Algebra

Basic Laws
Roots of a quadratic equation

Linear equations
Areas

Volumes
Logarithms

Algebra Formulae

Inequalities
Mensuration of Surfaces

Mensuration of Solids
Trigonometry
Trigonometric Identities Co-Function Identities
Pythagorean Identities Negative Identities
Sum/Difference Formulas Power Reducing
Rules of Sign Sum To Product
Reduction Formulae Product To Sum
alf !ngle "ther Trigonometry Identities
Dou#le !ngle

To$
Trigonometric Identities

To$
!ythagorean Identities

To$
Sum " #ifference Formulas
To$
Rules of Sign
$uadrant sin cos tan
cosec sec cot

I % % %
II % - -
III - - %
I& - % -
To$
Reduction Formulae
Angle"Function sin cos tan
-' -sin ' cos ' -tan '
()*- ' cos ' sin ' cot '
()*% ' cos ' -sin ' -cot '
+,)*- ' sin ' -cos ' -tan '
+,)*% ' -sin ' -cos ' tan '
-.)*% ' -cos ' -sin ' cot '
-.)*% ' -cos ' sin ' -cot '
/0)*% ' -sin ' cos ' -tan '
To$
%alf Angle
To$
#ouble Angle
To$
&o'function Identities
To$
(egati)e Angle Identities
To$
!ower Reducing
To$
Sum To !roduct
To$
!roduct To Sum
To$
*ther Trigonometry Identities

Limits

Definition of limit The Sandwich theorem
The Intermediate &alue Theorem
#efinition of limit
To$
The Intermediate Value Theorem
To$
The Sandwich Theorem
eri)ati)es
Definition of Derivative Rolle1s theorem
Increment 2ean &alue theorem
Differential Newton1s method
Derivatives Derivatives of !lge#raic Functions
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Derivatives of y$er#olic Functions Derivatives of Inverse y$er#olic Functions

#efinition of #eri)ati)e
Increment
#ifferential
#eri)ati)es
Rolle+s Theorem
Mean Value Theorem
(ewton+s Method

#eri)ati)es of Algebraic functions
Let u,-. be differential function with res/ect to - and n0
Let a and 1 be constant0








#efinition of Integral
Basic Integrals

!ower Trigonometric Functions
To$

To$

More Trigonometric Functions


%y/erbolic Functions
n)erse Trig Functions
To$

2-/onential and (atural Log
Integrals In)ol)ing Linear Factors



ntegrals in)ol)ing Trigonometric Functions





#efinition of Integral
Basic Integrals
n)erse Trig Functions
To$

2-/onential and (atural Log
Integrals In)ol)ing a3b-
4.

5.

6.

7.

8.
For ar#itrary $ositive integers m3 n the following reduction formula a$$lies
For m4n-+ the a#ove reduction formula can #e re$laced with

9.

:.

;.



Integrals In)ol)ing
4.

5.
6.

7.

8.

9.
:.
;.

<.

4=.

Integrals in)ol)ing /ower of -


&alculus
The Fundamental Theorem of &alculus

#istance Formula
Riemann Sum
#efinite Integral
Mean Value Theorem for #efinite Integral
%y/erbolic Functions
If f is continuous on 5a3 #6 and a regular $artition of
5a3 #6 is determined #y a=x0, x1, x2, .., xn=b then
Tra/e>oidal Rule
Sim/son+s Rule ,n must be an e)en number.
Mid/oint Rule
#is1 Method
Shell Method
Arc Length
#efinition of #ouble Integral
To$
Volume of the solid that lies under z=f(x,y)


To$
!olar
To$

Surface Area
To$
#efinition of Tri/le Integral

7et T #e a lamina that has sha$e R in the 8y-$lane3 and the density is (x,y)
Mass of T
To$

Moments of T with res/ect to the a-es
To$

&enter of Mass of T
To$

Moments of Inertia of T
To$

9!olar Moment of Inertia:
7et & #e a solid that has sha$e ; and the density is (x,y,z)
Mass
To$
Moments
To$
&enter of Mass
To$

Moments of Inertia
First /artial deri)ati)e of f with res/ect to x and y
Increment
To$
#eri)ati)e
To$
The &hain Rule
To$
#irectional #eri)ati)e
To$
?radient of f =gradf
To$
Test for 2-trema
To$
La?range+s Theorem
Vectors
To$
&auchy'Schwar> Inequality
To$
Triangle Inequality
To$
#ot ,scalar. !roduct
To$
&ross ,)ector. !roduct
Statistics
#efinition
To$
The 8'(umber Summary
2in
;+
2edian
;/
2a8
Inter<uartile Range
I;R 4 ;/ - ;+
"utliers = ;+ > +?@I;R
or
"utliers A ;+ % +?@I;R
To$
@'Score ,standardi>ed )alue of -.
To$
&orrelation
M*TI*(
Motion
The motion is said to #e one dimensional if it taBes $lace on a straight line $ath and can #e descri#ed
with the hel$ of only one s$ace coordinate?
The s/eed is defined as the distance covered #y the #ody $er second or the rate of change of distance with
time? It is a scalar <uantity?

A)erage s/eed
The ratio of the total distance covered and the total time taBen? The unit of s$eed in C?C?S? system is
centimeter $er second and meter $er second in 2?D?S? or S?I? system? Thus3

A)erage Velocity
A)erage )elocity is defined as the total dis$lacement divided #y total time in a $articular direction? Its unit
in C?C?S? system is centimeter $er second and metre $er second in 2?D?S? or S?I? system3 Thus3

Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time? It is a vector <uantity and e8$ressed in
ms
--
? Increase in velocity $er second is acceleration?
The acceleration is uniform if its velocity changes #y e<ual amounts in e<ual intervals of time? It
is )ariable if it changes #y une<ual amounts in e<ual intervals of time? The unit of acceleration in C?C?S?
and 2?D?S? res$ectively centimeter $er sec? and meter $er second $er sec? The dimensions of acceleration
is 7T
--
? The decrease in velocity $er second is retardation?


Acceleration due to ?ra)ity ,g.
The acceleration of a freely falling #ody due to earthEs attraction is called acceleration due to gra)ity0

Motion under ?ra)ity
If a #ody falls under gravity then all the e<uations of motion are a$$lica#le to such motion? The only
difference is that FaE 9acceleration: is to #e re$lacement #y FgE 9acceleration due to gravity.
If this #ody is moving u$3 then g is negative and if the #ody is falling then g is $ositive? Ghen a #ody
attains ma8imum height3 then at this $oints its final velocity #ecomes Hero? The following $oints are to #e
remem#ered for the #odies in vertical motionI
i? The ma8imum height attained #y a

ii? The time taBen to reach the highest $oint 4 The time taBen to reach the $oint from where it is
$roJected

The total time taBen #y a #ody in going to the ma8imum height and falling #acB to the $roJected $oint


iv? Ghen a #ody striBes the same $oint from where it was $roJected3 the velocity #ecomes the same as
that of the velocity of $roJection?
Velocity
The rate of change of dis$lacement with regard to time of an o#Ject is called the )elocity of the o#Ject? It
may also #e defined as the s$eed of the o#Ject in a $articular direction3 it is a vector <uantity? Its units and
dimension are same as that of s$eed?
The unit of velocity in C?C?S? system is centimeter $er second and meter $er second in 2?D?S? or
S?I? system?

2nergy
The ca$acity to do worB is called energy? Knergy is neither created nor destroyed? It is converted from one
form to another?
Knergy 4 mc
-
where
m 4 mass
c 4 s$eed of light
Ainetic 2nergy Dinetic energy is the energy $ossessed #y a #ody #y virtue of its motion? It is generally
denoted #y KB? Its S?I? unit is L and its dimension is 527
-
T
--
6?
ence3

!otential 2nergy ,!020. Potential energy is the energy $ossessed #y a condition or virtue of its $osition or
state or configuration? It is generally denoted #y K$? Its S?I? unit is L and its dimension is 527
-
T
--
6
ence3

!ower
The time rate at which worB is done is called $ower or worB done $er second is called $ower? It is generally
denoted #y P? Its S?I? unit is watt and its dimension is 527
-
T
-/
6?
ence3
Bor1
GorB is said to #e done only when a force $roduces motion? GorB done in moving a #ody is e<ual to the
force e8erted on the #ody and the distance moved #y the #ody in the direction of force? It is generally
denoted #y w? Its S?I? unit is L and its dimension is?
ence3 G 4 Force 8 Distance
4 F? 8 S?

Cnits of Measurement
Acceleration
It is defined as the rate of change of velocity0

To$
Acceleration due to gra)ity

To$
Angular #is/lacement

To$
Angular momentum or moment of momentum LI

To$
Angular )elocity

To$
&oefficient of Friction

To$
&oefficient of Thermal conducti)ity 1=

To$
&oefficient of )iscosity ,D.

To$
ForceI
Force 4massMM acceleration 4 m M a
F 4 92: M97T
--
: 4 927T
--
:
So3 dimension of mass is + and that of length is %+and that of time is >- in force?
To$

?ra)itational constant
!ccording to Newton universal law of gravitation?

To$
%eat
eat is a form of energy?
; 4 527
-
T
--
6
To$

Im/ulse

To$
Ainetic 2nergy ,A020.
To$
Latent %eat
eat a#sor#ed $er unit mass during changed of state?

To$
Momentum
To$
Moment of a force of torque of moment of a cou/leI

To$
Moment of Inertia
2oment of inertia 4 mass N 9length:
-
4 527
-
6
I 4 527
-
6
To$
!lanc1+s constant

To$
!ower

To$
!otential 2nergy ,!020.

To$
!ressureI

To$
S/ecific %eat
Thermal ca$acity for unit mass of the #ody?

To$
S/eed


So3 dimension of length is %+ and of time is >+ in velocity and s$eed?
To$
Stress E

To$
Surface TensionI

To$

Thermal &a/acity
The amount of heat energy re<uired #y a #ody for unit rise of tem$erature?

To$
Velocity

To$
Bor1 of energyI
GorB 4 force N dis$lacement 4 F N s
G 4927T
--
: N 97: 4 927
-
T
--
:
To$
Foung modulus ,F.

M2ASCR2M2(TS C(ITS ' MASS
Mass ,1ilogram:I The Bilogram is the unit of mass? It is e<ual to the mass of the International $rototy$e of
the Bilogram 9a $latinum-iridium alloy cylinder: Be$t at OIP23 the International Oureau of Geights and
2easures in SPvres3 Paris? It consists of an alloy of () Q $latinum +) Q iridium3 and was made in +,.( #y
Ceorge 2atthey3 of Lohnson 2atthey3 in the form of a cylinder3 /( mm high and /( mm diameter? It is
stored at atmos$heric $ressure in a s$ecially designed tri$le #ell-Jar?
2ass is denoted #y 1g
For all $ractical $ur$oses Conventional 2ass is related to 2ass via the following e<uationI
whereI
2c is the conventional mass value
2 is the mass value
is the density of the test weight material in BgRm
-/
Cnits of mass
There have historically #een four different Knglish systems of massI Tower weight3 Troy weight3
avoirdu$ois weight3 and a$othecaries weight? Tower weight fell out of use 9due to legal $rohi#ition:
centuries ago3 and was never used in the Snited States? Troy weight is still used to weigh $recious metals?
!$othecaries weight3 once used in $harmacy3 has #een largely re$laced #y metric measurements?
!voirdu$ois weight is the $rimary system of mass in the S?S? customary system?
The !voirdu$ois units are legally defined as measures of mass3 #ut the names of these units are sometimes
a$$lied to measures of force? For instance3 in most conte8ts3 the $ound avoirdu$ois is used as a unit of
mass3 #ut in the realm of $hysics3 the term T$oundT can re$resent T$ound-forceT 9a unit of force $ro$erly
a##reviated as Tl#fT:?
2nglish Standards of weight
A)oirdu/ois weight
-.?/UU grains 4 + dram
+0 drams 4 U/. V grains
+0 ounces 4 .))) grains
+U $ounds 4 + stone
-, $ounds 4 + <uarter
U <uarters 4 ++- $ounds
-) hundredweights 4 --U) $ounds
/ $ennies 4 @ half$ennies
U grains 4 + carat
-U grains 4 + $ennyweight
-) $ennyweights 4 U,) grains
+- troy ounces 4 @.0) grains
The ton and hundredweight a#ove are referred to as the short ton3 and the short hundredweight3 to
distinguish them from the Oritish Im$erial ton and hundredweight3 which are larger and hence are referred
to as the long ton and long hundredweight? The long ton has limited use in the Snited States?
+ long hundredweight 4 ++- l# W @)?,)- Bg
+ long ton 4 -) long cwt 4 --U) l# W +)+0?)U. Bg W +?)+0 t

A/othecariesG weight
The grain has the same definition as for avoirdu$ois weight?
+ scru$le 9s a$: 4 -) gr W +?-(0 g
+ dram a$othecaries 9dr a$: 4 / s a$ W /?,,, g
+ ounce a$othecaries 9oH a$: 4 + oH t 4 , dr a$ 4 U,) gr W /+?+)/ g
+ $ound a$othecaries 9l# a$: 4 + l# t 4 +- oH a$ 4 @.0) gr W /./?-U- g
The $ound and ounce a$othecaries are identical to the $ound and ounce troy?

Troy weight
The grain has the same definition as for !voirdu$ois weight?
+ $ennyweight 9dwt: 4 -U gr W +?@@@ g
+ ounce troy 9oH t: 4 -) dwt 4 U,) gr W /+?+)/ g
+ $ound troy 9l# t: 4 +- oH t 4 @.0) gr W /./?-U- g
Metric Standards of weight
Beight
+ grain 9avoirdu$ois and troy: 4 )?)0U, grammes
+ $ennyweight 4 +?@@@- grammes
+ dram 9avoirdu$ois: 4 +?..- grammes
+ ounce 9+0 drams: 4 -,?/@) grammes
+ ounce 9troy and a$othecary: 4 /+?+)/@ grammes
+ $ound 9+0 ounces: 4 )?U@/@( Bilogram
+ hundredweight 4 ++- $ounds
+ Oritish ton 4 --U) $ounds
+ !merican ton 4 -))) $ounds
+ milligram 4 )?)+@ grain
+ gramme 4 +@?U/- grains
+ Bilogram 4 -?-)U0- $ounds
+ <uintal 4 +)) Bilograms
+ tone 4 )?(,U- Oritish ton
+ gallon of water at 0-XF 4 +) l#
+ cu#ic foot water at 0)XF 4 0-?/. l#
+ cu#ic inch water at 0)XF 4 )?)/0+ l#
-U hours 4 +UU) min
+- hour 4 .-)
+ metre 4 / ft / in?
#istincti)e Masses of &ertain *bHects
*bHect Mass ,Ag.
Klectron +)
-/)
Proton +)
--.
Sranium atom +)
--@
Red #lood cell +)
-+/
Dust Particles +)
-(
Rain Dro$ +)
-0
2os<uito +)
-0
Cra$e +)
-/
uman +)
-
!utomo#ile +)
/
Ooeing .U. air craft +)
0
2oon +)
-/
Karth +)
-@
Sun +)
/)
2ilBy Gay gala8y +)
U+
"#serva#le Sniverse +)
@@
M2ASCR2M2(TS C(ITS ' M2T2R
Meter ' 2eter is +30@)3 .0/?./ times the wavelength of the orange light in vacuum emitted
#y/0D
,0
9Dry$ton: in the transition -$+) to @d@? The meter is length of the $ath traveled #y the light in
vacuum during a time interval of +/-((3.(-3U@, of a second? 9+(,/:? It is denoted #y m0
Cnits of Meter SI
+ meter 9m: 4 +)) centimeters 9cm:
+ meter 4 +))) millimeters 9mm:
+ meter 4 +) decimeters 9dm:
+) meter 4 + decameter 9dm:
+) decameter 4 + hectometer 9hm:
+) hectometers 4 + Bilometer 9Bm:
+ Bm 9Bilometer: 4 +)))m4 +)Ym
+ hm 9hectometer:4 +))m4 +)Z m
+ cm 9centimeter: 4 +)mm 4 +)-[m
+ fermi 4 +f 4 +)
-+@
m
+ angstrom 4 +!
)
4 +)
-+)
m
+ astronomical Snit 4 + !S 9distance of the sun from the Karth 4+?U(0N+)-
++
m
+ light year 4 (?U0N+)
+@
m 9distance that light travels with velocity of / N+)
,
m s-
+
in + year:
+ $arsec 4 /?),N+)
+0
m 9distance corres$onding to an annual $aralla8 of one second:?

2nglish Standards of length ,Im/erial.
Cnits of Length
+ inch 4 Diameter of half$enny
.?(- inches 4 + linB
+- inches 4 + foot
/ feet 4 + yard
0 feet 4 + fathom
@ V yards 4 -@ linBs
+)) linBs 4 00 feet
--) yards 4 U) $oles
, furlongs 4 ,) chains
0),) feet $er hour 4 + !dmiralty Bnot
0),) feet 4 + nautical mile 9Oritish:

Surface

+UU s<uare inches 4 + s<uare foot
( s<uare feet 4 + s<uare yard
/) \ s<uare yards 4 + s<uare $ole3 rod3 or $erch
U) s<uare $oles 4 + rood
U roods 4 U,U) s<uare yards 4 + acre
0U) acres 4 + s<uare mile
Metric Standards and 2qui)alents
The following e<uivalents of metric weights and measures in terms of im$erial weights and measure for
use in trade were sanctioned #y an "rder in Council on the +(th 2ay? +,(,
Linear Measure
+ inch 4 -?@U centimeters
+ foot 4 /)?U.(( centimeters
+ yard 4 )?(+U/(( meter
+ mile 4 +?0)(/ Bilometers 4 @-,) feet
+ chain 4 -)?++0, meters 4 -- yards
+ centimeter 4 )?/(/.)++/ inch
+ meter 4 /(?/.)++/ inches 4 /?-,),U feet 4 +?)(/0+U yards?
+ Bilometer 4 )?0-+/. mile
+ radian 4 @.?-(0 degrees 9angular measure:

Square Measure
+ s<uare inch 4 0?U@+0 s<uare centimeters
+ s<uare foot 4 (?-()/ s<uare decimeters
+ s<uare yard 4 )?,/0+-0 s<uare meter 4
+ rood 4 +)?++. acres 4 U) $erches
+ acre 4 )?U)U0, hectare
+ s<uare mile 4 -@( hectares
+ s<uare centimeter 4 )?+@@ s<uare inch?
+ s<uare meter 4 +)?.0/( s<uare feet 4 +?+(0) s<uare yards?
+ are 4 ++(?0 s<uare yards4 +)) s<uare meters
+ hectare 4 -?U.++ acres 4 +)3))) s<uare meters

&ubic Measure
+ cu#ic inch 4 +0?/,. cu#ic centimeters?
+ cu#ic foot 4 )?)-,/+. cu#ic meter 4 -,?/+. litres
+ cu#ic yard 4 )?.0U@@ cu#ic meter 4 .0U?@@ litres
+ gallon 4 U?@U@(0/ liters 4 )?+0)@ cu#ic foot
+ S?S?!? gallon 4 -/+ cu#ic inches 4 )?,/-0. im$erial gallon
+ liter 4 +?.@(, $ints 4 )?--)) gallon
+ cu#ic centimeter 4 )?)0+ cu#ic inch?
+ cu#ic decimeter 4 0+?)-U cu#ic inches?
+))) cu#ic centimeters 4 + liter 4 )?)-.@ #ushel
+ cu#ic meter 4 /@?/+U, cu#ic feet 4 +?/).(@U cu#ic yards
Thermodynamics


First Law
Second Law

Ainetics
Strength of Materials
Stress
where3 ]4normal stress3 or tensile stress3 $a
P4force a$$lied3 N
!4cross-sectional area of the #ar3 m
-
4shearing stress3 Pa
!s4total area in shear3 m
-
To$

Strain
where3
4tensile or com$ressive strain3 m/m
4total elongation in a #ar3 m
4original length of the #ar3 m
To$

%oo1eGs Law
Stress is $ro$ortional to strain
where3
K4$ro$ortionality constant called the elastic modulus or modulus of elasticity or ^oungEs
modulus3 Pa

To$
!iossonGs Ratio
where3
v4PoissonEs ratio
4lateral strain
4a8ial strain
To$

Cnit Volume &hange
where3
4change in volume
4original volume
4strain
4PoissonEs ratio
To$

2longation due to its weight
where3
4total elongation in a material which hangs vertically under its own weight
G4weight of the material
To$

Thin Rings
where3
4Circumferential or hoo$ Stress
S4Circumferential or hoo$ tension
!4Cross-sectional area
4Circumferential strain
K4^oungEs modulus
To$

Strain 2nergy
where3
S4total energy stored in the #ar or strain energy
P4tensile load
4total elongation in the #ar
74original length of the #ar
!4cross-sectional area of the #ar
K4^oungEs modulus
S4strain energy $er unit volume

To$

Thin Balled !ressure )essels
where3
4normal or circumferential or hoo$ stress in cylindrical vessel3 Pa
4normal or circumferential or hoo$ stress in s$herical vessel3 Pa and longitudinal stress around
the circumference
P4internal $ressure of cylinder3 Pa
r4internal radius3 m
t4thicBness of wall3 m
To$

MohrGs &ircle for Bia-ial Stress
To$

!ure Shear
where3
4Shearing Stress3 Pa
4Shearing Strain or angular deformation
C4Shear modulus3 Pa
K4^oungEs modulus3 Pa
&4PoissonEs ratio

To$

Torsion formula for Thin walled tubes
where3
4ma8imum shearing stress3 Pa
4Shearing stress at any $oint a distance 8 from the centre of a section
r4radius of the section3 m
d4diameter of a solid circular shaft3 m
4$olar moment of inertia of a cross-sectional area3 m
U
T4resisting tor<ue3 N-m
N4 r$m of shaft
P4$ower3 BG
4angle of twist3 radian
74length of shaft3 m
C4shear modulus3 Pa
do4outer diameter of hollow shaft3 m
di4inner diameter of hollow shaft3 m

and

To$

Torsion formula for &ircular Shafts
where3
4I$3 $olar moment of inertia for thin-walled tu#es
r4mean radius
t4wall thicBness
To$

Fle-ure Formula
where3
4Stress on any $oint of cross-section at distance y from the neutral a8is
4stress at outer fi#re of the #eam
c4distance measured from the neutral a8is to the most remote fi#re of the #eam
I4moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area a#out the centroidal a8is
To$

Shear Stress In Bending
where3
F4Shear force
;4statistical moment a#out the neutral a8is of the cross-section
#4width
I4moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area a#out the Centroidal a8is?
To$

Thin'Balled %ollow Members ,Tubes.
where3 4shearing stress at any $oint of a #lue
t4thicBness of tu#e
<4shear flow
T4a$$lied tor<ue
R4distance #etween a reference $oint and segment ds
_4angle of twist of a hollow tu#e
To$
Stress &oncentration
To$
&ur)ed Beam in !ure Bending
where3 4normal stress
24#ending moment
d!4cross-sectional area of an element
r4distance of curved surface from the centre of curvature
!4cross-sectional area of #eam
R4distance of neutral a8is from the centre of curvature
R+4distance of centroidal a8is from the centre of curvature
To$
Bending of a Beam
,a. Bending of a Beam Su//orted at Both 2nds
,b. Bending of a Beam Fi-ed at one end
where3 d4 #ending dis$lacement3 m
F4force a$$lied3 N
I4length of the #eam3 m
a4width of #eam3 m
#4thicBness of #eam3 m
^4^oungEs modulus3 N/m
-

2lectrical &ircuits
Laws of Resistance
+? The resistance of a conductor varies directly as its length?
50 The resistance of a conductor varies inversely to its cross section area?
60 The resistance of a conductor de$ends on the material?
70 The resistance of a conductor de$ends on its tem$erature?
The a#ove factors can #e summed u$ mathematically as I

where ` is constant re$resenting the nature of material and is Bnown as s$ecific resistance?
To$
2ffect of Tem/erature on Resistance
,a. Resistance of $ure metals and alloys increases with rise in tem$erature?
,b. Resistance of electrolytes3 insulators and semiconductors decreases with rise in tem$erature?
If Ro 4 Conductor resistance at )XC
Rt 4 Conductor resistance at tXC
t 4 rise in tem$erature
and ao 4 Tem$erature coefficient of resistance at )XC3
Then Rt 4 Ro 9+ % aot:
The tem$erature coefficient at )XC is defined at the change in resistance $er ohm for a rise in tem$erature
of +XC from )XC?
To$
?rou/ing of &ells
! single cell has an e?m?f? of a#out +?@ volts? If either more voltage is needed or more current is re<uired3
then cells are connected either in series or in $arallel res$ectively? This arrangement of connection is named
as grou$ing of cells?
To$
&ells in Series
Ghen cell are connected in series3 e?m?f? of the #attery is e<ual to the sum of the e?m?f? of cells?
Internal resistance of #attery 4sum of internal resistance of cells?
e?m?f? of #attery K 4ne
where e is e?m?f? of the cell and n refers to the num#er of cells in series?
To$
&ells in !arallel
The cells when arranged in $arallel have the same e?m?f?3 #ut internal resistance of the unit is reduced?
If n cells are connected in $arallel3 each of e?m?f? K3
then
e?m?f? of the #attery 4 e?m?f? of one cell 4 K

where r is the resistance of one cell
To$
&ells in Series and in !arallel
n 4 num#er of cells in each row
m 4 num#er of $arallel rows?
N 4 total num#er of cells 4 mn?
7et e?m?f of one cell 4e
K?2?F? of #attery 4ne volts
Internal resistance of each row 4nr ohms
To$
&ell 2fficiency
The efficiency of a Cell is considered in two waysI
9+: !m$ere-hour 9!?h: efficiency?
9-: Gatt-hour 9G?h?: efficiency?
To$
#0&0 Motors
D?C? motors are classified according to the method of e8citation? They may #e of the shunt3 series or
com$ound ty$es?

Series Motor
The s$eed of a series motor is given #y the relationI




Shunt motor

where Ra is the armature resistance? Since is $ractically constant at all loads3 s$eed is there almost
constant?

To$
Ty/es of Armature Binding
The two main ty$es of winding areI
+? La/ Binding0 It is also Bnown as $arallel winding or multi$le winding? In this ty$e of winding3
the num#ers of $arallel $aths 9!: are e<ual to the num#er of $oles 9P:?
-? Ba)e Binding0 In this case the armature conductors are divided into two $arallel irres$ective of
the num#er of $oles?
To$
Sli/
The rotor of induction motor rotates at somewhat lesser s$eed than the synchronous s$eed and actual s$eed
is Bnown as sli$?

where Nr is rotor or actual while N is synchronous s$eed?

To$
A& through Resistance and Inductance
In the resistance $art of the circuit the current is in $hase with the voltage3 while in the inductive $art it is
()X out of $hase? ence3 to determine the current3 the effect of resistance and reactance has to #e com#ined
which is named as im$edanceI
where is the $hase angle #etween the voltage and current and cos is called the $ower factor?
To$
&ircuits &ontaining ResistanceI Inductance and &a/acitance
To$
Transformer
Transformer is a device for transferring energy from one alternating current circuit to another without any
change in fre<uency? It changes voltage from high to low and low to high with a corres$onding increase or
decrease in current? If the voltage is increased3 the transfer is said to #e ste$$ed u$? If it is decreased3 then it
is referred as ste$ down?
To$
Three !hase Transformer
Ghenever the su$$ly is three $hase and it is desired to transform current at another voltage3 then either a
single three $hase transformer or three se$arate single $hase transformers can #e used? owever3 in $ractice
a single three $hase transformer is used? The three $hase winding of a transformer can #e connected either
in star or in delta?

&urrent and )oltage in star
The e?m?f? #etween any line and the neutral gives the $hase voltage while the e?m?f? #etween two outer
terminals is Bnown as line voltage?
Current in each line is the same as $hase current
i?e? 7ine current I74Phase current IP


Line Voltage and &urrent in #elta




*hmGs Law
where3
I 4 current3 am$
& 4 $otential difference3 volts
R 4 resistance3 ohms
To$
Resisti)ity
where3
` 4 resistivity or s$ecific resistance3 ohm-m
7 4 length of wire3 m
! 4 cross-sectional area of wire3 m
-
To$
&onductance ,?.
where3
b 4 conductivity or s$ecific conductance3 mhos/m
To$
2lectric !ower
where3
P 4 electric $ower3 watts
To$
2lectric 2nergy
where3 K 4 electric energy3 Loules
& 4 $otential difference3 &olts
I 4 Current3 !m$eres
R 4 resistance3 ohms
t 4 time3 seconds
K 4 )?-UI
-
Rt3 cal
For Oattery

where

To$
Airchhoff+s Law
,i. The alge#raic sum of all the currents directed towards a Junction $oint is Hero?
,ii. The alge#raic sum of all the voltage rise taBen in a s$ecified direction around a closed
circuit is Hero?
Series CircuitsI
Parallel CircuitsI

&oulomb+s Law
The force acting #etween two charged #odies <+ and <- in air is $ro$ortional to the $roduct of charges and
inversely $ro$ortional to the s<uare of the distance #etween them?
To$
Machines
! machine is a device #y which a force a$$lied to some $oint in certain direction is made availa#le at some
$oint and in some other direction? The force P a$$lied on the machine is called the effort or the $ower
while the resistance G overcome #y the machine is called weight or load?
Mechanical Ad)antage
The ratio3 load/effort is called mechanical advantage of a machine? The mechanical advantage should
#e greater than one? If3 in a machine3 the ratio is less than one3 it would #e more accurate to call is
mechanical disadvantage?

Velocity Ratio
The ratio
is called the velocity ratio of a machine? The two distances are moved in the same interval of time3 so
they are $ro$ortional to the velocities of the effort and load?
PNd+ 4 GNd- in a $erfect machine?
or

where d+ and are d- are the distances moved #y effort P and load G res$ectively? ence3 in a $erfect
machine the mechanical advantage is e<ual to velocity ratio?
To$
2fficiency of Machine
In all machines some worB is always wasted friction? The result of it is that the worB done #y the effort in a
given time3 called total worB or worB in$ut 94 $ N d+: is always greater than the worB done on the load 94 G
N d-: called useful worB or worB out$ut? The difference of the latter from the former 4 lost worB 9Pd+-Gd-:?
The ratio
is called efficiency of machine? It is also defined as the ratio
In any actual machine the efficiency is always less than one #ut in a $erfect or ideal machine in where there
is no friction at all the efficiency is e<ual to unity?

"r Mechanical ad)antage 4 2fficiency J )elocity ratio
i?e? 2?!? 4&elocity Ratio N c
To$
The !rinci/le of Bor1
In any actual machine3 the useful worB o#tained is always less than total worB done #y the effort? This is
#ecause 9i: worB has to #e done in lifting its $arts which have weight3 and 9ii: #ecause there is always some
internal friction which has to #e overcome? ! $erfect or ideal machine is one which has no weight and the
efficiency of the machine is unity? Princi$le of the worB is the $rinci$le of conservation of energy i?e?3 the
worB done #y a machine is e<ual to the worB done on an ideal or $erfect machine? !ccording we have

If G increase3 then d- decrease in the same ratio? ence in a machine3 whatever is gained in
$ower is lost in s$eed or distance?
Cses of a machine
9i: This ena#les one to lift weight or overcome resistances much greater than one could do unaided as in the
case of a $ulley-system3 a wheel and a8le3 a crow #ar3 a sim$le screw JacB3 etc?
9ii: This ena#le one to convert a slow motion at some $oint into a more ra$id motion at some other desired
$oint3 viH?3 a #icycle3? ! sewing machine etc? !n o$$osite effect may also #e arranged in $ractice when
necessary
9iii: This ena#le one to use a force acting at a $oint to #e a$$lied at a more convenient $oint3 as in the case
of a $oBer for stirring u$ fire3 or to use a force acting at a $oint in a more convenient manner3 e?g?3 lifting of
a mortar #ucBet to the to$ floor #y means of a ro$e $assing over a $ulley fi8ed at the to$ of the #uilding3
the other end of the ro$e #eing $ulled down #y an agent remaining on the ground?
9iv: This ena#les one to convert a rotatory motion into a linear motion or vice versa3 as in the case of a racB
and $inion3 etc
9v: This ena#les one to convert a to and fro motion into a rotatory motion or vice versa3 e?g?3 a cranB used in
the heat engine?
To$
Ty/es of Sim/ly Machines
The following si8 sim$le machines re$resent the ty$es of $rinci$les used in maBing $ractical machines?
9+: Pulley?
9-: Inclined $lane?
9/: 7ever?
9U: Gheel and a8le?
9@: Screw and?
90: Gedge?
To$
,4. !ulley
! $ulley is a sim$le machine consists of a grooved wheel3 called sheave3 over which a string can $ass?
The wheel is ca$a#le of turning freely a#out an a8le $assing through its centre? The a8le is fi8ed to a
frame worB3 called the #locB? The $ulley is fi8ed or mova#le accordingly as its #locB is fi8ed or
mova#le?

The Single Fi-ed !ulley
Shows a fi8ed $ulley in which the #locB of the $ulley is fi8ed to a rigid su$$ort? The load G is attached
to one end of the string $assing round the groove of the $ulley and effort P is a$$lied at the other of the
$ulley and effort P is a$$lied at the other end? Gith a $erfectly smooth $ulley and a weightless string3
the tension of the string will #e the same throughout? ence the distance through which the load is
raised3 is e<ual to the distance through which the effort descends? For e<uili#rium3 the moments of P
and G a#out "3 the centre of the wheel3 must #e e<ual and o$$osite?
"r P N !" 4 G N "O
!" 4 "O
2echanical advantage

In $ractice3 $ulleys are not $erfectly frictions3 and G is always less than P3 that is3 the mechanical
advantage is always less than +? Out in s$ite of this3 the arrangement is useful as the o$erator can use
the weight of this #ody for raising the land? It is generally used for raising weights3 drawing curtains
etc?

Single Mo)able /ulley
ere one end of the string $asses round the $ulley ! and is attached to a fi8ed su$$ort 2 as shown in?
The effort P is a$$lied at the other end of the ro$e $assing over a fi8ed $ulley O? The load w to #e
raised is attached to the #locB of mova#le $ulley !? The fi8ed $ulley is used only to a$$ly the $ower in
the downward direction? It is assumed that the $ulleys are frictionless and the tension in the string is the
same at all $oints and is e<ual to P? Ghen the strings are vertical the total u$ward force is -d and
neglecting the weight of the $ulley3 the downward force is G?
So3 for e<uili#rium G4-P and mechanical advantages

Thus a given effort can raise twice its weight?
If the weight of the $ulley is w3 then G%w4-P
"r 2echanical advantages 4
The single mova#le $ulley is much used in cranes? Sails in #oats and flags are raised and lowered with
the hel$ of mova#le $ulleys?

&ombination of !ulleys
! com#ination of $ulleys is very often used to secure a mechanical advantages greater than two?
Different systemEs having different mechanical advantages are used for different $ur$oses3 #ut the most
im$ortant com#ination3 which is in general use3 is given here?

!ulley Bloc1I
This system consists of two #locBs3 each containing - or / $ulleys? The u$$er #locB is fi8ed to a su$$ort
and the lower one is mova#le to which the load G is attached? The string is attached to the u$$er or to
the lower #locB3 and is then $assed round a mova#le and a fi8ed $ulley in turn finally $assing over a
fi8ed $ulley3 the effort $ #eing a$$lied at the free end? It should #e noted that when the string is
attached to the u$$er #locB3 the num#ers of wheels in the two #locBs must #e the same3 #ut when it is
attached to the lower #locB3 the num#er of wheels in it will #e one less than that in the u$$er one?
The tension everywhere round the string is the same and is e<ual to the effort P3 the $ulleys #eing
assumed frictionless? If the num#er of $osition of the string in the lower #locB #e n3 the total u$ward
force on it is nP and this must #e e<ual to the load G su$$orted? Thus3 we have
nP 4 G % w3 when w3 is the weight of the lower #locB?

To$
,5. The Inclined !lane
!n inclined $lane is a smooth rigid flat surface inclined at an angle to the horiHontal? It is used to
facilitate the rising of a heavy #ody to a certain height #y the a$$lication of a force which is less than
the weight of the #ody? The fair-case and the roads on the hills are ty$ical e8am$les?
7et !O #e a $lane inclined at an angle ' to the horiHontal line !C and OC is the height of the
$lane? The #ody $laced on the $lane is acted u$on #y three forces 9i: G3 its weight acting vertically
downwards 9G4mg:3 9ii: $3 the force or effort3 and 9iii: R3 the reaction of the $lane?
&ase0 I0 7et the force P act u$ward along the $lane?
In order that the #ody may #e in e<uili#rium3 the sum of the resolved $arts of the forces $arallel $arts of
the forces $arallel and $er$endicular to the $lane !O are se$arately e<ual to Hero? Resolving G4mg
$arallel and $er$endicular to !O3 we have mg sin ' $er$endicular to !O?
ence
mg sin ' > P 4 )d
mg cos ' > R 4 )
P 4 mg sin 'I
R 4 mg cos '?

that is3 a #ody of weight G 4 mg can #e su$$orted #y a force P 4 G/- acting u$ the $lane?
To$
,6. The Le)er
! lever is a sim$le machine and consists the rest of the lever can turn? This fi8ed $oint is called the
fulcrum? The $er$endicular distance #etween the fulcrum and the $oint of a$$lication of the $ower is
called the $ower arm the $er$endicular distance #etween the fulcrum and the $oint of a$$lication of the
weight arm of the lever?

Mechanical ad)antage of le)er
7et !O #e a lever with the $ower P is a$$lied at ! and weight G to #e lifted is sus$ended at O? !F and
Of are the $ower and weight arms res$ectively? The forces act $er$endicular to the arms and Bee$ the
lever in e<uili#rium?
Then3 #y the $rinci$le of moments3 we have
P N !F 4 G N OF

This is Bnown as the $rinci$le of lever?
The lever is used for $ulling weights or overcoming resistance #y the a$$lication of force at a suita#le
$oint? From the a#ove relation it is clear that #y increasing the length of the $ower arm3 we can lift a
greater weight with the lever?

The Straight Le)ers
a:
#:
c:


Ghen the lever is straight and the effort and the weights act $er$endicular to the lever3 the following
three distinct classes of levers are found in $ractice according to the relative $ositions of !3 O and F-
the $oints of a$$lication of the effort3 the weight and the fulcrum res$ectively? In each of these cases3
three $arallel forces are acting on the #ody? They3 therefore3 are in the e<uili#rium condition? The
reaction R at the fulcrum must #e e<ual and o$$osite to the resultant of P and G acting at ! and O?

A le)er of the first order
In this case the effort P and the weight G act on the o$$osite sides of the fulcrum F? ere reaction R is
the middle force3 therefore3 P and G act in the same direction and R in the o$$osite direction? To lift the
weight3 the effort must #e a$$lied downwards3 and the reaction acts u$wards so that lever $resses
downwards on the fulcrum? TaBing moments a#out F3 we have


!F may #e either greater3 e<ual or less than OF3 so that mechanical advantages is either or e<ual or less
than unity?
The e8am$les of this ty$e of lever are a $oBer used to raise the coal in a grate3 handle of water $um$3 a
#alance3 see-saw3 a s$ade used in the digging of earth and a #icycle #raBe? ! $air of scissors and a $air
of $incers are e8am$les of dou#le levers of this class?

Second *rder
In this case3 the weight is $laced #etween the effort and the fulcrum? ence G is the middle force?
Therefore3 P and R act in the same direction and G in the o$$osite direction? To lift the weight3 the
effort must #e a$$lied in the direction? The reaction of the fulcrum also acts u$wards? TaBing moments
a#out the fulcrum F3 we have3


Out in this class of levers !K is greater than Of3 there force3 mechanical advantage G/P is greater than
unity?
!lso G 4 P % R
"r R 4 G- P
The e8am$les of this class are a crow #ar3 a wheel #arrow3 a tin o$ener3 foot #ellows and lifting of a lid
of #o8? ! $air of ordinary nut-cracBers and corB s<ueeHer are e8am$les of dou#le levers of this case?

Third *rder
ere the effort P is $laced #etween the weight and the fulcrum as shown in? Since is the middle force3
therefore3 G and R act in the same direction and P in the o$$osite direction? !lso
P 4 R %G
"r R 4 P - G
Thus to lift weight the effort must #e a$$lied u$wards3 the reaction of fulcrum acts downwards or lever
$resses fulcrum u$ward? TaBing moments a#out the fulcrum F3 we have3


Out in this lever !F is less than Of3 therefore3 mechanical advantage is less than unity? This shows a
mechanical disadvantage? This arrangement gives G a large movements for a small movement of the
effort P3 a fact which is Just o$$osite to what ha$$ens in the other two ty$es of levers?
The e8am$les of this ty$e of lever are the forearm3 treadle of a sewing machine in BicBing a foot#all
and in using a cricBet #at? ! fire tongs3 a $air of force$s used in a weight #o83 the u$$er and lower Jaws
of the mouth are e8am$les of dou#le levers of this class?
To$
,7. The Bheel and A-le
The wheel and a8le is a modification of the lever? It consists of two cylinders of different diameters
ca$a#le of turning a#out a common fi8ed a8is? The larger cylinder is called the wheel and the smaller
the a8le? The load G to #e raised is attached to a ro$e coiled around the wheel in the o$$osite direction3
so that when the ro$e round the wheel is un-coiled3 the ro$e round the a8le is coiled u$ and there#y the
weight is raised? Shows a section where "O is the radius r of the a8le "! the radius R of the wheel?
TaBing moments a#out "3
P N "! 4 G N "#
A//lication
The windlass #y which water is drawn from a well is the same as the wheel and a8le3 the cranB-handle
of which serves the $ur$ose of the wheel? The ca$stan used for lifting an anchor in shi$s3 a coffee
grinder3 a s$anner used to wind a nut3 the steering of a motor car3 #icycle $edal etc? are all a$$lications
of the wheel and a8le?
To$
,8. Screw
The screw is a rod usually of some hard metal on the surface of which is cut a s$iral groove? The
successive turns of these grooves are se$arated #y a s$iral ridge Bnown as thread? The screw worBs in a
collar or nut through which a hole is #ored3 having a groove to fit the thread to fit groove of the screw?
! screw is generally $rovided with an arm #y means of which it can #e rotated? Ghen the screw turns
in a fi8ed nut3 it moves forward or #acBward in the direction of its length? In each turn of the screw3 the
distance moved is e<ual to the distance #etween two connective threads? This distance is called the $ith?
ence3 #y turning the screw round3 it may #e used to raise weights or overcome resistance a$$lied to its
ends? To screw $ress3 screw JacB3 #olt and nut are some e8am$les of screw?

Mechanical Ad)antage
To find the $itch of screw3 count the num#er of grooves or threads in one centimeter and thus calculate
$itch as

when the screw worBs without friction?

Screw Kac1
Screw JacB as shown in is used for lifting heavy loads liBe an automo#ile in garages and worBsho$s for
re$air $ur$ose etc?
It consists of a strong hollow metallic ta$ering cylinder ! having at the to$ a hole in the form of a nut N
with grooves cut on its inner side? ! s<uare threaded screw moves in this nut and u$$er end? There is a
loose collar C $ut on d to avoid rotation of the load G $laced over it when the screw moves? The screw
is turned round #y a lever arm of length or #y a system of cog wheels? The $ower $ is a$$lied at right
angles to the arm? Ghen the lever maBes one com$lete rotation? The screw is raised vertically through a
distance e<ual to the $itch of screw?
Oy using a system of cog wheel3 the load is raised through a distance e<ual to the $itch of the screw
when lever is given n rotations3 then

Binch of Lifting &rab
This machine is used for lifting com$aratively heavy loads #y means of a small effort such as can #e
e8erted #y hand? It is used when greater velocity ratio and also mechanical advantage is re<uired than
can #e conveniently o#tained with a wheel and a8le3 in which convenient length of handle is limited #y
the range of a manEs arm and the diameter of the drum #y the consideration of holding all the ro$e
necessary for a given lift?

Single !urchase &rab
It consists of two stands !+ and !-? Connected rigidly together #y the three stays O+3 O-and O/ and
having #earings for the s$indle O and the drum D? "n the s$indle C is Beyed the $inion K3 which gears
with and drives the larger s$ur wheel F on the drum D? The ends of C are s<uared to receive handles 3
on the ends of which the effort is a$$lied? The load is lifted #y a ro$e which is coiled round the drum D?
&elocity Ratio? 7et3
R4radius or a length of handle3
T+4num#er of teeth in $inion3
T/4num#er of teeth in wheel3
r4radius of drum?
Now in one revolution of the of handle we have-
2otion of effort 4 -eR
2otion of $itch circle of $inion
4 + revolution
4T+$ 9P4$itch:

which is the $roduct of the velocity ratio of wheel and a8le and a $air of s$ur wheels of given num#ers
of teeth?
To$
,9. Bedge
! wedge is a sim$le machine consisting of a solid #locB of metal or wood sha$ed as an inclined $lane? !
small dividing force P a$$lied to the wedge results in a much larger s$litting or se$arating force? It is
commonly used for raising heavy #odies for widening a ga$3 for #reaBing strong cover Joints etc?
! dou#le wedge is shown in3 #eing used for widening a ga$? The se$arating forces generated $roduct e<ual
reaction G3 G at the edges of the ga$? The forces3 P3 G3 G can #e re$resented #y a triangle shown in3
neglecting friction?
ence P 4 -w sin '/-
!nd 2?!? 4
The action of an a8e3 or a nail Bnife may to #e treated as that of a com#ination of two wedges?