AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

According to the current Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
part 1, Definitions and Abbreviations, an aircraft is a device that is used, or
intended to be used, for flight. Categories of aircraft for certification of airen
include airplane, rotorcraft, lighter!than!air, po"ered!lift, and glider. #art 1 also
defines airplane as an engine!driven, fi$ed!"ing aircraft heavier than air that is
supported in flight b% the d%naic reaction of air against its "ings. This chapter
provides a brief introduction to the airplane and its a&or coponents.
MAJOR COMPONENTS
Although airplanes are designed for a variet% of purposes, ost of the have
the sae a&or coponents. The overall characteristics are largel% deterined
b% the original design ob&ectives. 'ost airplane structures include a fuselage,
"ings, an epennage, landing gear, and a po"erplant.


FUSELAGE
The fuselage includes the cabin and(or coc)pit, "hich contains seats for the
occupants and the controls for the airplane. *n addition, the fuselage a% also
provide roo for cargo and attachent points for the other a&or airplane
coponents. +oe aircraft utili,e an open truss structure. The truss!t%pe
fuselage is constructed of steel or aluinu tubing. +trength and rigidit% is
achieved b% "elding the tubing together into a series of triangular shapes,
called trusses.
-Figure 1!./
Wing
Landing Gear
Powerplant
Empennage
Fuselage

Construction of the 0arren truss features longerons, as "ell as diagonal and
vertical "eb ebers. To reduce "eight, sall airplanes generall% utili,e
aluinu allo% tubing, "hich a% be riveted or bolted into one piece "ith cross!
bracing ebers.
As technolog% progressed, aircraft designers began to enclose the truss
ebers to strealine the airplane and iprove perforance. This "as
originall% accoplished "ith cloth fabric, "hich eventuall% gave "a% to
light"eight etals such as aluinu. *n soe cases, the outside s)in can
support all or a a&or portion of the flight loads. 'ost odern aircraft use a for
of this stressed s)in structure )no"n as onoco1ue or seionoco1ue
construction.
The monocoue design uses stressed s)in to support alost all iposed
loads. This structure can be ver% strong but cannot tolerate dents or
deforation of the surface. This characteristic is easil% deonstrated b% a thin
aluinu beverage can. 2ou can e$ert considerable force to the ends of the
can "ithout causing an% daage.
3o"ever, if the side of the can is dented onl% slightl%, the can "ill collapse
easil%. The true onoco1ue construction ainl% consists of the s)in, forers,
and bul)heads. The forers and bul)heads provide shape for the fuselage.
-Figure 1!4/

+ince no bracing ebers are present, the s)in ust be strong enough to )eep
the fuselage rigid. Thus, a significant proble involved in onoco1ue
construction is aintaining enough strength "hile )eeping the "eight "ithin
allo"able liits. Due to the liitations of the onoco1ue design, a sei!
onoco1ue structure is used on an% of toda%5s aircraft.
The semi!monocoue s%ste uses a substructure to "hich the airplane5s s)in
is attached. The substructure, "hich consists of bul)heads and(or forers of
various si,es and stringers, reinforces the stressed s)in b% ta)ing soe of the
bending stress fro the fuselage.
The ain section of the fuselage also includes "ing attachent points and a
fire"all. -Figure 1!4/

6n single!engine airplanes, the engine is usuall% attached to the front of the
fuselage. There is a fireproof partition bet"een the rear of the engine and the
coc)pit or cabin to protect the pilot and passengers fro accidental engine fires.
This partition is called a fire"all and is usuall% ade of heat!resistant aterial
such as stainless steel.
"INGS
The "ings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the ain
lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are nuerous "ing
designs, si,es, and shapes used b% the various anufacturers.
7ach fulfills a certain need "ith respect to the e$pected perforance for the
particular airplane.
3o" the "ing produces lift is e$plained in subse1uent chapters.
0ings a% be attached at the top, iddle, or lo"er portion of the fuselage.
These designs are referred to as high!, id!, and lo"!"ing, respectivel%. The
nuber of "ings can also var%. Airplanes "ith a single set of "ings are referred
to as monoplanes, "hile those "ith t"o sets are called #iplanes. -Figure 1!8/
'an% high!"ing airplanes have e$ternal braces, or "ing struts, "hich transit
the flight and landing loads through the struts to the ain fuselage structure.
+ince the "ing struts are usuall% attached appro$iatel% half"a% out on the
"ing, this t%pe of "ing structure is called sei!cantilever. A fe" high!"ing and
ost lo"!"ing airplanes have a full cantilever "ing designed to carr% the loads
"ithout e$ternal struts.
Figure 1-5. Monoplane and biplane.
The principal structural parts of the "ing are spars, ribs, and stringers. -Figure
1!9/ These are reinforced b% trusses, *!beas, tubing, or other devices,
including the s)in. The "ing ribs deterine the shape and thic)ness of the "ing
(airfoil). *n ost odern airplanes, the fuel tan)s either are an integral part of
the "ing5s structure, or consist of fle$ible containers ounted inside of the "ing.
Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the "ings are t"o t%pes of control
surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons e$tend fro about the
idpoint of each "ing out"ard to"ard the tip and ove in opposite directions to
create aerod%naic forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps e$tend out"ard
fro the fuselage to near the idpoint of each "ing. The flaps are norall%
flush "ith the "ing5s surface during cruising flight. 0hen e$tended, the flaps
ove siultaneousl% do"n"ard to increase the lifting force of the "ing for
ta)eoffs and landings.