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Wind
Contents
Articles
Wind engineering 1
Wind tunnel 4
Wind turbine 16
Engineering 28
Aerodynamics 38
References
Article Sources and Contributors 48
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 50
Article Licenses
License 52
Wind engineering
1
Wind engineering
Wind engineering analyzes effects of wind in the natural and the built environment and studies the possible
damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind. In the field of structural engineering it includes
strong winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as in a tornado, hurricane or heavy storm,
which may cause widespread destruction. In the fields of wind energy and air pollution it also includes low and
moderate winds as these are relevant to electricity production resp. dispersion of contaminants.
Wind engineering draws upon meteorology, fluid dynamics, mechanics, geographic information systems and a
number of specialist engineering disciplines including aerodynamics, and structural dynamics. The tools used
include atmospheric models, atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels, open jet facilities and computational fluid
dynamics models.
Wind engineering involves, among other topics:
Wind impact on structures (buildings, bridges, towers).
Wind comfort near buildings.
Effects of wind on the ventilation system in a building.
Wind climate for wind energy.
Air pollution near buildings.
Wind engineering may be considered by structural engineers to be closely related to earthquake engineering and
explosion protection.
History
Wind Engineering as a separate discipline can be traced to the UK in the 1960s, when informal meetings were held
at the National Physical Laboratory, the Building Research Establishment and elsewhere.
Wind loads on buildings
The design of buildings must account for wind loads, and these are affected by wind shear. For engineering
purposes, a power law wind speed profile may be defined as follows:
where:
= speed of the wind at height
= gradient wind at gradient height
= exponential coefficient
Typically, buildings are designed to resist a strong wind with a very long return period, such as 50 years or more.
The design wind speed is determined from historical records using extreme value theory to predict future extreme
wind speeds.
Wind engineering
2
Wind comfort
The advent of high rise tower blocks led to concerns regarding the wind nuisance caused by these buildings to
pedestrians in their vicinity.
A number of wind comfort and wind danger criteria were developed from 1971, based on different pedestrian
activities such as:
[1]
Sitting for a long period of time
Sitting for a short period of time
Strolling
Walking fast
Other criteria classified a wind environment as completely unacceptable or dangerous.
Building geometries consisting of one and two rectangular buildings have a number of well-known effects:
[2][3]
Corner streams, also known as corner jets, around the corners of buildings
Through-flow, also known as a passage jet, in any passage through a building or small gap between two buildings
due to pressure short-circuiting
Vortex shedding in the wake of buildings
For more complex geometries, pedestrian wind comfort studies are required. These can use an appropriately scaled
model in a boundary layer wind tunnel, or more recently there has been increased use of Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) techniques.
[4]
The pedestrian level wind speeds for a given exceedance probability are calculated to
allow for regional wind speeds statistics.
[5]
The vertical wind profile used in these studies varies according to the terrain in the vicinity of the buildings (which is
may differ by wind direction), and is often grouped in categories such as:
[6]
Exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions and water surfaces at serviceability wind speeds.
Water surfaces, open terrain, grassland with few, well-scattered obstructions having heights generally from 1.5 m
to 10m.
Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions 3 m to 5 m high, such as areas of suburban housing.
Terrain with numerous large, high (10 m to 30 m high) and closely spaced obstructions, such as large city centres
and well-developed industrial complexes.
Wind turbines
Wind turbines are affected by wind shear. Vertical wind-speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades
nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel, and this in turn affects the turbine operation.
The wind gradient can create a large bending moment in the shaft of a two bladed turbine when the blades are
vertical. The reduced wind gradient over water means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in
shallow seas.
For wind turbine engineering, wind speed variation with height is often approximated using a power law:
where:
= velocity of the wind at height [m/s]
= velocity of the wind at some reference height [m]
= Hellman exponent (aka power law exponent or shear exponent) (~= 1/7 in neutral flow, but can be >1)
Wind engineering
3
Significance
The knowledge of wind engineering is used to analyze and design all high rise buildings, cable suspension bridges
and cable-stayed bridges, electricity transmission towers and telecommunication towers and all other types of towers
and chimneys. The wind load is the dominant load in the analysis of many tall buildings. So wind engineering is
essential for the analysis and design of tall buildings. Again, wind load is a dominant load in the analysis and design
of all long-span cable bridges.
References
[1] Pedestrian wind comfort around buildings: comparison of wind comfort criteria. Table 3 (http:/ / sts. bwk. tue. nl/ urbanphysics/ pdf/
2013_BAE_WD_BB_TvH_Preprint.pdf)
[2] Pedestrian wind comfort around buildings: comparison of wind comfort criteria. Figure 6 (http:/ / sts. bwk. tue. nl/ urbanphysics/ pdf/
2013_BAE_WD_BB_TvH_Preprint.pdf)
[3] Wind Effects On Pedestrians. Figure 3 (http:/ / www.hkisc. org/ proceedings/ 2006421/ 6_Johnny_Yu Wind Effect on Pedestrians. pdf)
[4] AIJ guidelines for practical applications of CFD to pedestrian wind environment around buildings (http:/ / www. aij. or. jp/ jpn/ publish/
cfdguide/ JWEIAguide.pdf)
[5] Pedestrian Wind Environment Around Buildings. p112 (https:/ / www. cmff. hu/ oktatas/ tantargy/ NEPTUN/ BMEGEATMW08/
2010-2011-1/ ea_lecture/ blocken_pedestrianWindEnvironment. pdf)
[6] AS/NZS 1170.2:2011 Structural Design Actions Part 2 - Wind actions. Section 4.2 (https:/ / law. resource. org/ pub/ nz/ ibr/ as-nzs. 1170. 2.
2011. pdf)
External links
International Association for Wind Engineering (http:/ / www. iawe. org/ )
American Association of Wind Engineering (http:/ / www. aawe. org/ )
UK Wind Engineering Society (http:/ / www. ukwes. bham. ac. uk/ )
World Wind Energy Association (http:/ / www. wwindea. org/ home/ index. php)
Wind tunnel
4
Wind tunnel
NASA wind tunnel with the model of a plane.
A model Cessna with helium-filled bubbles
showing pathlines of the wingtip vortices.
A wind tunnel is a tool used in
aerodynamic research to study the
effects of air moving past solid objects.
A wind tunnel consists of a tubular
passage with the object under test
mounted in the middle. Air is made to
move past the object by a powerful fan
system or other means. The test object,
often called a wind tunnel model is
instrumented with suitable sensors to
measure aerodynamic forces, pressure
distribution, or other
aerodynamic-related characteristics.
The earliest wind tunnels were
invented towards the end of the 19th
century, in the early days of aeronautic
research, when many attempted to
develop successful heavier-than-air
flying machines. The wind tunnel was
envisioned as a means of reversing the
usual paradigm: instead of the air
standing still and an object moving at
speed through it, the same effect would
be obtained if the object stood still and
the air moved at speed past it. In that
way a stationary observer could study
the flying object in action, and could
measure the aerodynamic forces being imposed on it.
The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane. Large wind tunnels were built
during the Second World War. Wind tunnel testing was considered of strategic importance during the Cold War
development of supersonic aircraft and missiles.
Later on, wind tunnel study came into its own: the effects of wind on man made structures or objects needed to be
studied when buildings became tall enough to present large surfaces to the wind, and the resulting forces had to be
resisted by the building's internal structure. Determining such forces was required before building codes could
specify the required strength of such buildings and such tests continue to be used for large or unusual buildings.
Still later, wind-tunnel testing was applied to automobiles, not so much to determine aerodynamic forces per se but
more to determine ways to reduce the power required to move the vehicle on roadways at a given speed. In these
studies, the interaction between the road and the vehicle plays a significant role, and this interaction must be taken
into consideration when interpreting the test results. In an actual situation the roadway is moving relative to the
vehicle but the air is stationary relative to the roadway, but in the wind tunnel the air is moving relative to the
roadway, while the roadway is stationary relative to the test vehicle. Some automotive-test wind tunnels have
incorporated moving belts under the test vehicle in an effort to approximate the actual condition, and very similar
devices are used in wind tunnel testing of aircraft take-off and landing configurations.
Wind tunnel
5
The advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling on high speed digital computers has reduced the
demand for wind tunnel testing. However, CFD results are still not completely reliable and wind tunnels are used to
verify the CFD computer codes.
Measurement of aerodynamic forces
Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels.
Air velocity through the test section is determined by Bernoulli's principle. Measurement of the dynamic pressure,
the static pressure, and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the airflow. The direction of airflow
around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached to the aerodynamic surfaces. The direction of airflow
approaching a surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model. Smoke
or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the airflow upstream of the test model, and their path around the model
can be photographed (see particle image velocimetry).
Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually measured with beam balances, connected to the test model with
beams,strings, or cables.
The pressure distributions across the test model have historically been measured by drilling many small holes along
the airflow path, and using multi-tube manometers to measure the pressure at each hole. Pressure distributions can
more conveniently be measured by the use of pressure-sensitive paint, in which higher local pressure is indicated by
lowered fluorescence of the paint at that point. Pressure distributions can also be conveniently measured by the use
of pressure-sensitive pressure belts, a recent development in which multiple ultra-miniaturized pressure sensor
modules are integrated into a flexible strip. The strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends
signals depicting the pressure distribution along its surface.
[1]
Pressure distributions on a test model can also be determined by performing a wake survey, in which either a single
pitot tube is used to obtain multiple readings downstream of the test model, or a multiple-tube manometer is mounted
downstream and all its readings are taken.
It should be noted that the aerodynamic properties of an object can not all remain the same for a scaled model.
[2]
However, by observing certain similarity rules, a very satisfactory correspondence between the aerodynamic
propertis of a scaled model and a full-size object can be achieved. The choice of similarity parameters depends on
the purpose of the test, but the most important conditions to satisfy are usually:
Geometric similarity: all dimensions of the object must be proportionally scaled;
Mach number: the ratio of the airspeed to the speed of sound should be identical for the scaled model and the
actual object (it should be noted that having identical Mach number in a wind tunnel and around the actual object
is -not- equal to having identical airspeeds)
Reynolds number: the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces should be kept. This parameter is difficult to satisfy
with a scaled model and has led to development of pressurized and cryogenic wind tunnels in which the viscosity
of the working fluid can be greatly changed to compensate for the reduced scale of the model.
In certain particular test cases, other similarity parameters must be satisfied, such as e.g. Froude number.
Wind tunnel
6
History
Origins
English military engineer and mathematician Benjamin Robins (17071751) invented a whirling arm apparatus to
determine drag and did some of the first experiments in aviation theory.
Sir George Cayley (17731857) also used a whirling arm to measure the drag and lift of various airfoils. His
whirling arm was 5 feet (1.5m) long and attained top speeds between 10 and 20 feet per second (3 to 6m/s).
However, the whirling arm does not produce a reliable flow of air impacting the test shape at a normal incidence.
Centrifugal forces and the fact that the object is moving in its own wake mean that detailed examination of the
airflow is difficult. Francis Herbert Wenham (18241908), a Council Member of the Aeronautical Society of Great
Britain, addressed these issues by inventing, designing and operating the first enclosed wind tunnel in 1871. Once
this breakthrough had been achieved, detailed technical data was rapidly extracted by the use of this tool. Wenham
and his colleague Browning are credited with many fundamental discoveries, including the measurement of l/d
ratios, and the revelation of the beneficial effects of a high aspect ratio.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky built an open-section wind tunnel with a centrifugal blower in 1897, and determined the
drag coefficients of flat plates, cylinders and spheres.
Danish inventor Poul la Cour applied wind tunnels in his process of developing and refining the technology of wind
turbines in the early 1890s.
Carl Rickard Nyberg used a wind tunnel when designing his Flugan from 1897 and onwards.
In a classic set of experiments, the Englishman Osborne Reynolds (18421912) of the University of Manchester
demonstrated that the airflow pattern over a scale model would be the same for the full-scale vehicle if a certain flow
parameter were the same in both cases. This factor, now known as the Reynolds number, is a basic parameter in the
description of all fluid-flow situations, including the shapes of flow patterns, the ease of heat transfer, and the onset
of turbulence. This comprises the central scientific justification for the use of models in wind tunnels to simulate
real-life phenomena. However, there are limitations on conditions in which dynamic similarity is based upon the
Reynolds number alone.
Replica of the Wright brothers' wind tunnel.
The Wright brothers' use of a simple wind tunnel in
1901 to study the effects of airflow over various shapes
while developing their Wright Flyer was in some ways
revolutionary. It can be seen from the above, however,
that they were simply using the accepted technology of
the day, though this was not yet a common technology
in America.
In France, Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) built his first
open-return wind tunnel in 1909, powered by a 50kW
electric motor, at Champs-de-Mars, near the foor of the
tower that bears his name. Between 1909 and 1912
Eiffel ran about 4000 tests in his wind tunnel, and his
systematic experimentation set new standards for
aeronautical research. In 1912 Eiffel's laboratory was
moved to Auteuil, a suburb of Paris, where his wind tunnel with a 2-metre test section is still operational today.
Eiffel significantly improved the efficiency of
Wind tunnel
7
Eiffel's wind tunnels in the Auteuil laboratory
German aviation laboratory, 1935
the open-return wind tunnel by enclosing the test
section in a chamber, designing a flared inlet with a
honeycomb flow straightener and adding a diffuser
between the test section and the fan located at the
downstream end of the diffuser; this was an
arrangement followed by a number of wind tunnels
later built; in fact the open-return low speed wind
tunnel is often called the Eiffel-type wind tunnel.
Subsequent use of wind tunnels proliferated as the
science of aerodynamics and discipline of aeronautical
engineering were established and air travel and power
were developed.
The US Navy in 1916 built one of the largest wind
tunnels in the world at that time at the Washington
Navy Yard. The inlet was almost 11 feet (3.4m) in
diameter and the discharge part was 7 feet (2.1m) in
diameter. A 500hp electric motor drove the paddle
type fan blades.
[3]
Until World War Two, the world's largest wind tunnel
was built in 1932-1934 and located in a suburb of Paris,
Chalais-Meudon, France. It was designed to test full
size aircraft and had six large fans driven by high
powered electric motors.
[4]
The Chalais Meudon wind
tunnel was used by ONERA under the name S1Ch until
1976, e.g. in the development of the Caravelle and
Concorde airplanes. Today, this wind tunnel is
preserved as a national monument.
World War Two
In 1941 the US constructed one of the largest wind
tunnels at that time at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio.
This wind tunnel starts at 45 feet (14m) and narrows to
20 feet (6.1m) in diameter. Two 40-foot (12m) fans
were driven by a 40,000hp electric motor. Large scale
aircraft models could be tested at air speeds of 400mph
(640km/h).
[5]
The wind tunnel used by German scientists at Peenemnde prior to and during WWII is an interesting example of the
difficulties associated with extending the useful range of large wind tunnels. It used some large natural caves which
were increased in size by excavation and then sealed to store large volumes of air which could then be routed
through the wind tunnels. This innovative approach allowed lab research in high-speed regimes and greatly
accelerated the rate of advance of Germany's aeronautical engineering efforts. By the end of the war, Germany had at
least three different supersonic wind tunnels, with one capable of Mach 4.4 (heated) airflows.
A large wind tunnel under construction near Oetztal, Austria would have had two fans directly driven by two 50,000
horsepower hydraulic turbines. The installation was not completed by the end of the war and the dismantled
equipment was shipped to Modane, France in 1946 where it was re-erected and is still operated there by the ONERA.
Wind tunnel
8
With its 8m test section and airspeed up to Mach 1 it is the largest transonic wind tunnel facility in the workld.
[6]
By the end of World War Two, the US had built eight new wind tunnels, including the largest one in the world at
Moffett Field near Sunnyvale, California, which was designed to test full size aircraft at speeds of less than
250mph
[7]
and a vertical wind tunnel at Wright Field, Ohio, where the wind stream is upwards for the testing of
models in spin situations and the concepts and engineering designs for the first primitive helicopters flown in the
US.
[8]
Post World War Two
Later research into airflows near or above the speed of sound used a related approach. Metal pressure chambers were
used to store high-pressure air which was then accelerated through a nozzle designed to provide supersonic flow.
The observation or instrumentation chamber ("test section") was then placed at the proper location in the throat or
nozzle for the desired airspeed.
In the United States, concern over the lagging of American research facilities compared to those built by the
Germans lead to the Unitary Wind Tunnel Plan Act of 1949, which authorized expenditure to construct new wind
tunnels at universities and at military sites. Some German war-time wind tunnels were dismantled for shipment to
the United States as part of the plan to exploit German technology developments.
[9]
For limited applications, Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can increase or possibly replace the use of wind
tunnels. For example, the experimental rocket plane SpaceShipOne was designed without any use of wind tunnels.
However, on one test, flight threads were attached to the surface of the wings, performing a wind tunnel type of test
during an actual flight in order to refine the computational model. Where external turbulent flow is present, CFD is
not practical due to limitations in present day computing resources. For example, an area that is still much too
complex for the use of CFD is determining the effects of flow on and around structures, bridges, terrain, etc.
Preparing a model in the Kirsten Wind Tunnel, a
subsonic wind tunnel at the University of
Washington
The most effective way to simulative external turbulent flow is through
the use of a boundary layer wind tunnel.
There are many applications for boundary layer wind tunnel modeling.
For example, understanding the impact of wind on high-rise buildings,
factories, bridges, etc. can help building designers construct a structure
that stands up to wind effects in the most efficient manner possible.
Another significant application for boundary layer wind tunnel
modeling is for understanding exhaust gas dispersion patterns for
hospitals, laboratories, and other emitting sources. Other examples of
boundary layer wind tunnel applications are assessments of pedestrian
comfort and snow drifting. Wind tunnel modeling is accepted as a
method for aiding in Green building design. For instance, the use of
boundary layer wind tunnel modeling can be used as a credit for
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification
through the U.S. Green Building Council.
Wind tunnel
9
Fan blades of Langley Research Center's 16 foot transonic wind
tunnel in 1990, before it was mothballed in 2004.
Wind tunnel tests in a boundary layer wind tunnel
allow for the natural drag of the Earth's surface to be
simulated. For accuracy, it is important to simulate the
mean wind speed profile and turbulence effects within
the atmospheric boundary layer. Most codes and
standards recognize that wind tunnel testing can
produce reliable information for designers, especially
when their projects are in complex terrain or on
exposed sites.
In the USA many wind tunnels have been
decommissioned in the last 20 years, including some
historic facilities. Pressure is brought to bear on
remaining wind tunnels due to declining or erratic
usage, high electricity costs, and in some cases the high
value of the real estate upon which the facility sits. On
the other hand CFD validation still requires wind-tunnel data, and this is likely to be the case for the foreseeable
future. Studies have been done and others are under way to assess future military and commercial wind tunnel needs,
but the outcome remains uncertain.
[10]
More recently an increasing use of jet-powered, instrumented unmanned
vehicles ["research drones"] have replaced some of the traditional uses of wind tunnels.
[11]
How it works
Six-element external balance below the Kirsten
Wind Tunnel
Air is blown or sucked through a duct equipped with a viewing port
and instrumentation where models or geometrical shapes are mounted
for study. Typically the air is moved through the tunnel using a series
of fans. For very large wind tunnels several meters in diameter, a
single large fan is not practical, and so instead an array of multiple fans
are used in parallel to provide sufficient airflow. Due to the sheer
volume and speed of air movement required, the fans may be powered
by stationary turbofan engines rather than electric motors.
The airflow created by the fans that is entering the tunnel is itself
highly turbulent due to the fan blade motion (when the fan is blowing
air into the test section when it is sucking air out of the test section
downstream, the fan-blade turbulence is not a factor), and so is not
directly useful for accurate measurements. The air moving through the
tunnel needs to be relatively turbulence-free and laminar. To correct
this problem, closely spaced vertical and horizontal air vanes are used
to smooth out the turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the
testing.
Due to the effects of viscosity, the cross-section of a wind tunnel is typically circular rather than square, because
there will be greater flow constriction in the corners of a square tunnel that can make the flow turbulent. A circular
tunnel provides a smoother flow.
The inside facing of the tunnel is typically as smooth as possible, to reduce surface drag and turbulence that could
impact the accuracy of the testing. Even smooth walls induce some drag into the airflow, and so the object being
tested is usually kept near the center of the tunnel, with an empty buffer zone between the object and the tunnel
walls. There are correction factors to relate wind tunnel test results to open-air results.
Wind tunnel
10
The lighting is usually embedded into the circular walls of the tunnel and shines in through windows. If the light
were mounted on the inside surface of the tunnel in a conventional manner, the light bulb would generate turbulence
as the air blows around it. Similarly, observation is usually done through transparent portholes into the tunnel. Rather
than simply being flat discs, these lighting and observation windows may be curved to match the cross-section of the
tunnel and further reduce turbulence around the window.
Various techniques are used to study the actual airflow around the geometry and compare it with theoretical results,
which must also take into account the Reynolds number and Mach number for the regime of operation.
Pressure measurements
Pressure across the surfaces of the model can be measured if the model includes pressure taps. This can be useful for
pressure-dominated phenomena, but this only accounts for normal forces on the body.
Force and moment measurements
A typical lift coefficient versus angle of attack
curve.
With the model mounted on a force balance, one can measure lift, drag,
lateral forces, yaw, roll, and pitching moments over a range of angle of
attack. This allows one to produce common curves such as lift
coefficient versus angle of attack (shown).
Note that the force balance itself creates drag and potential turbulence
that will affect the model and introduce errors into the measurements.
The supporting structures are therefore typically smoothly shaped to
minimize turbulence.
Flow visualization
Because air is transparent it is difficult to directly observe the air
movement itself. Instead, multiple methods of both quantitative and qualitative flow visualization methods have been
developed for testing in a wind tunnel.
Wind tunnel
11
Qualitative methods
Smoke
Tufts
Tufts are applied to a model and remain attached during testing. Tufts can be used to gauge air flow patterns and
flow separation.
Compilation of images taken during an alpha run starting at 0 degrees alpha ranging to 26
degrees alpha. Images taken at the Kirsten Wind Tunnel using fluorescent mini-tufts.
Notice how separation starts at the outboard wing and progresses inward. Notice also how
there is delayed separation aft of the nacelle.
Fluorescent mini-tufts attached to a wing in the Kirsten Wind Tunnel showing air flow direction
and separation. Angle of attack ~ 12 degrees, speed ~120 Mph.
Evaporating suspensions
Evaporating suspensions are simply a mixture of some sort or fine powder, talc, or clay mixed into a liquid with a
low latent heat of evaporation. When the wind is turned on the liquid quickly evaporates leaving behind the clay in a
pattern characteristic of the air flow.
Wind tunnel
12
China clay on a wing in the Kirsten Wind Tunnel showing reverse and span-wise flow.
Oil
When oil is applied to the model surface it can clearly show the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as well as
flow separation.
Oil flow visible on a straight wing in the Kirsten
Wind Tunnel. Trip dots can be seen near the
leading edge.
Fog
Fog (usually from water particles) is created with an ultrasonic piezoelectric nebulizer. The fog is transported inside
the wind tunnel (preferably of the closed circuit & closed test section type). An electrically heated grid is inserted
before the test section which evaporates the water particles at its vicinity thus forming fog sheets. The fog sheets
function as streamlines over the test model when illuminated by a light sheet.
Wind tunnel
13
Fog (water particle) wind tunnel visualization of
a NACA 4412 airfoil at a low-speed flow
(Re=20.000).
Video of a wind tunnel fog visualization
[12]
Sublimation
If the air movement in the tunnel is sufficiently non-turbulent, a
particle stream released into the airflow will not break up as the air
moves along, but stay together as a sharp thin line. Multiple particle
streams released from a grid of many nozzles can provide a dynamic
three-dimensional shape of the airflow around a body. As with the
force balance, these injection pipes and nozzles need to be shaped in a
manner that minimizes the introduction of turbulent airflow into the
airstream.
High-speed turbulence and vortices can be difficult to see directly, but strobe lights and film cameras or high-speed
digital cameras can help to capture events that are a blur to the naked eye.
High-speed cameras are also required when the subject of the test is itself moving at high speed, such as an airplane
propeller. The camera can capture stop-motion images of how the blade cuts through the particulate streams and how
vortices are generated along the trailing edges of the moving blade.
Classification
There are many different kinds of wind tunnels, an overview is given in the list below:
Low-speed wind tunnel
High-speed wind tunnel
Supersonic wind tunnel
Hypersonic wind tunnel
Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel
Wind tunnels are also classified based on their main use.
Aeronautical wind tunnels
The main subcategories in the aeronautical wind tunnels are
High Reynolds number tunnels
Reynolds number is one of the governing similarity parameters for the simulation of flow in a wind tunnel. For mach
number less than 0.3, it is the primary parameter that governs the flow characteristics. There are three main ways to
simulate high Reynolds number, since it is not practical to obtain full scale Reynolds number by use of a full scale
vehicle.
Pressurised tunnels - Here test gases are pressurised to increase the Reynolds number.
Heavy gas tunnels - Heavier gases like freon and R-134a are used as test gases. The transonic dynamics tunnel at
NASA Langley is an example of such a tunnel.
Cryogenic tunnels - Here test gas is cooled down to increase the Reynolds number. The European transonic wind
tunnel uses this technique.
High-Altitude Tunnels - These are designed to test the effects of shock waves again various aircraft shapes in near
vacuum. In 1952 the University of California constructed the first two high-altitude wind tunnels. One for testing
objects at 50 to 70 miles above earth and the second one for tests at 80 to 200 miles above earth.
[13]
Wind tunnel
14
V/STOL tunnels
V/STOL tunnels require large cross section area, but only small velocities. Since power varies with the cube of
velocity, the power required for the operation is also less. An example for a V/STOL tunnel is the NASA Langley
14' X 22'tunnel.
[14]
Spin tunnels
Aircraft have a tendency to go to spin when they stall (flight). These tunnels are used to study that phenomenon.
Automobile tunnels
Automobile tunnels are of two categories:
external flow tunnels - Used to study the external flow through the chassis
climatic tunnels - Used to evaluate the performance of door systems, braking systems etc. under various climatic
conditions. Most of the leading automobile manufacturers have their own climatic wind tunnels
Wunibald Kamm "built the first full-scale wind tunnel for motor vehicles."
Aeroacoustic tunnels
These tunnels are used in the studies of noise generated by flow and its suppression.
Vertical wind tunnel T-105 at Central
Aerohydrodynamic Institute, Moscow, built in
1941 for aircraft testing
Aquadynamic flume
The aerodynamic principles of the wind tunnel work equally on
watercraft, except the water is more viscous and so sets greater forces
on the object being tested. A looping flume is typically used for
underwater aquadynamic testing. The interaction between 2 different
types of fluids means that pure windtunnel testing is only partly
relevant. However, a similar sort of research is done in a towing tank
Low-speed oversize liquid testing
Air is not always the best test medium to study small-scale
aerodynamic principles, due to the speed of the air flow and airfoil
movement. A study of fruit fly wings designed to understand how the
wings produce lift was performed using a large tank of mineral oil and
wings 100 times larger than actual size, in order to slow down the wing
beats and make the vortices generated by the insect wings easier to see
and understand.
Fan testing
Wind tunnel tests are also performed to measuring the air movement of
the fans at a specific pressure exactly. By determining the environmental circumstances during the measuring and by
revising the air-tightness afterwards, the standardization of the data is warranted. There are two possible ways of
measurement: a complete fan or an impeller on a hydraulic installation. Two measuring tubes enable measurements
of lower air currents (< 30.000 m/h) as well as higher air currents (< 60.000 m/h). The determination of the Q/h
curve of the fan is one of the main objectives. To determine this curve (and to define other parameters) air technical,
mechanical as well as electro technical data are measured:
Air technical:
Wind tunnel
15
Static pressure difference (Pa)
Amount of moved air (m/h)
Average air speed (m/s)
Specific efficiency (W/1000m/h)
Efficiency
Electro technical:
Tension (V)
Current (A)
Cos
Admitted power (W) fan / impeller
Rotations per minute (RPM)
The measurement can take place on the fan or in the application in which the fan is used.
Wind engineering testing
In Wind Engineering, wind tunnel tests are used to measure the velocity around, and forces or pressures upon
structures. Very tall buildings, buildings with unusual or complicated shapes (such as a tall building with a parabolic
or a hyperbolic shape), cable suspension bridges or cable stayed bridges are analyzed in specialized atmospheric
boundary layer wind tunnels. These feature a long upwind section to accurately represent the wind speed and
turbulence profile acting on the structure. Wind tunnel tests provide the necessary design pressure measurements in
use of the dynamic analysis and control of tall buildings.
References
[1] Going with the flow, Aerospace Engineering & Manufacturing, March 2009, pp. 27-28 Society of Automotive Engineers
[2] Low-Reynolds-Number Airfoils, P.B.S. Lissaman, AeroVironment Inc., Pasadena, California, 91107 (http:/ / www. annualreviews. org/ doi/
pdf/ 10. 1146/ annurev. fl.15. 010183. 001255)
[3] "US Navy Experimental Wind Tunnel" (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=V3fmAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA426& dq=Aero+ Club+ Of+
America+ Flying& hl=en& ei=XbQqTeyqCdv4nwex5pHXAQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=6&
ved=0CEQQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=Aero Club Of America Flying& f=true) Aerial Age Weekly, 17 January 1916, pages 426-427
[4] "Man Made Hurricane Tests Full Size Planes" Popular Mechanics, January 1936, pp.94-95 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=QdsDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA94& dq=Popular+ Science+ 1935+ plane+ "Popular+ Mechanics"& hl=en&
ei=QIs_TpjpHOPJsQKo4uC_Bw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCwQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage& q& f=true)
[5] "400mph Wind Tests Planes" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mtkDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA14& dq=popular+ mechanics+ July+
1932+ airplane& hl=en& ei=1EAYTerQFOe6nAfUv-TTDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=6&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwBTgy#v=onepage& q=popular mechanics July 1932 airplane& f=true) Popular Mechanics, July 1941
[6] Ernst Heinrich Hirschel, Horst Prem, Gero Madelung, Aeronautical Research in Germany: From Lilienthal Until Today Springer, 2004 ISBN
354040645X, page 87
[7] "Wind at Work For Tomorrow's Planes." (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TCEDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA66& dq=popular+ science+
1930& hl=en& ei=UY3MTsHTAsyltwfyz5xa& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CD4Q6AEwAzhG#v=onepage& q&
f=true) Popular Science, July 1946, pp. 66-72.
[8] "Vertical Wind Tunnel." (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AyEDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA73& dq=popular+ science+ 1930& hl=en&
ei=4dTRTu6lLsvUgAed8uifDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CEIQ6AEwBDhG#v=onepage& q& f=true)
Popular Science, February 1945, p. 73.
[9] http:/ / www. arnold.af.mil/ shared/ media/ document/ AFD-120305-099. pdf DAVID M. HIEBERT, PUBLIC LAW 81-415: THE UNITARY
WIND TUNNEL PLAN ACT OF 1949 AND THE AIR ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT CENTER ACT OF 19491, 2002 retrieved 2014 04 03
[10] Goldstein, E., "Wind Tunnels, Don't Count Them Out," Aerospace America, Vol. 48 #4, April 2010, pp. 38-43
[11] Benjamin Gal-Or, "Vectored Propulsion, Supermaneuverability & Robot Aircraft", Springer Verlag, 1990, ISBN 0-387-97161-0, ISBN
3-540-97161-0
[12] http:/ / vimeo.com/ 24212774
[13] "Windless Wind Tunnels for High Altitude Tests." (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8dwDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA105& dq=1954+
Popular+ Mechanics+ January& hl=en& sa=X& ei=lYK0T7T1Es2dgQe5iMgH& ved=0CDoQ6AEwAjgy#v=onepage& q& f=true) Popular
Mechanics, February 1952, p. 105.
Wind tunnel
16
[14] 14'x22' Subsonic Wind Tunnel (http:/ / www. aeronautics. nasa. gov/ atp/ facilities/ 14x22/ index. html). Aeronautics.nasa.gov (2008-04-18).
Retrieved on 2014-06-16.
Jewel B Barlow, William H Rae,Jr, Allan Pope: "Low speed wind tunnels testing" third edition ISBN
9788126525683
Wind turbine
This article is about wind-powered electrical generators. For wind-powered machinery used to grind grain or pump
water, see Windmill and Windpump.
Offshore wind farm, using 5 MW turbines
REpower 5M in the North Sea off the coast of
Belgium.
Renewable
energy
Biofuel
Biomass
Geothermal
Hydropower
Solar energy
Tidal power
Wave power
Wind power
Topics by country
v
t
e
[1]
A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electrical power. A wind turbine used for
charging batteries may be referred to as a wind charger.
Wind turbine
17
The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today's wind turbines are
manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications
such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs. Slightly larger
turbines can be used for making small contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to
the utility supplier via the electrical grid. Arrays of large turbines, known as wind farms, are becoming an
increasingly important source of renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce
their reliance on fossil fuels.
History
Main article: History of wind power
James Blyth's electricity-generating wind turbine,
photographed in 1891
The first megawatt-capacity wind turbine in the
USA, in 1941 Vermont
Windmills were used in Persia (present-day Iran) as early as 200 B.C.
The windwheel of Heron of Alexandria marks one of the first known
instances of wind powering a machine in history.
[2][3]
However, the
first known practical windmills were built in Sistan, an Eastern
province of Iran, from the 7th century. These "Panemone" were
vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with
rectangular blades.
[4]
Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed
matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or
draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane
industries.
[5]
Windmills first appeared in Europe during the middle ages. The first
historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th
centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their
windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190. By the 14th century,
Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine delta.
The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging
machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to
light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland. Some months later
American inventor Charles F Brush built the first automatically
operated wind turbine for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio.
Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical in the United
Kingdom electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost
effective in countries with widely scattered populations.
Wind turbine
18
The first automatically operated wind turbine,
built in Cleveland in 1887 by Charles F. Brush. It
was 60 feet (18m) tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6
metric tonnes) and powered a 12kW generator.
In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical
loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak
power of about 30 MW. The largest machines were on 24-meter (79ft)
towers with four-bladed 23-meter (75ft) diameter rotors. By 1908
there were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in the US from
5kW to 25kW. Around the time of World War I, American windmill
makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for
water-pumping.
[6]
By the 1930s, wind generators for electricity were
common on farms, mostly in the United States where distribution
systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel was
cheap, and the generators were placed atop prefabricated open steel
lattice towers.
A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service
at Yalta, USSR in 1931. This was a 100kW generator on a 30-meter
(98ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3kV distribution system. It was
reported to have an annual capacity factor of 32 per cent, not much
different from current wind machines.
[7]
In the autumn of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was
synchronized to a utility grid in Vermont. The Smith-Putnam wind turbine only ran for 1,100 hours before suffering
a critical failure. The unit was not repaired because of shortage of materials during the war.
The first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by John Brown & Company in 1951 in
the Orkney Islands.
Despite these diverse developments, developments in fossil fuel systems almost entirely eliminated any wind turbine
systems larger than supermicro size. In the early 1970s, however, anti-nuclear protests in Denmark spurred artisan
mechanics to develop microturbines of 22kW. The organizing of owners into associations and co-operatives lead to
the lobbying of the government and utilities, which incentivized larger turbines throughout the 1980s and afterwards.
Local activists in Germany, nascent turbine manufacturers in Spain, and large investors in the U.S. in the early 1990s
then lobbied for policies which stimulated the industry in those countries. Later companies formed in India and
China. As of 2012, Danish company Vestas is the world's biggest wind-turbine manufacturer.
Wind turbine
19
Resources
Main article: Wind power
Nordex N117/2400 in Germany, a modern
low-wind turbine.
Wind turbines at the Jepirach Eolian Park in La
Guajira, Colombia.
A quantitative measure of the wind energy available at any location is
called the Wind Power Density (WPD) It is a calculation of the mean
annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and
is tabulated for different heights above ground. Calculation of wind
power density includes the effect of wind velocity and air density.
Color-coded maps are prepared for a particular area described, for
example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Metres". In the United
States, the results of the above calculation are included in an index
developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and referred
to as "NREL CLASS". The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is
rated by class. Classes range from Class 1 (200 watts per square meter
or less at 50m altitude) to Class 7 (800 to 2000 watts per square m).
Commercial wind farms generally are sited in Class 3 or higher areas,
although isolated points in an otherwise Class 1 area may be practical
to exploit.
Wind turbines are classified by the wind speed they are designed for,
from class I to class IV, with A or B referring to the turbulence.
[8]
Class Avg Wind Speed (m/s)Turbulence
Ia 10 18%
IB 10 16%
IIA 8.5 18%
IIB 8.5 16%
IIIA 7.5 18%
IIIB 7.5 16%
IVA 6 18%
IVB 6 16%
Wind turbine
20
Efficiency
Not all the energy of blowing wind can be harvested, since conservation of mass requires that as much mass of air
exits the turbine as enters it. Betz' law gives the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine as
59% of the total kinetic energy of the air flowing through the turbine.
Further inefficiencies, such as rotor blade friction and drag, gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce
the power delivered by a wind turbine. Commercial utility-connected turbines deliver about 75% of the Betz limit of
power extractable from the wind, at rated operating speed.
Efficiency can decrease slightly over time due to wear. Analysis of 3128 wind turbines older than 10 years in
Denmark showed that half of the turbines had no decrease, while the other half saw a production decrease of 1.2%
per year.
[9]
Types
The three primary types: VAWT Savonius,
HAWT towered; VAWT Darrieus as they appear
in operation
Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the
former being both older and more common.
Horizontal axis
Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine
(gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being
lifted into position
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and
electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the
wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large
turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most
have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a
quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually
positioned upwind of its supporting tower. Turbine blades are made
stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high
winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in
front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a
small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they don't need an
additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed
to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence
may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of upwind design.
Wind turbine
21
A turbine blade convoy passing through
Edenfield, UK
Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric
power are usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by
computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over
320km/h (200mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which
contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored white for
daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 40 meters
(66 to 131ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90
meters (200 to 300ft) tall. The blades rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per
minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds 90 meters per
second (300ft/s). A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the
speed of the generator, although designs may also use direct drive of an
annular generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more
energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the
transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by
feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.
Vertical axis design
A vertical axis Twisted Savonius
type turbine.
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to
be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where
the wind direction is highly variable, for example when the turbine is integrated
into a building. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground,
using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox,
improving accessibility for maintenance.
The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the
consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the
inherently lower power coefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within
the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the
blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train,
and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges
of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.
[10]
When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building generally redirects wind
over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of a rooftop mounted turbine tower is
approximately 50% of the building height it is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind
turbulence. Wind speeds within the built environment are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites,
[11]
noise
may be a concern and an existing structure may not adequately resist the additional stress.
Subtypes of the vertical axis design include:
Darrieus wind turbine
"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus. They
have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to
poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to
start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more
blades which results in greater solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by the rotor
area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but have an external superstructure connected
to the top bearing.
[12]
Wind turbine
22
Giromill
A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety has
variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting. The advantages of variable pitch are: high
starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a higher coefficient of performance; more efficient
operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V,
or curved blades may be used.
Savonius wind turbine
These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, Flettner vents
(commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are
always self-starting if there are at least three scoops.
Twisted Savonius
Twisted Savonius is a modified savonius, with long helical scoops to provide smooth torque. This is often used
as a rooftop windturbine and has even been adapted for ships.
[13]
Another type of vertical axis is the Parallel turbine, which is similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan. It uses
the ground effect. Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a unit producing 10kW was
built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in the 1980s.Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources
Design and construction
Main article: Wind turbine design
Components of a horizontal-axis wind turbine
Inside view of a wind turbine tower, showing the
tendon cables.
Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a
location. Aerodynamic modelling is used to determine the optimum
tower height, control systems, number of blades and blade shape.
Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution.
Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three
components:
The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind
turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low
speed rotational energy.
The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind
turbine cost, includes the electrical generator, the control
electronics, and most likely a gearbox (e.g. planetary gearbox),
adjustable-speed drive or continuously variable transmission
component for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high
speed rotation suitable for generating electricity.
The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of
the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.
A 1.5 MW wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United States
has a tower 80 meters (260ft) high. The rotor assembly (blades and
hub) weighs 22,000 kilograms (48,000lb). The nacelle, which contains
the generator component, weighs 52,000 kilograms (115,000lb). The
concrete base for the tower is constructed using 26,000 kilograms
(58,000lb) of reinforcing steel and contains 190 cubic meters (250cuyd) of concrete. The base is 15 meters (50ft)
in diameter and 2.4 meters (8ft) thick near the center.
Wind turbine
23
Among all renewable energy systems wind turbines have the highest effective intensity of power-harvesting
surface
[14]
because turbine blades not only harvest wind power, but also concentrate it.
[15]
Wikipedia:Disputed
statement
Unconventional designs
Main article: Unconventional wind turbines
The corkscrew shaped wind turbine at
Progressive Field in Cleveland, Ohio
One E-66 wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, Germany, carries an
observation deck, open for visitors. Another turbine of the same type,
with an observation deck, is located in Swaffham, England. Airborne
wind turbines have been investigated many times but have yet to
produce significant energy. Conceptually, wind turbines may also be
used in conjunction with a large vertical solar updraft tower to extract
the energy due to air heated by the sun.
Wind turbines which utilise the Magnus effect have been developed.
The ram air turbine is a specialist form of small turbine that is fitted to
some aircraft. When deployed, the RAT is spun by the airstream going past the aircraft and can provide power for
the most essential systems if there is a loss of all onboard electrical power.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Wind turbines on public display
Main article: Wind turbines on public display
The Nordex N50 wind turbine and visitor centre
of Lamma Winds in Hong Kong, China
A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind
turbines by placing them on public display, either with visitor centers
around their bases, or with viewing areas farther away. The wind
turbines themselves are generally of conventional horizontal-axis,
three-bladed design, and generate power to feed electrical grids, but
they also serve the unconventional roles of technology demonstration,
public relations, and education.
Small wind turbines
Main article: Small wind turbine
Wind turbine
24
A small Quietrevolution QR5 Gorlov
type vertical axis wind turbine in
Bristol, England. Measuring 3m in
diameter and 5m high, it has a
nameplate rating of 6.5 kW to the
grid.
Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or
off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics,
remote monitoring and other purposes that require energy where there is no
electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small wind turbines may be as small
as a fifty-watt generator for boat or caravan use. Hybrid solar and wind powered
units are increasingly being used for traffic signage, particularly in rural
locations, as they avoid the need to lay long cables from the nearest mains
connection point. The U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) defines small wind turbines as those smaller than or equal to
100 kilowatts.
[16]
Small units often have direct drive generators, direct current
output, aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind.
Larger, more costly turbines generally have geared power trains, alternating
current output, flaps and are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive
generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched.
Wind turbine spacing
On most horizontal windturbine farms, a spacing of about 6-10 times the rotor diameter is often upheld. However,
for large wind farms distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economically optimal, taking into account
typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has been reached by research
[17]
conducted by Charles
Meneveau of the Johns Hopkins University, and Johan Meyers of Leuven University in Belgium, based on computer
simulations that take into account the detailed interactions among wind turbines (wakes) as well as with the entire
turbulent atmospheric boundary layer. Moreover, recent research by John Dabiri of Caltech suggests that vertical
wind turbines may be placed much more closely together so long as an alternating pattern of rotation is created
allowing blades of neighbouring turbines to move in the same direction as they approach one another.
[18]
Wind turbine braking system
Wind Turbines disc pads
[19]
are formulated with ceramic compounds and brass chips instead of the commonly used
semi-metallic pads steel fibers. The brass chips are able to transfer heat into the ceramic pad which acts like a heat
sink then dissipates back into the rotor and atmosphere once the brakes have been released. Along with Time
Released Lubricants allowing the ceramic pads to handle higher brake temperatures with less heat fade, protecting
the calipers and pistons. A cooler running disc pad generates less wear on both pads rotors.
Wind turbine
25
Records
Fuhrlnder Wind Turbine Laasow, in
Brandenburg, Germany, among the
world's tallest wind turbines
ole, the largest vertical axis wind
turbine, in Cap-Chat, Quebec,
Canada
Largest capacity
The Vestas V164 has a rated capacity of 8.0MW,
[20]
has an overall height
of 220m (722ft), a diameter of 164m (538ft), and is the world's
largest-capacity wind turbine since its introduction in 2014. At least five
companies are working on the development of a 10MW turbine.
Largest swept area
The turbine with the largest swept area is the Samsung S7.0-171, with a
diameter of 171m, giving a total sweep of 22966m
2
.
Tallest
Vestas V164 is the tallest wind turbine, standing in sterild, Denmark, 220
meters tall, constructed in 2014.
Highest tower
Fuhrlnder install a 2.5MW turbine on a 160m lattice tower in 2003 (see
Fuhrlnder Wind Turbine Laasow)
Largest vertical-axis
Le Nordais wind farm in Cap-Chat, Quebec has a vertical axis wind
turbine (VAWT) named ole, which is the world's largest at 110m. It has
a nameplate capacity of 3.8MW.
Largest 2 bladed turbine
Today's biggest 2 bladed turbine is build by Mingyang Wind Power in
2013. It is a SCD6.5MW offshore downwind turbine, designed by aerodyn
Energiesysteme
[21][22]
Most southerly
The turbines currently operating closest to the South Pole are three
Enercon E-33 in Antarctica, powering New Zealand's Scott Base and the
United States' McMurdo Station since December 2009 although a modified
HR3 turbine from Northern Power Systems operated at the
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in 1997 and 1998.
[23]
In March 2010
CITEDEF designed, built and installed a wind turbine in Argentine
Marambio Base.
[24]
Most productive
Four turbines at Rnland wind farm in Denmark share the record for the most productive wind turbines, with
each having generated 63.2GWh by June 2010.
Highest-situated
Since 2013 the world's highest-situated wind turbine is made by United Windpower China Guodian
Corporation installed by the Longyuan Power and located in the Naqu country, Tibet (China) around 4,800
meters (15,700ft) above sea level.
[25][26]
The site use a 1500 kW wind turbine designed by aerodyn
Energiesysteme.
[27]
Largest floating wind turbine
The world's largestand also the first operational deep-water large-capacityfloating wind turbine is the 2.3
MW Hywind currently operating 10 kilometers (6.2mi) offshore in 220-meter-deep water, southwest of
Wind turbine
26
Karmy, Norway. The turbine began operating in September 2009 and utilizes a Siemens 2.3 MW turbine.
External links
Harvesting the Wind (45 lectures about wind turbines by professor Magdi Ragheb)
[28]
Wind Projects
[29]
Guided tour on wind energy
[30]
U.S. Wind Turbine Manufacturing: Federal Support for an Emerging Industry
[31]
Congressional Research
Service
Wind Energy Technology World Wind Energy Association
[32]
Wind turbine simulation, National Geographic
[33]
Airborne Wind Industry Association international
[34]
The world's 10 biggest wind turbines
[35]
The Tethys database seeks to gather, organize and make available information on potential environmental effects
of offshore wind energy development
[36]
Further reading
Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 1st
edition (2001), ISBN 0-471-48997-2
Darrell, Dodge, Early History Through 1875
[37]
, TeloNet Web Development, Copyright 19962001
Robert Gasch, Jochen Twele (ed.), Wind power plants. Fundamentals, design, construction and operation,
Springer 2012 ISBN 978-3-642-22937-4.
Erich Hau, Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Springer, 2013 ISBN
978-3-642-27150-2 (preview on Google Books)
Siegfried Heier, Grid integration of wind energy conversion systems Wiley 2006, ISBN 978-0-470-86899-7.
Peter Jamieson, Innovation in Wind Turbine Design. Wiley & Sons 2011, ISBN 978-0-470-69981-2
David Spera (ed,) Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine Engineering, Second
Edition (2009), ASME Press, ISBN #: 9780791802601
Alois Schaffarczyk (ed.), Understanding wind power technology, Wiley & Sons 2014, ISBN 978-1-118-64751-6.
Hermann-Josef Wagner, Jyotirmay Mathur, Introduction to wind energy systems. Basics, technology and
operation. Springer 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-32975-3.
Ersen Erdem, Wind Turbine Industrial Applications
[19]
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Renewable_energy_sources& action=edit
[2] A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145151
[3] Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der stlichen zur westlichen Windmhle", Archiv fr Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp. 130 (10f.)
[4] Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-42239-6.
[5] Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald
Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering (http:/ / home. swipnet. se/ islam/ articles/ HistoryofSciences. htm))
[6] Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas (http:/ / www. mysanantonio. com/ news/ weather/
weatherwise/ stories/ MYSA092407. 01A.State_windmills. 3430a27. html)
[7] Alan Wyatt: Electric Power: Challenges and Choices. Book Press Ltd., Toronto 1986, ISBN 0-920650-00-7
[8] IEC Wind Turbine Classes (http:/ / www. wind-works. org/ articles/ IECWindTurbineClasses. html) June 7, 2006
[9] Sanne Wittrup. " 11 years of wind data shows surprising production decrease (http:/ / ing. dk/ artikel/
11-aars-vinddata-afsloerede-overraskende-produktionsnedgang-163917)" (in Danish) Ingeniren, 1 November 2013. Accessed: 2 November
2013.
[10] http:/ / www.awsopenwind.org/ downloads/ documentation/ ModelingUncertaintyPublic. pdf
[11] http:/ / www.urbanwind. net/ pdf/ technological_analysis. pdf
Wind turbine
27
[12] [12] Exploit Nature-Renewable Energy Technologies by Gurmit Singh, Aditya Books, pp 378
[13] Rob Varnon. Derecktor converting boat into hybrid passenger ferry (http:/ / www. ctpost. com/ news/ article/
Derecktor-converting-boat-into-hybrid-passenger-851170. php), Connecticut Post website, December 2, 2010. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
[14] See Erich Hau: Windkraftanlagen: Grundlagen, Technik, Einsatz, Wirtschaftlichkeit. Berlin/ Heidelberg 2008, pp. 621. (German). (For the
english Edition see Erich Hau, Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics, Springer 2005)
[15] [15] "Innovation in Wind Turbine Design" (2011), Peter Jamieson
[16] Small Wind (http:/ / www. nrel.gov/ wind/ smallwind/ ), U.S. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory website
[17] J. Meyers and C. Meneveau, "Optimal turbine spacing in fully developed wind farm boundary layers" (2011), Wind Energy (http:/ /
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/ 10.1002/ we.469/ full)
[18] Dabiri, J. Potential order-of-magnitude enhancement of wind farm power density via counter-rotating vertical-axis wind turbine arrays
(2011), J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043104 (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ content/ aip/ journal/ jrse/ 3/ 4/ 10. 1063/ 1. 3608170)
[19] http:/ / www.asadshop.com/ industrial. html
[20] Wittrup, Sanne. " Power from Vestas' giant turbine (http:/ / ing. dk/ artikel/ saa-producerer-vestas-gigantmoelle-stroem-165903)" (in Danish.
English translation (http:/ / translate.google.com/ translate?hl=da& sl=da& tl=en& prev=_dd& u=http:/ / ing. dk/ artikel/
saa-producerer-vestas-gigantmoelle-stroem-165903) ). Ingeniren, 28 January 2014. Accessed: 28 January 2014.
[21] http:/ / www.windpoweroffshore.com/ article/ 1207686/ close---aerodyns-6mw-offshore-turbine-design
[22] http:/ / www.windpowermonthly.com/ article/ 1188373/ ming-yang-install-65mw-offshore-turbine
[23] Bill Spindler, The first Pole wind turbine (http:/ / www. southpolestation. com/ trivia/ 90s/ turbine. html).
[24] GENERADOR DE ENERGA ELICA EN LA ANTRTIDA (http:/ / www. mindef. gov. ar/ info. asp?Id=1425)
[25] http:/ / www.windpowermonthly.com/ article/ 1142093/ longyuan-builds-tibets-first-wind-farm
[26] http:/ / www.renewable-energy-technology.net/ wind-energy-news/ china-firm-builds-world%E2%80%99s-highest-wind-farm-tibet
[27] http:/ / www.eaton. com/ Eaton/ OurCompany/ SuccessStories/ Energy/ GuodianUnitedPowerTechnologyCompany/ index. htm
[28] https:/ / netfiles.uiuc.edu/ mragheb/ www/ NPRE%20475%20Wind%20Power%20Systems/
[29] http:/ / www.projectfreepower.com/
[30] http:/ / www.windpower. org/ en/ knowledge/ guided_tour. html
[31] https:/ / opencrs.com/ document/ R42023/
[32] http:/ / www.wwindea. org/
[33] http:/ / environment. nationalgeographic. com/ environment/ global-warming/ wind-power-interactive. html
[34] http:/ / www.aweia.org/
[35] http:/ / www.windpowermonthly.com/ 10-biggest-turbines/
[36] http:/ / tethys. pnnl. gov/
[37] http:/ / telosnet. com/ wind/ early. html
Engineering
28
Engineering
For other uses, see Engineering (disambiguation).
The steam engine, a major driver in the Industrial Revolution, underscores the importance
of engineering in modern history. This beam engine is on display at the main building of
the ETSII (Superior Technical School of Industrial Engineering) of the Technical
University of Madrid, in Madrid, Spain.
Engineering (from Latin ingenium,
meaning "cleverness" and ingeniare,
meaning "to contrive, devise") is the
application of scientific, economic,
social, and practical knowledge in
order to invent, design, build, maintain,
and improve structures, machines,
devices, systems, materials and
processes. The discipline of
engineering is extremely broad, and
encompasses a range of more
specialized fields of engineering, each
with a more specific emphasis on
particular areas of applied science,
technology and types of application.
The American Engineers' Council for
Professional Development (ECPD, the
predecessor of ABET)
[1]
has defined
"engineering" as:
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or
manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the
same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating
conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation or safety to life and
property.
[2][3]
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations
such as Professional Engineer, Designated Engineering Representative, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer,
Ingenieur or European Engineer.
History
Main article: History of engineering
Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley, lever, and
wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical
principles to develop useful tools and objects.
The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer, which itself dates
back to 1300, when an engine'er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to "a constructor of
military engines."
[4]
In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical
contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the
present day are military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning
"innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention."
[5]
Engineering
29
Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term
civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such
non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering.
Ancient era
The Ancient Romans built aqueducts to bring a
steady supply of clean fresh water to cities and
towns in the empire.
The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon, the Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece, the
Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and the Colosseum, Teotihuacn and the
cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great
Wall of China, the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur and tombs of
India, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and
skill of the ancient civil and military engineers.
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep. As one of the
officials of the Pharaoh, Djosr, he probably designed and supervised
the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at
Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC.
[6]
Ancient Greece developed machines in both the civilian and military
domains. The Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer,
[7][8]
and the mechanical inventions of
Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the
Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key
principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used
today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.
Chinese, Greek and Roman armies employed complex military machines and inventions such as artillery which was
developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C.,
[9]
the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages,
the trebuchet was developed.
Renaissance era
The first electrical engineer is considered to be William Gilbert, with his 1600 publication of De Magnete, who
coined the term "electricity".
[10]
The first steam engine was built in 1698 by mechanical engineer Thomas Savery. The development of this device
gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades, allowing for the beginnings of mass production.
With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in
which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering
the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.
Engineering
30
Modern era
The International Space Station represents a modern
engineering challenge from many disciplines.
Boeing 747-8 wing-fuselage sections during final assembly
The early stages of electrical engineering included
the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s,
the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and
others and the invention of the electric motor in
1872. The work of James Maxwell and Heinrich
Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of
electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube
and the transistor further accelerated the development
of electronics to such an extent that electrical and
electronics engineers currently outnumber their
colleagues of any other engineering specialty.
The inventions of Thomas Savery and the Scottish
engineer James Watt gave rise to modern mechanical
engineering. The development of specialized
machines and their maintenance tools during the
industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of
mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain
and abroad.
John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil
engineer, and often regarded as the "father" of civil
engineering. He was an English civil engineer
responsible for the design of bridges, canals,
harbours and lighthouses. He was also a capable
mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist.
Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (175559) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime' (a form
of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the
building of the lighthouse. His lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at
Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeaton's Tower. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and
development of modern cement, because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain
"hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of Portland cement.
Chemical engineering, like its counterpart mechanical engineering, developed in the nineteenth century during the
Industrial Revolution. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the
need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development
and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of the chemical engineer was the
design of these chemical plants and processes.
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands
the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers
around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from
the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some
concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.
The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States went to
Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.
Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical
engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I . Meanwhile, research to provide
Engineering
31
fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.
In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the first search engine was built by computer engineer Alan Emtage.
Main branches of engineering
Main article: List of engineering branches
Hoover Dam
Engineering, is a broad discipline which is often broken
down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines
concern themselves with differing areas of engineering
work. Although initially an engineer will usually be
trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's
career the engineer may become multi-disciplined,
having worked in several of the outlined areas.
Engineering is often characterized as having four main
branches:
[11][12]
Chemical engineering The application of physics,
chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in
order to carry out chemical processes on a
commercial scale, such as petroleum refining,
microfabrication, fermentation, and biomolecule
production.
Civil engineering The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports,
roads, railways, water supply and treatment etc.), bridges, dams, and buildings.
Electrical engineering The design and study of various electrical and electronic systems, such as electrical
circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits,
optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, controls, and
electronics.
Mechanical engineering The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems,
aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains,
kinematic chains, vacuum technology, and vibration isolation equipment.
The design of a modern auditorium involves
many branches of engineering, including
acoustics, architecture and civil engineering.
Beyond these four, sources vary on other main branches. Historically,
naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches.
Modern fields sometimes included as major
branchesWikipedia:Citation needed include manufacturing
engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering,
Instrumentation and control, aerospace, automotive, computer,
electronic, petroleum, systems, audio, software, architectural,
agricultural, biosystems, biomedical,
[13]
geological, textile, industrial,
materials,
[14]
and nuclear
[15]
engineering. These and other branches of
engineering are represented in the 36 institutions forming the
membership of the UK Engineering Council.
New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and
form new branches - for example Earth Systems Engineering and Management involves a wide range of subject
areas including anthropology, engineering, environmental science, ethics and philosophy. A new or emerging area of
application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines; there is often
gray area as to when a given sub-field becomes large and/or prominent enough to warrant classification as a new
Engineering
32
"branch." One key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and
programs in the new field.
For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to
their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.
Methodology
Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from
many fields, as the system involves mechanical,
electro-magnetic and chemical processes. The blades, rotor
and stator as well as the steam cycle all need to be carefully
designed and optimized.
Engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to
find suitable solutions to problems or to make improvements
to the status quo. More than ever, engineers are now required
to have knowledge of relevant sciences for their design
projects. As a result, they may keep on learning new material
throughout their career.
If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design
choices on their merits and choose the solution that best
matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the
engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the
constraints on a design in order to produce a successful
result. It is usually not enough to build a technically
successful product; it must also meet further requirements.
Constraints may include available resources, physical,
imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future
modifications and additions, and other factors, such as
requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productibility,
and serviceability. By understanding the constraints,
engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a
viable object or system may be produced and operated.
Problem solving
Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit
knowledge to find suitable solutions to a problem. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem allows
them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.
Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their merits
and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large
number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher
level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale
production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive
tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.
Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and will not cause
unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the
risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.
The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering, and can help the product designer in evaluating his or
her design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of greatest value after disasters, such as bridge collapses,
when careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or causes of the failure.
Engineering
33
Computer use
A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a
Space Shuttle during re-entry. Solutions to the flow require
modelling of the combined effects of fluid flow and the heat
equations.
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors,
computers and software play an increasingly important role.
As well as the typical business application software there are
a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided
technologies) specifically for engineering. Computers can be
used to generate models of fundamental physical processes,
which can be solved using numerical methods.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is
computer-aided design (CAD) software like Autodesk
Inventor, DSS SolidWorks, or Pro Engineer which enables
engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics
of their designs. CAD together with digital mockup (DMU)
and CAE software such as finite element method analysis or
analytic element method allows engineers to create models
of designs that can be analyzed without having to make
expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.
These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to
analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions,
electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this
information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.
There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
software to generate CNC machining instructions; manufacturing process management software for production
engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications
for maintenance management; and AEC software for civil engineering.
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as
product lifecycle management (PLM).
Social context
Engineering as a subject ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all engineering
projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few
types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open-design
engineering.
By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society and human behavior. Every product or construction
used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering. Engineering is a very powerful tool to make
changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a great responsibility. Many
engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public
at large.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering disciplines include the
development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the
extraction of oil. In response, some western engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social
responsibility policies.
Engineering is a key driver of human development.
[16]
Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small engineering
capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside
Engineering
34
aid.Wikipedia:Citation needed The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the
achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological
development.
[17]
All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and
development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of
mankind:
Engineers Without Borders
Engineers Against Poverty
Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
Engineers for a Sustainable World
Engineering for Change
Engineering Ministries International
[18]
Engineering companies in many established economies are facing significant challenges ahead with regard to the
number of skilled engineers being trained, compared with the number retiring. This problem is very prominent in the
UK.
[19]
There are many economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues
[20]
It is widely
agreed that engineering faces an "image crisis",
[21]
rather than it being fundamentally an unattractive career. Much
work is needed to avoid huge problems in the UK and well as the USA and other western economies.
Relationships with other disciplines
Science
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.
Theodore von Krmn
Christopher Cassidy of NASA works on the Capillary Flow
Experiment aboard the International Space Station.
There exists an overlap between the sciences and
engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science.
Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of
materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and
classification criteria to analyze and communicate
observations.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks,
such as designing experimental apparatus or building
prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing
technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring
new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment,
scientists.Wikipedia:Citation needed
In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It, Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a
character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or
chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.
Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the NavierStokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow
over an aircraft, or the use of Miner's rule to calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering research employs many
semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter
variation.Wikipedia:Citation needed
As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text Foundations of Solid Mechanics:
Engineering
35
"Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make
things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must
put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a
device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution
to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its
geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find
that they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by insufficient scientific
knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have
to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born."
Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety,
efficiency, economy, reliability and constructability or ease of fabrication, as well as legal considerations such as
patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Medicine and biology
Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been
described as the epitome of the artist/engineer. He is also
known for his studies on human anatomy and physiology.
The study of the human body, albeit from different directions
and for different purposes, is an important common link
between medicine and some engineering disciplines.
Medicine aims to sustain, enhance and even replace
functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of
technology.
Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions
through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter
the function of the human body through artificial devices
such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.
[22][23]
The fields of bionics and medical bionics are dedicated to the
study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human
body as a biological machine worth studying, and are
dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing
biology with technology. This has led to fields such as
artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and
robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary
interactions between engineering and medicine.
[24][25]
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This
often requires moving forward before phenomena are
completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense
and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an
integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many
functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.
[26]
The heart for example functions much like a pump,
[27]
the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,
[28]
the brain
produces electrical signals etc.
[29]
These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of
engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts
developed in both disciplines.
Engineering
36
Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for
engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.
Art
A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives.
Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on
function and the utilization of mathematics and
science.
There are connections between engineering and art;
[30]
they are
direct in some fields, for example, architecture, landscape
architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these
disciplines may sometimes be included in a university's Faculty of
Engineering); and indirect in others.
[31][32][33]
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about
the art of NASA's aerospace design.
[34]
Robert Maillart's bridge
design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.
[35]
At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor,
through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.
[36]
Among famous historical figures Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime
example of the nexus between art and engineering.
[][37]
Other fields
In political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social engineering and
political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled
with political science principles. Financial engineering has similarly borrowed the term.
References
[1] ABET History (http:/ / www.abet. org/ History/ )
[2] Engineers' Council for Professional Development. (1947). Canons of ethics for engineers (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ oclc/
26393909& referer=brief_results)
[3] Engineers' Council for Professional Development definition on Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9105842/
engineering) (Includes Britannica article on Engineering)
[4] [4] Oxford English Dictionary
[5] Origin: 12501300; ME engin < AF, OF < L ingenium nature, innate quality, esp. mental power, hence a clever invention, equiv. to in- +
-genium, equiv. to gen- begetting; Source: Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, Inc. 2006.
[6] Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2005, p. 159
[7] " The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project (http:/ / www. antikythera-mechanism. gr/ project/ general/ the-project. html)", The
Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 2007-07-01 Quote: "The Antikythera Mechanism is now understood to be dedicated to
astronomical phenomena and operates as a complex mechanical "computer" which tracks the cycles of the Solar System."
[8] Wilford, John. (July 31, 2008). Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C. (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 07/ 31/ science/
31computer.html?hp). New York Times.
[9] Britannica on Greek civilization in the 5th century Military technology (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 244231/
ancient-Greece/ 261062/ Military-technology) Quote: "The 7th century, by contrast, had witnessed rapid innovations, such as the introduction
of the hoplite and the trireme, which still were the basic instruments of war in the 5th." and "But it was the development of artillery that
opened an epoch, and this invention did not predate the 4th century. It was first heard of in the context of Sicilian warfare against Carthage in
the time of Dionysius I of Syracuse."
[10] Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
[11] Journal of the British Nuclear Energy Society: Volume 1 British Nuclear Energy Society - 1962 - Snippet view (http:/ / books. google. ca/
books?id=Hy9WAAAAMAAJ& q=In+ most+ universities+ it+ should+ be+ possible+ to+ cover+ the+ main+ branches+ of+ engineering,+
ie+ civil,+ mechanical,+ electrical+ and+ chemical+ engineering+ in+ this+ way. & dq=In+ most+ universities+ it+ should+ be+ possible+ to+
cover+ the+ main+ branches+ of+ engineering,+ ie+ civil,+ mechanical,+ electrical+ and+ chemical+ engineering+ in+ this+ way. & hl=en&
ei=2UkYTff0MZL-ngfesbGMDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA) Quote: In most universities it
should be possible to cover the main branches of engineering, i.e. civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering in this way. More
specialised fields of engineering application, of which nuclear power is...
Engineering
37
[12] The Engineering Profession (https:/ / web. archive.org/ web/ 20070810194330/ http:/ / www. engc. org. uk/ documents/ Hamilton. pdf) by
Sir James Hamilton, UK Engineering Council Quote: "The Civilingenior degree encompasses the main branches of engineering civil,
mechanical, electrical, chemical." (From the Internet Archive)
[13] [13] Bronzino JD, ed., The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8493-2121-2
[14] http:/ / www.jstor.org/ pss/ 10. 1525/ hsps. 2001.31.2.223
[15] http:/ / www.careercornerstone. org/ pdf/ nuclear/ nuceng. pdf
[16] PDF on Human Development (http:/ / www.ewb-uk.org/ system/ files?file=Hinton lecture text FINAL. pdf)
[17] MDG info pdf (http:/ / www. sistech. co. uk/ media/ ICEBrunelLecture2006. pdf?Docu_id=1420& faculty=14)
[18] Home page for EMI (http:/ / www.emiusa.org/ index.html)
[19] http:/ / www.engineeringuk.com/ About_us/
[20] http:/ / www.georgededwards. co.uk/ policy/ why-does-it-matter-why-are-engineering-skills-important
[21] http:/ / www.georgededwards. co.uk/ the-era-foundation-report. html
[22] Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips. Ellen M. McGee and G. Q. Maguire, Jr. from Boston University (http:/ / www. bu. edu/
wcp/ Papers/ Bioe/ BioeMcGe. htm)
[23] IEEE technical paper: Foreign parts (electronic body implants).by Evans-Pughe, C. quote from summary: Feeling threatened by cyborgs?
(http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee.org/ Xplore/ login. jsp?url=/ iel5/ 2188/ 27125/ 01204814. pdf?arnumber=1204814)
[24] Institute of Medicine and Engineering: Mission statement The mission of the Institute for Medicine and Engineering (IME) is to stimulate
fundamental research at the interface between biomedicine and engineering/physical/computational sciences leading to innovative applications
in biomedical research and clinical practice. (http:/ / www. uphs. upenn. edu/ ime/ mission. html)
[25] IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology: Both general and technical articles on current technologies and methods used in biomedical and
clinical engineering... (http:/ / ieeexplore.ieee.org/ xpl/ RecentIssue. jsp?punumber=51)
[26] Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical Sciences: Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and medicine in pdf: quote1:
Systems Biology is an emerging methodology that has yet to be defined quote2: It applies the concepts of systems engineering to the study of
complex biological systems through iteration between computational and/or mathematical modelling and experimentation. (http:/ / www.
acmedsci. ac. uk/ images/ pressRelease/ 1170256174.pdf)
[27] Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The heart as a pump (http:/ / www. smm. org/ heart/ lessons/ lesson5a. htm)
[28] Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers (http:/ / www. mnsu. edu/ emuseum/ biology/ humananatomy/ skeletal/
skeletalsystem.html)
[29] UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of brain's electrical storm during a seizure (http:/ / www. berkeley. edu/ news/ media/
releases/ 2005/ 02/ 23_brainwaves. shtml)
[30] Lehigh University project: We wanted to use this project to demonstrate the relationship between art and architecture and engineering (http:/
/ www3. lehigh. edu/ News/ news_story. asp?iNewsID=1781& strBack=/ campushome/ Default. asp)
[31] National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering: Professor uses the fine arts to broaden students' engineering perspectives (http:/ /
www.nsf.gov/ news/ news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990& org=NSF)
[32] MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of the British Design Council,
James Dyson has been designing products since graduating from the Royal College of Art in 1970. (http:/ / mitworld. mit. edu/ video/ 362/ )
[33] University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive Arts and Engineering (http:/ / iiae. utdallas. edu/ )
[34] Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASA's Aeronautical Research (http:/ / www. artic. edu/ aic/ exhibitions/ nasa/ overview.
html)
[35] Princeton U: Robert Maillart's Bridges: The Art of Engineering: quote: no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious of the aesthetic
implications... (http:/ / press. princeton.edu/ titles/ 137. html)
[36] quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engineers.. (http:/ / www. chiefengineer. org/ content/ content_display. cfm/
seqnumber_content/ 2697. htm)
[37] Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper (http:/ / www. users. drew. edu/ ~ejustin/ leonardo. htm)
Further reading
Blockley, David (2012). Engineering: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN978-0-19-957869-6.
Dorf, Richard, ed. (2005). The Engineering Handbook (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN0-8493-1586-7.
Billington, David P. (1996-06-05). The Innovators: The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern.
Wiley; New Ed edition. ISBN0-471-14026-0.
Petroski, Henry (1992-03-31). To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design. Vintage.
ISBN0-679-73416-3.
Petroski, Henry (1994-02-01). The Evolution of Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts-From Forks and Pins to
Paper Clips and Zippers-Came to be as They are. Vintage. ISBN0-679-74039-2.
Engineering
38
Lord, Charles R. (2000-08-15). Guide to Information Sources in Engineering. Libraries Unlimited. doi:
10.1336/1563086999 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1336/ 1563086999). ISBN1-56308-699-9.
Vincenti, Walter G. (1993-02-01). What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from
Aeronautical History. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN0-8018-4588-2.
Hill, Donald R. (1973-12-31) [1206]. The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitb f ma'rifat
al-hiyal al-handasiyya. Pakistan Hijara Council. ISBN969-8016-25-2.
External links
National Society of Professional Engineers position statement on Licensure and Qualifications for Practice (http:/
/ www. nspe. org/ GovernmentRelations/ TakeAction/ PositionStatements/ ps_lic_qual_prac. html)
National Academy of Engineering (NAE) (http:/ / www. nae. edu/ )
American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) (http:/ / www. asee. org/ )
The US Library of Congress Engineering in History bibliography (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ scitech/
SciRefGuides/ eng-history. html)
ICES: Institute for Complex Engineered Systems, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA (http:/ / www. ices.
cmu. edu)
History of engineering bibliography (http:/ / www. tc. umn. edu/ ~tmisa/ biblios/ hist_engineering. html) at
University of Minnesota
Aerodynamics
"Aerodynamic" redirects here. For other uses, see Aerodynamic (disambiguation).
A vortex is created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by smoke.
Vortices are one of the many phenomena associated with the study of
aerodynamics.
Aerodynamics, from Greek aer (air) +
(dynamics), is a branch of dynamics
concerned with studying the motion of air,
particularly when it interacts with a solid
object, such as an airplane wing.
Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics
and gas dynamics, and many aspects of
aerodynamics theory are common to these
fields. The term aerodynamics is often used
synonymously with gas dynamics, with the
difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to
the study of the motion of all gases, not limited
to air.
Formal aerodynamics study in the modern
sense began in the eighteenth century, although
observations of fundamental concepts such as
aerodynamic drag have been recorded much
earlier. Most of the early efforts in
aerodynamics worked towards achieving heavier-than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by Wilbur and Orville
Wright in 1903. Since then, the use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind
tunnel experimentation, and computer simulations has formed the scientific basis for ongoing developments in
heavier-than-air flight and a number of other technologies. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues
related to compressible flow, turbulence, and boundary layers, and has become increasingly computational in nature.
Aerodynamics
39
History
Main article: History of aerodynamics
Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but aerodynamic forces have been harnessed by
humans for thousands of years in sailboats and windmills, and images and stories of flight appear throughout
recorded history, such as the Ancient Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus. Fundamental concepts of continuum,
drag, and pressure gradients, appear in the work of Aristotle and Archimedes.
In 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first
aerodynamicists. Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with Hydrodynamica, in which he
described a fundamental relationship between pressure, density, and velocity for incompressible flow known today
as Bernoulli's principle, which provides one method for calculating aerodynamic lift. In 1757, Leonhard Euler
published the more general Euler equations, which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows.
The Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in
the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow
and are difficult to solve.
A replica of the Wright brothers' wind tunnel is
on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center.
Wind tunnels were key in the development and
validation of the laws of aerodynamics.
In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify the four
aerodynamic forces of flight (weight, lift, drag, and thrust), as well as
the relationships between them,
[1]
outlining the work towards
achieving heavier-than-air flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis
Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise
measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by
Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Lord Rayleigh. In
1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first
person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight.
Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become highly successful with glider
flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would
produce high lift and low drag. Building on these developments as well
as research carried out in their own wind tunnel, the Wright brothers
flew the first powered aircraft on December 17, 1903.
During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Wilhelm Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky
independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to
develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with
developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers.
As aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds
near or greater than the speed of sound. The differences in air flows under these conditions led to problems in aircraft
control, increased drag due to shock waves, and structural dangers due to aeroelastic flutter. The ratio of the flow
speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach, who was one of the first to investigate
the properties of supersonic flow. William John Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri Hugoniot independently
developed the theory for flow properties before and after a shock wave, while Jakob Ackeret led the initial work on
calculating the lift and drag of supersonic airfoils. Theodore von Krmn and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the
term transonic to describe flow speeds around Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly. This rapid increase in drag led
aerodynamicists and aviators to disagree on whether supersonic flight was achievable. The sound barrier was broken
for the first time in 1947 using the Bell X-1 aircraft.
By the time the sound barrier was broken, much of the subsonic and low supersonic aerodynamics knowledge had
matured. The Cold War fueled an ever evolving line of high performance aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics
began as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where
Aerodynamics
40
entire aircraft can be designed using a computer, with wind-tunnel tests followed by flight tests to confirm the
computer predictions. Knowledge of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has also matured since the 1960s, and
the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted from understanding the behavior of fluid flow to understanding how to
engineer a vehicle to interact appropriately with the fluid flow. Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic
conditions, as well as the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion systems,
continues to fuel new research in aerodynamics, while work continues to be done on important problems in basic
aerodynamic theory related to flow turbulence and the existence and uniqueness of analytical solutions to the
Navier-Stokes equations.
Fundamental concepts
Forces of flight on an airfoil
Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow
field) enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the
object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the
fundamental forces of flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these, lift
and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid
body. Calculation of these quantities is often founded upon the
assumption that the flow field behaves as a continuum. Continuum
flow fields are characterized by properties such as velocity, pressure,
density and temperature, which may be functions of spatial position and time. These properties may be directly or
indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments, or calculated from equations for the conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy in air flows. Density, velocity, and an additional property, viscosity, are used to classify flow
fields.
Flow classification
Flow velocity is used to classify flows according to speed regime. Subsonic flows are flow fields in which air
velocity throughout the entire flow is below the local speed of sound. Transonic flows include both regions of
subsonic flow and regions in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound. Supersonic flows are defined
to be flows in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound everywhere. A fourth classification,
hypersonic flow, refers to flows where the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists
disagree on the precise definition of hypersonic flow.
Compressibility refers to whether or not the flow in a problem can have a varying density. Subsonic flows are often
assumed to be incompressible, i.e. the density is assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic flows are
compressible, and neglecting to account for the changes in density in these flow fields when performing calculations
will yield inaccurate results.
Viscosity is associated with the frictional forces in a flow. In some flow fields, viscous effects are very small, and
solutions may neglect to account for viscous effects. These approximations are called inviscid flows. Flows for
which viscosity is not neglected are called viscous flows. Finally, aerodynamic problems may also be classified by
the flow environment. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes (e.g. around
an airplane wing), while internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects (e.g. through a
jet engine).
Aerodynamics
41
Continuum assumption
Unlike liquids and solids, gases are composed of discrete molecules which occupy only a small fraction of the
volume filled by the gas. On a molecular level, flow fields are made up of many individual collisions between gas
molecules and between gas molecules and solid surfaces. In most aerodynamics applications, however, this discrete
molecular nature of gases is ignored, and the flow field is assumed to behave as a continuum. This assumption
allows fluid properties such as density and velocity to be defined anywhere within the flow.
Validity of the continuum assumption is dependent on the density of the gas and the application in question. For the
continuum assumption to be valid, the mean free path length must be much smaller than the length scale of the
application in question. For example, many aerodynamics applications deal with aircraft flying in atmospheric
conditions, where the mean free path length is on the order of micrometers. In these cases, the length scale of the
aircraft ranges from a few meters to a few tens of meters, which is much larger than the mean free path length. For
these applications, the continuum assumption holds. The continuum assumption is less valid for extremely
low-density flows, such as those encountered by vehicles at very high altitudes (e.g. 300,000ft/90km) or satellites in
Low Earth orbit. In these cases, statistical mechanics is a more valid method of solving the problem than continuous
aerodynamics. The Knudsen number can be used to guide the choice between statistical mechanics and the
continuous formulation of aerodynamics.
Conservation laws
Aerodynamic problems are typically solved using fluid dynamics conservation laws as applied to a fluid continuum.
Three conservation principles are used:
1. Conservation of mass: In fluid dynamics, the mathematical formulation of this principle is known as the mass
continuity equation, which requires that mass is neither created nor destroyed within a flow of interest.
2. Conservation of momentum: In fluid dynamics, the mathematical formulation of this principle can be considered
an application of Newton's Second Law. Momentum within a flow of interest is only created or destroyed due to
the work of external forces, which may include both surface forces, such as viscous (frictional) forces, and body
forces, such as weight. The momentum conservation principle may be expressed as either a single vector equation
or a set of three scalar equations, derived from the components of the three-dimensional velocity vector. In its
most complete form, the momentum conservation equations are known as the Navier-Stokes equations. The
Navier-Stokes equations have no known analytical solution, and are solved in modern aerodynamics using
computational techniques. Because of the computational cost of solving these complex equations, simplified
expressions of momentum conservation may be appropriate to specific applications. The Euler equations are a set
of momentum conservation equations which neglect viscous forces used widely by modern aerodynamicists in
cases where the effect of viscous forces is expected to be small. Additionally, Bernoulli's equation is a solution to
the momentum conservation equation of an inviscid flow, neglecting gravity.
3. Conservation of energy: The energy conservation equation states that energy is neither created nor destroyed
within a flow, and that any addition or subtraction of energy is due either to the fluid flow in and out of the region
of interest, heat transfer, or work.
The ideal gas law or another equation of state is often used in conjunction with these equations to form a determined
system to solve for the unknown variables.
Aerodynamics
42
Branches of aerodynamics
Aerodynamic problems are classified by the flow environment or properties of the flow, including flow speed,
compressibility, and viscosity. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes.
Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples
of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance,
internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe.
Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to whether the flow speed is below, near or above the speed
of sound. A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if
speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is
approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound,
and hypersonic when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the
precise definition of hypersonic flow; a rough definition considers flows with Mach numbers above 5 to be
hypersonic.
The influence of viscosity in the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems may encounter only very small
viscous effects on the solution, in which case viscosity can be considered to be negligible. The approximations to
these problems are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows.
Incompressible aerodynamics
An incompressible flow is a flow in which density is constant in both time and space. Although all real fluids are
compressible, a flow problem is often considered incompressible if the effect of the density changes in the problem
on the outputs of interest is small. This is more likely to be true when the flow speeds are significantly lower than the
speed of sound. Effects of compressibility are more significant at speeds close to or above the speed of sound. The
Mach number is used to evaluate whether the incompressibility can be assumed or the flow must be solved as
compressible.
Subsonic flow
Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics studies fluid motion in flows which are much lower than the speed of sound
everywhere in the flow. There are several branches of subsonic flow but one special case arises when the flow is
inviscid, incompressible and irrotational. This case is called potential flow and allows the differential equations used
to be a simplified version of the governing equations of fluid dynamics, thus making available to the aerodynamicist
a range of quick and easy solutions.
In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether to incorporate the effects
of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the problem. When the
effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the aerodynamicist may choose to assume that density is
constant. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to
vary, the problem is called a compressible problem. In air, compressibility effects are usually ignored when the
Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335 feet (102m) per second or 228 miles (366km) per hour at
60F). Above 0.3, the problem should be solved by using compressible aerodynamics.
Aerodynamics
43
Compressible aerodynamics
Main article: Compressible flow
According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible if its change in density with
respect to pressure is non-zero along a streamline. This means that - unlike incompressible flow - changes in density
must be considered. In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow exceeds 0.3. The
Mach .3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas flows with a Mach number below that value demonstrate
changes in density with respect to the change in pressure of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density
change occurs at the stagnation point of an object immersed in the gas flow and the density changes around the rest
of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible.
Transonic flow
Main article: Transonic
The term Transonic refers to a range of velocities just below and above the local speed of sound (generally taken as
Mach 0.81.2). It is defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some parts of the
airflow over an aircraft become supersonic, and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when all of the airflow is
supersonic. Between these speeds, some of the airflow is supersonic, and some is not.
Supersonic flow
Main article: Supersonic
Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the
lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.
Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure
changes are how a fluid is "told" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is in fact an infinitesimal
pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed
that "information" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid
striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the
moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing
the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there and is
avoiding it. However, in a supersonic flow, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the
fluid finally does strike the object, it is forced to change its properties -- temperature, density, pressure, and Mach
numberin an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along
with the compressibility effects of high-velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between
supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics problems.
Hypersonic flow
Main article: Hypersonic
In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly supersonic. In the 1970s, the term generally came to
refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound) and above. The hypersonic regime is a subset of the
supersonic regime. Hypersonic flow is characterized by high temperature flow behind a shock wave, viscous
interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas.
Aerodynamics
44
Associated terminology
Different types flow analysis around an airfoil:
Potential flow theoryBoundary layerBoundary
layer flow theoryTurbulenceTurbulent wake
analysis
The incompressible and compressible flow regimes produce many
associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence.
Boundary layers
Main article: Boundary layer
The concept of a boundary layer is important in many aerodynamic
problems. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is approximated as
being significant only in this thin layer. This principle makes
aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically.
Turbulence
Main article: Turbulence
In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes in the flow. This includes low
momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time.
Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar flow.
Aerodynamics in other fields
Further information: Automotive aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace engineering. It is a significant factor in
any type of vehicle design, including automobiles. It is important in the prediction of forces and moments in sailing.
It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers also use
aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, to calculate wind loads in the design of large buildings and bridges.
Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in outdoor spaces, create urban
microclimates and reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics studies the ways
atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important
in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the
performance of the engine. People who do wind turbine design use aerodynamics. A few aerodynamic equations are
used as part of numerical weather prediction.
References
[1] Cayley, George. "On Aerial Navigation" Part 1 (http:/ / www. aeronautics. nasa. gov/ fap/ OnAerialNavigationPt1. pdf), Part 2 (http:/ / www.
aeronautics. nasa. gov/ fap/ OnAerialNavigationPt2.pdf), Part 3 (http:/ / www. aeronautics. nasa. gov/ fap/ OnAerialNavigationPt3. pdf)
Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy, 1809-1810. (Via NASA). Raw text (http:/ / invention. psychology. msstate. edu/ i/ Cayley/ Cayley.
html). Retrieved: 30 May 2010.
Further reading
General aerodynamics
Anderson, John D. (2007). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-125408-0. OCLC
60589123 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 60589123).
Bertin, J. J.; Smith, M. L. (2001). Aerodynamics for Engineers (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-064633-4.
OCLC 47297603 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 47297603).
Aerodynamics
45
Smith, Hubert C. (1991). Illustrated Guide to Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-8306-3901-2.
OCLC 24319048 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 24319048).
Craig, Gale (2003). Introduction to Aerodynamics. Regenerative Press. ISBN0-9646806-3-7. OCLC 53083897
(http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 53083897).
Subsonic aerodynamics
Katz, Joseph; Plotkin, Allen (2001). Low-Speed Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN0-521-66552-3. OCLC 43970751 45992085 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 43970751+ 45992085).
Transonic aerodynamics
Moulden, Trevor H. (1990). Fundamentals of Transonic Flow. Krieger Publishing Company.
ISBN0-89464-441-6. OCLC 20594163 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 20594163).
Cole, Julian D; Cook, L. Pamela (1986). Transonic Aerodynamics. North-Holland. ISBN0-444-87958-7. OCLC
13094084 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 13094084).
Supersonic aerodynamics
Ferri, Antonio (2005). Elements of Aerodynamics of Supersonic Flows (Phoenix ed.). Dover Publications.
ISBN0-486-44280-2. OCLC 58043501 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 58043501).
Shapiro, Ascher H. (1953). The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Volume 1. Ronald
Press. ISBN978-0-471-06691-0. OCLC 11404735 174280323 174455871 45374029 (http:/ / www. worldcat.
org/ oclc/ 11404735+ 174280323+ 174455871+ 45374029).
Anderson, John D. (2004). Modern Compressible Flow. McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-124136-1. OCLC 71626491
(http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 71626491).
Liepmann, H. W.; Roshko, A. (2002). Elements of Gasdynamics. Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-41963-0.
OCLC 47838319 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 47838319).
von Mises, Richard (2004). Mathematical Theory of Compressible Fluid Flow. Dover Publications.
ISBN0-486-43941-0. OCLC 56033096 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 56033096).
Hodge, B. K.; Koenig K. (1995). Compressible Fluid Dynamics with Personal Computer Applications. Prentice
Hall. ISBN0-13-308552-X. OCLC 31662199 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 31662199). ISBN
0-13-308552-X.
Hypersonic aerodynamics
Anderson, John D. (2006). Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics (2nd ed.). AIAA.
ISBN1-56347-780-7. OCLC 68262944 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 68262944).
Hayes, Wallace D.; Probstein, Ronald F. (2004). Hypersonic Inviscid Flow. Dover Publications.
ISBN0-486-43281-5. OCLC 53021584 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 53021584).
History of aerodynamics
Chanute, Octave (1997). Progress in Flying Machines. Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-29981-3. OCLC
37782926 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 37782926).
von Karman, Theodore (2004). Aerodynamics: Selected Topics in the Light of Their Historical Development.
Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-43485-0. OCLC 53900531 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 53900531).
Anderson, John D. (1997). A History of Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying Machines. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN0-521-45435-2. OCLC 228667184 231729782 35646587 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/
oclc/ 228667184+ 231729782+ 35646587).
Aerodynamics related to engineering
Ground vehicles
Katz, Joseph (1995). Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed. Bentley Publishers. ISBN0-8376-0142-8.
OCLC 181644146 32856137 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 181644146+ 32856137).
Aerodynamics
46
Barnard, R. H. (2001). Road Vehicle Aerodynamic Design (2nd ed.). Mechaero Publishing. ISBN0-9540734-0-1.
OCLC 47868546 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 47868546).
Fixed-wing aircraft
Ashley, Holt; Landahl, Marten (1985). Aerodynamics of Wings and Bodies (2nd ed.). Dover Publications.
ISBN0-486-64899-0. OCLC 12021729 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 12021729).
Abbott, Ira H.; von Doenhoff, A. E. (1959). Theory of Wing Sections: Including a Summary of Airfoil Data.
Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-60586-8. OCLC 171142119 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 171142119).
Clancy, L.J. (1975). Aerodynamics. Pitman Publishing Limited. ISBN0-273-01120-0. OCLC 16420565 (http:/ /
www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 16420565).
Helicopters
Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN0-521-85860-7. OCLC 224565656 61463625 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 224565656+ 61463625).
Prouty, Raymond W. (2001). Helicopter Performance, Stability, and Control. Krieger Publishing Company Press.
ISBN1-57524-209-5. OCLC 212379050 77078136 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 212379050+ 77078136).
Seddon, J.; Newman, Simon (2001). Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics: An Account of First Principles in the Fluid
Mechanics and Flight Dynamics of the Single Rotor Helicopter. AIAA. ISBN1-56347-510-3. OCLC 47623950
60850095 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 47623950+ 60850095).
Missiles
Nielson, Jack N. (1988). Missile Aerodynamics. AIAA. ISBN0-9620629-0-1. OCLC 17981448 (http:/ / www.
worldcat. org/ oclc/ 17981448).
Model aircraft
Simons, Martin (1999). Model Aircraft Aerodynamics (4th ed.). Trans-Atlantic Publications, Inc.
ISBN1-85486-190-5. OCLC 43634314 51047735 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 43634314+ 51047735).
Related branches of aerodynamics
Aerothermodynamics
Hirschel, Ernst H. (2004). Basics of Aerothermodynamics. Springer. ISBN3-540-22132-8. OCLC 228383296
56755343 59203553 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 228383296+ 56755343+ 59203553).
Bertin, John J. (1993). Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics. AIAA. ISBN1-56347-036-5. OCLC 28422796 (http:/ /
www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 28422796).
Aeroelasticity
Bisplinghoff, Raymond L.; Ashley, Holt; Halfman, Robert L. (1996). Aeroelasticity. Dover Publications.
ISBN0-486-69189-6. OCLC 34284560 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 34284560).
Fung, Y. C. (2002). An Introduction to the Theory of Aeroelasticity (Phoenix ed.). Dover Publications.
ISBN0-486-49505-1. OCLC 55087733 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 55087733).
Boundary layers
Young, A. D. (1989). Boundary Layers. AIAA. ISBN0-930403-57-6. OCLC 19981526 (http:/ / www. worldcat.
org/ oclc/ 19981526).
Rosenhead, L. (1988). Laminar Boundary Layers. Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-65646-2. OCLC 17619090
21227855 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 17619090+ 21227855).
Turbulence
Tennekes, H.; Lumley, J. L. (1972). A First Course in Turbulence. The MIT Press. ISBN0-262-20019-8. OCLC
281992 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 281992).
Pope, Stephen B. (2000). Turbulent Flows. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-59886-9. OCLC
174790280 42296280 43540430 67711662 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 174790280+ 42296280+
Aerodynamics
47
43540430+ 67711662).
External links
NASA Beginner's Guide to Aerodynamics (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ bga. html)
Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's How Things Fly website (http:/ / howthingsfly. si. edu)
Aerodynamics for Students (http:/ / www. aerodynamics4students. com)
Aerodynamics for Pilots (http:/ / selair. selkirk. bc. ca/ Training/ Aerodynamics/ index. html)
Aerodynamics and Race Car Tuning (http:/ / www. 240edge. com/ performance/ tuning-aero. html)
Aerodynamic Related Projects (http:/ / www. aerodyndesign. com)
eFluids Bicycle Aerodynamics (http:/ / www. efluids. com/ efluids/ pages/ bicycle. htm)
Application of Aerodynamics in Formula One (F1) (http:/ / www. forumula1. net/ 2006/ f1/ features/
car-design-technology/ aerodynamics/ )
Aerodynamics in Car Racing (http:/ / www. nas. nasa. gov/ About/ Education/ Racecar/ )
Aerodynamics of Birds (http:/ / wings. avkids. com/ Book/ Animals/ intermediate/ birds-01. html)
Aerodynamics and dragonfly wings (http:/ / www. public. iastate. edu/ ~huhui/ paper/ 2007/ AIAA-2007-0483.
pdf)
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Article Sources and Contributors
49
Engineering Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=614492855 Contributors: 026fatih, 0x6D667061, 10braunsteinc, 12345roza1234, 128.163.239.xxx, 130.159.254.xxx, 16@r,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
50
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Windkanal.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windkanal.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: JeLuF
File:Cessna 182 model-wingtip-vortex.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cessna_182_model-wingtip-vortex.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
3.0 Unported Contributors: BenFrantzDale
File:WB Wind Tunnel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WB_Wind_Tunnel.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original
uploader was Axda0002 at en.wikipedia
File:Windtunnel2.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windtunnel2.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Abdullah Krolu, Flappiefh,
Fongs, Liftarn, PeterWD, Ronaldino, Wikig
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-17158, Deutsche Versuchsanstalt fr Luftfahrt.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-17158,_Deutsche_Versuchsanstalt_fr_Luftfahrt.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany
Contributors: Arbitrarily0, El Grafo, Martin H., Mattes, PeterWD
File:Kirsten wind tunnel 05.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kirsten_wind_tunnel_05.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Joe Mabel
File:Man examining fan of Langley Research Center 16 foot transonic wind tunnel.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Man_examining_fan_of_Langley_Research_Center_16_foot_transonic_wind_tunnel.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA
File:Kirsten wind tunnel 08A.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kirsten_wind_tunnel_08A.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Joe Mabel
File:Lift curve.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lift_curve.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: botag.
File:GIF Flow visualization.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GIF_Flow_visualization.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
UWAL Crew
File:Wing with minitufts.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wing_with_minitufts.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: UWAL
Crew
File:Wing air flow pattern.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wing_air_flow_pattern.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: UWAL
Crew
File:Oil flow vis on straight wing.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil_flow_vis_on_straight_wing.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: UWAL Crew
File:Fog visualization.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fog_visualization.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Georgepehli
File:Vertical wind tunnel at TsAGI.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vertical_wind_tunnel_at_TsAGI.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
Contributors: Yuriy Lapitskiy (User:Yuriybrisk)
File:Windmills D1-D4 (Thornton Bank).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Windmills_D1-D4_(Thornton_Bank).jpg License: unknown Contributors: Andy Dingley,
Benh, Berrucomons, Biopics, Foroa, HUB, Homonihilis, Jahobr, Jkadavoor, Lamiot, Lycaon, Sultan11, Teratornis, Thierry Caro, UpstateNYer, 1 anonymous edits
File:James Blyth's 1891 windmill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_Blyth's_1891_windmill.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown
File:Wind turbine 1941.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wind_turbine_1941.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US GOV
File:Wind turbine 1888 Charles Brush.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wind_turbine_1888_Charles_Brush.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AnRo0002,
EurekaLott, Foroa, J JMesserly, Teratornis, 1 anonymous edits
File:N117, Hohenahr 7.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:N117,_Hohenahr_7.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Andol
File:Jepirach.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jepirach.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: EPM Empresas pblicas de medellin, entidad
del gobierno colombiano
File:HAWT and VAWTs in operation medium.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HAWT_and_VAWTs_in_operation_medium.gif License: Public Domain
Contributors: Ssgxnh
File:Scout moor gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scout_moor_gearbox,_rotor_shaft_and_brake_assembly.jpg License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: Paul Anderson
File:Turbine Blade Convoy Passing through Edenfield.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turbine_Blade_Convoy_Passing_through_Edenfield.jpg License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: Paul Anderson
File:Twisted Savonius wind turbine in operation@60rpm.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Twisted_Savonius_wind_turbine_in_operation@60rpm.gif License:
Public Domain Contributors: Ssgxnh
File:EERE illust large turbine.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EERE_illust_large_turbine.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy
File:WKA spannglieder.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WKA_spannglieder.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:VanGore
File:Progressive Field Wind Turbine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Progressive_Field_Wind_Turbine.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Astros4477
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