH9H, op. cit.,
Plate II(a).
8LL; H. Te Ielde, -2ommemoration In Ancient 1g$pt-, in H. <. 'ippenberg, 3.
P. van den 6osch et al., Iisible /eligion: Annual Gor /eligious Iconograph$,
AHBF, Iolume I 2ommemorative Gigures: Papers Presented To !r. Th. P.
Ian 6aaren ?n The ?ccasion ?f His 5eventieth 6irthda$, )a$ A@, AHBF, 1. C.
6rill: 3eiden, p. A@9.
8L9; A. H. <ardiner, -The !elta /esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f
1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHAB, op. cit. (Part III), p. ABE.
8LE; The inscription #as published in A. H. <ardiner, 3ate1g$ptian
)iscellanies, AH@E, 6ibliotheca Aeg$ptiaca III, Bdition de la Gondation
Bg$ptologi*ue /eine Blisabeth: 6ru4elles, p. AF% Translation #as done b$ /.
A. 2aminos, 3ate1g$ptian )iscellanies, AHLK, 6ro#n 1g$ptological 5tudies
I, ?4ford =niversit$ Press: 3ondon, p. @E% Also see A. H. <ardiner, -The !elta
/esidence ?f The /amessides-, Cournal ?f 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHAB, op.
cit. (Part III), pp. ABEABB.
8LB; C. ). 2o#an (1d.), Hans+ehr !ictionar$ ?f )odern +ritten Arabic,
AHB: (/eprint), 3ibrairie !u 3iban: 6eirut, p. K:B.
8LH; !. P. 5ilverman,-!ivinities And !eities In Ancient 1g$pt- in 6. 1. 5hafer
(1d.) /eligion In Ancient 1g$pt: <ods )$ths, And Personal Practice, AHHA,
op. cit., p. 9F% Also see '. A. 'itchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The 3ife And
Times ?f /amesses II, 'ing ?f 1g$pt, AHBF, )onumenta Hannah 5heen
!edicata II, Aris Y Phillips 3td.: +arminster (1ngland), pp. AEEAEB.
89:; '. A. 'itchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The 3ife And Times ?f /amesses II,
'ing ?f 1g$pt, AHBF, op. cit., p. FFL.
89A; P. A. 2la$ton, 2hronicle ?f The Pharaohs: The /eign6$/eign /ecord
?f The /ulers And !$nasties ?f Ancient 1g$pt, AHHK, Thames and Hudson
3td.: 3ondon (='), pp. AL@ALK.
89F; '. A. 'itchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The 3ife And Times ?f /amesses II,
'ing ?f 1g$pt, AHBF, op. cit., pp. F@KF@L. 14amples of stamps from various
countries featuring temples of Abu 5imbel, /amesses II and his *ueen
7efertari can be seen on p. F@9.
89@; ibid., p. F@9.
89K; 1. P. =phill, -Pithom And /aamses: Their 3ocation And 5ignificance-,
Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, AH9B, Iolume FE, 7umber K, p. FHH.
89L; ). HamDa, -14cavations ?f The !epartment ?f Anti*uities At &ant]r
(Ga*us !istrict) (5eason, )a$ FAst Cul$ Eth, AHFB)-, Annales !u 5ervice
!es Anti*uitSs !e 3.Bg$pte, AH@:, op. cit., pp. @A9B, Plates III% 3. Habachi,
-'hat\Tna&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3.
Bg$pte, AHLK, op. cit., pp. KK@LLH, Plates I[[[III.
899; 1. 6. Pusch Y A. Herold, -&antirMPi/amesses- in '. A. 6ard (1d.),
1nc$clopedia ?f The Archaeolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, AHHH, /outledge, Ta$lor
Y Grancis 6ooks 3td: =', pp. 9KE9KH% 1. 6. Pusch, -Piramesse- in !. 6.
/edford (1d.), The ?4ford 1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F::A, Iolume III,
?4ford =niversit$ Press: ?4ford (='), pp. KBL:.
89E; 1. P. =phill, -Pithom And /aamses: Their 3ocation And 5ignificance-,
Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, AH9H, Iolume FB, 7umber A, p. @E. =phill
records a ver$ useful table allotting points to the above listed cities based on
this concise list of nine attributes re*uired for Pr/amesses as discerned from
the primar$ and secondar$ sources.
89B; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, AHBK, Aris Y Phillips,
+arminster: 1ngland, p. A.
89H; 1. Pusch, -To#ards A )ap ?f Piramesse-, 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, AHHH,
7umber AK, p. A@.
8E:; 1. 6. Pusch, -Piramesse- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford
1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F::A, Iolume III, op. cit., p. L:.
8EA; 1. 6. Pusch Y A. Herold, -&antirMPi/amesses- in '. A. 6ard (1d.),
1nc$clopedia ?f The Archaeolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, AHHH, op. cit., p. 9KE.
8EF; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, AHBK, op. cit., p. FFE. 7.6.
The comparative calculations made b$ =phill #ere based on the
measurements of Pr/amesses available to him at the time. As #e have
observed, modern investigations sho# the cit$ is no# considerabl$ larger
than previousl$ imagined.
Perhaps due to the uncertaint$ surrounding the identification and e4act
measurements, some modern studies still maintain 7ineveh and
subse*uentl$ 6ab$lon #ere the largest cities in the ancient near east. Gor
e4ample see, 2. <ates, Ancient 2ities: The Archaeolog$ ?f =rban 3ife In The
Ancient 7ear 1ast And 1g$pt, <reece, And /ome, F::@, /outledge: ?4ford Y
7e# >ork, p. AEL.
8E@; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, AHBK, op. cit., p. FFB.
8EK; 6. 6rier, 1g$ptian )ummies: =nraveling The 5ecrets ?f An Ancient Art,
AHHK, +illiam )orro# Y 2ompan$ Inc.: 7e# >ork: (=5A), pp. A:EA:B.
8EL; ). 6ucaille (Trans. A. !. Pannell Y ). 6ucaille), )ummies ?f The
Pharaohs: )odern )edical Investigations, AHH:, 5t. )artin.s Press: 7e#
>ork, pp. vii44.
8E9; 5. Pain, -/amesses /ides Again-, 7e# 5cientist, F::K, Issue FKE@ (A@th
7ovember), p. LK.
8EE; -/amses II (/amses The <reat)-, in 6. 6rier, The 1nc$clopedia of
)ummies, F::K, 5utton Publishing 3imited: <loucestershire (='), p. AL@.
8EB; ibid.
8EH; 1. Geldtkeller, 1). 3emmel, A. 5. /ussell, -Ank$losing 5pond$litis In
The Pharaohs ?f Ancient 1g$pt-, /heumatolog$ International, F::@, Iolume
F@, pp. AL.
8B:; ). 6ucaille, )oses And Pharaoh: The Hebre#s In 1g$pt, AHHL, 7TT
)ediascope Inc.: Tok$o (Capan), p. A:.
8BA; A. 2. Aufderheide Y 2. /odr ZgueD)art Zn, The 2ambridge
1nc$clopedia ?f Human Paleopatholog$, AHHB. 2ambridge =niversit$ Press:
=', pp. HEHH (!I5H) Y pp. A:FA:K (Ank$losing 5pond$litis). 6efore a AHBA
stud$ on 6ritish 5a4on and medieval skeletons !I5H and ank$losing
spond$litis #ere not separated 8ibid., p. HB;. Paleopatholog$ is the stud$ of
diseases in the remains of ancient peoples and animals.
8BF; /. '. 2hhem, P. 5chmit, 2. GaurS, -!id /amesses II /eall$ Have
Ank$losing 5pond$litisV A /eappraisal-, 2anadian Association ?f
/adiologists Cournal, F::K, Iolume LL, 7o. K, pp. FAAFAE. Also see A. 5.
/ussell, -Ank$losing 5pond$litis ?r !I5H In Ancient )ummies-, 2anadian
Association ?f /adiologists Cournal, F::K, Iolume LL, 7o. L, p. @@L% /. '.
2hhem, P. 5chmit, 2. GaurS, -Ank$losing 5pond$litis ?r !I5H: /epl$-,
2anadian Association ?f /adiologists Cournal, F::K, Iolume LL, 7o. L, p.
@@L% 5. Pain, -/amesses /ides Again-, 7e# 5cientist, F::K, op. cit., p. LK% C.
1. Adams Y 2. +. Aslop, -Imaging In 1g$ptian )ummies- in !. A. /osalie
(1d.), 1g$ptian )ummies And )odern 5cience, F::B, 2ambridge =niversit$
Press, 7e# >ork, p. @B.
7. 6. Gor the latest facial reconstruction of /amesses II face using a three
dimensional computer model see 2. ). +ilkinson, -The Gacial
/econstruction ?f Ancient 1g$ptians- in !. A. /osalie (1d.), 1g$ptian
)ummies And )odern 5cience, F::B, op. cit., pp. AE:AEA.
8B@; 5ta$ing active and getting regular e4ercise are amongst the best #a$s of
managing the s$mptoms of diffuse idiopathic skeletal h$perostosis (!I5H). A
recent stud$ suggests that the people suffering from !I5H sho# improvement
#ith e4ercise therap$. 5ee the stud$ b$ A. AlHerD, C. 5nip, 6. 2larke, C.
1sdaile, -14ercise Therap$ Gor Patients +ith !iffuse Idiopathic 5keletal
H$perostosis-, 2linical /heumatolog$, F::B, Iolume FE, 7o. F, pp. F:EFA:.
8BK; 1. +. 3ane, An Arabic1nglish 3e4icon, AH9B, Part @, 3ibrairie !u 3iban:
6eirut, AFEHAFB:.
8BL; ibid., p. AFB:.
8B9; Gor detailed discussion of Heb5ed festival see H. Grankfort, 'ingship
And The <ods: A 5tud$ ?f Ancient 7ear 1astern /eligion As The Integration
?f 5ociet$ And 7ature, AHEB, =niversit$ of 2hicago Press: 2hicago (I3), pp.
EHBB.
8BE; ). Hamidullah (Trans. A. /. )omin), -The 7ame ?f The Pharaoh +ho
!ied 6$ !ro#ning-, Islamic And The )odern Age, AHBA (August), pp. ALA
A9:.
8BB; 3. Gatoohi Y 5. Al!argaDelli, Histor$ Testifies To The Infallibilit$ ?f The
&ur.an: 1arl$ Histor$ ?f 2hildren ?f Israel, AHHH, Adam Publishers Y
!istributors: !elhi (India), pp. HKALL.
6ack To /efutation ?f 14ternal 2ontradictions In The &ur.an