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Dr. Dr. Imadeddin Imadeddin Abdalla Abdalla

Electrical Measurements Electrical Measurements
EE 351 EE 351
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Course Contents
1. Ch.1. Introduction
2. Ch.2. DC Meters
3. Ch.3. AC Meters
4. Ch.4. AC Bridges
5. Ch.5. Power & Energy Measuring,
Oscilloscopes
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Ch.1. Introduction Ch.1. Introduction
Functions and characteristics of instruments
Types and elements of the measuring devices
Electrical units
Measurement standards
Measurement and limiting errors
Selection, care, and use of instruments
Chapter 1: Introduction
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Chapter 1: Introduction
The Oxford Dictionary explains the term measure as ascertain the size, amount or degree
of (something) by using an instrument or device marked in standard units or by comparing
it with an object of known size .
For people working professionally in the measurement field this explanation is
unacceptably incomplete. It contains two important terms, namely ascertainment or better
(1) estimation and (2) standard unit. But there is a lack of a third, absolutely
indispensable term the accuracy of estimation, or better (3) uncertainty of estimation.
Without the knowledge of the uncertainty of estimation the whole measurement process is
worthless.
Measurement is the estimation of the quantity of certain value (at known uncertainty)
by comparison with the standard unit.
Or, Measurement is the process of gathering the information from the physical world.
In this process a value of a quantity is determined (in defined time and conditions) by
comparison it (at known uncertainty) with the standard reference value.
Method of measurement is the logical sequence of operations used in measurements.
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Functions and characteristics of instruments
Chapter 1: Introduction
Functions: Visual indicating, recording
& controlling
Visual Indicating - common purpose (analogue or
digital indication).
Recording and storage
Electromechanical recorders (oscillograph),
Oscilloscopes (digital storage oscilloscope).
Computer measuring systems.
Characteristics:
Some instruments equipped with electronic amplifier (high
input impedance >>> high sensitivity for small signals and
low loading effect).
Communication interface, through which is possible to
save the signals and data in computer systems.
Data manipulating and analysis, mathematical
calculations and harmonic analysis FFT.
Types of the measuring devices:
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Electrical units
The units are required to make quantitative evaluation of the measured parameters
Chapter 1: Introduction
System international (SI)
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Measurement standards
The standard is an accepted (or approved) instance of a quantity (or quality) which is used to compare with
which others are judged (or measured). In other words, an approved reference point which can be a basis for
comparison with other things can be evaluated.
All instruments are calibrated at the time of manufacture against measurement standards. The
standards are classified to:
1.International standards, are defined by international agreement. They represent certain units to the closest
accuracy achieved by science and technology of measurement.
2.Primary standards, are maintained at national standards laboratories in different countries (not used
outside). They are used to calibrate the secondary standards.
3.Secondary standards, are basic standards used by measurement laboratories in industry.
4.Working standards, are the principle tools of a measurements laboratory, to calibrate instruments used in
laboratory.
Chapter 1: Introduction
Error in measurement
Is the degree to which a measurement confirms to the expected value.
Classification of errors,
1.Gross errors.
2.Systematic errors: instrument errors, environmental errors, observation errors.
3.Random errors.
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Limiting error, the instrument manufacturer guarantees that the instrument is accurate within
a certain percentage of a full-scale reading.
Examples, E
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Selection, care, and use of instruments
Selection of an instrument measuring target quantity, limits, accuracy and resolution.
Instrument has been selected visually inspect physical problems check battery condition
Before using of an instrument familiar with operation operating manual instructions .
Before connecting to circuit proper function switch proper scale switch.
Chapter 1: Introduction
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Recording and storage
The recorder of time varying signals is recording them in a form of an ink trace on the movable paper. in newer model of the
recorder the paper ribbon is substituted by the LCD screen and magnetic memory.
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One of the features of mechanical chart recorders is very important. This kind of monitoring and recording creates the hard copy in
the form of a paper document. In some circumstances, military and health systems, inspection of car drivers, it is required keep the
results of register for a long period of time (even up to several years). For such purposes ordinary paper data is the most non-
corruptible.
The electromechanical recording devices very popular in the past are currently going out of use. They are substituted by the
devices saving data to transportable memory. Today practically all digital oscilloscopes enable storage and recall the investigated
signal.
For computer measuring systems , the set of data saved for example on the hard disc of a computer can be easily converted later
on to the graphical form of signal and print using high quality laser printer.
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Types of the measuring devices:
Electromechanical
electronic instrument
Digital instrument
Computer measuring
system
Electronic signal
conditioning
(active)
Electronic signal
conditioning
(active)
Electronic signal
conditioning
Electronic signal
conditioning
Digital signal
processing
Digital signal
processing
A
n
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g
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D
i
g
i
t
a
l
Digital
display
Electronic signal
conditioning
(passive)
Electronic signal
conditioning
(passive)
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The term analogue type instrument is to identify the deflection type (electromechanical) instruments and to distinguish them
from the digital type instruments which display in digital. The electromechanical instrument consists of a moving pointer with a
scale, the angle of deflection of the pointer is the function of the value of the measured quantity.
There are several advantages of traditional electromechanical Instruments: simplicity, reliability, low price. The most
important advantage is that the majority of such instruments can work without any additional power supply.
On the other hand, there are several drawbacks associated with electromechanical analogue indicating instruments.
First of all, they do not provide electrical output signal, thus there is a need for operators activity during the measurement (at
least for the reading of an indicated value). Another drawback is that such instruments generally use moving mechanical parts,
which are sensitive to shocks, aging or wearing out. Relatively low price of moving pointer instruments today is not as
advantageous as earlier, because on the market there are available also very cheap digital measuring devices.
Regrettably, it can be stated that most of the electromechanical analogue instruments are rather of poor quality. In
most cases these instruments are not able to measure with uncertainty better than 0.5%. The accuracy is also affected by so-
called parallax error, in which the reading result depends on the position of the users eye. They need relatively large power
consumption to cause the movement. Thus, electromechanical voltmeters exhibit insufficiently large resistance, while the
resistance of electromechanical ammeters is not sufficiently small.
The signal conditioning (modifier) is required to process the incoming electrical signal to make it suitable for applying
to the indicating device. They can provide attenuation, amplification, rectification, filtration. The signal modifier circuit can be
passive modifier or active modifier. The passive one involves only passive elements, while the active modifier includes active
elements (transistors, operational amplifiers ..etc) along with passive elements.
There is no doubt that the future is for digital and computer supported measuring systems. But electromechanical
instruments are still present in our lives (for example the attempts to substitute such instruments in cars finished with not a
success, gas presser meters, AC bridges current sensing).
The digital type instruments include digital signal processing stage (sample and hold SH, analogue-to-digital conversion
ADC) and digital display. The achieved uncertainty is at least 0.05% for a simple/cheap digital instrument.
For computer measuring systems, which are usually industrial used, there are many of various sensors with many various
output signals it is necessary to convert these output values into more standardized signals, which are more convenient for
further processing. Often voltage or current are accepted as the standardized output signals for example 0 - 5V or 0 - 20mA.
we can use the same output devices for various sensors. That is why various signals of the sensor are transformed to the
standardized form. Some of the sensors provide directly output voltage signal depending on the measured value. But most of
the sensors are parametric (passive) type they convert the measured value into the change of impedance, often the
resistance. Thus the first step in signal conditioning is the conversion of the change of impedance or resistance to the change
in voltage. The data acquisition card provides ADC, analogue & digital output, data multiplexing, interfacing. The data then is
processed, analysed and used in control via special programs which are installed on computer system.
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