Catena 75 (2008) 191–199

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Catena
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / c a t e n a

Soil management effects on runoff and soil loss from field rainfall simulation
Ke Jin a,b,c,⁎, Wim M. Cornelis c, Donald Gabriels c, Wouter Schiettecatte c, Stefaan De Neve c, Junjie Lu d,
Tineke Buysse c, Huijun Wu a,b, Dianxiong Cai a,b, Jiyun Jin a,b, Roger Harmann c
a
Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100081, P.R. China
b
Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition & Nutrient Cycling, MOA, 100081, P.R. China
c
Department of Soil Management and Soil Care, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
d
Luoyang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Luoyang, 300071, P.R. China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Soil erosion from agricultural lands is a serious problem on the Chinese Loess Plateau. In total, 28 field rainfall
Received 15 October 2007 simulations were carried on loamy soils under different management practices, namely conventional tillage
Received in revised form 3 June 2008 (CT), no till with mulch (NTM), reduced tillage (RT), subsoiling with mulch (SSM), subsoiling without mulch
Accepted 10 June 2008
(SS), and two crops per year (TC), to investigate (i) the effects of different soil management practices on
runoff sediment and (ii) the temporal change of runoff discharge rate and sediment concentration under
Keywords:
different initial soil moisture conditions (i.e. initially dry soil surface, and wet surface) and rainfall intensity
Field rainfall simulation
Runoff discharge rate
(85 and 170 mm h− 1) in the Chinese Loess Plateau. NTM was the best alternative in terms of soil erosion
Sediment concentration control. SSM reduced soil loss by more than 85% in 2002 compared to CT, and its effects on runoff reduction
Soil and water conservation became more pronounced after 4 years consecutive implementation. SS also reduced considerably the runoff
Soil management practices and soil loss, but not as pronounced as SSM. TC resulted in a significant runoff reduction (more than 92%)
compared to CT in the initial ‘dry’ soil, but this effect was strongly reduced in the initial ‘wet’ soil. Temporal
change of runoff discharge rate and sediment concentration showed a large variation between the different
treatments. In conclusion, NTM is the most favorable tillage practices in terms of soil and water conservation
in the Chinese Loess Plateau. SSM can be regarded as a promising measure to improve soil and water
conservation considering its beneficial effect on winter wheat yield.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Erosion is one of the main problems that the agricultural sector on
the Chinese Loess Plateau is confronted with. The total eroded area of
the Loess Plateau is 454,000 km2, of which 337,000 km2 is affected by
water erosion (YRCC, 2002). The average erosion rate of cultivated
land on the Loess Plateau is estimated at 60 ton ha− 1 y− 1 (Luk, 1996).
The conventional tillage methods in the Chinese Loess Plateau use
moldboard plows and harrows pulled by animals or tractors and are
based on the principle that all crop residues are removed from the
fields before a new crop is sown or planted in a fine, loose and smooth
soil (Cai et al., 2006.). The rationale of the farmer is that the
advantages are clear: weeds are well controlled and the sowing and
planting operation can be done effectively. However, the conventional
farming practices are very far from being sustainable and environ-
mentally compatible from a soil and water conservation perspective
⁎ Corresponding author. Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning,
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100081, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Plant
Nutrition & Nutrient Cycling, MOA, 100081, P.R. China. Tel.: +86 10 82109645; fax: +86 10
68915161.
E-mail address: kjin@caas.ac.cn (K. Jin).
because of the uncovered soil surface during July, August and
September, which are characterized by the highest rainfall intensities
(more than half of the total annual rainfall occurs during this period),
and because of the conventional up and down the slope ploughing (Jin
et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2007). In recent years, irrational agricultural
practices have been continuing to deteriorate the environment and to
decline land productivity in the Chinese Loess Plateau (Lal, 2002;
Schiettecatte et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2006). Therefore, developing
and adopting more effective cropping systems and tillage practices are
the keys to bring soil erosion under control and to achieve sustainable
crop production in the Chinese Loess Plateau (Li et al., 2002).
As a consequence, conventionally tilled winter wheat in the Loess
Plateau is now gradually shifting towards conservation tillage because
of economic and soil and water quality benefits associated with
conservational tillage production (Wei et al., 2000). Several research-
ers have already indicated that conservation tillage practices reduce
soil and nutrient losses considerably (e.g. Mostaghimi et al., 1988;
Kisic et al., 2002; Puustinen et al., 2005).
Maintaining a crop residue cover and standing stubble after
harvest in conservational tillage are two important factors controlling
the intensity and the frequency of overland flow and surface wash
erosion. Both runoff and sediment loss decrease exponentially as the
percentage of vegetation cover increases (Kosmas et al., 1997). Rainfall

0341-8162/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.catena.2008.06.002
192
Fig. 1. The exterior landscape of experiment site.
simulation experiments conducted by Mostaghimi et al. (1988) on a
silt loam, showed a strong decrease in runoff and soil loss as the
residue level of winter rye increased, regardless of the tillage system
(no till and conventional till). Surface residues that cover only 20% of
the soil surface can already substantially reduce soil loss compared
with a bare surface (Johnson and Moldenhauer, 1979), while above
60% of coverage, the bare areas are generally too small and
discontinuous to contribute to runoff of erosion at the field scale (Le
Bissonnais et al., 2005). Cogo et al. (1984) found that a standing
stubble reduced soil erosion by water more than surface roughness
did, especially when residue cover was present. Retention of wheat
stubble in situ without incorporation (standing stubble in furrows)
can minimize erosion and runoff and consequently maximize water
infiltration (Mostaghimi et al., 1998).
Our primary objective was to investigate plot-level runoff and soil
losses via overland flow by analyzing the temporal change of runoff,
sediment concentration, and sediment load in runoff and to determine
the magnitude of runoff and sediment under different soil manage-
ment practices. For the plots where runoff occurred, we focused
particularly on the overland flow patterns (e.g., time to initiate runoff,
runoff volume, sediment discharge rate, runoff peak flow) at different
temporal scales of measurement. These results are needed to select
and promote valid tillage alternatives for abating soil erosion and
nutrient losses in the Chinese Loess Plateau by introducing improved
land management strategies so as to improve yields whilst minimiz-
ing soil loss and reducing nutrient inputs.
2. Materials and experimental designs
2.1. Site description
An experimental site aimed specifically at monitoring the impact
of converting conventional tillage to conservation tillage was
Table 1
Soil characteristics in Songzhuang (Henan province) in 2001 (n = 6)
Profile Depth (m) 0–2 µm (g kg− 1) 2–50 µm (g kg− 1) 50–2000 µm (g kg− 1)
Ao 0.00–0.02 143 748 109
Ap 0.02–0.30 141 743 116
B1 0.30–0.60 138 745 117
Values between brackets indicate the standard deviation.
a
USDA textural classification.
b
n = 3.
K. Jin et al. / Catena 75 (2008) 191–199
established in Songzhuang Village, 25 km north of the city of Luoyang
(Henan Province; 113.0° East longitude, 34.5° North latitude) (Fig. 1) in
the eastern part of the Chinese Loess Plateau. In this region, the
Quaternary loess has a thickness varying from 50 to100 m. It has a
loose and porous structure with high hydraulic conductivity. The soil
in the study area was a silt loam soil and classified as Ustochrept
according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2003).
The experimental site was previously conventionally tilled for over
30 years and the basic soil properties were analyzed before the
establishment of the experimental plots (Table 1). There was no
significant difference between the tested properties (p b 0.05). Since
the entire experimental site was relatively homogenous in terms of
soil physical, chemical and topographic properties, the different
treatments could be laid out as single plots which reduced the total
size of the experimental site and hence variability. Statistical analysis
of the effects of different soil management practices could therefore
be conducted using the results from replicated samples in one single
plot (Zhang et al., 2006).
Two series of plots were laid out: one series of five plots under
natural rainfall (set up in 1999) and another series of four plots was
designed specifically for rainfall simulation tests (set up in 2001) on a
‘gullied hill’. Gullied hilly loess consists of rounded hills of consider-
able height with a high density of steep-sided gullies showing
evidence of active erosion. Each plot under simulated rainfall was
15 m long and 1.8 m wide. The slope of the plots, which were located
along the same contour line, was 9%.
During 1970–2006 the minimum temperature was −23.5 °C and
the maximum was 43.7 °C. The average annual precipitation during
the study period was 580 mm. The annual potential evaporation
varied between 1262 and 1852 mm and the average air humidity was
65%. Rainfall was unevenly distributed throughout the year with high
rainfall intensities and frequent rainstorms in summer (June–
September) and dry winters (December–February).
Texturea CaCO3 (g kg− 1) Total N (g kg− 1) Bulk densityb (Mg m− 3) pH (KCl)
Silt loam 113 (3) 1.124 (0.18) 1.350 (0.041) 7.7 (0.1)
Silt loam 129 (5) 0.955 (0.11) 1.350 (0.027) 7.8 (0.0)
Silt loam 142 (0) 0.732 (0.09) 1.383 (0.019) 7.7 (0.1)
 K. Jin et al. / Catena 75 (2008) 191–199
2.2. Tillage practices
This study was focusing on plots subjected to artificial rainfall.
Treatments were conventional tillage (CT), no till with mulch (NTM),
reduced tillage (RT), and subsoiling with mulch (SSM). On CT, NTM, RT
and SSM, winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was grown and the
different tillage practices were applied from 2001 onward.
Under CT, a stubble of 10–15 cm remained on the field after harvest
of winter wheat (May 25–June 1), but the straw and ears were
removed from the plot at harvest. In the first week of July, the soil was
ploughed and turned to 20 cm depth. Around October 1, just before
sowing of winter wheat, the soil was ploughed again and turned to
20 cm depth while at the same time the fertilizer was incorporated,
followed by harrowing (seed bed preparation). Sowing of winter
wheat was done around October 5.
Under NTM, a stubble of 30 cm remained on the field after harvest
(May 25–June 1) and straw was returned to the field after threshing.
Between September 25 and October 5, direct sowing with fertilizer
application was done by hand.
Under RT, a stubble of 10–15 cm remained on the field after harvest
of winter wheat (May 25–June 1) and the straw was returned to the
field after threshing. Around July 15, deep ploughing (25–30 cm)
combined with harrowing (5–8 cm) was done. Winter wheat was
sown around October 5. This practice thus involved only 1 time
ploughing instead of 2 times ploughing under CT.
Under SSM, stubble of 25–35 cm remained on the field after
harvest (May 25–June 1) and straw was returned to the field after
threshing. Around July 1, subsoiling was performed till 30–35 cm
depth at 60 cm intervals. Between September 25 and October 5, direct
sowing with fertilizer application was done.
In order to make a comparison with the plots under natural rainfall
and to study the effect of mulch on erosion reduction, two new plots,
namely subsoiling without mulch (SS) and two crops per year (i.e.
winter wheat with peanut) (TC), were set up in 2004.
Under SS, the soil tillage practices were the same as with subsoiling
with mulch (SSM), but no winter wheat residues were returned to the
field. Under TC, a stubble of 10–15 cm remains on the field after
harvest of winter wheat (May 25–June 1). Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.)
was directly seeded in the beginning of June and limited water was
supplied in each planting pit to ensure the germination of peanut but
Fig. 2. A rainfall simulation experiment conducted simultaneously on a no-till plot (left) and on a conventional tillage plot (right).
193
no fertilizer is applied. After the harvest of peanut (around Sept. 23),
the soil was ploughed to 20 cm depth while at the same time the
fertilizer was incorporated, followed by harrowing (seed bed
preparation). Sowing of winter wheat was done around October 5.
Winter wheat and peanut were sown by hand up and down the
slope for all treatments. In order to investigate the environmental
impacts of fertilization at local application levels, application rates for
each plot were 150 kg N ha− 1 (urea) and 90 kg P2O5 ha− 1 (superpho-
sphate) in each year. Insect control was achieved by applying 1125 ml
omethoate (C5H12NO4PS) ha− 1.
2.3. Rainfall simulations and sampling
Because of the position of the field plots, rainfall was simulated on
two adjacent field plots at the same time (Fig. 2). The rainfall simulator
was similar to the one used by Schiettecatte et al. (2005) and consisted
of two 15-m long sprinkler booms, each positioned at a height of 1.8 m
above the soil surface and at a mutual distance of 1.5 m. On each
sprinkler boom, TeeJet® TG SS 14 W nozzles were fixed every 1 m and
positioned in a triangular configuration.
Each runoff plot was bounded and trenched around to divert
upslope runoff water. Runoff from the plot was collected in a trough at
the downhill side of the plot, with runoff discharge measured by
timed volumetric sampling. Runoff samples were taken when runoff
started and then after 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 min. Sediment
concentration was determined gravimetrically on the runoff samples
after oven-drying (at 105 °C). Prior to each rainfall simulation, the
incised rill developed in the previous rainfall test was refilled
manually to make the temporal replicates as less as possible
dependent on the previous simulation.
A total of 28 rainfall simulations were carried out, or six
simulations on each of the four plots established in 2001 (Table 2).
Four simulations were conducted per plot in 2002 and two in 2005.
The simulations were performed in a series of two, first on an initially
‘dry’ soil (with gravimetric water content ranging from 0.087 to
0.295 kg kg− 1), and then a few days later on the same but now initially
‘wet’ soil (with gravimetric water content ranging from 0.175 to
0.288 kg kg− 1). The rainfall intensity was 85 and 170 mm h− 1 which is
exceptional during natural rainfall events, but nevertheless can occur
in the study area, primarily over short time periods. Rainfall at a high
194 K. Jin et al. / Catena 75 (2008) 191–199

Table 2
Experimental conditions of field rainfall simulations and runoff and sediment under each rainfall simulation test

Date Plot wi (kg kg− 1) RI (mm h− 1) Code of experiment Percentage cover (%) Roughnessa Residue statusb Runoff (m3 ha− 1) Sediment (ton ha− 1)
7-Sep-02 CT 0.259 85 CT1 5 R4 1 315 9.57
9-Sep-02 CT 0.244 85 CT2 5 R4 1 352 9.24
3-Sep-02 CT 0.140 170 CT3 5 R4 1 571 13.52
5-Sep-02 CT 0.252 170 CT4 5 R4 1 751 40.13
31-Aug-05 CT 0.161 170 CT5 20 R4 1 231 4.39
5-Sep-05 CT 0.259 170 CT6 20 R4 1 456 7.98
28-Aug-02 NTM 0.162 85 NTM1 60 R0 2 0 0
29-Aug-02 NTM 0.217 85 NTM2 60 R0 2 0 0
23-Aug-02 NTM 0.141 170 NTM3 60 R0 2 0 0
25-Aug-02 NTM 0.201 170 NTM4 60 R0 2 0 0
28-Aug-05 NTM 0.175 170 NTM5 60 R0 2 0 0
4-Sep-05 NTM 0.269 170 NTM6 60 R0 2 0 0
28-Aug-02 RT 0.168 85 RT1 5 R2 1 306 5.96
29-Aug-02 RT 0.202 85 RT2 5 R2 1 327 4.26
23-Aug-02 RT 0.087 170 RT3 5 R2 1 358 7.24
25-Aug-02 RT 0.175 170 RT4 5 R2 1 625 20.35
28-Aug-05 RT 0.158 170 RT5 20 R2 1 474 8.27
4-Sep-05 RT 0.256 170 RT6 20 R2 1 427 6.59
7-Sep-02 SSM 0.295 85 SSM1 60 R1 2 175 0.73
9-Sep-02 SSM 0.288 85 SSM2 60 R1 2 143 0.41
3-Sep-02 SSM 0.172 170 SSM3 60 R1 2 0 0
5-Sep-02 SSM 0.265 170 SSM4 60 R1 2 299 1.69
31-Aug-05 SSM 0.172 170 SSM5 60 R1 2 0 0
5-Sep-05 SSM 0.271 170 SSM6 60 R1 2 0 0
1-Sep-05 SS 0.156 170 SS1 15 R1 2 237 1.85
6-Sep-05 SS 0.272 170 SS2 15 R1 2 190 1.65
1-Sep-05 TC 0.167 170 TC1 65 R1 3 18 0.8
6-Sep-05 TC 0.266 170 TC2 65 R1 3 361 0.28

CT: convention tillage, NTM: no till with mulch, RT: reduced tillage, SSM: subsoiling with mulch, SS: subsoiling, TC: two crops per year, wi: initial gravimetric water content, RI:
rainfall intensity.
a
The classification of roughness is based on Ludwig et al. (1995):
R0 Strongly crusted sown fields, harvested fields with intense compaction.
R1 Sown fields with fine-loosened or moderately crusted seedbeds.
R2 Recently sown fields with a cloddy surface, crusted tilled fields without residues.
R3 Stubble-ploughed fields and recently sown fields with a very cloddy surface.
R4 Ploughed fields.
b
The classification of residue status: 1: standing winter wheat residues; 2: winter wheat residues incorporated into soil; 3: peanut vegetation.

intensity was applied over a longer period in order to ensure a
complete consolidation of the soil at the end of the rainfall simulation
experiments. Each rainfall simulation lasted for 30 min.
For each experimental plot, the bulk density in the 0–10 cm layer
was measured on 100 cm3 (diameter of 5 cm) soil cores collected five
days after the last rainfall simulation test in three replications per plot.
Prior to each rainfall simulation, disturbed soil samples were taken at
the soil surface in six replicates, in order to determine antecedent soil–
water content by oven-drying (at 105 °C). SOC was determined in
2005 in three replications in the upslope and downslope part of the
plot to a depth of 40 cm in three layers (0–10 cm, 10–20 cm and 20–
40 cm) after the last rainfall simulation. SOC was determined using the
method of Walkley and Black (1934).
2.4. Data analysis
The spatial variability in soil texture and SOC observed prior to the
experiments was negligible (which was one of the reasons for finally
selecting the field for our experiments). Therefore, rather than
applying a classical block design which allows accounting for possible
effects of spatial variability, the different treatments were, as said, laid
out as single plots and statistical analysis of the effects of different soil
management practices was conducted using the results from
replicated samples in one single plot (Zhang et al., 2006). We believe
that, particularly for experiments in which measurements are
conducted at given instants (no long term continuous recordings), it
is important to account for some variation in environmental factors
such as rainfall intensity and antecedent water content, rather than
considering spatial variability, which was not existing in our case.
Those environmental factors greatly influence the process under
study, apart from the management practice. We further believe that
performing experiments under different experimental conditions on
one plot, made our results more firm than if we would have included
more plots, but always with the same rainfall intensity and antecedent
water content, at least for the field under consideration. The six
rainfall simulations can hence be seen as replicates in time, on which
no classical statistics can be performed (because of the range in
influencing factors).
Mean values and standard deviations are reported for each of the
measurements on bulk density and SOC. An analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used to detect the effects of treatments on measured
SOC distribution along the slope, and the Least Significant Difference
(LSD) was used to test comparisons among treatment means
calculated at p b 0.05. Statistical procedures were carried out with
the software package SPSS 10.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc. 2001).
3. Results
3.1. Change of soil bulk density and soil organic carbon
Changes in frequency and intensity of tillage practices altered the
soil bulk density (ρb) and soil organic carbon (SOC) in the 0–10 cm
layer (Table 3). NT had the highest ρb, followed by SSM and SS, but the
difference was not statistically significant compared to CT. RT, CT and
TC had similar ρb. SSM and NT increased SOC, but again did not reach
statistical significance compared to CT. There was no difference of SOC
 K. Jin et al. / Catena 75 (2008) 191–199 195

Table 3
Soil bulk densities (ρb, Mg m− 3) and organic carbon content (SOC, Mg ha− 1) in 0–10 cm layer of different plots

Item RT NTM TC SSM SS CT

ρb 1.447 (0.054) 1.503 (0.087) 1.457 (0.025) 1.480 (0.048) 1.478 (0.039) 1.452 (0.048)
SOC 1.093 (0.044) 1.147 (0.020) 1.042 (0.063) 1.162 (0.037) 0.972 (0.078) 1.094 (0.069)

Values between brackets indicate standard deviation.

between the other treatments. However, we must notice that TC and 85 mm h− 1 and by 49% under RI of 170 mm h− 1 in the initially ‘wet’ soil
SS plots were set up three years later compared to the other plots. in 2002, whereas SS increased Dc with 3% in the initially ‘dry’ soil and
with 11% under RI of 170 mm h− 1 in the initially ‘wet’ soil in 2005.
3.2. Runoff and soil loss under field simulated rainfall

3.2.1. Amount of runoff sediment (ton ha− 1) under different soil

management practices
Table 2 also shows the amount of runoff under the different
management practices for the experiments. No runoff occurred with
NTM and SSM in 2005, and therefore they were not delineated in the
graph (same as hereafter). The results indicated that NTM has a
beneficial effect on runoff reduction. SS reduced runoff by 28%
compared to CT5 in the initial ‘dry’ soil, but reduced it with 58% in the
initial ‘wet’ soil. The runoff reduced by more than 64% under SSM
compared to under CT in 2002, whereas, no runoff occurred on SSM in
2005 after four years of consecutive SSM practices. From comparing
the runoff in SSM and SS under the same initial soil moisture
conditions, it could be concluded that mulch had a significant
beneficial effect on runoff reduction in the initial ‘dry’ soil, but this
effect was less pronounced in the initial ‘wet’ soil. TC resulted in a
pronounced runoff reduction (more than 92%) compared to CT in the
initial ‘dry’ soil, but this effect was strongly reduced to 50% in the
initial ‘wet’ soil. Application of RT in the initial ‘dry’ soil reduced runoff
with 37% in 2002 compared to CT, but this effect diminished during
the experiments on fallow, which was carried out in the initial ‘wet’
soil in 2002. In contrast, RT produced 46% and 10% higher runoff in the
initial ‘dry’ soil and ‘wet’ soil compared to CT in 2005, respectively.
Both NT and SSM strongly reduced sediment losses (Table 2).
Under NT no runoff occurred and consequently no soil was lost. SSM
reduced soil loss by more than 85%. SS also reduced considerably the
soil loss (46% on the initial ‘dry’ soil and 64% on the initial ‘wet’ soil).
RT resulted in a soil loss decrease of 46% to 63% in 2002 compared to
CT, while it increased soil loss by 25% in the initial ‘dry’ soil in 2005
and reduced the soil loss by 24% in the initial ‘wet’ soil. TC reduced soil
loss by more than 93% in the initial ‘dry’ soil compared to CT, but it
only reduced 63% of the sediment loss in the initial ‘wet’ soil.
Generally, three distinct stages in the runoff process could be
distinguished (Fig. 3). In stage I, defined as the period from the start of
rainfall to the time to runoff initiation (Ti), all rainfall infiltrated and no
runoff occurred. Stage II represented the period in which infiltration
rapidly declined and runoff started at the same time and increased
rapidly. Stage III started with a constant discharge rate (Dc) indicating
a constant rate of infiltration.
There was always a delay between the start of the simulated rain
and the runoff initiation. For the experiments on the same plot under
the same RI, a longer delay was found in the initially ‘dry’ soil
compared to the initially ‘wet’ soil. Runoff started always earlier on the
RT plot compared to the other plots under RI 170 mm h− 1. But runoff
was significantly delayed on RT1 compared to CT1. The SSM, SS and TC
had a postponed Ti compared to CT.
Comparing the Dc under the same tillage practices, the highest Dc
was always observed under RI of 170 mm h− 1 in the initially ‘wet’ soil.
The Dc in RT and CT under RI of 85 mm h− 1 was quite similar, while it
differed substantially under RI of 170 mm h− 1 at different times. In
2002, the Dc in CT was around 9% higher compared to RT, but in 2005, Fig. 3. Temporal change of runoff discharge rate (l min− 1) under different soil
the Dc in CT was 37% lower in the initially ‘dry’ soil compared to RT. management practices. The meaning of the different codes per treatment is explained in
Compared to CT, SSM reduced Dc by 44% on average under RI of Table 2.
196 K. Jin et al. / Catena 75 (2008) 191–199
The temporal change of sediment concentration (Cs) also showed a
large variation between the different treatments (Fig. 4). In general,
the temporal change of Cs followed two different patterns: (1) Cs
increased rapidly immediately after the Ti, followed by a slight
decline, and then leveled off, which was found in most cases under RT
and CT; (2) Cs reached its peak value at the Ti, then dropped rapidly,
and then leveled off as with RT5 and CT5 and with SSM, TC and SS. In
generally, under the same management practices, the highest
constant Cs was always observed in the initially ‘wet’ soil under the
RI of 170 mm h− 1. But RT and CT in 2005 had a relatively lower Cs (12.1
and 13.5 g l− 1 respectively) compared to Cs under the RI of 85 mm h− 1
in 2002. SSM and TC significantly reduced Cs compared to CT. SS also
reduced Cs, but less pronounced compared to SSM.
Fig. 4. Temporal change of sediment concentration (g l− 1) under different soil
management practices. The meaning of the different codes per treatment is explained
in Table 2.
3.2.2.4Runoff from field plots under natural
Table rainfall
Runoff from the plots under natural rainfall (mm)
Year RT NT TC SS CT
2001 9.6 (2)1 0 2.4 (1) 1.0 (1) 11.5 (3)
2002 0 0 0 0 0
2003 9.4 (3) 0.3 (1) 1.4 (2) 0.3 (1) 13.4 (3)
2004 17.4 (4) 1.9 (3) 13.7 (3) 2.0 (3) 15.7 (4)
2005 14.1 (2) 0 2.1 (2) 0 13.7 (2)
2006 16.3 (2) 0 0 0 15.7 (2)
1
Values between brackets indicate the number of runoff events.
Under natural rainfall, all the runoff events occurred during the
rainfall season from early June to late September. There was a big
variation of annual runoff of every plot under different tillage
practices (Table 4). No runoff occurred in 2002 because of unusual
low rainfall in the summer time. The highest rainfall occurred in 2004
because of the highest amount of precipitation recorded in the last
50 years (around 900 mm during the rainfall season). Application of
NTM and SS resulted in the lowest runoff and runoff was reduced by
more than 87% compared to CT. TC also had a strong effect on runoff
reduction compared to CT. The RT and CT yielded similar results, as
expected.
4. Discussion
The negligible runoff and soil loss in no till with mulch (NTM)
under simulated rainfall in our study (Table 2) could be attributed to
the high permeability of the loess soils in the Loess Plateau on the one
hand, and the high percentages of soil surface cover, standing stubble,
no disturbance of soil surface and relatively high SOC in NTM and their
interaction, on the other. This result was confirmed by the observa-
tions in the plots under natural rainfall (Table 4). Ferreras et al. (2000)
and Raper et al. (2000) reported that long-term application of NTM
might lead to soil compaction and thereby increasing the runoff and
decreasing infiltration. Indeed, a significantly higher bulk density with
NTM compared to conventional tillage (CT) was found in our study,
but no statistical differences in saturated hydraulic conductivity were
observed between the different treatments on the same site (Jin et al.,
2003). According to Fabrizzi et al. (2005), the observed compaction in
no till only lasts for a few years. After many years continuous
conservation tillage practices, sufficient biological activity will be
established, a stable soil structure will be formed and water
infiltration will increase in the soils.
Our results showed that non-inverse tillage could reduce soil
erodibility significantly in the initially ‘dry’ soil, when conventionally
ploughed topsoils could be very erodible (Table 2). The combination of
subsoiling (SS) with mulch (SSM) appeared to be more effective in
reducing runoff by 50% and sediment loss by 85% compared to CT in
2002. From comparing the results of Figs. 3 and 4, it could be
concluded that SS and SSM had a higher reduction in soil loss than in
runoff. This indicates that the reduced runoff and soil loss within a
short time after conversion to conservation tillage were not merely
due to the temporary protective effect of the residue cover, which was
concluded by Freebairn and Wockner (1986). The applied tillage also
affected soil erodibility. Schiettecatte et al. (2003) proved that tillage
has a supplementary effect on soil erodibility: a lower erodibility value
was found in SSM compared to CT. Van Dijk et al. (1996) tested several
cropping systems of fodder maize on runoff and soil loss and reported
that soil loss is reduced strongly if the soil surface is partially covered
with plant residues and soil loss reductions are much higher than
reductions in runoff water.
Although subsoiling with mulch (SSM) showed a pronounced soil
and water conservation effect in the year 2002, it was not as efficient
as NTM, indicating that even a small disturbance of the soil could
make the soil more vulnerable to erosion (Table 2). McGregor and
Greer (1982) indicated that even when crop residues are left on the
 K. Jin et al. / Catena 75 (2008) 191–199
surface of the tilled soils, they provide less protection against erosion
than the accumulated residues from no till systems. However, no
runoff and soil loss was observed in SSM in 2005 in contrast to the
record in 2002 with the same rainfall intensity. This difference was
related to a temporal change of the soil erosion resistance of the
surface soil in the SSM plot. Significantly higher soil carbon storage
was observed relative to CT after 4 years of consistent SSM practices
(Table 3). It is expected that this increase in carbon storage was rather
precarious, since it was mainly stored in the top 10-cm soil layer, and
consequently could improve the soil permeability (Azooz et al., 1996)
and increase the stability and amounts of macro-aggregates
(Shepherd et al., 2002; Six et al., 2002), and finally, soil erosion
resistance increased. These improvements in surface soil properties
influencing erodibility could only occur within a minimum of 3–
4 years after the introduction of conservation practices on a loamy soil
(Rhoton et al., 2002).
Even though two crops per year (TC) showed a significant runoff
and soil loss reduction in the initially ‘dry’ soil due to the high
vegetative cover (60%), still small runoff and soil losses occurred
(Figs. 3 and 4). Furthermore, this reduction diminished strongly in the
initially ‘wet’ soil. We could conclude that in our study mulching with
winter wheat straw combined with standing stubble (NTM and SSM)
was more effective on soil and water conservation than using a cover
crop (TC). The less efficient erosion control of TC is related to the
vegetation pattern on the slopes and the application of straight-row
farming up and down the slope. Water concentrated into the
continuous bare surface with low infiltration rate between rows and
routed along the steepest algorithm row, and consequently erosion
was more likely to occur. It is noteworthy that Ti (12 min) under TC
was significant delayed even in the initially ‘wet’ soil (Fig. 3).
Reduced tillage (RT) did not show an appreciable runoff and soil
reduction even though the winter wheat residue was returned to the
field after threshing and one tillage practice was cancelled compared
to CT. The primary tillage operation at the beginning of July in RT and
CT did not significantly affect the saturated hydraulic conductivity, but
significantly increased the soil erodibility in comparison to a
consolidated soil (Schiettecatte et al., 2005). Actually, soils under RT
remain almost bare with a smooth soil surface during summer due to
the incorporation of the straw. Consequently, the beneficial effects of
standing stubble and mulch on soil and water conservation are
therefore lost. If there would not be a protection of vegetation and
stabilization by the root systems, the raindrop impact would destroy
the porous soil structure and therefore cause a dramatic decrease in
soil permeability. The results of laboratory experiments with the same
soil also indicated a significant correlation between percolation and
surface cover. Schiettecatte et al. (2003) found that the average
saturated hydraulic conductivity as measured from rainfall simula-
tions was 2.9 mm h− 1 and 5.5 mm h− 1 in case of respectively 0 and 50%
cover at same site. This proved that surface mulch plus standing
residue in the upper soil layer was more effective in reducing soil
losses than when they were ploughed into the soil.
The difference in runoff between RT and CT in 2002 was rather
surprising. RT had a lower runoff compared to CT (Table 2). Under CT,
the ploughing in July was done without harrowing and crashing the
large clods causing more roughness, while RT resulted in a smoother
bare surface. The lower runoff in RT was therefore opposite to what we
expected. Most literatures report that increased roughness causes
lower runoff (Ludwig et al., 1995). The only observed benefit from soil
surface roughness in terms of soil water conservation was the short
delay in runoff initiation in our study.
Comparing the measurements in 2002 and 2005 on the same
plots, a large difference between the “replicate” experiments in RT
and CT was found (Table 2). Much higher runoff and soil loss was
observed in the experiment of 2002, although the exactly same
practices were applied resulting in apparently almost identical
homogenous erosion plots. The temporary protective effect of a
197
weed cover under RT and CT could be one of the explanations for
this variation. One of the purposes of the tillage practices in July in
RT and CT is weed control. However, the effects on weed control
were limited in some cases due to the high precipitation and
temperature in the fallow period. There was considerable weed
growth and weed covered around 20% of the soil surface in 2005.
However, due to the unexpected lower precipitation in July and
August (105 mm), weed growth was severely depressed by drought
stress causing a much lower cover percentage (around 5%).
The temporal change in runoff discharge rate could be explained
by the temporal variation of soil infiltration. Infiltration experiments
conducted by Schiettecatte et al. (2005) on the same soil showed high
infiltration rates at the beginning of the water input event, followed by
a relatively rapid decline and an asymptotic approach to a near-
constant value. Mulching or covering the soil surface with a layer of
plant residue in NTM, SSM and TC increases infiltration of water into
the soil (Ghawi and Battikhi, 1986) and resulted in a lower runoff
discharge rate compared to CT and RT. Schiettecatte et al. (2003) found
that the percolation rates on the CT, RT, SS and NTM plot are
respectively 10, 18, 52 and 85 mm h− 1 under a rainfall intensity of
85 mm h− 1 and a steady-state runoff for the same soil. The difference
of total runoff discharge on the different initial soil moisture could be
explained by the mechanism of runoff generated. On the dry soil, the
runoff mainly corresponds to infiltration excess. The experiment on
the wet soil surface was carried out a few days after the previous
rainfall simulation test. A saturated soil profile can occur and runoff
could be caused by infiltration excess runoff as well as by saturation
excess runoff (Calvo-Cases et al., 2003).
Results on the effect of antecedent soil moisture content on runoff
and soil loss were inconsistent. Luk (1985) and Lado et al. (2003) found
that increasing antecedent moisture content reduced runoff and soil
loss under simulated laboratory rainfall using a soil pan. However, our
results contradicted to their observations, which could be explained
by the difference of the test soils used. The loess soil in our study had
much lower clay content (15%) than the soil used by these authors
(higher than 23%). Mamedov et al. (2001, 2002) found that the effect of
antecedent moisture on runoff and soil loss was very pronounced in
clay soil, while in silt loam soil, the effect was negligible. Another
explanation could be the different experimental conditions. For the
above-mentioned experiments, the soil structure was completely
destroyed with only a shallow soil layer (b5 cm), where no limit for
water percolation existed. In contrast, in our experiment, the soil
profile was saturated after the previous rainfall test, decreasing water
percolation capacity, and consequently producing higher amounts of
runoff.
The increase in the Cs after the Ti in RT and CT corresponded to
the simultaneously increasing runoff discharge rate (Fig. 3). The
increasing runoff discharge enlarged the hydraulic radius of surface
flow, enhancing flow velocity and thus transport and detachment
capacity. With time, the runoff discharge rate became constant, and
hence produced a relatively constant sediment concentration. The
highest Cs in the initially ‘wet’ soil in SSM and TC could be partially
due to the post effect of previous rainfall simulation, in that in the
initially ‘dry’ soil, runoff was negligible. However the high kinetic
energy during the previous rainfall test had already broken down
many soil aggregates, so that consequently more soil particles were
more vulnerable to be transported in the subsequent experiment. In
contrast, the high rate of runoff discharge rate in our simulated test
on RT and CT transported most of particles off site and consequently
had relatively smaller effect on the Cs of the next test. The unusually
highest Cs on RT5 and CT5 immediately at the start of runoff could
be explained by the post effect of the natural rainfall. There was
48 mm natural rainfall occurring in the 10 days before our
experiment without erosion taking place. Natural raindrop detaches
soil particles on the bare soil surface so that subsequently they are
easier transported by the overland flow. Indeed, before we started
198 K. Jin et al. / Catena 75 (2008) 191–199
our experiment in 2005, a thin layer of fine particles at the bottom of
RT and CT plot was observed. But in 2002, due to the unusually low
natural rain in the fallow time, fewer aggregates were broken and
transported by natural rain.
The rainfall simulation results were found to compare favorably with
natural rainfall, producing much more runoff and sediment in RT and CT,
and less runoff and sediment in SSM and NTM (Tables 2 and 4). However,
there were runoff events recorded in 2004 on the natural plots with
rainfall amount for one event being170 mm and 85 mm, respectively.
This means that soil loss was underestimated in rainfall simulation
experiments even under this extremely high rainfall intensity. It could
be partially due to the unusual high precipitation in 2004 in the fallow
time (around 900 mm in the fallow time), on the one hand, and the
drawback of the rainfall simulator, on the other. The constant rainfall
intensity, short rainfall duration, and uneven distribution could lower
the erosivity compared to natural rainfall and thus lower soil losses
(Rickson, 2004). However, rainfall simulation does provide useful
relative estimates of tillage effects on runoff and sediment.
5. Conclusion
Soils in dryland regions of the Chinese Loess Plateau are highly
susceptible to water erosion because of the low vegetable cover, low
soil organic matter content, high-intensity rainstorms, and poor soil
management practices. Conventional winter wheat farming practices
with extensive cultivation, up and down the slope ploughing and little
use of crop residue exacerbates soil and water losses and hence was
the least favorable soil management practice in terms of soil and water
conservation. Alternative soil management would provide enough
vegetation cover to protect soil surface and use contour planting,
which would reduce soil and water loss based on our data. This study
suggested that NTM was the best alternative to control soil erosion.
SSM also reduced considerable runoff and soil loss, and its effects on
runoff reduction became more pronounced after 4 years consecutive
implementation. Therefore, it could be concluded that conservation of
the wheat stubble combined with residue mulch would result in lower
runoff and soil losses compared to the conventional tillage practice.
Subsoiling with mulch can be regarded as a promising measure to
improve soil and water conservation in the Chinese Loess Plateau
because yield is an important criterion in promoting alternative tillage
practices towards farmers. Subsoiling has shown to be the best
alternative in the terms of winter wheat yield (Jin et al., 2007). Two
crops per year could also be a good alternative considering the
economic value of the second crop. However, the improper planting
way of peanut (up and down straight-row) in our study lowers its
beneficial effects on erosion control.
Acknowledgements
The research work was conducted in the framework of the project
“Improving the capacity of the Soil and Fertilizer Institute (CAAS,
China) for controlling nutrient losses by erosion and optimizing
nutrient use efficiency in the loess belt of Northern China” which was
funded by the Flemish Interuniversity Council, Belgium, to which we
are greatly indebted.
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