ROLE OF CRYOGENICS IN ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING: A REVIEW Rachin Goyal 1 , Sehijpal Singh 2 , Harmesh Kumar Kansal 3
1 Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, CEC, Landran, Mohali, India 2 Professor & Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.N.D. Engg. College, Ludhian, India 3 Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, UIET, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India E- Mail (Corresponding Author): rachin4u2@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
In electrical discharge machining (EDM), material is removed by a series of electrical discharges between the electrode (tool) and the workpiece that develops a temperature of about 8,000 0 C to 12,000 0 C. Due to such range of high temperature of the sparks, work material is melted and vaporized, at the same time the electrode material is also eroded by melting and vaporization. Consumption of electrodes and the resulting cost involved in manufacturing the electrodes is very high and needs to be reduced. Thus, the wear of electrode (tool) has become a serious issue in recent past for the researchers. In the present paper a review of past work in the field of cryogenic cooling and cryogenic treatment of electrodes used in EDM has been summarized and the scope of cryogenics in improving the productivity of EDM has been suggested.
Keywords: cryogenic cooling and cryogenic treatment
1. Introduction Electrical discharge machining is basically a nonconventional material removal process which is widely used to produce dies, punches, and molds. It is widely used for finishing parts for aerospace and automotive industry and surgical components [1]. This process can be successfully employed to machine electrically conductive parts irrespective of their hardness, shape, and toughness [2]. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) is a thermoelectric process that is based on removing material from a conducting workpiece by means of a series of repeated electrical discharges between tool electrode (cathode) and the workpiece (anode) in the presence of a dielectric fluid. The electrode is moved towards the workpiece by servo controlled feed until the gap is small enough in the region of 25-50 m, so that the applied voltage ionizes the dielectric. Short duration discharges of the order of 0.5 2s to 4000 2s are generated in a liquid dielectric gap. The material is removed with the erosive effect of the electrical discharges from electrode and workpiece. Thermal energy generates a channel of plasma between the cathode and anode at a temperature in the range of 8000 to 20000C initializing a substantial amount of heating and melting of material at the surface of each pole. When the pulsating direct current supply is turned off, the plasma channel breaks down. This causes a sudden reduction in the temperature allowing the circulating dielectric fluid to implore the plasma channel and flush the molten material from the pole surfaces in the form of microscopic debris. In EDM, there is no direct contact between the electrode and the workpiece so mechanical stresses, chatter and vibration problems during machining are eliminated [3]. Materials of any hardness can be machined as long as the material can conduct electricity [4]. Similarly, Electrode used for the purpose should be electrically conductive. In EDM, electrode also gets worn out by the impingement of highly accelerated ions. In most of the EDM operations, the contribution of the tool cost to the total operation cost is more than 70% [5]. Thus, the electrode wear is a major problem in EDM process. Some effective measures need to devised, so as to lower down this electrode wear. Many attempts have been made using different research methodologies, to optimize the parameters which affect the EDM, to attain maxim MRR, Surface Finish etc. but very less attempts are available in literature about the minimization of electrode wear and thus the suggested methods regarding it. Benefits of cryogenics have been exploited in various conventional machining processes like turning to reduce the tool wear and the results have been International Conference on Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering (October 5-7, 2012)
Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar-Kapurthala Highway, Kapurthala, Punjab-144601 (INDIA) 210 reported. But, the role of cryogenic cooling and cryogenic treatment needs to be fully understood and explore in non conventional machining processes like EDM. This would require a lot of research work to optimize the process for various materials and to summarize the same on a platform. The aim of this review is to summarize the most significant findings till now in the role of cryogenics in machining, in general and electric discharge machining in specific.
2. Cryogenics
2.1 About Cryogenics The word Cryogenics is derived from the Greek words 'Kryos" (meaning cold) and "Genes" (meaning born). There are no "official" definitions of the term cryogenic processing. Controlled Thermal Processing, Inc. considers the definition of the process to be The modification of a material or component using cryogenic temperatures." Cryogenic treatments temperatures are defined by the Cryogenic Society of America as being temperatures below 1200K (-2440F, -1530C). This is different from cold treatments which works down to temperatures of 1780K (-1400F, -960C).
2.2. Origin and Evolution of Cryogenics Archeological evidence shows that humans have been using heat on metals for over 75 centuries. Extreme cold has only been available for roughly 100 years. So it is almost intuitive that you use heat to change metals not cold. Artificial refrigeration occurred at the University of Glasgow in 1748. William Cullens work relied on the vapor-compression refrigeration process explained by Michael Faraday [5]. In 1845 refrigeration units became available, strangely as a cure for malaria. Dr. Goerie felt that malaria was the result of bad air, and if he could condition the air malaria would not occur. It was wrong cure, but it did advance the art of cooling. The first ones were only capable of making ice. The discovery by Cailletet in 1877 that gasses could be cooled by sudden expansion and the discovery by Pictet of the cascade cooling method led to Sir James Dewar's research which led to the discovery that air could be liquefied and stored in Dewar flasks. It was in late 1800s when the first ASU (air separation unit) were produced. While different processes were investigated until the late 19th century, Carl von Linde's invention of a continuous process of liquefying gases in large quantities formed a basis for todays refrigeration technology. The almost simultaneous invention of air liquefaction processes in Britain, Germany, France and the United States led to the production of liquid gasses in quantity. This happened in 1895. Cryogenics was first observed around 1894 by a fellow named Kamerlingh Onnes to describe his Leiden Cryogenic Laboratory. He was a professor of Physics from 1882 to 1923 at the University of Liden. In 1904 he founded a very large cryogenics laboratory and invited other researchers to the location, which made him highly regarded in the scientific community. He was the first physicist to liquefy helium in 1908. The science of refrigeration had to develop before the process could go ahead. It was around mid 1930's that refrigeration got to the point where economical quantities of liquid oxygen could be made. For a long time, the liquid nitrogen, which was a byproduct of the liquid oxygen production, was simply vented to the atmosphere.
2.3. History of Cryogenics in Machining In 1930's, Adolph Luerker, an engineer of Junkers Company in Germany used Cryo processing on components of their Jumo aircraft engines for the first time. In late1940s Adolph Luerker immigrated to California, US. He worked for McCulloch Chain Saw Company and suggested the use of Cryo treatment on chain saw blades and company kept it as a secret from its rivals. During this period many Companies worked on similar lines of using cryo treatment of razor blades and knives by simply immersing into liquid nitrogen, but failed. In 1950s, Cryogenic processing had its US origins at the Watertown Arsenal Watertown, Mass. during World War II under the guidance of Clarence Zener, who would go on to develop the Zener diode among other advances in solid state physics. The method was straight forward. Steel cutting tools were immersed in liquid nitrogen for a brief period of time, removed from the liquid, allowed to warm up, and placed into service in the arsenal's production lines. Occasionally tools would crack or chip as a result of the thermal shock associated with the rapid rate of cooling. Some tools also became brittle because of the newly formed, untempered martensite and chipped in service. Of the tools that survived this crude quenching, many exhibited dramatically enhanced service life. In 1957 edition of Tooling and Production Magazine, an article on cryogenic treatment was published for very first time. Then, several people picked up the thread. In 1965 Gruman Aircraft Engineering, observed that cryogenic coolants speeds up, titanium machining. International Conference on Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering (October 5-7, 2012)
Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar-Kapurthala Highway, Kapurthala, Punjab-144601 (INDIA) 211 Uehara et. al. in 1969-70, observed chip formation, surface roughness, cutting forces and tool wear characteristics in cryogenic machining. Fillipi et. al. in 1971, observed the effects on facing milling at -180 0 C In 1974, Dr. Randall F. Barron of Louisiana Technical University, most notable and persistent researcher in cold and cryo treatment observed that metallurgical aspects of cryogenic treatment confers better wear resistance and consequently higher tool lives as well as contradictory results that are also encountered lead to many doubts and questions involving the practical application of cold treatment. Another early pioneer in the industry is Dr. Hugh E. Trucks, specialist at General Dynamics Corporation. He wrote several articles on the subject, notably one for Die Casting Engineer, September/October, 1988. A third pioneer is Ed Busch, who founded Cryo-Tech, Inc., who has been preaching the industrial use of cryogenics for over 30 years.
3. Role of Cryogenics in Machining
After a thorough literature survey, it can be concluded that cryogenics has played a very vital role in enhancing the wear resistance of tool materials and productivity of the machining operations. The role of cryogenics in machining based upon the literature review can be classified in following ways: Cryogenically cooling Cryogenic Treatment
3.1 Cryogenic Cooling In cryogenic cooling, liquid nitrogen, most oftenely used cryogenic liquid, is allowed to pass through the tool or tool-work interface, through some attachment, which affects the cutting life of tool in very positive way. 3.1.1 Summary of Research work in Cryogenic Cooling Copper electrode has low electrical and thermal resistance, resulting in a more effective energy transfer to the work piece [6]. Significant contributions have been made in evaluating the effect of cryogenic cooling on various materials during machining. Dhar et al. [7] investigated the role of cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen jet on cutting temperature in turning plain carbon steel under varying cutting speed and feed. Silva et al. [8] studied on cryogenically treated high speed steel tools showing micro-structural changes in the material that can influence tool lives and productivity significantly. The study was aimed to verify the effect of cryogenic treatment on M2 grade high speed steel tools after using either laboratory or shop floor tests in an automotive industry. Improvements were found for the treated tools in some of these tests. Paul and Chattopadhyay [9] employed liquid nitrogen in the form of jet in the surface grinding of various steel specimens and compared it with the surface ground under dry conditions and with soluble oil. They found appreciable improvement in the chip formation mechanism and reduction in specific energy requirement, grinding temperature and residual stress in cryogrinding when compared with dry grinding and grinding with soluble oil. Kumar and Choudhury [10] investigated dry cutting conditions and cryogenic LN2 spraying in machining of stainless steel 202 with a carbide insert in terms of tool wear. They observed an improvement of about 37.39% in the flank wear with cryogenic machining over the dry cutting. They also observed about 14.83% improvement over dry cutting with cryogenic LN2 spraying by a nozzle in machining of stainless steel 202. Ahmed et al. modified a tool to apply liquid nitrogen as coolant through a hole made in the tool so that liquid nitrogen can be directly applied to the machining zone during machining of stainless steel with carbide tools coated with titanium carbonitride. It was found that the tool life increased by more than four times on the application of liquid nitrogen using the modified tool. Application of this cryogenic cooling was found to be more effective at higher cutting speeds. It was also observed that cryogenic cooling is efficient at a higher feed rate rather than a higher depth of cut. Kim and Ramulu used cryogenically treated carbide tools in drilling thermoplastic composites for investigating machinability in terms of the drilled hole quality and tool wear. The cryogenically treated carbide tools produced better hole qualities than the conventional carbide tools but the conventional carbide tools showed better wear resistance than the cryogenic treated carbide tools.
3.2 Cryogenic Treatment Cryogenic Treatment (CT) is essentially an extension of standard heat treatment processes, rather, a complementary process to heat-treatment that optimizes the material characteristics. CT is an inexpensive one-time treatment that influences the core properties of the components. Depending upon the application of the temperature it may be classified as: 1. Cold treatment, which is also recognized as Shallow Cryogenic Treatment (SCT), is to gradually cool the work piece in the range 84 0 C. International Conference on Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering (October 5-7, 2012)
Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar-Kapurthala Highway, Kapurthala, Punjab-144601 (INDIA) 212 2. CT or Cryotreatment may also be explored as Deep Cryogenic Treatment (DCT) is carried out at about 195 0 C. 3.2.1 Summary of Research work in Cryogenic Treatment The effects of cryogenic temperatures on properties of materials have been examined extensively in terms of mechanical, thermal and electrical properties. It is reported for several engineering materials that mechanical properties such as the yield strength, tensile strength, fatigue strength, impact strength, hardness and elastic modulus increase as the temperature decrease [11]. Another study reports that the thermal conductivity decreases as the temperature is lowered for certain alloys such as titanium alloy-TC4 and impure metals such as magnesium-AZ31B [12]. Positive effects of low temperatures on mechanical, thermal and electric properties of materials has lead to the cold/sub-zero and cryogenic treatments of wide variety of cutting tools and mechanic parts in manufacturing and automotive industry to increase their strength, hardness and wear resistance and thus substantial savings were recorded.
Figure 1: A typical cryogenic treatment cycle [13]
In the beginning, cryogenic treatment was tried by immersing of tools into liquid nitrogen; however, it resulted in damaging of tools by thermal shocks. So, more effective and controlled techniques including programmable temperature controllers, a solenoid valve to control liquid nitrogen flow and a thermocouple to monitor the work temperature were used [14]. Generally, cold and cryogenic treatment processes are operated in three main stages, as seen in Figure 1, including slow cooling stage (the cool- down cycle/period) in which the parts are cooled from ambient temperature to cold/cryogenic temperatures during a time period (degrees per hour or minute), soaking stage in which the parts are maintained at cold/cryogenic temperatures for a given duration (hour) and tempering/warming stage (warm-up cycle/period) in which the parts are heated from cold/cryogenic temperatures to tempering temperatures during another time period (degrees per hour or minute). Characteristics of these stages depend on the desired properties, time-cost and the shape and size of the parts to be treated [15]. 3.2.2.1 Cooling Stage It has been determined that the cooling stage had little effect on the final properties of the material being treated [16]. So, it has been recommended that the materials are supposed to be cooled as rapidly as possible to the treatment temperature without causing thermal shocks to minimize the treatment time and thus to reduce the cost. 3.2.2.2 Soaking Stage It was stated that the soaking time in which the material is subjected to stay in the cold or cryogenic temperatures is important for the final properties and this soaking time is required for the atoms in the material to disperse to new locations [16]. For the soaking time, some findings showed that the variable cryogenic holding times did not affect hardness of D2 tool steel, but hardness of H13 tool steel increased with the time. However, it also revealed that increased time at cryogenic temperatures improved wear resistance of D2 tool steel [17]. A minimum soaking time of 24 hours at cryogenic temperature has been recommended to derive maximum benefit from cryogenic treatment in terms of carbide count and consequently wear resistance. The conclusion is that the longer the holding time at the cryogenic temperature, the finer the carbide distribution is and the greater the increase in wear resistance for tool steels. A comparison made between 24 hours and 48 hours soaking times for the T1 and M2 high speed steels showed that the impact toughness and bending strength of T1 tool steel increased by 48 hours soaking, but the effect of this extended soaking time on M2 tool steel were negligible [18]. An investigation on the effect of cold and cryogenic treatment on the wear Characteristics of M2, T1 and D3 tool steels showed that the samples treated at 163 K for 24 hours were better than the samples treated at 93 K for 6 hours which suggests that soaking time is more important than lowering the temperature [19]. However, another study [20] conducted on a 7075 Al alloy with different soaking time (2-hours and 48- hours soaking) did not show significant difference in the properties such as yield, ultimate/tensile strength, elongation and hardness. It appears that the effects of soaking time vary, depending on material characteristics.
3.2.2.3 Warming and Tempering Stage Tempering is usually performed after cryogenic treatment to improve impact resistance of treated materials. It can be carried out as a single, double or triple cycles depending on material characteristics and desired properties [15]. However, for the ultimate International Conference on Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering (October 5-7, 2012)
Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar-Kapurthala Highway, Kapurthala, Punjab-144601 (INDIA) 213 effect, no tempering prior to treatment process is recommended and the greatest benefit was derived when cryogenic treatment had been inserted between hardening (quenching) and tempering. Additionally, warming stage should take place slowly and it has been reported that increasing the temperature above 500C for the tempering could remove the beneficial effects of cold treatment [16].
4. Cryogenics in Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
4.1 Die Sinking EDM As discussed earlier, Benefits of cryogenics have been exploited in various conventional machining processes like turning to reduce the tool wear and the results have been reported. But, the role of cryogenic cooling and cryogenic treatment needs to be fully understood and explore in non conventional machining processes like EDM. Limited literature available on this topic indicates the potential for the application of cryogenics for the improvement of processes such as EDM [21, 22].In these studies, cryogenic temperatures have been used for treatment of cutting tools or cooling purposes. In an earlier study, it was reported that material removal rate of EDM process was improved by employing cryogenically treated copper electrodes. Another study [22] showed a reduction in electrode wear and surface roughness by application of cryogenic cooling on copper electrodes during EDM of titanium alloy workpiece. Improvements in traditional machining processes by Cryogenic treatment are attributed to the increased hardness and wear resistance of cutting tools after the treatment processes. In addition, it has been reported that electrical and thermal properties of the materials are also improved by cryogenic treatment and better electrical properties are also essential for workpiece materials in EDM. All of the related literature suggests that in general either cryogenic cooling or cryogenic treatment improve the mechanical, electrical and thermal properties of subjected materials and increase the wear resistance of electrode and consequently its life is enhanced. Yildiz et. al. carried out an experimental study. In this study, Be-Cu alloy workpieces were subjected to around -150 F for cold treatment and to around -300 F for cryogenic treatment and the effects of cold and cryogenic treatments on their machinability in EDM have been investigated. Experimental results showed about 20- 30 % increase in material removal rate by cold and cryogenic treatment processes. Variations in electrode wear rate, surface roughness and average white layer thickness were found to be marginal. Abdulkareem et al. [22] studied the cooling effect of copper electrode on the die-sinking of electrical discharge machining of titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V). Current intensity, pulse on time, pulse off-time and gap voltage were considered as the machining parameters, while electrode wear and surface roughness were the responses. Analysis of the influence of cooling on the responses was carried out and presented in their work. It was found that electrode wear ratio reduced up to 27% by electrode cooling. Surface roughness was also reduced while machining with electrode cooling. It can be observed from the literature survey that many attempts have been made to use cryogenic liquid in conventional machining processes like turning, grinding etc., however only one attempt [22] appears to be made in EDM where the fluid has been introduced into the electrode (tool) as coolant. Srivastava and Pandey studied The effect of cryogenic cooling of copper electrode in electric discharge machining of M2 grade high speed steel and found that the out of roundness of the cryogenically cooled electrode is lesser than the out of roundness of electrode used in conventional EDM. The scanning electron microscopy images also give an insight into the changes in the profile of electrode with the use of liquid nitrogen. The electrode retains its shape by using liquid nitrogen. There is very little distortion in electrode shape as compared to the electrode which is used for experiment without liquid nitrogen.
4.2 Wire Cut EDM Apart from the die sinking EDM, researchers have also explored various possibilities of using the low temperature engineering for improving and modifying the processes like wire electric discharge machining (WEDM). In WEDM, material is removed by series of discreet discharges between wire electrode and work piece in the presence of dielectric. For those materials, which require high strength and good wear resistance (Die materials and press tools etc.), WEDM has been widely adopted. Surface generated by WEDM includes many defects such as craters due to electrical sparks, alloying of tool electrode material on work piece surface. The surface characteristics of work piece machined by WEDM plays a vital role in determining the quality of the material. There is a migration of work piece element to tool at low and high current intensities. The quality of surfaces generated by various machining methods and machining parameters can be studied by scanning International Conference on Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering (October 5-7, 2012)
Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar-Kapurthala Highway, Kapurthala, Punjab-144601 (INDIA) 214 electron microscope (SEM) photographs.Few attempts have been made to investigate the effect of high performance wire electrodes on performance characteristics in WEDM. High performance electrical discharge machining wire is expected to provide high cutting speed, better accuracy and improved surface finish. Aoyama et al [23] and Kuroda et al. [24] developed high performance coated wire having high conductivity for better flusibility. High performance Coated brass wire electrodes improves the cutting speed and surface finish significantly [25, 26]. But these high performance wires are not only costlier but also cause many impurities in dielectric fluid and other problems such as environmental hazards [27]. For many years, sub zero treatment of metals has been used as a means of improving the surface hardness and thermal stability of the metals [28]. The literature survey indicates that most of the research has been directed towards surface characterization of WEDMed workpieces with plain brass or coated wire electrodes. Few attempts (Aoyama et al. [23], kuroda et al. [24] and Okada et al. [29] have been made to study the performance of WEDM with high performance wire electrodes as these electrodes have high thermal and electrical conductivities as compared to plain brass wire electrodes. Machining speed of Wire-EDM is related with conductivity of wire electrodes and cryogenic treatment enhances this property. Keeping this in view, Kapoor et. al. conducted many experiments to investigate the effects of cryogenic treated brass wire electrode on surface roughness of workpiece and concluded that Within the range of parameters selected for study, type of wire, pulse width and wire tension significantly affect the Surface roughness in WEDM. Also, a strong interaction was observed between Type of Wire and Wire Tension; Pulse Width and Wire Tension [30].
5. Conclusions The important conclusions of this review study are the following:
1. Much useful work has been reported by the researchers, but due to skepticism about the process, change in mechanism is still unpredictable. Parameters like austenitization temperature, quenching, cooling temperature, soaking duration, warming-up cycle, and tempering cycle needs further investigations to optimize the process for various materials. 2. Cryoprocessing is not a substitute for heat- treating. Rather, it is an extension of heat treatment process. 3. Cryoprocessing is an inexpensive one-time permanent treatment affecting the entire section of the cutting tool unlike coatings; therefore, similar lives can be expected after each regrinding of tools. 4. Cryogenic treatment improves mechanical properties like wear resistance, toughness and resistance to fatigue cracking. 5. Overall, cryoprocessing has significant favorable influence on the performance of cutting tool steels and carbides. Hence, cryoprocessing is a good alternative for having productivity enhancement. 6. Further development of cryoprocessing is required through investigating the machining conditions in order to maximize its beneficial effects related to surface roughness of work piece and tool wear from cost point of view in order to justify its application to the industrial use.
References
1. K. H. Ho, S. T. Newman, State of the art electrical discharge machining (EDM) (2003), Int. J. Mach. Tools & Manuf., vol. 43, pp. 1287-1300.
2. Kansal HK, Sehijpal S, Pradeep K (2007) Technology and research developments in powder mixed electric discharge machining (PMEDM). J Mater Process Technol 184:3241.
International Conference on Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering (October 5-7, 2012)
4. H. Ramasawmy, L. Blunt (2004),Effect of EDM process parameters on 3D surface topography, J. Mat. Process. Tech., vol. 148, pp. 155-164, 2004.
5. Ozgedik, C. Cogun (2006), An experimental investigation of tool wear in electric discharge machining, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Tech., vol. 27, pp. 488-500.
6. G. C. Onwubolu (2005), A note on surface roughness prediction model in machining of carbon steel by PVD coated cutting tools, Amer. J. App. Sci., vol. 2 no. 6, pp. 1109-1112. 7. N. R. Dhar, S. Paul, A. B. Chattopadhyay (2002,)Role of Cryogenic Cooling on Cutting Temperature in Turning Steel, Trans. of ASME, vol. 124 no. February, pp. 146-154. 8. F. J. da Silva, S. D. Franco, A.R. Machado, E. O. Ezugwu, A. M. Souza Jr (2006)., Performance of cryogenically treated HSS tools, Wear, vol. 261, pp. 674-685.
9. S. Paul, A. B. Chattopadhyay (1995), A study of effects of cryo-cooling in grinding, Int. J. Mach. Tools & Manuf., vol. 35 no. 1, pp. 109-117.
10. K. V. B. S. K. Kumar, S. K. Choudhury (2008) Investigation of tool wear and cutting force in cryogenic machining using design of experiments, J. Mat. Process. Tech., vol. 203 no. 1- 3, pp. 95-101.
11. Barron, R.-F., (1985), Cryogenic systems, Oxford University Press, New York.
12. Jiao, X.-D., Li, L.-F., Liu, H.-J., Yang, K., (2006), Mechanical Properties of Low Density Alloys at Cryogenic Temperatures, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, AIP Conference Proceedings, 52A: 69-76.
13. Vaccari, J.-A., (1986), Deep freeze improves products, American Machinist & Automated Manufacturing, 130/3:90- 92.
A. Levine, J., (2001), Cryoprocessing Equipment, Heat Treating Progress, 2/1:42-52.Carlson, E.-A., (1991), Cold Treating and Cryogenic Treatment of Steel, ASM Handbook, Volume 4, pp. 203-206.
14. Reitz, W., Pendray, J., (2001), Cryoprocessing of Materials: A Review of Current Status, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 16/6:829-840.
15. Collins, D.-N., Dormer, J., (1997), Deep Cryogenic Treatment of D2 Cold-work Tool Steel, Heat Treatment of Metals, 24/3:71-74.
16. Dong, Y., UN, X., Xiao, H., (1998), Deep cryogenic treatment of high-speed steel and its mechanism, Heat Treatment of Metals, 25/3:55-59.
17. Mohan, L.D., Renganarayanan, S., Kalanidhi, A., (2001), Cryogenic treatment to augment wear resistance of tool and die steels, Cryogenics, 41:149-155.
18. Lulay, K.-E., Khan, K., Chaaya, D., (2002), The Effect of Cryogenic Treatments on 7075 Aluminum Alloy, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 11/5:479-480.
19. Sundaram, M.-M., Yildiz, Y., Rajurkar, K.-P. (2009),Experimental Study of the Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on the Performance of Electro Discharge Machining, MSEC 2009, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.
20. Y. Yildiz, M.M. Sundaram, K.P. Rajurkar, M. Nalbant, The Effects of Cold and Cryogenic Treatments on the Machinability of Beryllium-Copper Alloy in Electro Discharge Machining, 44 th CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Systems, May 31June 3, 2011, Madison, WI, USA.
21. V. Srivastava, P. M. Pandey, Study of the Cryogenically Cooled Electrode Shape in Electric Discharge Machining Process, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 60, 2011, 1017-1021.
22. Abdulkareem, S., Khan, A., Konneh, M. (2009), Reducing electrode wear ratio using cryogenic cooling during electrical discharge machining, IJAMPT, 45/11:1146-1151.
23. Aoyama, S., Tamura, K. and Sato, T. (1999) High- performance coated wire electrodes for high-speed cutting and accurate machining, Hitachi Cable Review No.18.
24. Kuroda, H., Aoyama, S., kimura, T., Sawahata, K., Sato, T., Kimura, T., Sawahata, K., Nagai, T (2007), Development of high performance coated wire electrodes for high-speed cutting and accurate machining, Hitachi Cable Review No. 22.
25. Tomalin, D. (2007), EDM wir, US Patent No. 0295695 A1.
26. Patric, B., Michel, L.and Gerald, S. (2008), Composite wire for electrical discharge machining, US Patent No. 20080061038.
28. Molinari A., Pellizzari M., Gialenella S., Straffelini G and, Stiasny KH.(2001), Effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the mechanical properties of tool steels, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 118, pp. 350355.
29. Okada, A., Yamauchi, T., Arizono, K.and Uno, Y. (2008),The Effect of surface quality of brass coating wire on wire EDM characteristics, Journal of advance mechanical design and manufacturing, Vol. 2, No.4, pp 735-741.
30. Kapoor,J., Khamba ,J.S., Singh, S., (2010), The effect of machining parameters on surface roughness and material removal rate with cryogenic treated wire in WEDM, Proc. of 2 nd CPIE- 2010, pp. 725-732.