Artist's depiction of a black hole

Hawking radiation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Hawking radiation is black body radiation that is predicted to be emitted
by black holes, due to quantum effects near the event horizon. It is named
after the physicist Stephen a!kin", !ho provided a theoretical ar"ument
for its e#istence in $%&',
($)
and sometimes also after *acob +ekenstein,
!ho predicted that black holes should have a finite, non,zero temperature
and entropy.
(citation needed)
a!kin"'s !ork follo!ed his visit to -osco!
in $%&. !here Soviet scientists /akov 0eldovich and Ale#ei Starobinsky
sho!ed him that accordin" to the quantum mechanical uncertainty
principle, rotatin" black holes should create and emit particles.
(1)
a!kin"
radiation reduces the mass and the ener"y of the black hole and is
therefore also kno!n as black hole evaporation. +ecause of this, black
holes that lose more mass than they "ain throu"h other means are e#pected
to shrink and ultimately vanish. -icro black holes 2-+s3 are predicted to be lar"er net emitters of radiation than
lar"er black holes and should shrink and dissipate faster.
In September 14$4, a si"nal !hich is closely related to black hole a!kin" radiation 2see analo" "ravity3 !as
claimed to have been observed in a laboratory e#periment involvin" optical li"ht pulses, ho!ever the results remain
unverified and debatable.
(.)(')
5ther pro6ects have been launched to look for this radiation !ithin the frame!ork of
analo" "ravity. In *une 1447, 8ASA launched the 9:AS; satellite, !hich !ill search for the terminal "amma,ray
flashes e#pected from evaporatin" primordial black holes. In the event that speculative lar"e e#tra dimension theories
are correct, <=>8's :ar"e adron <ollider may be able to create micro black holes and observe their
evaporation.
(?)(@)(&)(7)(%)
Contents
$ 5vervie!
1 ;rans,Alanckian problem
. =mission process
' +lack hole evaporation
? :ar"e e#tra dimensions
@ =#perimental observation of a!kin" radiation
& See also
7 8otes
% Further readin"
$4 =#ternal links
Overview
+lack holes are sites of immense "ravitational attraction. <lassically, the "ravitation is so po!erful that nothin", not
even electroma"netic radiation 2oversimplified in many descriptions as Bli"htB3, can escape from the black hole. It is
yet unkno!n ho! "ravity can be incorporated into quantum mechanics, nevertheless, far from the black hole the
"ravitational effects can be !eak enou"h for calculations to be reliably performed in the frame!ork of quantum field
theory in curved spacetime. a!kin" sho!ed that quantum effects allo! black holes to emit e#act black body
radiation, !hich is the avera"e thermal radiation emitted by an idealized thermal source kno!n as a black body. ;he
electroma"netic radiation is as if it !ere emitted by a black body !ith a temperature that is inversely proportional to
the black hole's mass.
Ahysical insi"ht into the process may be "ained by ima"inin" that particle,antiparticle radiation is emitted from 6ust
beyond the event horizon. ;his radiation does not come directly from the black hole itself, but rather is a result of
virtual particles bein" BboostedB by the black hole's "ravitation into becomin" real particles.
($4)
A sli"htly more precise, but still much simplified, vie! of the process is that vacuum fluctuations cause a particle,
antiparticle pair to appear close to the event horizon of a black hole. 5ne of the pair falls into the black hole !hilst
the other escapes. In order to preserve total ener"y, the particle that fell into the black hole must have had a ne"ative
ener"y 2!ith respect to an observer far a!ay from the black hole3. +y this process, the black hole loses mass, and,
to an outside observer, it !ould appear that the black hole has 6ust emitted a particle. In another model, the process
is a quantum tunnelin" effect, !hereby particle,antiparticle pairs !ill form from the vacuum, and one !ill tunnel
outside the event horizon.
($4)
An important difference bet!een the black hole radiation as computed by a!kin" and thermal radiation emitted
from a black body is that the latter is statistical in nature, and only its avera"e satisfies !hat is kno!n as Alanck's la!
of black body radiation, !hile the former fits the data better. ;hus thermal radiation contains information about the
body that emitted it, !hile a!kin" radiation seems to contain no such information, and depends only on the mass,
an"ular momentum, and char"e of the black hole 2the no,hair theorem3. ;his leads to the black hole information
parado#.
o!ever, accordin" to the con6ectured "au"e,"ravity duality 2also kno!n as the AdSC<F; correspondence3, black
holes in certain cases 2and perhaps in "eneral3 are equivalent to solutions of quantum field theory at a non,zero
temperature. ;his means that no information loss is e#pected in black holes 2since no such loss e#ists in the quantum
field theory3, and the radiation emitted by a black hole is probably the usual thermal radiation. If this is correct, then
a!kin"'s ori"inal calculation should be corrected, thou"h it is not kno!n ho! 2see belo!3.
A black hole of one solar mass has a temperature of only @4 nanokelvin 2@4 billionths of a kelvin3D in fact, such a
black hole !ould absorb far more cosmic micro!ave back"round radiation than it emits. A black hole of
'.? E $4
11
k" 2about the mass of the -oon3 !ould be in equilibrium at 1.& kelvin, absorbin" as much radiation as it
emits. /et smaller primordial black holes !ould emit more than they absorb, and thereby lose
mass
(citation needed)
.
($4)
Trans-Planckian problem
;he trans,Alanckian problem is the observation that a!kin"'s ori"inal calculation requires talkin" about quantum
particles in !hich the !avelen"th becomes shorter than the Alanck len"th near the black hole's horizon. It is due to
the peculiar behavior near a "ravitational horizon !here time stops as measured from far a!ay. A particle emitted
from a black hole !ith a finite frequency, if traced back to the horizon, must have had an infinite frequency there and
a trans,Alanckian !avelen"th.
;he Fnruh effect and the a!kin" effect both talk about field modes in the superficially stationary space,time that
chan"e frequency relative to other coordinates !hich are re"ular across the horizon. ;his is necessarily so, since to
stay outside a horizon requires acceleration !hich constantly Goppler shifts the modes.
An out"oin" a!kin" radiated photon, if the mode is traced back in time, has a frequency !hich diver"es from that
!hich it has at "reat distance, as it "ets closer to the horizon, !hich requires the !avelen"th of the photon to Bscrunch
upB infinitely at the horizon of the black hole. In a ma#imally e#tended e#ternal Sch!arzschild solution, that photon's
frequency only stays re"ular if the mode is e#tended back into the past re"ion !here no observer can "o. ;hat re"ion
doesn't seem to be observable and is physically suspect, so a!kin" used a black hole solution !ithout a past re"ion
!hich forms at a finite time in the past. In that case, the source of all the out"oin" photons can be identifiedHit is a
microscopic point ri"ht at the moment that the black hole first formed.
;he quantum fluctuations at that tiny point, in a!kin"'s ori"inal calculation, contain all the out"oin" radiation. ;he
modes that eventually contain the out"oin" radiation at lon" times are redshifted by such a hu"e amount by their lon"
so6ourn ne#t to the event horizon, that they start off as modes !ith a !avelen"th much shorter than the Alanck len"th.
Since the la!s of physics at such short distances are unkno!n, some find a!kin"'s ori"inal calculation
unconvincin".
($$)($1)($.)($')($?)($@)
;he trans,Alanckian problem is no!adays mostly considered a mathematical artifact of horizon calculations.
($')($&)
;he same effect occurs for re"ular matter fallin" onto a !hite hole solution. -atter !hich falls on the !hite hole
accumulates on it, but has no future re"ion into !hich it can "o. ;racin" the future of this matter, it is compressed
onto the final sin"ular endpoint of the !hite hole evolution, into a trans,Alanckian re"ion. ;he reason for these types
of diver"ences is that modes !hich end at the horizon from the point of vie! of outside coordinates are sin"ular in
frequency there. ;he only !ay to determine !hat happens classically is to e#tend in some other coordinates that
cross the horizon.
;here e#ist alternative physical pictures !hich "ive the a!kin" radiation in !hich the trans,Alanckian problem is
addressed. ;he key point is that similar trans,Alanckian problems occur !hen the modes occupied !ith Fnruh
radiation are traced back in time.
($7)
In the Fnruh effect, the ma"nitude of the temperature can be calculated from
ordinary -inko!ski field theory, and is not controversial.
Emission process
a!kin" radiation is required by the Fnruh effect and the equivalence principle applied to black hole horizons. <lose
to the event horizon of a black hole, a local observer must accelerate to keep from fallin" in. An acceleratin"
observer sees a thermal bath of particles that pop out of the local acceleration horizon, turn around, and free,fall
back in. ;he condition of local thermal equilibrium implies that the consistent e#tension of this local thermal bath has a
finite temperature at infinity, !hich implies that some of these particles emitted by the horizon are not reabsorbed and
become out"oin" a!kin" radiation.
($7)
A Sch!arzschild black hole has a metric
;he black hole is the back"round spacetime for a quantum field theory.
;he field theory is defined by a local path inte"ral, so if the boundary conditions at the horizon are determined, the
state of the field outside !ill be specified. ;o find the appropriate boundary conditions, consider a stationary
observer 6ust outside the horizon at position . ;he local metric to lo!est order is
!hich is >indler in terms of and . ;he metric describes a frame that is acceleratin" to keep
from fallin" into the black hole. ;he local acceleration diver"es as .
;he horizon is not a special boundary, and ob6ects can fall in. So the local observer should feel accelerated in
ordinary -inko!ski space by the principle of equivalence. ;he near,horizon observer must see the field e#cited at a
local inverse temperature
this is the Fnruh effect.
;he "ravitational redshift is by the square root of the time component of the metric. So for the field theory state to
consistently e#tend, there must be a thermal back"round every!here !ith the local temperature redshift,matched to
the near horizon temperatureI
;he inverse temperature redshifted to r' at infinity is
and is the near,horizon position, near , so this is really
So a field theory defined on a black hole back"round is in a thermal state !hose temperature at infinity is
;his can be e#pressed more cleanly in terms of the surface "ravity of the black holeD this is the parameter that
determines the acceleration of a near,horizon observer. In natural units 2 3, the
temperature is
!here is the surface "ravity of the horizon. So a black hole can only be in equilibrium !ith a "as of radiation at a
finite temperature. Since radiation incident on the black hole is absorbed, the black hole must emit an equal amount
to maintain detailed balance. ;he black hole acts as a perfect blackbody radiatin" at this temperature.
In SI units, the radiation from a Sch!arzschild black hole is black,body radiation !ith temperature
!here is the reduced Alanck constant, c is the speed of li"ht, k
+
is the +oltzmann constant, G is the "ravitational
constant, and M is the mass of the black hole.
From the black hole temperature, it is strai"htfor!ard to calculate the black hole entropy. ;he chan"e in entropy
!hen a quantity of heat dQ is added is
;he heat ener"y that enters serves increase the total mass, so
.
;he radius of a black hole is t!ice its mass in natural units, so the entropy of a black hole is proportional to its
surface areaI
Assumin" that a small black hole has zero entropy, the inte"ration constant is zero. Formin" a black hole is the most
efficient !ay to compress mass into a re"ion, and this entropy is also a bound on the information content of any
sphere in space time. ;he form of the result stron"ly su""ests that the physical description of a "ravitatin" theory can
be someho! encoded onto a boundin" surface.
Black hole evaporation
When particles escape, the black hole loses a small amount of its ener"y and therefore of its mass 2mass and ener"y
are related by =instein's equation E = mc3.
;he po!er emitted by a black hole in the form of a!kin" radiation can easily be estimated for the simplest case of
a nonrotatin", non,char"ed Sch!arzschild black hole of mass . <ombinin" the formulas for the Sch!arzschild
radius of the black hole, the StefanH+oltzmann la! of black,body radiation, the above formula for the temperature of
the radiation, and the formula for the surface area of a sphere 2the black hole's event horizon3, equation derivationI
StefanH+oltzmann constantI
Sch!arzschild radiusI
+lack hole surface "ravity at the horizonI
a!kin" radiation has a black,body 2Alanck3 spectrum !ith a temperature ; "iven byI
a!kin" radiation temperatureI
Sch!arzschild sphere surface area of Sch!arzschild radius I
StefanH+oltzmann po!er la!I
A black hole is a perfect black,bodyI
StefanH+oltzmannHSch!arzschildHa!kin" black hole radiation po!er la! derivationI
StefanH+oltzmann,Sch!arzschild,a!kin" po!er la!I
Where is the ener"y outflo!, is the reduced Alanck constant, is the speed of li"ht, and is the "ravitational
constant. It is !orth mentionin" that the above formula has not yet been derived in the frame!ork of semiclassical
"ravity.
;he po!er in the a!kin" radiation from a solar mass 2 3 black hole turns out to be a minuscule % E
$4
J1%
!atts. It is indeed an e#tremely "ood appro#imation to call such an ob6ect 'black'.
Fnder the assumption of an other!ise empty universe, so that no matter or cosmic micro!ave back"round radiation
falls into the black hole, it is possible to calculate ho! lon" it !ould take for the black hole to dissipateI
9iven that the po!er of the a!kin" radiation is the rate of evaporation ener"y loss of the black holeI
Since the total ener"y = of the black hole is related to its mass - by =instein's mass,ener"y formulaI
We can then equate this to our above e#pression for the po!erI
;his differential equation is separable, and !e can !riteI
;he black hole's mass is no! a function M2t3 of time t. Inte"ratin" over - from 2the initial mass of the black
hole3 to zero 2complete evaporation3, and over t from zero to I
;he evaporation time of a black hole is proportional to the cube of its massI
;he time that the black hole takes to dissipate isI
Where is the mass of the black hole.
;he lo!er classical quantum limit for mass for this equation is equivalent to the Alanck mass, .
Alanck mass quantum black hole a!kin" radiation evaporation timeI
Where is the Alanck time.
For a black hole of one solar mass 2 K $.%77%1 E $4
.4
k"3, !e "et an evaporation time of 1.4%7 E $4
@&
years
Lmuch lon"er than the current a"e of the universe at $..&. M 4.$1 # $4
%
years.
+ut for a black hole of $4
$$
k", the evaporation time is 1.@@& billion years. ;his is !hy some astronomers are
searchin" for si"ns of e#plodin" primordial black holes.
o!ever, since the universe contains the cosmic micro!ave back"round radiation, in order for the black hole to
dissipate, it must have a temperature "reater than that of the present,day black,body radiation of the universe of 1.&
N K 1.. E $4
J'
eO. ;his implies that must be less than 4.7P of the mass of the =arth.
($%)
<osmic micro!ave back"round radiation universe temperatureI
a!kin" total black hole massI
Where, is the total =arth mass.
In common units,
So, for instance, a $,second,lived black hole has a mass of 1.17 E $4
?
k", equivalent to an ener"y of 1.4? E $4
11
*
that could be released by ? E $4
@
me"atons of ;8;. ;he initial po!er is @.7' E $4
1$
W.
+lack hole evaporation has several si"nificant consequencesI
+lack hole evaporation produces a more consistent vie! of black hole thermodynamics, by sho!in" ho!
black holes interact thermally !ith the rest of the universe.
Fnlike most ob6ects, a black hole's temperature increases as it radiates a!ay mass. ;he rate of temperature
increase is e#ponential, !ith the most likely endpoint bein" the dissolution of the black hole in a violent burst of
"amma rays. A complete description of this dissolution requires a model of quantum "ravity, ho!ever, as it
occurs !hen the black hole approaches Alanck mass and Alanck radius.
;he simplest models of black hole evaporation lead to the black hole information parado#. ;he information
content of a black hole appears to be lost !hen it dissipates, as under these models the a!kin" radiation is
random 2it has no relation to the ori"inal information3. A number of solutions to this problem have been
proposed, includin" su""estions that a!kin" radiation is perturbed to contain the missin" information, that the
a!kin" evaporation leaves some form of remnant particle containin" the missin" information, and that
information is allo!ed to be lost under these conditions.
Large extra dimensions
Formulae from the previous section are only applicable if la!s of "ravity are appro#imately valid all the !ay do!n to
the Alanck scale. In particular, for black holes !ith masses belo! Alanck mass 2Q$4
J?
"3, they result in unphysical
lifetimes belo! Alanck time 2Q$4
J'.
s3. ;his is normally seen as an indication that Alanck mass is the lo!er limit on
the mass of a black hole.
In the model !ith lar"e e#tra dimensions, values of Alanck constants can be radically different, and formulas for
a!kin" radiation have to be modified as !ell. In particular, the lifetime of a micro black hole 2!ith radius belo! the
scale of e#tra dimensions3 is "iven by
!here is the lo! ener"y scale 2!hich could be as lo! as a fe! ;eO3, and n is the number of lar"e e#tra
dimensions. ;his formula is no! consistent !ith black holes as li"ht as a fe! ;eO, !ith lifetimes on the order of Bne!
Alanck timeB Q$4
J1@
s.
Experimental observation of Hawking radiation
Fnder e#perimentally achievable conditions for "ravitational systems this effect is too small to be observed directly.
In September 14$4, ho!ever, an e#perimental set,up created a laboratory B!hite hole event horizonB that the
e#perimenters claimed !as sho!n to radiate a!kin" radiation,
(14)
althou"h its status as a "enuine confirmation
remains in doubt.
(1$)
Some scientists predict that a!kin" radiation could be studied by analo"y usin" sonic black
holes, in !hich sound perturbations are analo"ous to li"ht in a "ravitational black hole and the flo! of an
appro#imately perfect fluid is analo"ous to "ravity.
(11)
ee also
+lack hole information parado#
+lack hole thermodynamics
;rans,Alanckian problem
Ruantum "ravity
!otes
$. " <harlie >oseI A conversation !ith Gr. Stephen a!kin" S :ucy a!kin"
2httpICC!!!.charlierose.comC"uestCvie!C@1%'3
1. " A Brief History of Time, Stephen a!kin", +antam +ooks, $%77.
.. " a!kin" radiation from ultrashort laser pulse filaments AuthorsI F. +el"iorno, S.:. <acciatori, -. <lerici, O.
9orini, 9. 5rtenzi, :. >izzi, =. >ubino, O.9. Sala, G. Faccio httpICCar#iv.or"CabsC$44%.'@.'
'. " :isa 9rossman 21% September 14$43. BFltrafast :aser Aulse -akes Gesktop +lack ole 9lo!B
2httpICC!!!.!ired.comC!iredscienceC14$4C4%Cha!kin",radiation,in,the,labC3 . Wired.
httpICC!!!.!ired.comC!iredscienceC14$4C4%Cha!kin",radiation,in,the,labC. >etrieved .4 April 14$1.
?. " S.+. 9iddin"s and S.G. ;homas, Bi"h,ener"y colliders as black hole factoriesI ;he =nd of short distance
physics,B arTivIhep,phC4$4@1$% 2httpICCarTiv.or"CabsChep,phC4$4@1$%3 , Ahys. >ev. G@?I4?@4$4 214413
2httpICCprola.aps.or"CabstractCA>GCv@?Ci?Ce4?@4$43 .
@. " S. Gimopoulos and 9.:. :andsber", B+lack holes at the :<B, arTivIhep,phC4$4@1%? 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsChep,
phC4$4@1%?3 , Ahys. >ev. :ett. 7&I$@$@41 2144$3 2httpICCprola.aps.or"CabstractCA>:Cv7&Ci$@Ce$@$@413
&. " B<=>8 courier , The case for mini black holes. No !""#B 2httpICCcerncourier.comCc!sCarticleCcernC1%$%%3 .
httpICCcerncourier.comCc!sCarticleCcernC1%$%%.
7. " American Institute of Ahysics +ulletin of Ahysics 8e!s, 8umber ??7, September 1@, 144$, by Ahillip F. Sche!e,
+en Stein, and *ames >iordon
%. " enderson, -ark 2September %, 14473. BStephen a!kin"s ?4 bet on the !orld the universe and the 9od particleB
2httpICC!!!.timesonline.co.ukCtolCne!sCukCscienceCarticle'&$?&@$.ece3 . The Times 2:ondon3.
httpICC!!!.timesonline.co.ukCtolCne!sCukCscienceCarticle'&$?&@$.ece. >etrieved -ay ', 14$4.
$4. U
a

b

c
Numar, N. 8. A.D Nirana"i, +. S.D +a"e!adi, <. S.. doiI$4..%@7C6.ans.$&$?&7&414$14?41.$7$&
2httpICCd#.doi.or"C$4..%@7P1F6.ans.$&$?&7&414$14?41.$7$&3 .
$$. " Adam G. elferI Go black holes radiateV 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsC"r,qcC4.4'4'13
$1. " 9. 't ooft, 8uclear Ahys +1?@, &1& 2$%7?3
$.. " ;. *acobson, Ahys >evie! G '' $&.$ 2$%%$3
$'. U
a

b
httpICC!!!.fys.ruu.nlCQ!!!theClecturesCitfuu,4$%@.ps 2p.'@3
$?. " >. +rout, S. -assar, >. Aarentani, Ah. Spindel, Ha$kin% radiation $itho&t trans'(lanckian fre)&encies, Ahys.
>ev. G ?1, '??% , '?@7 2$%%?3
$@. " elfer, Adam G. Trans'(lanckian Modes* Back'+eaction* and the Ha$kin% (rocess, httpICCar#iv.or"CabsC"r,
qcC44474$@
$&. " Analo" 9ravity 2httpICCrelativity.livin"revie!s.or"CopenVpub8oKlrr,144?,$1Spa"eKarticlesu$$.html3
$7. U
a

b
For an alternative derivation and more detailed discussion of a!kin" radiation as a form of Fnruh radiation
$7. U For an alternative derivation and more detailed discussion of a!kin" radiation as a form of Fnruh radiation
see +ryce de Witt's chapter Q&ant&m %raity, the ne$ synthesis p" c.@%@ in General +elatiity, An Einstein
-entenary eds S a!kin" and W Israel, IS+8 4,?1$,1%%17,'
$%. " (astro,phC%%$$.4%) ;he :ast =i"ht -inutes of a Arimordial +lack ole 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsCastro,phC%%$$.4%3
14. " BFirst 5bservation of a!kin" >adiationB 2httpICC!!!.technolo"yrevie!.comCblo"Car#ivC1?74?C3 from the
Technolo%y +eie$
1$. " -atson, *ohn 25ct. $ 14$43. BArtificial event horizon emits laboratory analo" to theoretical black hole radiationB
2httpICC!!!.scientificamerican.comCarticle.cfmVidKha!kin",radiation3 . .ci. Am.
httpICC!!!.scientificamerican.comCarticle.cfmVidKha!kin",radiation.
11. " <. +arcelW, S. :iberati and -. Oisser, X;o!ards the observation of a!kin" radiation in +oseH=instein
condensates,Y arTivI"r,qcC4$$44.@ 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsC"r,qcC4$$44.@3 Int. *. -od. Ahys. A $7, .&.? 2144.3 .
#$rther reading
a!kin", S. W. 2$%&'3. B+lack hole e#plosionsVB. Nat&re %&' 2?''.3I .4. +ibcode $%&'8atur.1'7....4
2httpICCadsabs.harvard.eduCabsC$%&'8atur.1'7....43 . doiI$4.$4.7C1'74.4a4
2httpICCd#.doi.or"C$4.$4.7P1F1'74.4a43 . Z a!kin"'s first article on the topic
Aa"e, Gon 8. 2$%&@3. BAarticle emission rates from a black holeI -assless particles from an unchar"ed,
nonrotatin" holeB. (hysical +eie$ / () 213I $%7H14@. +ibcode $%&@Ah>vG..$...$%7A
2httpICCadsabs.harvard.eduCabsC$%&@Ah>vG..$...$%7A3 . doiI$4.$$4.CAhys>evG.$..$%7
2httpICCd#.doi.or"C$4.$$4.P1FAhys>evG.$..$%73 . Z first detailed studies of the evaporation mechanism
<arr, +. *.D a!kin", S. W. 2$%&'3. B+lack holes in the early universeB. Monthly Notices of the +oyal
Astronomical .ociety (*' 213I .%%H'$?. +ibcode $%&'-8>AS.$@7...%%<
2httpICCadsabs.harvard.eduCabsC$%&'-8>AS.$@7...%%<3 . Z links bet!een primordial black holes and the
early universe
+arrau, A.D et al. 214413. BAntiprotons from primordial black holesB. Astronomy 0 Astro1hysics )'' 213I
@&@H@7&. arTivIastro,phC4$$1'7@ 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsCastro,phC4$$1'7@3 . +ibcode
1441ASA....77..@&@+ 2httpICCadsabs.harvard.eduCabsC1441ASA....77..@&@+3 . doiI$4.$4?$C444',
@.@$I14414.$. 2httpICCd#.doi.or"C$4.$4?$P1F444',@.@$P.A14414.$.3 .
+arrau, A.D et al. 2144.3. BAntideuterons as a probe of primordial black holesB. Astronomy 0 Astro1hysics
)+' 213I '4.H'$4. arTivIastro,phC414&.%? 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsCastro,phC414&.%?3 . +ibcode
144.ASA....%7..'4.+ 2httpICCadsabs.harvard.eduCabsC144.ASA....%7..'4.+3 . doiI$4.$4?$C444',
@.@$I1441$?77 2httpICCd#.doi.or"C$4.$4?$P1F444',@.@$P.A1441$?773 .
+arrau, A.D F[ron, <.D 9rain, *. 2144?3. BAstrophysical Aroduction of -icroscopic +lack oles in a :o!H
Alanck,Scale WorldB. American Astronomical .ociety *), 213I $4$?H$4$%. arTivIastro,phC4?4?'.@
2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsCastro,phC4?4?'.@3 . +ibcode 144?Ap*...@.4.$4$?+
2httpICCadsabs.harvard.eduCabsC144?Ap*...@.4.$4$?+3 . doiI$4.$47@C'.14..
2httpICCd#.doi.or"C$4.$47@P1F'.14..3 . Z e#perimental searches for primordial black holes thanks to the
emitted antimatter
+arrau, A.D +oudoul, 9.. BSome aspects of primordial black hole physicsB. arTivIastro,phC41$111?
2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsCastro,phC41$111?3 . Z cosmolo"y !ith primordial black holes
+arrau, A.D 9rain, *.D Ale#eyev, S. 5. 2144'3. B9aussH+onnet black holes at the :<I beyond the
dimensionality of spaceB. (hysics 2etters B -'& 2$H13I $$'H$11. arTivIhep,phC4.$$1.7
2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsChep,phC4.$$1.73 . +ibcode 144'Ah:+..?7'..$$'+
2httpICCadsabs.harvard.eduCabsC144'Ah:+..?7'..$$'+3 . doiI$4.$4$@C6.physletb.144'.4$.4$%
2httpICCd#.doi.or"C$4.$4$@P1F6.physletb.144'.4$.4$%3 . Z searches for ne! physics 2quantum "ravity3 !ith
primordial black holes
Nanti, Aana"iota 2144'3. B+lack oles in ;heories !ith :ar"e =#tra GimensionsI a >evie!B. 3nternational
4o&rnal of Modern (hysics A (+ 21%3I '7%%H'%?$. arTivIhep,phC4'41$@7 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsChep,
phC4'41$@73 . +ibcode 144'I*-AA..$%.'7%%N 2httpICCadsabs.harvard.eduCabsC144'I*-AA..$%.'7%%N3 .
doiI$4.$$'1CS41$&&?$T4'4$7.1' 2httpICCd#.doi.or"C$4.$$'1P1FS41$&&?$T4'4$7.1'3 . Z evaporatin"
black holes and e#tra,dimensions
G. Ida, N.,y. 5da S S.<.Aark, Ahys. >ev. G@& 2144.3 4@'41? 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsChep,thC41$1$47,3
,Ahys. >ev. G&$ 2144?3 $1'4.% 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsChep,thC4?4.4?1,3 ,($) 2httpICCar#iv.or"CabsChep,
thC4@41$773 I determination of black hole's life and e#tra,dimensions
8. 8icolaevici, *. Ahys. AI -ath. 9en. .@ 2144.3 &@@&,&@&& (1) 2httpICC!!!.iop.or"C=*CabstractC4.4?,
''&4C.@C1&C.$&C3 I consistent derivation of the a!kin" radiation in the Fullin",Gavies mirror model.
:. Smolin, Ruantum "ravity faces reality 2httpICC!!!.physicstoday.or"Cvol,?%Ciss,
$$CpdfCvol?%no$$p''\'7.pdf3 , consists of the recent developments and predictions of loop quantum "ravity
about "ravity in small scales includin" the deviation from a!kin" radiation effect by Ansari Spectroscopy of
a canonically quantized horizon 2httpICCar#iv.or"Chep,thC4@4&47$3 .
-. Ansari, Area, ladder symmetry, de"eneracy and fluctuations of a horizon 2httpICC###.lanl."ovCabsChep,
thC4@4&47$3 studies the deviation of a loop quantized black hole from a!kin" radiation. A novel observable
quantum effect of black hole quantization is introduced.
Stuart :. Shapiro, Saul A. ;eukolsky 2$%7.3, +lack holes, !hite d!arfs, and neutron starsI ;he physics of
compact ob6ects. p. .@@ Wiley,Interscience, a!kin" radiation evaporation formula derivation.
:eonhardt, FlfD -aia, <lovisD Schuetzhold, >alf 214$43. BFocus on <lassical and Ruantum Analo"s for
9ravitational Ahenomena and >elated =ffectsB 2httpICCiopscience.iop.or"C$.@&,
1@.4CfocusCFocusP14onP14<lassicalP14andP14RuantumP14Analo"uesP14forP149ravitationalP14Ah
enomenaP14andP14>elatedP14=ffects3 . Ne$ 4o&rnal of (hysics. httpICCiopscience.iop.or"C$.@&,
1@.4CfocusCFocusP14onP14<lassicalP14andP14RuantumP14Analo"uesP14forP149ravitationalP14Ah
enomenaP14andP14>elatedP14=ffects.
External links
a!kin" radiation calculator tool 2httpICC#aonon.dyndns.or"Cha!kin"C3
;he case for mini black holes 2httpICC!!!.cerncourier.comCmainCarticleC''C%C113 A. +arrau S *. "rain e#plain
ho! the a!kin" radiation could be detected at colliders
Fniversity of <olorado at +oulder 2httpICCcasa.colorado.eduCQa6shCha!k.html3
a!kin" radiation on ar#iv.or" 2httpICC#structure.inr.ac.ruC#,binCtheme..pyVlevelK$Sinde#$K''7&.13
a!kin" radiation observed in laboratoryV 2httpICCne!s.slashdot.or"CstoryC$4C4%C1&C$1?@1.@Ca!kin",
>adiation,<laimed,<reated,In,a,:ab3
>etrieved from BhttpICCen.!ikipedia.or"C!Cinde#.phpVtitleKa!kin"\radiationSoldidK?$&$?41$?B
<ate"oriesI +lack holes Ruantum field theory Stephen a!kin"
;his pa"e !as last modified on $$ 5ctober 14$1 at 4&I4%.
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