Iancu TPH 2005

Alpine polyphase tectono-metamorphic evolution of the South
Carpathians: A new overview

Viorica Iancu
a,
*
, Tudor Berza
a
, Antoneta Seghedi
a
, Ion Gheuca
a
, Horst-Peter Hann
b
a
Geological Institute of Romania, Caransebes Street No 1, Bucharest 32, RO-012271, Romania
b
Geologisches Institut Universitat Tu bingen, Sigwartstr. 10, 72076 Tu bingen, Germany
Received 27 January 2004; received in revised form 20 November 2004; accepted 24 December 2004
Available online 18 October 2005
Abstract
The main terrains involved in the CretaceousTertiary tectonism in the South Carpathians segment of the European Alpine
orogen are the GeticSupragetic and Danubian continental crust fragments separated by the Severin oceanic crust-floored basin.
During the EarlyMiddle Cretaceous times the Danubian microplate acted initially as a foreland unit strongly involved in the
South Carpathians nappe stacking. Multistage folding/thrusting events, uplift/erosion and extensional stages and the development
of associated sedimentary basins characterize the South Carpathians during Cretaceous to Tertiary convergence and collision
events. The main Cretaceous tectogenetic events responsible for contraction and crustal thickening processes in the South
Carpathians are Mid-Cretaceous (bAustrian phaseQ) and Latest Cretaceous (bLaramideQ or bGetic phaseQ) in age. The architecture
of the South Carpathians suggests polyphase tectonic evolution and mountain building and includes from top to bottom: the
GeticSupragetic basement/cover nappes, the Severin and Arjana cover nappes, and Danubian basement/cover nappes, all
tectonically overriding the Moesian Platform. The Severin nappe complex (including Obarsia and Severin nappes) with Late
JurassicEarly Cretaceous ophiolites and turbidites is squeezed between the Danubian and GeticSupragetic basement nappes as
a result of successive thrusting of dismembered units during the inferred Mid- to Late Cretaceous subduction/collision followed
by tectonic inversion processes.
Early Cretaceous thick-skinned tectonics was replaced by thin-skinned tectonics in Late Cretaceous. Thus, the former Middle
Cretaceous bAustrianQ nappe stack and its AlbianLower Senonian cover got incorporated in the intra-Senonian bLaramide/GeticQ
stacking of the GeticSupragetic/Severin/Arjana nappes onto the Danubian nappe duplex. The two contraction events are separated
by an extensional tectonic phase in the upper plate recorded by the intrusion of the bBanatiticQ magmas (8473 Ma). The
overthrusting of the entire South Carpathian Cretaceous nappe stack onto the fold/thrust foredeep units and to the Moesian Platform
took place in the Late Miocene (intra-Sarmatian) times and was followed by extensional events and sedimentary basin formation.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: South Carpathians; Alpine; Nappe structure; Polyphase deformation; Alpine metamorphism
1. Introduction
The main geotectonic units of the Romanian terri-
tory (Fig. 1) are crustal fragments marking the first-
order Eurasian and African plate boundaries sensu
Burchfiel (1980) largely separated, at continental
scale, by the AlpineCarpathianHimalayan collision
orogenic belt (Oxburgh, 1974). At surface, the alloch-
tonous fold-and-thrust belt of the Carpathians is tec-
tonically superposed on their folded foredeep and onto
the East European, Scythian and Moesian platforms of
0040-1951/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.12.038
* Corresponding author. Fax: +40 21 318 13 26.
E-mail address: viancu@igr.ro (V. Iancu).
Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 337365
www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto
the foreland. The western boundary of the Carpathian
orogen is represented by the VardarMuresTransyl-
vanidesSouth Penninic, oceanic crust (Sandulescu,
1984, 1994; Balintoni, 1997; Zaher and Lupu, 1998;
Saccani et al., 2001; Nemcok et al., 1998; Sandulescu
and Visarion, 2000).
The general architecture of the Carpathian orogen
includes the Median, Outer and Marginal Dacides (San-
dulescu, 1984). In the East and South Carpathians, the
Median Dacides encompass vast areas of pre-Mesozoic
metamorphicmagmatic basement complexes and Me-
sozoic sedimentary sequences. The Outer Dacides con-
sist of a thrust sheet complex of Cretaceous turbidites
and ophiolites, while the Marginal Dacides are the most
external units, present only in the South Carpathians
and represented by MesozoicPaleozoic cover se-
quences overlaying Precambrian basement. Alternative
terms include the bTransilvanidesQ for the Vardar
Mures oceanic domain, bGetidesQ for parts of the Me-
dian Dacides, bSeverinidesQ for the Outer Dacides and
bEuxinidesQ for the Danubian crust attached to the
mobile margin of the Euxinic microplate (Balintoni,
1997). As the paleogeographic reconstruction of the
bDanubianQ is not yet established, we suggest using
the term bDanubidesQ for these important allochtonous
units from the bottom of the Latest Cretaceous nappe
pile.
Geological-structural studies of the last decade
yielded spectacular new results, especially concerning
models of the Tertiary evolution of the South Car-
pathians (Ratschbacher et al., 1993; Linzer, 1996;
Matenco, 1997; Ciulavu, 1998; Linzer et al., 1998;
Matenco et al., 1997; Neubauer et al., 1997; Sanders,
1998; Bojar et al., 1998; Schmid et al., 1998; Zweigel et
al., 1998; Moser, 2001; Willingshofer et al., 2001; Ber-
totti et al., 2003; Fu genschuh and Schmid, 2003). In
contrast, the Mesozoic development is still waiting for
more detailed studies and new data (age dating, struc-
tural analysis, paleomagnetic studies) relevant for the
tectono-metamorphic evolution and paleogeographic
reconstruction.
Detailed mapping at the Geological Institute of
Romania between 19752000 has refined the areal
distribution and timing of emplacement of various Al-
pine units of the South Carpathians, displaying succes-
sive phases of nappe emplacement in Middle to Late
Cretaceous (Nastaseanu et al., 1981; Berza et al., 1983;
Iancu, 1986a; Balintoni et al., 1986; Iancu et al., 1990;
Fig. 1. The main lithologic and tectonic units of Romania.
V. Iancu et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 337365 338
Hann and Szasz, 1984; Pop et al., 1997; Balintoni et al.,
1989; Pana, 1990; Berza et al., 1994; Stanoiu, 2000).
The present overview and our synthetic map
sketches are largely based on authors data, including
petrological studies as well as published and unpub-
lished maps at scale 1: 50,000.
General geological data of the South Carpathians are
based on geological maps printed at the Geological
Institute of Romania (in scales of 1: 1,000,000;
1: 200,000 and 1: 50,000) and integrated data from
other studies published in Romanian journals.
The article focuses on the Cretaceous polyphase
tectono-metamorphic evolution of the South Car-
pathians. Our data concern the areal distribution, ge-
ometry and lithostratigraphy of the Alpine nappes as
well as the history of the polystage Alpine evolution of
the South Carpathians, including the timing of nappe
emplacement. All the data suggest that the South Car-
pathians belt has a distinct Alpine tectono-metamorphic
history compared with the East Carpathians (Sandu-
lescu, 1994; Hippolyte et al., 1999), partly explained
by differences in tectonic style and history as well as by
the structure of their foreland, represented by Moesian
Platform (Matenco, 1997; Seghedi, 1998; Cloetingh et
al., 2003).
2. The main lithotectonic assemblages of the South
Carpathians
The South Carpathians consist of a Tertiary sedi-
mentary cover (Fig. 2), Mesozoic sedimentary succes-
sions and related magmatic rocks (Fig. 3) and a
Paleozoic and Proterozoic basement (Fig. 4).
In the hinterland of the South Carpathians (Fig. 2),
the Tertiary strata represent a post-nappe cover and
infill of sedimentary basins at different times and in
different tectonic environments. In peripheral areas of
the South Carpathians, the Tertiary sedimentary cover
is related to large post-Cretaceous basins such as the
Pannonian and Transylvanian basins, or to Neogene
molasse sediments of the foreland units (foredeep
basins and platforms). In the intramontane basins Eo-
cene to Pliocene sedimentary rocks unconformably
overlay different Cretaceous units. The most important
Tertiary basins in the hinterland area are Hateg, Bre-
zoiTitesti, Petrosani, CaransebesMehadia, Bozovici,
Bahna and BaltaBaia de Arama (in: Marinescu and
Popescu, 1978; Marunteanu et al., 1995). Tertiary
faults (reverse, normal, and strike-slip faults) cut
through the entire Cretaceous nappe stack, and Ceno-
zoic post-nappe sediments mask their extent and rela-
Fig. 2. Cenozoic, pre-Pliocene, sedimentary cover of the South Carpathians, after the Geological map of Romania, 1: 1,000,000 scale (Sandulescu et
al., 1978).
tionships, as well as the deep-seated tectonic bound-
aries with the neighboring crustal blocks (Moesian
Platform to ESE and a composite terrane to the
WNW).
2.1. Mesozoic covers and related magmatic rocks
The distribution of the Mesozoic successions is
well known from the geological maps of the South
Carpathians (at scales 1: 1,000,000; 1: 200,000,
1: 50,000) and from papers and guidebooks edited
and published by the Geological Institute of Roma-
nia. The distribution of the Mesozoic rocks is pre-
sented in the simplified map of Fig. 3. The separated
Mesozoic chronostratigraphic intervals correspond to
the main sedimentary cycles (Fig. 5): Triassic; Juras-
sicEarly Cretaceous (including Aptian); Late Creta-
ceous (VraconianLower Senonian); Late Senonian.
In respect to the evolution in time of the Cretaceous
shortening and nappe emplacement, the Mesozoic
strata form pre-Austrian, post-Austrian/pre-bLaramideQ
and post-bLaramideQ cover units. Beside sedimentary
rocks, the latter also includes volcano-sedimentary
successions.
Shallow marine deposits of passive continental mar-
gin-type characterize the Mesozoic covers of the Getic
Supragetic and Danubian basement/cover nappe com-
plexes, while oceanic type sediments, ophiolites and
turbidites are preserved in the Severin nappe complex.
Distinct lithological features indicating different geo-
tectonic environments characterize the GeticSupra-
getic and the Danubian Mesozoic sedimentary
domains (Codarcea, 1940; Nastaseanu et al., 1981;
Raileanu et al., 1961; Grigorescu et al., 1990); Danu-
bian affinities with the Moesian Platform were recog-
nized by Sandulescu (1984), but were contested by
Stefanescu et al. (1978). The number and internal stra-
tigraphy of the cover nappes from the South Car-
pathians are still a strongly debated subject amongst
Romanian geologists.
Late Cretaceous magmatic rocks (Fig. 3) known
in Romania and Serbia as bBanatitesQ are represented
by plutons and volcanic formations intruded/extruded
in/on the GeticSupragetic complexes. Although
dominantly intermediate, they represent a wide
range from basic to acid plutons, with mostly calc-
alkaline geochemistry, but also tholeiitic, shoshonitic,
or even alkaline composition. Their tectonic setting
has to be found in the Late Cretaceous over a larger
area, in the CarpathianBalkanPannonian region
(Berza and Ioane, 2001; Neubauer, 2002; Schuller,
2004).
Fig. 3. Mesozoic sedimentary covers and related magmatites, after the Geological map of Romania, scale 1: 1,000,000 (Sandulescu et al., 1978).
2.1.1. GeticSupragetic Domain
The pre-Austrian, TriassicEarly Cretaceous sedi-
ments are preserved in basins located on the Getic
Supragetic crust (ResitaMoldova Noua and Dimbo-
vicioaraBrasov basins) (Figs. 3 and 5), but thin,
condensed sequences of continental affinities crop
out elsewhere, in the so-called bridgeQ areas (Codar-
cea, 1940; Nastaseanu et al., 1981; Stilla, 1985). In the
ResitaMoldova Noua basin, the main features of the
TriassicEarly Cretaceous sedimentation are presented
in Fig. 5. Continental clastics accumulated in the Tri-
assic while thin, coal bearing continentallacustrine
clastics characterize the Early Jurassic. Thick marly
shallycarbonate sequences accumulated from the Mid-
dle Jurassic through Aptian; AptianAlbian beds direct-
ly overlying basement areas suggest that changing in
sedimentation and paleogeography began with the
Albian; post-Austrian Late Cretaceous (Vraconian to
Early Campanian) strata were unconformably deposited
in new sedimentation areas (e.g., Codarcea and Pop,
1963). In the Late Cretaceous, two sedimentary cycles
can be distinguished: VraconianCampanian and Maas-
trichtian to Paleocene, with sedimentation controlled by
the main thrusting events.
2.1.2. Severin Domain
Remnants of the Severin Domain are preserved in
the Severin nappe complex, entirely composed of Me-
sozoic rock assemblages, including Late Jurassic oce-
anic crust rocks and Early Cretaceous turbidites (Sinaia
Formation). Oceanic plate rocks consist of an ophiolitic
melange with a serpentinitic matrix (Maruntiu, 1983)
and some siliceous pelagic rocks (Azuga Formation)
(Fig. 5). Although pervasively sheared and with the
internal stratigraphy strongly disrupted, the oceanic
plate fragments preserved significant elements of an
ophiolitic suite: ultramafic tectonites, massive noncu-
mulate plutonic rocks (gabbros), massive and pillow
basalt and siliceous pelagic-origin strata, corresponding
to layers 4 to 1 of the oceanic crust (Seghedi and Oaie,
1997). Geochemistry of the mafic, basaltic rocks indi-
cates MORB tholeiites (Cioflica et al., 1980; Maruntiu,
1978; Savu et al., 1991). The associated turbidites
(Sinaia and Comarnic Formations) are Early Cretaceous
Fig. 4. Alpine nappe system of the South Carpathians: cover and basement nappes, cover nappes and post-nappe cover and intrusions.
Fig. 5. Synthetic and simplified columns of the Mesozoic sequences in the South Carpathians. Modified from Nastaseanu et al. (1981).
V
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o
p
h
y
s
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s
4
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2
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3
3
7
3
6
5
3
4
2
in age according to the paleontological evidence
(Codarcea, 1940; Stanoiu, 1978b; Pop et al., 1997).
The rock assemblage was interpreted to indicate the
opening of a Late Jurassic rift on the European plate
margin between the SuprageticGetic and Danubian
crustal fragments (Codarcea, 1940; Burchfiel, 1980;
Sandulescu, 1994).
Sedimentological studies indicate that the Sinaia
Formation represents a prograding, upward coarsening
sequence, consisting of distal turbidites overlain by
thick, sandstone-dominated, mid-fan turbidites; trace-
fossil assemblages suggest that water depths exceeded
800 m in the distal parts of turbiditic fans (Seghedi
and Oaie, 1997). The mineralogy of sandstone beds
from Sinaia and Comarnic formations indicates a
dominant terrigenous source of Getic type metamor-
phic rocks and a secondary source which supplied
largely trachyte clasts (Seghedi and Oaie, 1997;
Seghedi et al., 1998). The sediments might be inter-
preted either as passive margin turbidites, accumulated
both on Getic type basement and on oceanic crust, or
as trench turbidites, deposited from terrigenous
sources from the upper plate through axial transport
in the trench basin.
2.1.3. Danubian Domain
Continental to shallow marine deposits of Middle
Upper Jurassic and Late Cretaceous age (Fig. 5) crop
out in the Arjana sub-Domain (Codarcea, 1940; Nas-
taseanu et al., 1981), now preserved inside of the
Arjana nappe complex (Iancu et al., 1990; Gherasi
and Hann, 1990) (Fig. 3). Associated coeval alkaline
bimodal volcanic suites (Russo-Sandulescu et al.,
1996) suggest an intraplate rift-related geotectonic
environment. This is related to the beginning of the
Jurassic rifting on the Danubian side. On the opposite
side of the rift, in the Getic external area, the
corresponding alkaline magmatic bodies crop out in
the northeastern part of the South Carpathians, west of
Brasov.
The stratigraphy and lithofacies of the Mesozoic
sediments overlying the Danubian basement is shown
in Fig. 5. The main features of the Danubian covers
are summarized below (Codarcea, 1940; Nastaseanu,
1979). Triassic deposits are lacking, the basement
being overlain by Liassic sediments. Thick Jurassic
sequences are typical for the Upper Danubian Domain,
in the Sirinia and Presacina basins (with Gresten facies
Early Jurassic coal-bearing clastics, siliceous and arko-
sian Mid-Jurassic clastics and Late Jurassic carbonate
facies). Thin EarlyMiddle Jurassic deposits occur in
the Lower Danubian domain, where the Late Jurassic
Early Cretaceous sequences are also carbonates. Un-
conformable Late Cretaceous sequences crop out in
both Upper and Lower Danubian domains. Sedimen-
tation took place from Early to Late Cretaceous (in-
cluding the Early Senonian) (Pop, 1973; Grigorescu et
al., 1990; Berza and Draganescu, in press), and two
stratigraphic discontinuities mark a significant litho-
logical change and discontinuity in the Mid Creta-
ceous (BarremianAptian) and the Late Cretaceous
(CenomanianTuronian).
2.2. Pre-Mesozoic basement
Pre-Triassic basement preserved in the GeticSupra-
getic and Danubian nappe systems is represented by
Late CarboniferousPermian sedimentary deposits and
related magmatic rocks and pre-Westphalian metamor-
phicmagmatic lithotectonic assemblages of Paleozoic
and Late Proterozoic age (Fig. 4).
The diversified lithological composition and ages of
the pre-Triassic basement units in the South Car-
pathians are known based largely on geological and
paleontological data (e.g.,: Savu et al., 1978; Krautner
et al., 1981; Balintoni et al., 1989; Berza et al., 1994;
Iancu et al., 2003).
The EarlyMiddle Paleozoic rock-assemblages of
the Danubian are characterized by Variscan (pre-Late
Carboniferous) regional metamorphism in very low- to
low-grade metamorphic conditions (Iancu et al., 1990;
Berza and Iancu, 1994), while more diversified condi-
tions, from anchizonegreenschist to epidote amphibo-
lite facies characterize the GeticSupragetic Paleozoic
basement rocks (Iancu and Maruntiu, 1994).
In the Danubian basement, the Late Proterozoic
history of the metamorphosed rock complexes with
Pan-African affinities is well documented. Thus, the
polymetamorphic basement is unconformably overlain
by Upper OrdovicianSilurian fine-grained clastics
dated on macrofauna (Stanoiu, 1971), which prove its
pre-Ordovician evolution. UPb zircon ages of 777F3
Ma for an augen gneiss protolith and T
DM
model ages
of 717817 Ma on amphibolites (Liegeois et al., 1996),
together with a UPb zircon age of 567F3 Ma for a
late-orogenic granitoid pluton (Duchesne et al., 1998)
and a muscovite
40
Ar
39
Ar plateau age of 560 Ma from
a two mica-gneiss (Dallmeyer et al., 1996) suggest a
Pan-African tectono-metamorphic history.
In contrast, in the GeticSupragetic basement, the
protoliths ages of the gneissic units (amphibolite to
granulite and eclogite facies polymetamorphic rocks)
are poorly constrained, with both Upper Proterozoic
and/or Paleozoic ages being presumed. T
DM
model
ages of 1.922.06 Ga and eNd values of 10.5 to
14.5 from gneisses indicate significant participation
of Precambrian components (Pana, 1998). A problem-
atic SmNd isochron, which represents a Proterozoic
protolith age determination of 1.6 Ga on Variscan
amphibolites (Dragusanu and Tanaka, 1999) is con-
tested by Ducea (1999). Previous U/ Pb, Rb/ Sr and
K/ Ar dating need careful reconsideration. Recent
39
Ar /
40
Ar data of 745 Ma on magmatic biotite (Axente
et al., submitted for publication) preserved in tectonic
blocks of coronitic metagranites incorporated in an
exhumed HP tectonic melange confirm the involvement
of Late Proterozoic basement in Variscan nappe stack-
ing of the GeticSupragetic Domain (Iancu et al.,
1998).
40
Ar /
39
Ar data (309320 Ma) representing cooling
ages of Late Variscan cycle are known for both the
Danubian and GeticSupragetic basement units (Dall-
meyer et al., 1994, 1996, 1998).
Variscan tectono-metamorphic activity in the Getic
Supragetic gneiss units is documented also by Pb/ Pb
single zircon ages of 338332 Ma on shear zone-
related pegmatites (Cocherie, in Ledru et al., 1997)
and by
40
Ar /
39
Ar mineral ages of 354331 Ma on
epidoteamphibolite facies mylonites in the Iezer
Leaota Mountains (Maluski, in Iancu, 1998; Axente
et al., submitted for publication). Within the Getic
Supragetic assemblages, several amphibole- and mica-
bearing gneisses yielded a Sm/ Nd isochron age of
358323 Ma (Dragusanu and Tanaka, 1999), while
HP pods (eclogite, garnet amphibolite and garnet pe-
ridotite) yielded Sm/ Nd (mineral and whole rock)
isochron ages of 341344, 358 and 316 Ma (Medaris
et al., 2003).
The main features of the pre-Triassic basement units
in the South Carpathians are:
absence of pre-Mesozoic metamorphism in the West-
phalianPermian molasses-type deposits and related
volcanic rocks (Nastaseanu et al., 1981; Stan et al.,
1986);
contrasting lithologies and metamorphic features of
the dated Paleozoic sequences in GeticSupragetic
(Iancu and Maruntiu, 1994) versus Danubian ter-
ranes (Berza and Iancu, 1994);
good preservation of dated Late Proterozoic meta-
morphicmagmatic complexes in Pan-African ter-
ranes of the Lower Danubian basement (Berza et
al., 1994; Liegeois et al., 1996), probably also in the
Upper Danubian basement, and the problematic or
uncertain preservation of Proterozoic terranes in the
GeticSupragetic basement;
preservation of a Late ProterozoicEarly Paleozoic
maficultramafic layered ophiolites complex inside
the Upper Danubian basement (Maruntiu et al.,
1997), squeezed in a pre-Carboniferous nappe
stack, lately intruded by Paleozoic granitoids (Stan,
1985; Iancu et al., 2003);
prograde Variscan metamorphism of the Paleozoic
sequences under low-grade conditions in the Danu-
bian nappes (Iancu et al., 1990) and coeval dynamic
retrogression of the Danubian Pan-African terranes
(Berza and Iancu, 1994);
extremely diversified lithologies and metamorphic
histories of the pre-Mesozoic gneissic basement of
the GeticSupragetic nappes (Nastaseanu et al.,
1981; Krautner, 1996; Balintoni et al., 1989; Hirto-
panu, 1986; Hann et al., 1988; Gheuca, 1988; Iancu
and Maruntiu, 1994; Iancu et al., 1998; Sabau, 2000;
Medaris et al., 2003).
estimated PT conditions of the HP rocks were pre-
sented in some recent published papers: 545745 8C
at minimum pressures of 10.822.3 kbar in eclogites
and 11501300 8C at 25.829.0 kbar in garnet peri-
dotite (Medaris et al., 2003) from a documented Var-
iscan nappe stack and related tectonic melanges
(Iancu et al., 1998). Other PT estimates concerning
different types of eclogite rocks in the bGetic base-
mentQ distinguish between type I eclogites with 700
8C and 1.82.7 GP and type II eclogites, with peak
metamorphic conditions of 700 8C at 1.82.7 GP and
600 to 800900 8C at 2.42.7 to 2.12.2 GPa, respec-
tively (Sabau and Masonne, 2003).
3. Tectonostratigraphy of the Cretaceous nappe
stacks
A description of the South Carpathians nappe struc-
ture will be presented, based on the tectonostratigra-
phy of the Cretaceous nappes and on the timing
(Middle Cretaceous versus Late Cretaceous) of
nappe emplacement.
The distribution of the polyphase Alpine nappe
structure is presented in Figs. 68. The Cretaceous
and Late Miocene history of the South Carpathians
involves repeated shortening (folding and thrusting)
alternating with extensional events in the Mesozoic
sedimentary sequences and their pre-Triassic basement.
All the resulting nappe stacks tectonically overrode the
Moesian Platform to ESE; to W and NW they were
thrusted over the SerboMacedonian units and Vardar
Mures nappe stacks (Fig. 9).
The Alpine nappe stack, which resulted as a cumu-
late effect of the Middle Cretaceous (Austrian or bfirst
Getic phaseQ of Codarcea, 1940) and Late Cretaceous
(bLaramideQ or bsecond Getic phaseQ, Codarcea, 1940)
phases are shown in Fig. 6. The large Late Cretaceous
tectonic units (Fig. 8) bounded by intra-Maastrichtian
thrusts include the older, intra-Aptian (Austrian) nappes
and thrust faults.
The Austrian (intra-Aptian) nappes and related thrust
faults are well preserved in the uppermost part of the
South Carpathians nappe stack. The Middle Cretaceous
(Austrian) shear zones separating the Supragetic and
Getic units (Iancu, 1985, 1986a; Balintoni et al., 1986;
Hann, 1995) are well exposed in the western part of the
South Carpathians (Banat and South Poiana Rusca
Mountains) and in the central South Carpathians
(along the Olt valley) (Fig. 7). In both areas the Aus-
trian nappes are sealed by post-nappe covers of Vraco-
nianCampanian age (Fig. 6). In the eastern termination
of the South Carpathians (Prahova Valley), the Austrian
thrust of the Getic nappe onto the Ceahlau nappe is
covered by Albian molasse deposits (Murgeanu et al.,
1961; Sandulescu et al., 1981), but younger, intra-
Senonian thrusts have been identified at depth (Stefa-
nescu et al., 1978). The Severin nappe complex forms
isolated thrust sheets squeezed between the Getic
Supragetic and Danubian units, in the southwestern
and eastern parts of the Danubian window (Figs. 6
and 8). The Arjana nappe complex, at the top of the
Upper Danubian nappes, also preserves Austrian thrust-
sheets and Late Cretaceous covers (Iancu et al., 1990).
From top to bottom, the following four main Creta-
ceous nappe complexes have been mapped in the South
Carpathians hinterland: Supragetic, Getic (including the
SascaGornjac and Resita nappes), Severin and Danu-
bian (including Arjana nappe with Fenes and Caleanu
units). Each of the mentioned nappe complexes include
other smaller nappes and imbricated sheets (Balintoni et
al., 1989; Pana, 1990; Iancu et al., 1990; Berza et al.,
1994; Seghedi and Oaie, 1997).
3.1. Supragetic nappe complex
The Supragetic nappes are the uppermost and most
internal basement-cored units of Middle Cretaceous
age. First separated in the Banat area as the so-called
bnappes superieuresQ (Streckeisen, 1934) and
bSuprageticQ (Codarcea et al., 1967; Iancu, 1985), the
Fig. 6. Cretaceous nappe stacks in the South Carpathians: Middle Cretaceous (Austrian) and Late Cretaceous (bLaramideQ) units.
Supragetic units were also identified in the South Poiana
Rusca massif (Iancu, 1986a; Balintoni and Iancu, 1986;
Hann and Strutinski, 1994), as well as along the Olt
valley and in the Fagaras Mountains (Balintoni et al.,
1986; Pana, 1990; Balintoni and Pana, 1993; Hann,
1995).
The Supragetic nappes are mainly composed by a
basement of various metamorphic suites, covered by
molasse type sediments of WestphalianPermian age
and by a thin, Mesozoic continental succession (includ-
ing detrital and carbonate lithologies) (Fig. 10). The
basement, showing Variscan and possibly pre-Variscan
tectono-metamorphic history, is pre-Westphalian in age.
The preserved low-grade volcano-sedimentary forma-
tions of Paleozoic age show tectonic relationships with
polymetamorphic gneissic assemblages (Iancu and
Maruntiu, 1994).
Akey zone for the exposures of the Supragetic nappes
is the westernmost part of the South Carpathians, Banat
South Poiana Rusca (Fig. 7). In this area, the Supragetic
nappe complex includes several thrust sheets with a fan-
shaped geometry (Fig. 9A). Eastward they are tectoni-
Fig. 7. Western South Carpathians (BanatPoiana Rusca): Cretaceous structure and Late Cretaceous magmatites. Banatitic rocks after Russo
Sandulescu in Ilinca et al. (1993).
cally superimposed onto the Getic nappe and westward
onto a composite nappe complex (Iancu et al., 1998),
partly covered by sedimentary sequences of the Panno-
nian Basin (Stefanescu et al., 1978).
The time of emplacement of the Supragetic nappes
onto the underlying units is constrained by the post-
Austrian cover sealing the thrust edges. This is seen in
the South Poiana Rusca massif (Iancu, 1986a; Balintoni
and Iancu, 1986) and on the Olt valley (Hann and Szasz,
1984; Hann and Balintoni, 1988), where unconformable
VraconianCampanian clastics (conglomerates, sand-
stones, siltstones and subordinate marls; Lupu et al.,
1978; Ion, 1983) seal the thrust. The Mid-Cretaceous
age of the Supragetic/Getic thrust boundary is also sup-
ported by
40
Ar /
39
Ar whole rock ages of 118.6 and 117.9
Ma, yielded by samples from the tectonic contact in
Banat area (Dallmeyer et al., 1996).
3.2. Getic nappe complex
The Getic nappe complex is the largest tectonic
assemblage with a median position within the whole
South Carpathians nappe complex, which overthrust
the Severin and the Danubian nappe complexes to the
ESE, around the northwestern edge of the Moesian
Platform (Fig. 6). The Late Cretaceous sole-thrust of
the Getic nappe complex and of the Severin nappe
fragments are well exposed in the Danubian window
(Berza et al., 1994). The outline of the Getic nappe
generally corresponds to the first large scale nappe
discovered in the South Carpathians by Murgoci
(1905, 1912), lately confirmed by Streckeisen (1934)
and since then figured on all geological maps of the
South Carpathians. The separation of the bSuprageticQ
nappes at top of the nappe pile reduced the surface of
the initially described Getic nappe. Thus, in the south-
ern part of the Poiana Rusca massif, the recognition
of the Austrian Supragetic nappes and of the Albian/
VraconianLower Senonian post-nappe sedimentary
cover modified the initial limits of the Getic nappe
(Iancu, 1986a; Balintoni and Iancu, 1986; Hann and
Strutinski, 1994). Detailed petrologic studies revealed
that, in southern Banat, the Getic nappe includes also
the Cozla and Svinecea imbricated sheets (Iancu and
Maruntiu, 1989), formerly regarded as Danubian units
(Codarcea, 1940; Nastaseanu et al., 1981). This
Fig. 8. Late Cretaceous (bLaramideQ) nappe structure of the South Carpathians.
change was confirmed when Sinaia Formation was
identified based on microfauna (Pop et al., 1997)
below the Cozla and Svinecea imbricate sheets.
Other Getic tectonic units include the SascaGornjac
(Sandulescu, 1984) and Resita (Nastaseanu, 1978)
cover nappes, situated beneath the Supragetic units
and the Borascu basement-cored nappe separated in
the northern part of the Godeanu outlier (Gherasi et al.,
1986).
The geological constitution of the Getic nappe
complex includes a pre-Westphalian, Variscan and
pre-Variscan metamorphicmagmatic basement (Iancu
and Maruntiu, 1994; Medaris et al., 2003), Late Var-
iscan molasse type sediments and Mesozoic, pre-Aus-
trian sedimentary covers of various lithology and
thickness (Figs. 4, 5 and 10). A particular feature of
the Getic nappe complex is the presence of Triassic
sediments, preserved in the western and eastern parts
of the South Carpathians (Fig. 3). The sedimentary
sequences of the DambovicioaraBrasov basin crop
out in the easternmost part of the Getic nappe and
are mainly represented by carbonate rocks of Triassic
to Early Cretaceous age. The largest sedimentary basin
(ResitaMoldova Noua) consists of Jurassic to Middle
Cretaceous continental to shallow marine sequences
involved in large-scale folds (Nastaseanu et al.,
1981) of more than 50-km length. Upper Cretaceous
(pre-bLaramideQ, VraconianCampanian) covers has
common features in both Supragetic and Getic nappe
complexes.
The Getic nappe complex, with a complicated
internal geometry, is delimited by tectonic boundaries
of different ages: Mid-Cretaceous thrust faults at the
top of the nappe pile, along the contact with the
Supragetic nappes, and Late Cretaceous thrust faults
in the footwall, marking the overthrust onto the
Fig. 9. Simplified cross-sections in the western South Carpathians: A, Cretaceous nappe structure and Late Cretaceous Banatites; B, Late Cretaceous
(bLaramideQ) units.
Fig. 10. Tectonostratigraphic columns of the Cretaceous nappes.
V
.
I
a
n
c
u
e
t
a
l
.
/
T
e
c
t
o
n
o
p
h
y
s
i
c
s
4
1
0
(
2
0
0
5
)
3
3
7
3
6
5
3
4
9
Danubian nappes. Based on the average distance
between the inferred root zone of the Severin nappe
and the frontal area of the Getic nappe complex (Fig.
9A), the displacement of the Getic nappe complex
onto the Danubian nappes is estimated to be over 100
km. The main, bLaramideQ overthrust of the Getic
nappe complex is of Latest Cretaceous (intra-Maas-
trichtian) age, as shown by the tectonic relationships
with the underlying Turonian (Pop, 1973) to Lower
Senonian (Campanian Lower Maastrichtian; Sta-
noiu, 1978b) sedimentary cover of the Danubian
units (Fig. 8). By this time, the Supragetic/Getic
contact was inactive, while the Getic/Severin bound-
aries were successively rejuvenated in Late Creta-
ceous times. The older, easternmost tectonic
boundaries with the oceanic units of the East Car-
pathians (Ceahlau nappe, Sandulescu, 1976) are pre-
served in the South Carpathians bend zone, where
changing in sedimentation conditions from continental
shelf area to deep marine environment are traced
beneath the Albian conglomerates (Murgeanu et al.,
1961); thus, the Austrian thrust of the Getic nappe
complex onto the CeahlauSeverin nappe complex is
sealed by the Albian post-nappe sedimentary cover
(Figs. 1, 3 and 6).
3.3. Severin nappe complex
The Severin nappe was first defined as an oceanic
type crust unit, composed of Late Jurassic ophiolites
and pelagic sediments (Azuga Formation), followed by
Lower Cretaceous flysch deposits (Sinaia and Comar-
nic formations, Codarcea, 1940), (Fig. 5). The root zone
of the Severin nappe is inferred to represent a paleorift
within the European continental margin (Sandulescu,
1984), separating the GeticSupragetic and Danubian
terranes (Fig. 7a,b).
The Severin nappe complex has been subdivided
into two nappes (the Obarsia and the Severin
nappes) locally exposed under the Getic nappe (Sta-
noiu, in Bercia et al., 1977; Maruntiu, 1978; Figs. 6,
8 and 9). The Obarsia nappe includes Late Jurassic
oceanic crust rocks and Early Cretaceous turbidites
(Sinaia Formation). Oceanic plate rocks consist of an
ophiolitic melange with a serpentinitic matrix and
some siliceous pelagic rocks (Azuga Formation).
The Severin nappe (redefined in a more restricted
sense) includes Late Jurassic oceanic plate rocks
represented by basalts and by the Azuga Formation
and Early Cretaceous trench turbidites represented by
the Sinaia and Comarnic formations (Seghedi and
Oaie, 1997).
3.4. Danubian nappe complex
The Danubian nappes (Figs. 6, 8 and 9) correspond
to the lowermost tectonic units in the Cretaceous nappe
pile of the South Carpathians, geometrically situated
beneath the Severin and GeticSupragetic nappe com-
plexes and thrusted onto the Moesian Platform, with
Mesozoic to Early Neogene sedimentary cover
(Seghedi, 1998).
Initially defined as the TDanubian autochtonousr by
Murgoci (1905, 1912), the Danubian terrane has been
later assigned an allochtonous character based on de-
tailed mapping accompanied by stratigraphical and pet-
rological studies (Stanoiu, 1973; Nastaseanu et al.,
1981; Krautner et al., 1981; Berza et al., 1983; Berza
et al., 1988a,b; Iancu et al., 1990; Dimitrescu et al.,
1995). The Danubian nappes are supposed to derive
from the European Plate continental margin and repre-
sent the most external Carpathian basement/cover unit,
which continues south of Danube in Miroc (Serbia) and
in the Stara Planina and Prebalkan (Bulgaria) tectonic
units (Sandulescu, 1994; Krautner, 1996; Krautner and
Krstic, 2002).
The Danubian nappe complex is exposed in Roma-
nia in a large erosional and tectonic half-window that
includes the principal Laramian thrust complexes
shown in Fig. 6: Arjana, Cosustea, Upper Danubian
and Lower Danubian. The Upper and Lower Danubian
nappes were separated as allochtonous units based on
detailed petrographic studies of basement mylonites
(Berza et al., 1984). The Arjana nappe of Codarcea
(1940), was mapped and redefined as a nappe complex
by Iancu et al. (1990) and Gherasi and Hann (1990)
(Figs. 6 and 8). Each of the mentioned nappe com-
plexes consists of individual thrust sheets, composed of
basement/cover or cover sequences, with local names
(Berza et al., 1994). Late Senonian age (intra-Maas-
trichtian) was presumed for nappe emplacement as
suggested on regional maps and cross-sections (Stefa-
nescu et al., 1978; Iancu et al., 1998). The complex
internal geometry of the basement and cover nappes in
the Danubian Window suggests that they represent
individual horses of an antiformal stack duplex, deeply
eroded in the axial culmination zone (Seghedi and
Berza, 1994; Berza, 1998).
3.4.1. Arjana nappe complex
Exposures of the Arjana nappe complex are limit-
ed to the western margin of the Danubian window,
where they lay beneath the Getic nappe and over-
thrust various Upper Danubian units. The complex is
composed of two thrust sheets, separated by narrow
thrust faults of possible Mid-Cretaceous age (Iancu et
al., 1990), mainly composed of folded Jurassic sedi-
mentary deposits associated with bimodal alkaline
magmatic rocks (Gherasi and Hann, 1990; Russo-
Sandulescu et al., 1996). The lower, Caleanu thrust-
sheet (Figs. 6 and 10), consists of EarlyMiddle
Jurassic coal-bearing clastics and bimodal alkaline
volcanics. The upper, Fenes thrust sheet, contains
volcano-sedimentary deposits of MiddleLate Jurassic
age, intimately associated with alkali basalts and
small bodies of syenites and trachytes. The volcano-
sedimentary sequence is unconformable covered by a
Late Cretaceous turbiditic formation (Morariu and
Morariu, 1982), strongly sheared at the contact with
the Getic nappe outlier.
Late Senonian, coarse-grained turbidites (Nasta-
seanu et al., 1981) are present on the top of the Arjana
nappe complex; this sequence seals both the mentioned
sheets and the thrust in between, marking a post-Aus-
trian cover preserved inside of the Arjana nappe com-
plex (Iancu et al., 1990). Various rocks of Arjana
complex are reworked in the underlying Senonian wild-
flysch of the Upper Danubian units.
3.4.2. Cosustea nappe
This cover nappe (Fig. 8), distinguished by Stanoiu
(2000) consists of Late Cretaceous clastic sedimentary
formations (a part of the bCosustea zoneQ, Codarcea,
1940) with various local names. It has a lower structural
position in respect with the Severin nappe complex and
was previously considered to be a part of the Danubian
cover (Nastaseanu et al., 1981). Petrographic composi-
tion of this turbidites sequence, as well as the allochto-
nous position were interpreted as evidence that the
Cosustea nappe represents an underthrusted unit of a
Cretaceous acretionary wedge (Seghedi and Oaie,
1997), developed at the combined Getic/Severin and
Danubian convergent boundary.
The Cosustea nappe includes terrigenous turbidites
(derived from a Getic source), volcaniclastic turbi-
dites and a strongly dismembered melange complex
(Seghedi and Oaie, 1997). Geometric relations al-
ways indicate that volcaniclastic turbidites overlie
terrigenous turbidites. The melange complex shows
blocks in a sedimentary sheared matrix, formed by
deformation of the unconsolidated or semi-consoli-
dated water-rich sediments, in the early stages of
tectonic accretion. Their relationships with the Nada-
nova Formation from the cover exposed within the
Danubian nappes are always tectonic (with the de-
velopment of a pervasive scaly fabric in the over-
thrusted cover rocks).
3.4.3. Upper Danubian nappes
The Upper Danubian nappe complex is largely
exposed in the western part of the Danubian window
and as isolated, narrow outliers in the central and
eastern parts (Fig. 6) and it includes other imbricate
units (Iancu et al., 1990; Berza et al., 1994; Dimi-
trescu et al., 1995). The roof of the nappe pile is
represented mainly by the GeticSupragetic sole
thrust, by discontinuous sheets of Severin nappe com-
plex, while the floor consists of various Lower Danu-
bian units. The Upper Danubian nappes consist of
Proterozoic gneissicgranitic terranes, a Late Protero-
zoicCambrian maficultramafic ophiolitic layered
complex, low-grade metamorphic Paleozoic sedimen-
tary and volcano-sedimentary successions and Late
CarboniferousPermian continental clastics associated
with rhyoliticbasaltic volcanics (Stan et al., 1986;
Iancu et al., 1990; Maruntiu et al., 1997).
The Mesozoic cover is discontinuously preserved as
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous sequences in the western
part of the Danubian window (Fig. 6) in the Sirinia and
Presacina zones (Raileanu, 1952; Nastaseanu, 1979)
(Fig. 5). The Mesozoic stratigraphy includes mainly
continental to shallow marine Early Jurassic clastics,
overlain by Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous shallow
marine carbonates, followed by Middle Cretaceous
deep marine shales. Late Cretaceous turbidites and
wildflysch (melanges) are interpreted either as a top
Danubian cover unit (Berza et al., 1988a), or as indi-
vidual cover nappes (Codarcea, 1940; Stanoiu, 1978b;
Seghedi and Oaie, 1997; Seghedi et al., 1998).
3.4.4. Lower Danubian nappes
The lowest nappe complex in the Danubian nappe
pile is exposed in the southeastern part of the window,
being tectonically covered by Upper Danubian, Severin
or Getic nappe complexes.
The Lower Danubian nappe complex includes other
two imbricate (Schela and Lainici nappes in Berza et
al., 1994), both consisting of basement and cover
successions. The basement is mainly represented by
Proterozoic gneisses and granitoids of Pan-African
affinities (Liegeois et al., 1996), scarce Ordovician
and Devonian formations (Stanoiu, 1971) with low-
grade Variscan metamorphism (Berza and Iancu, 1994;
Dallmeyer et al., 1994) and unconformable Permian
red beds. The unconformable Mesozoic cover consists
of Early Jurassic coal-bearing clastics in Schela nappe
and of Jurassic to Late Cretaceous sediments in the
Lainici nappe. The Mesozoic covers are very diversi-
fied in thickness and lithology (Codarcea, 1940; Pop,
1973; Nastaseanu et al., 1981; Stanoiu, 2000; Berza
and Draganescu, in press) suggesting various deposi-
tional environments. In contrast with the Upper Danu-
bian cover, Jurassic to Late Cretaceous (Senonian)
deposits are preserved as thick sequences (Fig. 5),
with stratigraphic gaps at the JurassicCretaceous
boundary and unconformable CenomanianEarly Tur-
onian marly limestone (Nadanova Formation) at the
top of the sequence.
Late TuronianSenonian turbidites and olistostrome
or melange formations (Fig. 5) are also characteristic
features of the Lower Danubian Lainici nappe (Pop,
1973; Nastaseanu et al., 1981; Stanoiu, in Bercia et al.,
1977). A part of the Late Senonian succession resting
on Lower Danubian nappes might represent a distinct
cover nappe (Cosustea nappe, Stanoiu, 2000). Volcani-
clastic turbidites of the Cosustea nappe rework volcanic
arc material (Seghedi and Oaie, 1997), suggesting the
existence of a volcanic arc on the upper plate, which
sourced slope or fore arc basins.
4. Late Cretaceous magmatic arc
In the western South Carpathians, large plutons and
dyke swarms of Late Cretaceous age intrude the
GeticSupragetic nappe complexes (Figs. 7 and 9A).
They are well exposed in the Banat Mountains, the
blocus tipicusQ where Von Cotta (1864) described
them as bBanatitesQ. This is only a segment of a
1000 km long belt going from northern Apuseni
Mountains through South ApuseniBanatTimok
Srednegorie to the Black Sea, named the Banatite
Magmatic and Metallogenetic Belt by Berza et al.
(1998).
The geochemistry of the banatitic magmatic suites
shows an alkaline to calc-alkaline signature (Russo-
Sandulescu et al., 1978; Russo-Sandulescu and Berza,
1979; Berza et al., 1998), suggesting subduction-related
magma generation (Radulescu and Sandulescu, 1973).
Recent petrologic data, based on trace element and
isotope (Sr, Nd) geochemistry, indicate a large variety
of chemical features, from calcalkaline to shoshonitic,
and confirm the subduction-related geochemical pattern
of the plutonic and sub-volcanic banatitic bodies
(Dupont et al., 2002).
The intrusion of banatites was presumed to have
taken place syn-tectonically during the Laramide
phase (Cioflica and Vlad, 1973). A larger time span,
Late Cretaceous to Eocene was suggested for the
intrusion of plutons and emplacement of bhypabyssalQ
or subvolcanic dykes. The only known volcano-sedi-
mentary formation in the South Carpathians is of
Maastrichtian age (Dinca, 1977; Grigorescu et al.,
1990) and crops out in the southern Poiana Rusca
massif.
The post-nappe emplacement (in respect with Aus-
trian thrusts) in Late Cretaceous time, of the most
significant plutons is demonstrated by field relations,
as the bBanatitesQ crosscut the Austrian Getic and
Supragetic nappes (Iancu, 1985, 1986a; Iancu et al.,
1998), (Figs. 7 and 9A). New isotopic data ranging
from 75.579.6 Ma (U/ Pb zircon ages; Nicolescu et
al., 1999; Re/ Os, molybdenite age, Ciobanu et al.,
2002) document the post-Austrian, pre-Laramian age
of intrusion of the plutonic Banatites in western Banat
area. Consequently, the syn-tectonic character of the
bBanatitesQ emplacement has been related to a phase
of crustal extension between the Austrian and Lara-
mide contractions (Berza and Ioane, 2001). New
39
Ar /
40
Ar analyses on amphibole recovered from sev-
eral magmatic bodies (Wiesinger et al., 2004) show a
larger time span of Late Cretaceous magmatic activity.
This is 70.0285.85 Ma for the northern Banat and
south Poiana Rusca plutons and 71.5089.48 Ma for
some sub-volcanic bodies from the southern part of
the Banat region.
Younger magmatic rocks are represented by minor
sub-volcanic alkaline basaltic bodies, cropping out in
the Poiana Rusca massif, where KAr data of 6542
Ma (Downes et al., 1995) indicate a distinct Paleogene
phase of magma emplacement.
5. Alpine polyphase tectono-metamorphic evolution
of the South Carpathians
The Alpine building of the South Carpathians has
a complex history, the geological data supporting the
idea of a complete cycle of evolution, from Triassic
Jurassic extension and rifting to oceanic spreading
followed by subduction and collision in the Creta-
ceousMiocene time span. In Tertiary, orogen paral-
lel-extension, strike-slip faulting and sedimentation,
clock-wise block rotation and uplift/erosion processes
took place. Differences in tectonic behavior and his-
tory between the hinterland and foreland also oc-
curred in Tertiary time (Ratschbacher et al., 1993;
Linzer, 1996; Zweigel et al., 1998; Matenco, 1997;
Matenco et al., 1997; Linzer et al., 1998; Sanders,
1998; Willingshofer et al., 2001; Bertotti et al.,
2003).
Cretaceous nappe complexes corresponding to Mid-
dle and Latest Cretaceous tectogenetic events resulted
in a complex pattern of nappe stacking processes as
suggested in Fig. 11, based on cartographic images
(Figs. 6 and 8) and cross-sections (Fig. 9).
5.1. Pre-collisional history
The initiation of the Alpine mobile belt involved the
older cratonic areas at the margin of the East European
plate, including previously accreted Variscan and Pan-
African terranes (Krautner et al., 1981; Berza and
Iancu, 1994; Iancu and Maruntiu, 1994; Dallmeyer et
al., 1994; Liegeois et al., 1996; Krautner, 1996; Dragu-
Fig. 11. Simplified geotectonic evolution of the South Carpathians area (modified from Iancu, 1998).
sanu and Tanaka, 1999; Medaris et al., 2003; Iancu et
al., 2003). After the cessation of the Variscan orogenic
cycle and Late Paleozoic collapse and extension ac-
companied by the development of transtensional basins,
a new cycle of evolution began with TriassicJurassic
rifting processes, followed by Late JurassicEarly Cre-
taceous spreading and by Cretaceous and Miocene
collision events.
The Transylvanides or Mures ophiolites represent
the eastern branch of the main Tethyan rift (Vardar)
opened during the Early Jurassic time. This oceanic
basin separated the East and South Carpathians crustal
fragment with East European plate affinities from the
Apuseni Mountains, which represent a part of the pre-
Apulian plate (Burchfiel, 1980; Sandulescu, 1994;
Balintoni, 1997; Fig. 1). A younger, Middle?Late
Jurassic rift opened to the east on the Eurasian plate
margin (Eastern basin of Radulescu and Sandulescu,
1973, lately named CeahlauSeverin rift by Sandu-
lescu, 1976). Consequently, the Cretaceous basement
nappe complexes of the Eastern and South Carpathians
lie between the VardarMures ocean derived units to
the WNW and the CeahlauSeverin paleorift to ESE.
The timing of the pre-collisional history of the East-
ern oceanic basin preserved in the Severin nappe com-
plex was constrained by paleontological data and by the
biostratigraphy of the sedimentary rocks of the Arjana
and Severin nappe complexes (Codarcea, 1940; Sta-
noiu, 1978a; Nastaseanu et al., 1981; Pop, 1989,
1996). In the Arjana and Severin basins, separating
the GeticSupragetic and Danubian crustal fragments,
sedimentation began in Middle Jurassic, but evolved
into sea-floor spreading processes only in the Severin
basin, during the Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous times.
The sedimentarymagmatic activity identified in the
Arjana basin and in the easternmost part of the South
Carpathians bordering the Getic nappe complex (the
Holbav unit, in Sandulescu, 1984) constrains the be-
ginning of extension related processes. Thus, belem-
nites faunas indicate that the volcanic activity in the
Arjana basin took place in BajocianTithonian (Nasta-
seanu, 1979). In the Holbav unit, layered bimodal
alkaline magmatic rocks, alternating with shallow ma-
rine, carbonate and volcaniclastic deposits suggest an
intra-plate, rift-related magmatic activity (Russo-San-
dulescu et al., 1996) and a thinned continental crust,
interpreted to mark the separation of the GeticSupra-
getic microplate in respect with the Danubian realm.
In Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous times, the Severin
domain was probably the most evolved intracontinental
rift basin where oceanic crust was created (Cioflica et
al., 1980; Maruntiu, 1983; Savu et al., 1991), suggest-
ing that crustal separation was achieved. Thus, the
JurassicLower Cretaceous magmatic activity evolved
from intra-plate, alkaline, bimodal magmatism to sea-
floor spreading, and such evolution is reflected by the
change in sedimentary environment, from continental
shallow marine to oceanic (siliciclastic, radiolarian; Pop
et al., 1997) and turbiditic.
5.2. Cretaceous polyphase collisional history
The polyphase collisional events involving the
GeticSupragetic Domain can be correlated with the
closing of the oceanic domains (bVardarMuresQ and
bSeverinCeahlauQ) and subduction related processes,
followed by Late Cretaceous extension and calc-alka-
line intrusions and volcanism. In the ResitaMoldova
Noua trough, the most significant basin between the
Getic and Supragetic ridge areas, sedimentation
changed from continentallacustrine, paralic in
LowerMiddle Jurassic time, to shallow and deep ma-
rine deposition between Middle Jurassic (Callovian)
and Middle Cretaceous (Aptian) time.
In Middle JurassicLower Aptian times, sedimenta-
tion was controlled by trough morphology. Marginal
facies is mostly detrital and thin, while a deep marine
environment with dominant limestonemarly and chert
sediments and characteristic fauna (ammonitae and cal-
pionellae) marks an axial zone with a thinner crust
(Nastaseanu et al., 1981). Beginning with Late
AptianAlbian times, mainly coarse-grained, glauco-
nite-bearing sediments accumulated. An important gap
in sedimentation in the internal area of the trough is
coeval with overstep and lithological changes in the
border areas. This was strongly related to the initiation
of the Austrian thrust propagation on the western mar-
gin of the trough and led to eastward thrusting of the
Supragetic nappe complex (Iancu, 1985) onto the
ResitaMoldova Noua basin and its Getic basement.
Coeval Middle Cretaceous thrusting in the westernmost
part of the domain emplaced the Supragetic nappe
complex onto continental derived units with Serbo
Macedonian affinities and onto oceanic units of the
VardarMures paleosuture (Stefanescu et al., 1978).
Consequently, a fan shaped, asymmetrical Mid-Creta-
ceous nappe stack resulted (Fig. 7a) in the western part
of the GeticSupragetic Domain (Iancu et al., 1998).
5.2.1. Middle Cretaceous (intra-Aptian), Austrian con-
traction phase
Beginning with the Late Early Cretaceous, the first
shortening events have led to crustal shearing of the
pre-collisional basement/cover blocks and emplacement
of the Austrian nappes as well as to progressive chang-
ing in sedimentation regime as suggested by stratigraph-
ic records. Thrust surfaces involving Lower Cretaceous
rocks and sealed by AlbianCenomanian sequences,
identified at the Supragetic/Getic contacts, represent
reliable evidence that the Supragetic nappe complex
has formed in the Aptian time (Austrian phase), (Fig.
6). The units underlying the Supragetic nappe complex
westwards are represented by basement/cover units de-
rived from the internal margin of the BucovinoGetic
microplate (Sandulescu, 1984; Dimitrijevic, 1997). As
the western (Austrian) boundaries of the Supragetic
nappes are east-dipping (Iancu et al., 1998) and the
SerboMacedonian nappes overthrust westward the
ophiolites units of the Vardar paleosuture (Krautner
and Krstic, 2002), the tectonic superposition Supra-
getic/Serbomacedonian/Vardar presumably occurred in
western Banat region. On the eastern margin of the Getic
microplate, the first thrusting events at the Getic/Severin
contact resulted during the Austrian events.
As suggested by field relations from Southern Poi-
ana Rusca massif and Olt valley, the VraconianEarly
Senonian sediments seal the thrust boundaries between
Supragetic and Getic Austrian nappes, thus represent-
ing their post-Austrian cover (Fig. 6) (Iancu, 1986a;
Hann and Szasz, 1984; Balintoni et al., 1989).
The timing of contraction events responsible for the
Austrian nappe stacking and post-nappe extension are
constrained by reliable sedimentary and magmatic mar-
kers and supported by geochronological data. The latter
include: 118.6 and 117.9 Ma (
40
Ar /
39
Ar whole rock
analyses on mylonites from the Supragetic/Getic thrust
plane, Banat area, Dallmeyer et al., 1996); 7579 Ma
(U/ Pb zircon ages, Nicolescu et al., 1999 and Re/ Os
molybdenite age, Ciobanu et al., 2002).
The geotectonic evolution of the Severin oceanic
domain in the MiddleLate Cretaceous time can be
deduced from several events mentioned below. The
youngest deposits preserved in the Severin nappe sheets
are of BarremianAptian age (Nastaseanu et al., 1981),
suggesting that the sedimentation ceased before Albian.
Subduction related downward movement of an oceanic
slab is suggested by the intense deformation and meta-
morphism of a part of the dismembered oceanic crust,
including MORB ophiolites and Late Jurassic sedi-
ments of the Obarsia nappe (Maruntiu, 1983). The
composition of younger turbidites sequences, preserved
as dismembered thrust sheets at the sole of the Getic
nappes, or as pebbles and olistoliths in the Senonian
cover of the Danubian (Pop, 1969; Nastaseanu et al.,
1981; Stanoiu, 1978b) suggest a progressive change in
depositional environment (from oceanic to trench and
slope basins) (Seghedi, in Berza et al., 1994). In the
bend zone, the Getides and Severinides nappe com-
plexes, as well as the thrust faults separating them are
sealed by coarse-grained Albian clastics (Murgeanu et
al., 1961; Sandulescu, 1976; Balintoni, 1997).
There is no direct evidence concerning the effects of
Middle Cretaceous tectogenetic phase in the Danubian
units exposed in the Danubian window, except for the
proposal of the Austrian Arjana nappe complex (Iancu
et al., 1990), a tectonic model followed also by Bojar et
al. (1998). In the Danubian nappes, the sedimentary
cover sequences situated beneath the Severin/Getic roof
discontinuity comprise Late Cretaceous (Senonian) for-
mations. As field and petrologic data suggest, in the
most internal area of the Danubian realm (including
Arjana subdomain) fold-and-thrust related processes
and dynamic metamorphism could be related to pre-
Senonian, Austrian phase processes (Iancu et al., 1990).
In the external areas of Danubian (Lower Danubian
nappes), the change from Aptian limestones to Ceno-
manianTuronian marls (Nastaseanu et al., 1981) might
be also connected to the effects of Austrian phase
tectonics.
5.2.2. Late Cretaceous, post-Austrian, uplift/erosion/
extension and magmatism
The Austrian nappe stack is discordantly overlain by
deposits starting in Southern Poiana Rusca with Vraco-
nianCenomanian (Dinca, 1977), in which metrical
tufitic layers were found in Middle Turonian and in
?Upper TuronianBasal Coniacian, well dated by mi-
crofauna (Strutinski and Bucur, 1986), but giving reset
K/ Ar age of 67.8F2.0 Ma (Strutinski et al., 1986).
Late Cretaceous deposits are cross cut by swarms of
dykes and some plutons of dioritic to granodioritic
composition, with KAr ages 8270 Ma (Strutinski et
al., 1986), known in Romania and Serbia as bBanatitesQ
(Berza, 2004).
The plutonic Banatites from western Banat area
cross cut the Austrian nappe stack (Fig. 6), (Iancu,
1985, 1986a) and their emplacement age is well con-
strained by U/ Pb zircon ages of 75.5F1.6 and
79.6F2.5 Ma (Nicolescu et al., 1999), Re/ Os molib-
denite age of 76.6F0.3 Ma (Ciobanu et al., 2002) and
some Ar / Ar hornblende ages of 77.65F0.29 and
78.27F0.59 Ma (Wiesinger et al., 2004). Their post-
nappe intrusion at upper crustal level can be related
with the Late Cretaceous uplift/erosion and extensional
basin formation (in the Southern Poiana Rusca Moun-
tains), as suggested by thermo-tectonic FT data of 110
60 Ma (Bojar et al., 1998; Willingshofer et al., 2001). A
bsupra-subductionQ or bslab-break-offQ magmatism
(Neubauer, 2002) in a period of uplift/erosion and
tectonic quiescence or extension-related normal faulting
and basin formation, over a zone of mantle delamina-
tion (Berza et al., 1998; Berza, 2004) in Late Creta-
ceous times represent two models which still wait for
new detailed evidence. Also a retreating subduction
model involving VardarMures oceanic crust below
the bDaciaQ continental plate was proposed for the
Late Cretaceous magmatism by Schuller (2004).
Geological data suggest that a large scale Late
Cretaceous magmatic arc involving the mobile area
of the Getic microplate is now preserved in the Getic
Supragetic nappe complex of the South Carpathians,
at its convergent contact with the VardarMures oce-
anic plate (Fig. 9). Thus, the eastward subduction of
the VardarMures oceanic crust beneath the Getic
Supragetic (Getides) was followed by calc-alkaline to
alkaline magmatism in the Late Cretaceous (Turonian
Campanian) time span. Coeval magmatic rocks, also
present in the Apuseni Mountains (Berza et al., 1998;
Neubauer, 2002), and this bipolarity was interpreted
by Schuller (2004) as result of MiddleLate Creta-
ceous subduction of the VardarMures oceanic plate
below two continental microplates: TisiaDacia
(Getic) at the East European mobile margin and Apu-
senides (Adriatic, pre-Apulian), on the opposite side.
Following the Austrian phase contraction events, the
Late Cretaceous magmatic activity and Gosau type
basin sedimentation cover areas of different geotecton-
ic origin (Berza, 2004) and require more detailed
analytical studies.
5.2.3. Late Cretaceous (intra-Maastrichtian), Getic/
bLaramideQ contraction phase
The main nappes emplaced as result of the Laramide
phase (intra-Senonian, pre-Late Maastrichtian; Balin-
toni et al., 1989) are shown in Fig. 8. This phase
generated the ESE (in present day coordinates) large
scale overthrust (over 100 km long) of the Getic
Supragetic and remnants of the Severin nappe com-
plexes over the Danubian nappe complex.
We suggest the term bGetic phaseQ in place of the
so-called bLaramianQ or bLaramideQ tectogenetic
phase, as the bLaramide orogenyQ is not a character-
istic feature of the Alpine belt (Schuller, 2004) and the
large scale (out of sequence) emplacement of the Getic
nappe complex (underlined by Severin thrust sheets)
onto the Danubian and Moesian Platform in the Latest
Cretaceous time is a characteristic feature of the South
Carpathians chain.
The Late Cretaceous nappe system includes five
elements (Figs. 8 and 9B): TimisBoia, GeticSupra-
getic, Severin, Arjana and the Danubian nappe com-
plex. Except the Severin unit, all the other four units
show Late Cretaceous covers.
TimisBoia is the upper unit, including reactivated
GeticSupragetic basement and related pre-Maastrich-
tian covers. The Timis (Iancu, 1986a)Boia (Balintoni
et al., 1986) nappe complex is the most important Late
Cretaceous (Laramian) unit identified in the South Car-
pathians as a distinct, large-scale nappe overlying the
combined Getic and Supragetic nappe system. The
GeticSupragetic unit is situated below the Timis
Boia unit, representing a large basement nappe com-
posed of inherited Austrian thrusts and Late Creta-
ceous, pre-Maastrichtian cover. For this large-scale
Late Cretaceous nappe we propose to use the classical
names (GeticSupragetic), the Getic nappe being the
first nappe identified in the South Carpathians (Mur-
goci, 1905, 1912). The Arjana cover nappe includes the
Austrian Caleanu and Fenes thrust sheets unconform-
ably overlain by Late Cretaceous sediments (Iancu et
al., 1990). The Danubian is a nappe complex including
two main systems of basement-cored thrusts: Upper and
Lower Danubian (Berza et al., 1983) interpreted by
Seghedi and Berza (1994) as two superposed duplexes.
The post-bLaramianQ (Maastrichtian to Paleocene)
cover includes sedimentary deposits preserved in the
southern Poiana Rusca Massif and along the Olt valley
(Fig. 8); these successions unconformably overlie the
older Upper Cretaceous (VraconianCampanian) sedi-
mentary sequences as well as the older nappe bound-
aries, including the intra-Senonian thrust planes.
Maastrichtian to Paleocene sedimentary successions
fringe the post-bLaramianQ, extension-related Hateg
and BrezoiTitesti basins (Figs. 6 and 8).
The Latest Cretaceous nappe structure (Fig. 8)
suggests important changes in scale and geometry of
nappe stacking, in movement directions, as well as the
involvement of the Danubian nappe complexes as
underthrusted units beneath the Getic and Severin
units and all together overthrusted onto the Moesian
Platform.
The main effects of the intra-Maastrichtian (Getic or
bLaramideQ) phase are presented below:
1) a major change in sedimentary environment and
lithology of all the thrust units;
2) tectonic reactivation of the GeticSupragetic nappe
complexes in the internal areas of the South Car-
pathians leading to a large thrust unit (TimisBoia),
at the top of the bLaramideQ nappe pile;
3) involvement in collision processes of a new, external
domainthe Danubian realm and
4) first large-scale overthrusting of the whole Car-
pathian nappe stack onto the Moesian Platform,
representing a stable foreland microplate.
The Getic (bLaramideQ) tectogenetic phase is con-
strained by two lines of evidence. The first evidence
are the youngest sedimentation ages of the Getic
Supragetic and Danubian covers which are cut by
the thrust faults (paleontological data concerning the
Senonian deposits are known from Codarcea, 1940;
Nastaseanu et al., 1981; Stanoiu, 2000; Pop, 1996).
The second are the Maastrichtian to Paleocene age
(Hann and Szasz, 1984; Ion, 1983; Lupu et al.,
1978; Grigorescu et al., 1990) of the oldest post-
bLaramideQ sedimentary markers, which seal the
intra-Maastrichtian thrust boundaries (Figs. 6 and 8).
The K/ Ar whole rock age of 73F3 Ma yielded by a
mylonite on the Neoproterozoic Susita granitoid at the
top of the Lower Danubian Schela nappe marks the
overthrusting of the Lower Danubian Lainici nappe.
The post bLaramideQ thermo-tectonic data (FT, on
apatite, zircon, sphene) of 65 to 50 Ma (Bojar et al.,
1998; Willingshofer et al., 2001) point to a thermo-
tectonic activity coeval with the time of Maastrichtian
nappe stacking and with post-bLaramideQ exhumation
of the entire nappe stack (Sanders, 1998; Moser,
2001).
Unlike in the East Carpathians segment, where Cre-
taceousPaleogene sedimentation continued in the
frontal area of the basement-cored Cretaceous nappes,
resulting in a large scale foreland fold-and-thrust belt
(Moldavides; Sandulescu, 1994), in the South Car-
pathians these foreland sequences are missing.
5.2.4. MiddleLate Cretaceous metamorphism
In the upper GeticSupragetic nappes, the Alpine
metamorphic imprint is spatially associated with mag-
matic-arc intrusions emplaced in two pulses: subsequent
to Late-Albian (TuronianConiacian) and intra-Seno-
nian (CampanianMaastrichtian). This is suggested by
U/ Pb ages of 7975 Ma (Nicolescu et al., 1999), Ar / Ar
ages of 8995 and 7866 Ma (Wiesinger et al., 2004)
and K/ Ar data of 8168 Ma (Russo-Sandulescu et al.,
1986; Strutinski et al., 1986). The effects of thermal
metamorphism in the GeticSupragetic units are related
to Late Cretaceous plutonic intrusions (Berza et al.,
1998; Nicolescu and Cornell, 1999; Ciobanu et al.,
2002). Narrow gradients of high temperature and low-
pressure surrounding the intrusions are characterised by
blastesis of sillimanitecordieriteandalusite to chlo-
ritetourmaline assemblages in the metapelitic country
rocks of various nappes and ages (Codarcea, 1934;
Russo-Sandulescu et al., 1982; Nicolescu and Cornell,
1999).
On the contrary, in the underlying units exposed in
the Danubian window, namely the Severin, Arjana and
Danubian nappe complexes, the regional and dynamic
metamorphism show diverse prograde metamorphic
features in the sedimentary and magmatic protoliths
of Mesozoic age, in the Late CarboniferousPermian
deposits, as well as strong retrograde effects in pre-
Alpine basement formations.
The Severin nappe complex (including Obarsia
nappe) shows effects of a prograde metamorphism in
very low grade conditions, as prehnitepumpellyite and
pumpellyiteactinolite facies paragenesis were identi-
fied in the deformed basalts associated with Middle
Jurassic pelagic sediments (Seghedi et al., 1996). This
metamorphism was presumed to be the effect of sub-
duction of the Severin oceanic crust (Maruntiu, 1978;
Seghedi et al., 1996).
An important feature of the Mesozoic sedimentary
cover in the Danubian Domain (Arjana, Upper and
Lower Danubian nappes) is the low-grade Cretaceous
metamorphism. Chloritoidpyrophyllitechlorite and
meta-anthracite/pre-graphite bearing parageneses
(Mutihac and Popescu, 1982; Iancu et al., 1984; Ciu-
lavu, 2001) mark a prograde metamorphic stage, fol-
lowed by retrograde recrystallization (e.g., chlorite,
illite). Relationships between mineral phases in Meso-
zoic metapelites and metapsamites indicate a pre-kine-
matic blastesis of chloritoide (individual crystals and
nodules) and syn-S1 crystallization of chlorite and py-
rophylliteillite, while the chloritoide nodules are pas-
sively rotated or flattened (Iancu, 1986b).
Based on mineralogical, powder diffraction (XRD)
and microprobe studies, a large-scale WE metamor-
phic zonation was identified in the post-Variscan cover
units from anchizone in the southernmost part, to
greenschist facies in the northern part of the Danubian
units (Seghedi et al., 1996; Neubauer et al., 1997;
Ciulavu and Ferreiro-Mahlmann, 1999; Ciulavu et al.,
2001). The prograde regional metamorphism in the
Danubian peaked in greenschist to epidoteamphibolite
facies conditions in the TarcuRetezat and Parang area
(where bbiotite-inQ and bactinolite-inQ isograde are pres-
ent in metapelitic and metabasic rocks, respectively),
and the bretrograde pathQ is shown by very low grade
readjustment (Iancu et al., 1984; Ciulavu, 2001).
Thus, the tectonic units (Danubian, Severin and
Obarsia nappes), cropping out in the Danubian win-
dow the Cretaceous metamorphism has a polystage
character, evolving from low PT conditions (chlor-
itoidpyrophyllitechloriteillite blastesis, preserved
in basement/cover nappes) to very low grade meta-
morphism (prehnitepumpellyite facies, present in all
the mentioned tectonic units) as a result of subduc-
tion to obduction and tectono-metamorphic inversion
processes.
Dynamic metamorphism in chloritebiotite condi-
tions is located along simple shear zones in the entire
Danubian nappe pile (Berza et al., 1983; Berza and
Draganescu, in press) and reached epidoteamphibolite
facies conditions in the northern part of the window
(Berza et al., 1988a,b; Neubauer et al., 1997; Schmid et
al., 1998). Shear zone related foliations of SCCV-type
mark the main fault zones separating different nappes
and are underlined by syn-tectonic blastesis of new
mineral phases (chlorite, biotite, actinolite, blue horn-
blende) and passive deformation of the pre-mylonitic
minerals and clasts.
The bAlpineQ age of metamorphism in the Danu-
bian window is constrained by the JurassicCreta-
ceous age of the sedimentary protoliths and by the
lack of metamorphism of post-bLaramianQ, Paleogene
cover strata. The MiddleLate Cretaceous time span of
the metamorphic evolution in the South Carpathians is
supported by
40
Ar /
39
Ar whole rock and mineral ages
(Dallmeyer et al., 1994, 1998; Neubauer et al., 1997)
and RbSr muscovite ages (7672 Ma, Ratschbacher
et al., 1993). However, older dating (Soroiu et al.,
1970; Gru nenfelder et al., 1983) by K/ Ar method
are largely dispersed (12070 Ma) and have to be
carefully reconsidered.
The contrasting metamorphic features in respect
with the GeticSupragetic cover suggest that Danubian
window represent an Alpine metamorphic core (Neu-
bauer et al., 1997; Schmid et al., 1998).
5.2.5. Late SenonianPaleocene, post-Getic
(bLaramideQ), extension
Following the bLaramideQ nappe-stacking event, a
new period of extension, erosion and uplift took
place in the South Carpathians area during the Late
MaastrichtianPaleocene times. The post-bLaramideQ
cover sequences, locally preserved within the Late
CretaceousPaleogene sedimentary basins (Hateg,
TitestiBrezoi) (Figs. 6 and 8) or directly sealing
the tectonic boundaries, point to a short-lived tectonic
activity in the final part (collapse) of the Cretaceous
collisional tectonic cycle from the South Carpathians
hinterland.
K/ Ar ages of 6557 Ma of plutonic banatitic mag-
matites (Russo-Sandulescu et al., 1986; Russo-Sandu-
lescu, in Ilinca et al., 1993), with U/ Pb intrusion ages
of 7579 Ma (Nicolescu et al., 1999), might be inter-
preted as rejuvenation effects due to bLaramideQ tec-
tonics and post-bLaramideQ extension.
The deposition of the Maastrichtian volcano-sedi-
mentary formation unconformable on the Cenoma-
nianCampanian (post-Austrian) cover in the South
Poiana Rusca massif suggests renewal of extensional
basin formation and a post-bLaramideQ volcanic activity
in the western part of the South Carpathians (Dinca,
1977). The Paleogene alkali basalts and andesites from
Poiana Rusca (Downes et al., 1995) seem to be also
related to post-bLaramideQ extension. Upper Maastrich-
tian sedimentary sequences in the Hateg basin include
coarse to fine clastics (conglomerates, sandstones,
muds) with Dinosaurs fossil remains (Stilla, 1985; Gri-
gorescu et al., 1990) and volcaniclastic rocks (ande-
sites, dacites, rhyolites), while the coeval sequence
cropping out in the Olt valley are mainly clastics
(Hann and Szasz, 1984).
6. Tertiary collision and collapse
As a final effect of the two-stage Cretaceous tecto-
genetic events, a composite crustal block with a
bsandwich-typeQ structure characterizes the South Car-
pathians hinterland. Paleomagnetic data indicate latest
Cretaceous (Panaiotu, 1998), Late Eocene (Schmid et
al., 1998) and Early Miocene (Patrascu et al., 1992)
clockwise rotation (901008) of the South Carpathians
orogenic segment and its neighboring cratonic blocks.
Rotation was accommodated by orogen parallel to
oblique fault systems in the internal areas and by fold-
ing and thrusting in the external areas (Ratschbacher et
al., 1993; Zweigel et al., 1998; Linzer et al., 1998;
Schmid et al., 1998; Matenco and Schmid, 1999).
The Tertiary tectonic and orogenic history of the
South Carpathians hinterland is dominated by several
events:
1) Eocene to Oligocene orogen-parallel extension,
documented by fission track zircon and apatite cool-
ing ages of 5030 Ma, yielded by rocks of the
Danubian window. Danubian formations are tecton-
ically eroded by a detachment of the overlying
GeticSupragetic bblockQ (Sanders, 1998; Bojar et
al., 1998; Schmid et al., 1998; Nicolescu et al., 1999;
Willingshofer et al., 2001). Two distinct deforma-
tional episodes have been identified: a) Eocene oro-
gen-parallel extension and detachment/metamorphic
core complex formation (Schmid et al., 1998;
Matenco and Schmid, 1999; Fu genschuh and
Schmid, in press); b) Oligocene dextral strike-slip
faults, associated with sedimentation in pull-apart
basins (Berza and Draganescu, 1988; Ratschbacher
et al., 1993; Neubauer et al., 1994).
2) Miocene (pre and intra-Sarmatian) thrusting of the
South Carpathians nappe stack and frontal imbri-
cates onto the Moesian Platform. A Middle Mio-
cene, pre-Sarmatian high-angle thrust is visible in
the NS trending frontal area of the South Car-
pathian Cretaceous nappe stack (Mehedinti Moun-
tains). Here, the Cretaceous basement-cored nappes
are thrust over the nappe imbricates represented by
PaleogeneBadenian deposits of the Getic Depres-
sion (Matenco, 1997), and all these units together
override the Moesian Platform (Stefanescu et al.,
1978; Iancu in Berza et al., 1994).
3) Sarmatian uplift and erosion. A Sarmatian elevation
of up to 67000 m was documented for the hinter-
land area of the eastern South Carpathians segment
(Sanders, 1998), while unconformable Sarmatian
coarse-grained sediments seal the contact of the
Cretaceous nappe stacks and the intra-Miocene
frontal imbricates. Although infilling of the depres-
sion marking the Carpathian boundary with the tran-
sitional foreland basins continued until Pliocene time
(Matenco and Schmid, 1999), intramontane basins
with Sarmatian deposits are also present in the hin-
terland area (Fig. 2).
In contrast to the East Carpathians segment, the
Tertiary evolution of the South Carpathians does not
include any igneous activity and PaleogeneMiocene
flysch units are only inferred in the subsurface cov-
ered by molasse deposits of the Getic depression
(Stefanescu et al., 1978; Iancu et al., 1998). The
Neogene molasse depression shows a wider develop-
ment in the frontal area of the South Carpathians
Cretaceous nappes, where NS to EW oriented struc-
tures correspond to a bstep by stepQ (Cretaceous and
Tertiary) accommodation of the foredeep sediments
onto the Moesian Platform.
The Late Neogene to Quaternary evolution of the
South Carpathians hinterland is marked by neo-tectonic
events, surface uplift and erosion, marking the collapse
of the Alpine orogen, as well as by erosion of the
sedimentary wedge covering the boundary between
the orogenic belt and its foreland as result of cessation
of plate convergence (Sanders, 1998).
7. Discussion and conclusions
A simplified model of the pre-collisional and colli-
sional history of the South Carpathians based on the
geological information is presented in Fig. 11. In the
future South Carpathians mobile area, beginning with
Jurassic time, the Getic plate was bordered to the east by
the Danubian and Moesian crustal blocks, all belonging
to the marginal area of the EastEuropean Plate.
The MiddleLate Jurassic extension and crustal
thinning favored an alkaline intra-plate bimodal mag-
matism (now preserved in Arjana nappe complex)
and evolved to oceanic crust formation in Late Ju-
rassic to Early Cretaceous, indicated by remnants of
ophiolites of the Severin nappe complex and turbidi-
tic sedimentation.
Contraction in MiddleLate Cretaceous times had a
polystage character, marked by two thrusting events
(Austrian and Getic or bLaramideQ phases) in the
GeticSupragetic Domain and one major event
(Getic or bLaramideQ phase) in the Danubian Domain.
In the GeticSupragetic area, uplift, extension, basin
formation, post-nappe extension-related Late Creta-
ceous banatitic magmatism and thermal-metasomatic
metamorphism followed the Austrian thrusting. In
contrast, the Severin oceanic crust was partly sub-
ducted and the Danubian domain underwent crustal
shearing processes and regional/dynamic metamor-
phism in low-grade PT conditions.
VraconianCampanian sediments sealed the Middle
Cretaceous (Austrian) fan-like thrust boundaries of the
GeticSupragetic. They are now inherited inside the
Latest Cretaceous (bLaramideQ) nappe thrust complex,
whose strong asymmetrical shape could be explained
by the bcorner effectQ of the Moesian Platform (Ratsch-
bacher et al., 1993; Matenco and Schmid, 1999), and its
tectonicsedimentation significance in respect with the
Carpathian orocline history (Matenco et al., 1997; Cloe-
tingh et al., 2003).
The post-Cretaceous history is characterized by the
overthrust of the previous nappe stacks onto the frontal
thrust sheets of the foreland units in Miocene time, as
well as on the Moesian Platform and its MesozoicLate
Miocene (pre-Sarmatian) cover.
The extension related periods were also repeated, as
Late Cretaceous extension events were followed by
Eocene orogen-parallel extension and metamorphic
core-complex formation and later by Oligocene strike-
slip extension (Ratschbacher et al., 1993; Bojar et al.,
1998; Schmid et al., 1998; Neubauer et al., 1997).
As a general conclusion we can underline:
Complex internal structure and composition of the
Cretaceous nappe stack characterizing the South
Carpathians mobile area;
Separation of the GeticRodopian microplate on the
East European plate margin beginning with Jurassic
time and its involving in convergent and collision
processes in Late Cretaceous time;
Repeated crustal shearing and thrusting in two Cre-
taceous contraction stages: Middle Cretaceous (Aus-
trian phase) and Latest Cretaceous (Getic or
bLaramideQ phase), followed by two Cretaceous
stages of uplift/erosion/extension, sedimentary
basin formation and calc-alkaline magmatic activity;
Tertiary reactivation and mountain building of the
South Carpathians followed the Cretaceous tectonic
and magmatic stages;
In Middle Miocene time, the South Carpathians
external area together with imbricates built by Pa-
leogeneBadenian sedimentary sequences of the
Dacic basin were involved in high angle thrust
structures over the Moesian Platform, while the hin-
terland area reacted as a rigid crustal block (Tisia
Dacia unit, Csontos and Nagymarosy, 1998, Fig. 8;
Zweigel et al., 1998) and tectonic and sedimentary
processes followed a more complicated evolution.
This new overview of the Alpine structure and tec-
tono-metamorphic evolution, as well as the revised
terminology for the South Carpathians may constitute
an updated base for future regional-scale correlation
and integration of modern geological information
along the entire European Alpine belt.
Acknowledgements
We are gratefully to all the editorial board of this
volume for inviting us to participate at this special
issue of Tectonophysics. We thank Prof. F. Neubauer
for the constructive and detailed review and sugges-
tions concerning a more accurate presentation of data.
We are grateful to Dr. D. Pana for his help in the
organization of geological data and improvement of
the English text. We also thank to the anonymous
reviewer for the critical comments of the manuscript,
which helped us to have a better exposure of ideas. A
special comment is addressed to Prof. I Balintoni, who
worked a long time together with us in the South
Carpathians, as mentioned in the text and the common
papers listed in references, but a different opinion on
systematic and terminology of the Cretaceous nappe
complexes decided him to avoid the participation at
this presentation.
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