Oxidation State/number (Valence)

 positive or negative numbers assigned to elements

 combining capacity of an atom
 it tells the number of elections that an atom can donate or gain to become stable

Criss-cross method
 the oxidation number/ charge of one substance becomes the subscript of the other

Cations – positive oxidation numbers

2 methods to name cations:
 Stock system
o Common method which uses Roman numerals to indicate the charges of the ions
 Classical system
o Uses the root word of the metal and the suffix
 -ous – for lower oxidation numbers
 -ic – for higher oxidation numbers
2 types of cations:
 Monoatomic ions – single atoms
 Polyatomic ions – more than one atom

Names of Metal Ions with Variable Oxidation Numbers

Formula Stock Name Classical Name
Cr2+ Chromium (II) ion Chromous ion
Cr3+ Chromium (III) ion Chromic ion
Co2+ Cobalt (II) ion Cobaltous ion
Co3+ Cobalt (III) ion Cobaltic ion
Cu1+ Copper (I) ion Cuprous ion
Pb2+ Lead (II) ion Plumbous ion
Pb4+ Lead (IV) ion Plumbic ion
Hg22+ Mercury (I) ion Mercurous ion
Hg2+ Mercury (II) ion Mercuric ion
Sn2+ Tin (II) ion Stannous ion
Sn4+ Tin (IV) ion Stannic ion
Fe2+ Iron (II) ion Ferrous ion
Fe3+ Iron (III) ion Ferric ion
Mn2+ Manganese (II) ion Manganous ion
Mn3+ Manganese (III) ion Manganic ion

Anions – negative oxidation numbers

Naming Anions:
 monoatomic nonmetallic anions – dropping the ending of the elements and adding the eding –ide
 polyatomic anions containing oxygen (oxyanions)
o series of oxyanions that extends to 2 ions
 –ate – higher oxygen
 – ite – lower oxygen
o Series of oxyanions that extends to 4 ions
 4 oxygen – prefix : per- ; suffix : -ate
 3 oxygen – suffix : -ite
 2 oxygen – suffix : -ate
 1 oxygen – prefix : hypo- ; suffix : -ite
o For polyatomic oxyanions that begin with H, prefixes like hydrogen are used for H and dihydrogen
for 2H

Common Polyatomic Ions and Their Charges

1- 2-
Formula Name Formula Name
H2PO4 Dihydrogen phosphate HPO4 Hydrogen phosphate
C2H3O2 Acetate S2O3 Thiosulfate
HSO4 Hydrogen sulfate SO4 Sulfate
HSO3 Hydrogen sulfite SO3 Sulfite
HCO3 Hydrogen carbonate CO3 Carbonate
ClO3 Chlorate Cr2O7 Dichromate
ClO3 Chlorate CrO4 Chromate
ClO2 Chlorite O2O4 Oxalate
ClO Hypochlorite C4H4O6 Tartrate
 NO3 Nitrate 3-
NO2 Nitrite PO4 Phosphate
MnO4 Permanganate PO3 Phosphite
CNO Cyanate AsO4 Arsenate
SCN Thiocyanide AsO3 Arsenite
CN Cyanide BO3 Borate
4- AlO3 Aluminate
P2O7 Pyrophosphate
As2O7 Pyroarsenate
SiO4 Orthosilicate

Binary compounds – composed of two elements

Naming Binary Compounds
 Metal and a nonmetal – write the name of the metal, followed by the name of the nonmetal, modified to end
in –ide
 Binary compounds that contain metals with variable oxidations numbers – copy the classical or stock system
of the metal, foloowed by the name of the nonmetal, modified to end in –ide
 2 Nonmetals (Molecular Compound) – write the cation first followed by the anion (place prefixes in naming
compounds of nonmetals)

Prefixes Used in Naming

Binary Compounds of
Nonmetals
Prefix Meaning
Mono 1
Di 2
Tri 3
Tetra 4
Penta 5
Hexa 6
Hepta 7
Octa 8
Nona 9
Deca 10

Ternary Compounds – contain atoms of three different elements

Naming Ternary Compounds:
 same rules as for binary compounds are followed. The only difference is that the name of the polyatomic ion
replaces the name of the anion

Acids
Binary Acids – compounds containing hydrogen and nonmetal atoms
2 Types of Binary Acids
 Pure Compound – same as naming binary compounds (hydrogen fluoride)
 Aqueous Solution – named by the prefix hydro- followed by the name of the anion in which it –ide is replaced
by –ic acids (hydrofluoric acid)

Ternary Acids – compounds containing hydrogen and a polyatomic ion

Naming Ternary Acids
 Pure Compound – same as naming ternary compounds (hydrogen nitrite)
 Aqueous Solution (nitric acid)
o the name of the poly atomic ion and any negative prefix is used
o The –ate and –ite are dropped and –ic and –ous acids are respectively added

Bases - Compounds containing a metal ion and a hydroxide polyatomic ion

Naming Bases
 Writing the name of the metal or cation followed by hydroxide

Salt – formed when one or more hydrogen ions of an acid react with one or more hydroxide ions of a base
3 Types of Salt
 binary compounds of metal cations with nonmetal anions (NaCl – sodium chloride)
 Ternary compounds of metal cations or ammonium ions with negative polyatomic ions ((NH 4)SO4 –
ammonium sulfate , Al3PO4 – Aluminum phosphate)

Hydrates – compounds whose formulas contain water molecules (CuSO 4 x 5H2O – copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate)
Chemical reactions – involve change in one or more substances into new substances with different physical and
chemical properties
Reactant – a substance that undergoes a chemical reaction
Product – the substance that is produced
Reactants --> Products

Chemical equation – a short way of describing a chemical reaction in which symbols of the elements and the formulas
of compounds represent the change

Some Symbols Used in Writing Equations

cat
Sample Equation : 2H2O2(aq)  O2 + 2H2O(l)
Symbol Meaning
+ Separate two or more formulas
 Yield(s) or produce(s)
(s) or ↓ Solid or formation of precipitate
(l) Liquid
(g) or ↑ Gas or evolution of gas
(aq) Aqueous
∆ heat
Heat is supplied
 or 
MnO2 cat
 or  Catalyst is used as in the sample equation, MnO2
Catalyst – a substance that hastens a reaction without being used up

Balancing Chemical Equation

Coefficient – a number before the symbol or formula of the substance
 by inspection
o Write the equation using the correct symbols and formulas
o Check that the number of each kind of atom on both sides of the equation is the same. Consider a
polyatomic ion as a group of unchanged unit
o Balance the equation one element at a time by writing the proper coefficient until the equation is
balanced
o Check all the coefficients to see that they are all whole numbers and in the lowest ratio. If the
coefficients are fractions, multiply all coefficients by the same number to make all the fractions
whole number. If the coefficients are divisible by a common factor, divide to obtain the lowest
possible ratio
 By Redox (Reduction-oxidation) Reaction
o Terms
 Redox reaction – is a reaction in which election of an atom in a substance are transferred
to an atom of another substance. It is composed of two half reactions, namely, oxidation
and reduction reactions
 Oxidizing Agent – the substance that contains the atom that has gained electrons
 Oxidation – is a half- reaction that involves loss of electrons resulting to an increase in
the oxidation number
 Oxidized – the atom that has lost electrons
 Reducing Agent – the substance that carries the atom that has lost electrons
 Reduction – is a half-reaction that involves gain of electrons resulting to a decrease of
oxidation number
 Reduced – the atom that has gained electrons
o Rules
 The oxidation number of a free element (uncombined state) is 0
 In a compound, the less electron negative element is given positive oxidation number
while the more electron negative element is given negative oxidation number
 In the formula of a compound, the sum of the positive and negative oxidation number
should be equal to 0
 In polyatomic ions, the sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms present is equal to the
charge of the ion
 In all oxygen compounds, the oxidation number of oxygen per atom is -2. Exceptions are
the peroxides where the oxidation number is -1 and in OF2 where the oxidation number
of oxygen is +2
 The oxidation number of hydrogen in most of its compounds is +1. when hydrogen
combines with metals, its oxidation number is -1
 Elements of groups 1A, 2A, and 3A have positive oxidation number equal to their group
numbers. The maximum positive oxidation number that can be assigned to an elements
is equal to its group number while the maximum negative number assigned to an
 element is equal to its group number. Some elements have variable oxidation numbers
and these are mostly the transition elements
o Example

Oxidized – Al Oxidizing agent – MnO2

Reduced – Mn Reducing agent – Al

Types of Chemical Reactions

 Combination or synthesis reactions – two or more elements or compounds combine to produce a single
product
A + B  AB
Kinds
o metal + oxygen  metallic oxide
o nonmetal + oxygen  acidic oxide
o metal + nonmetal  salts
o metal oxides or basic oxides + water  bases (metallic hydroxides)
o nonmetal oxides or acidic oxides + water  acids
 Decomposition or analysis reactions – a single compound is broken into two or more simple substances
AB  A + B
Kinds
o Oxides  metallic/ acidic oxide + oxygen gas
o Carbonates  Carbon oxide + carbon dioxide
o Substances decomposed by electricity
o Metallic hydroxides  metallic oxides + water
o Acids  nonmetallic oxides + water
o Metallic chlorates  metallic chlorides + oxygen
 Single replacement reactions – more chemically active element displaces a substance below it in the activity
series
A + BC  AC + B
Kinds
o Replacement of a metal by a more active metal (Zn + CuSO 4  Zn SO4 + Cu)
o Replacement of hydrogen in water by metals (Ca + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 + H2)
o Replacement of hydrogen in acids by metals (Zn + H 2SO4  ZnSO4 +H2)
 Double replacement or metabolic reactions – involves the exchange of cations and anions between two
compounds. Replacement reactions can be written as net ionic equations
AB + CD  AD + CB
o Terms
 Spectator ions – the ions that are not directly involved in the reaction
 Net ionic equation – an equation that shows only the particles that actually take part in
the reaction
 Combustion reactions – oxygen is always one of the reactants

Scientific Notation
 A way of expressing very large or very small numbers in exponential form using the powers of 10

General formula : N x 10e

 Where N is equal or more than 1 but not greater than 10
 Where E is any positive or negative integer

Steps
 Determine N by moving the decimal point so that I will be placed after the first nonzero digit
 Multiply N by 10 raised to exponent “e” where “e” is equal to the number of places the decimal point was
moved
o “e” is positive if the decimal point was moved to the left
o “e” is negative if the decimal point was moved to the right

Precision – It tells how close several measurements are to the same value. When this happens, the measurement is
said to be precise, but not necessarily accurate

Accuracy – it tells how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. A measurement that is accurate or has a
high accuracy is one that is close to the true value
Significant Figures
 these are digits that show accuracy and uncertaintly in measurements
14 . 6
Accuracy Uncertain
Rules
 All non zero digits are significant
 Zeros in between nonzero digits are significant
 Zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right also of a nonzero digit are significant
 Zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a nonzero digit are not significant
 When a number ends in zeros, the zeros are not significant unless specifically indicated by a bar line placed
above the rightmost, such zeros are significant
 Powers of 10 in scientific notation have no effect in the number of significant values

Rules in Determining the Sum and Difference

 The sum and difference should have the same place value with the least accurate place value
o 20.25 + 426.002 – 355 = 91.252 = 91

Multiplication and Division

 The product or the quotient should have the same number of significant figure
with the factor that has the least number of significant figures
(25.0)(0.800)(9.20 x 103)
(200)(0.0050)
= 18400 = 20000

Measurement – also a way of comparing two things

Standard measurement – measuring device that you use

Systems
 English/ British – from England, inches, foot, pint, ounce, yard
 Metric system – from France, from the unit meter, based other units from unit meter, meter, km, cm, dm, mm,
g, kg, mg
 International System (SI) – used to express physical quantities in al sciences

SI Base Units
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electrical current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Common Prefixes Used with SI Units

Prefix Symbol Meaning
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Hecto H 102
Deca Da 101
Deci d 10-1
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro μ 10-6
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12

Conversion Factor – a fraction that is equal to one and is used to convert one unit to another

Derived Quantities – quantities whose definitions and unites are taken from the fundamental quantities

Equipments used in measuring

 Spring balance – an instrument used to measure force
 Hygrometer – a device for measuring the relative humidity of air
 Vernier caliper – can be used to measure the outer and inner diameter
 Aneroid barometer – an instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure
 Speedometer – shows the speed of a vehicle