1376 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A/Vol. 4, No.

8/August 1987
Analysis of diffraction reduction by use of a Lyot stop
B. Rs. Johnson
Chemistry and Physics Laboratory, The Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, California 90245
Received March 17, 1986; accepted March 26, 1987
The efficiency of a Lyot stop in reducing diffraction effects in a simple optical system is analyzed. The transforma-
tion rules of Fourier optics are used to follow the optical signal through the system. This analysis reduces the
problem to the evaluation of a two-dimensional integral. An approximate analytic technique for evaluating this
integral is presented. The final result is a simple formula for calculating the diffraction-reduction efficiency of the
Lyot stop. A comparison of this work with other published work is also presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
A signal-detection problem can occur if a telescope is used to
view an object that is in close angular proximity to a bright
source. This problem occurs even though the bright source
is outside the field of view of the telescope because a portion
of the light rays entering the telescope is diffracted by the
entrance aperture and can reach the detector plane with
enough intensity to obscure the desired signal. This situa-
tion occurs, for example, if one attempts to view the Sun's
corona without the benefit of an eclipse.
A method for greatly reducing the intensity of the diffract-
ed radiation that reaches the detector was developed many
years ago by Lyot.1 The basic idea of his technique is illus-
trated in Fig. 1. The simple model optical system consists of
the aperture lens (L
1
) of focal length f and radius a, the field-
stop lens (L
2
) of focal length f/2 and stop radius b, the
transfer lens (L
3
) of focal length f/2 and stop radius c (Lyot
stop), and finally the detector (D). Lens L, focuses a distant
scene onto the field stop; lens L
3
then reimages the field-
stopped scene onto the detector. Light rays from a distant
bright source, which is assumed to be just outside the field of
view, are shown entering the system at an angle y from the
optic axis. These rays are brought to a focus and blocked at
the field stop. A portion of the incoming energy, however, is
channeled into the diffracted rays, which are shown as the
dashed lines originating at the aperture rim.
2
These rays
are brought to a focus by lens L
2
in the plane of lens L
3
,
where they are blocked by the Lyot stop. This geometric
picture is oversimplified. It indicates that all the diffracted
rays are blocked by the Lyot stop. In reality, however, the
diffracted rays cannot be focused to a dimension less than a
wavelength but will be spread out in a diffraction pattern on
the Lyot-stop plane. Therefore some of the diffracted ener-
gy will leak through to the detector.
A quantitative analysis of this problem must be based on
the wave nature of light. In Section 2 we carry out this
analysis by a systematic application of the Kirchhoff diffrac-
tion theory by using the transformation rules of Fourier
optics. The result is a formula for calculating the amplitude
on the detector that requires the evaluation of a two-dimen-
sional integral. Evaluation of this integral is not an easy
task; it does not have an exact analytic solution in terms of
known functions. Numerical integration is impractical be-
cause the highly oscillatory nature of the two-dimensional
integrand would require excessive computation time. In
addition, numerical results cannot give the convenience and
insight offered by an analytic formula. In a previous work,
Noll
3
developed an approximate analytic series solution that
is applicable under certain restrictive conditions. In Sec-
tion 3 we develop an alternative analytic technique for eval-
uating the integral that is applicable under a more general
set of conditions. The effectiveness of the Lyot stop in
reducing the amount of diffracted radiation that reaches the
detector is quantitatively measured by the diffraction-re-
duction ratio. In Section 4 we calculate this quantity and
compare it with the previous results obtained by Noll. The
diffraction calculations in this paper (and also in Noll's pa-
per) are based on the Huygens-Fresnel principle.
2
Other
studies
4
'
5
have been carried out that are based on the geo-
metric theory of diffraction. In Section 5 the results of these
other studies will be compared with the results obtained in
this paper.
2. DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS
In this section the rules of Fourier optics
6
are used to analyze
the amplitude of an optical signal as it propagates from the
entrance aperture to the detector of the model system shown
in Fig. 1. A conventional right-handed Cartesian coordinate
system is used. The origin is located in the center of lens L
1
with the z axis pointing toward the detector and the positive
x axis pointing to the top of the figure. The incoming beam
is shown to be focused at a point on the negative x axis. This
causes no loss in generality since the system is rotationally
symmetric about the z axis.
The incoming plane wave has an amplitude U0 and a
wavelength X and is represented by the expression
U(x, y, z) = U
0
explik[cos(,y)z - sin(,y)x]J,
(1)
where i is the imaginary unit and
k = 27r/X.
(2)
The angle y is assumed to be small so that the small-angle
approximations sin(zy) = y and cos(y) = 1 can be used. The
amplitude on the left-hand side of the entrance plane at z =
0 is
U(x,y) = U
0
exp(-ik-yx).
0740-3232/87/081376-09$02.00 1987 Optical Society of America
(3)
B. R. Johnson
Vol. 4, No. 8/August 1987/J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 1377
x
-1
- - II - I
- __- _-. I
f ~~f --f
L
1
L2
(f, a) (f/2, b)
L
3
(f/2, c)
directly from the field-stop plane to the detector. This
procedure can be applied because lens L
3
forms an image of
the scene on the field-stop plane onto the detector. If there
were no diffraction effects due to the Lyot stop (i.e., assume
that c - c), then the amplitude on the detector would be the
image predicted by geometric optics. This image is the
exact replica of the amplitude on the right-hand side of the
field stop [see Eq. (9)] except that it is inverted, i.e.,
Ug~x U ua 2 . kP
2
Ug(x, y) = Oaexp -i 2/ icirc(p/b)
Xf/
D
Fig. 1. A simple optical system consisting of an entrance aperti
lens L
1
, a field lens L
2
, a transfer lens L
3
, and a detector D. I
quantities in parentheses are the focal length and the radius of e'
lens. The solid lines are rays from a distant source that is outs
the field of view of the system. The dashed lines are the diffrac
rays that emanate from the rim of L, and are blocked by the L
stop at L
3
.
This amplitude is transformed by the entrance aperture a
the lens L, to give the amplitude on the right-hand sidE
the entrance plane. Applying the rules of Fourier opti
gives
U(x, y) = UO exp(-ik'yx)circ(p/a)exp- 2f
where
p = (x
2
+ y
2
)1/2
and the circular function is defined by
circ(P){= p>
1
Crp =11 o < P < 1,
This amplitude is transformed again as it propagates fr
the right-hand side of the entrance plane to the left-h,
side of the field-stop plane. The result is
U(X, Y) = tUra exp2 , k2)A{!f [(x + zyf)
2
+ y2]1/2}1
(7)
where the function A(p) is the Airy diffraction amplitude for
a circular aperture defined by
A(p) = 2J
1
(p) (8)
p
where J
1
(p) is a first-order Bessel function.
This amplitude is then transformed by the field-stop ap-
erture and lens L
2
to give the amplitude on the right-hand
side of the field-stop plane. The result is
U~r
2
I p
2
\
U(X, Y) = exp(-i ik circ(p/b)
Xf (_ 2/ /
X At{ ha [(X + yf)2 + y2]1/2}.
f
(9)
We could continue with this step-by-step process of prop-
agating the amplitude through the system until the signal
reaches the detector. However, at this point it is convenient
to use a more efficient method that allows us to transform
X A{ ha [(X - yf)2 + Y2]1/2}-
(10)
'he The subscript g indicates that this is the geometric-optics
ich image. In this geometric case, each point in the object scene
ide has been sharply focused into a point in the image scene.
ted The effect of the finite radius of the Lyot stop is to intro-
duce diffraction into this reimaging process. Each point in
the object scene forms an Airy diffraction pattern in the
image scene rather than a sharp delta-function point.
Lnd Goodman8 shows that the diffraction pattern centered at
e of each point x, y in the image plane is given by the transfer
.CS
7
function
h(xl,yl;x,y) =re exp[i 2j (P
1
+ P2)]
X A{!j [(X
1
- X)
2
+ (yi - y)2]1/2}.
(11)
(5) The total amplitude on the detector at the position xi, Yi is
then obtained by summing over all the points x, y in the
geometric image, i.e.,
U(x
1
, Y
1
) = JJ h(x
1
, yl; x, y) Ug(x, y)dxdy.
Substituting Eqs. (10) and (11) into Eq. (12) gives
U(xl, Y
1
) = exp2 W Pi
2
P)iJ dxdy circ(p/b)
X A r [(x - X)
2
+ (y - y)2]1/2}
X A { ha [(X - af)2 + y2]1/2}-
/f-
(12)
(13)
It will be convenient for the remaining analysis to express
Eq. (13) in dimensionless variables defined by the relations
X = ax,
Y= ay,
Xi = UX
1
,
Yi = ayl,
z = ap = (X
2
+ y
2
)
1
/2
where
a = ha/f.
In addition, define the dimensionless quantities
(14a)
(14b)
(14c)
(14d)
(14e)
(15)
X0 = kay, (16a)
B. R. Johnson
1378 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A/Vol. 4, No. 8/August 1987
B = ub,
a = c/a.
(16b)
(16c)
Substitute these quantities into Eq. (13) and drop the unim-
portant phase factor to obtain
U(X
1
, Yi) = uA | dXdY circ(Z/B)
X Ala [X - X
1
)
2
+ (Y- yl)
2
]
1
/2)
X Al[(X - XO)
2
+ y2]l/21.
(17)
The integrand is the product of three functions: an Airy
diffraction function centered at the point (Xi, Y
1
), an Airy
diffraction function centered at the point (X
0
, 0), and the
circular function centered at the origin. The last-named
function can be eliminated by changing the limits of integra-
tion to include only the area of the X, Y plane interior to the
circle of radius z = B.
This integral expression does not have an analytic solu-
tion. A strictly numerical evaluation of the integral is also
unfeasible because of the extreme oscillatory nature of the
integrand. The only practical approach is by approximate
analytic techniques. In order to simplify the calculation, we
will restrict the range of the point (Xl, Y
1
) on the detector to
Yj = 0 and 0 < Xl < B and also consider only the case in
which the incoming rays are blocked by the field stop, i.e., Xo
> B.
The most convenient set of coordinates that we have
found for formulating the problem are the polar coordinates
r and 0, which are centered at the point (Xl, 0). This is
shown in Fig. 2. When these coordinates are used, the inte-
gration divides quite naturally into two regions: region I,
0r B-Xl,andregionII,B-Xl<rB+Xl.
The
boundary between regions I and II is shown by the dashed-
dotted circle in Fig. 2. In region I, the angle 0 is unrestricted
by the boundary at z = B. Thus 0 0 27r; this is illustrat-
ed by the inner dashed path in Fig. 2. In region II, the angle
0 is restricted to the region AL(r) < 0 27r - A(r), where AL(r) is
the angle where the outer dashed circle in Fig. 2 intersects
the boundary. It is given by
l1B
2
- X12 -r
A(r) = cos 2X1r (18)
The interval between a general point given by the coordi-
nates (r, 0) and the point located at (X
0
, 0) is denoted by z
(see Fig. 2) and is given by
z(r, 0) = (r
2
+ d
2
- 2rd cos 0)1/2, (19)
where
d = X
0
- X
1
. (20)
Using these definitions, we can then reformulate Eq. (17)
in terms of the r, 0 coordinates:
U(X
1
, O) = U-
2
[JB-X A(car)F(r)rdr
oB+X,
+ J::xl A(ar)H(r)rdr ] (21)
where F(r) is defined in region I by
y
0 = A (r)
,-- z(r, 0)
X
Fig. 2. A graphical representation that shows the relation of the
coordinates r and 0 to the geometry of the problem. The dashed-
dotted circle is the boundary between regions I and II; region I is
interior to this circle, region II is between this circle and the circle of
radius B. The inner dashed circle is a typical angular integration
path in region I; the outer dashed circle is a typical angular integra-
tion path in region II.
F(r) = 2 A[z(r, 0)]dO (22)
and H(r) is defined in region II by
H(r) = 2 Jlr, A[z(r, 0)]d0.
(23)
3. ANALYTIC APPROXIMATIONS
At this stage of the analysis the equations are exact, but in
order to continue we must introduce approximations to eval-
uate the integrals in Eqs. (21)-(23).
A. Angular Integration
Consider the evaluation of the function F(r) defined by Eq.
(22). The integrand of this integral oscillates rapidly with
respect to 0, with two points of stationary phase (i.e., points
where dA/d0 = 0) at 0 = 0 and 0 = 7r. This suggests use of the
stationary-phase approximation. However, when r - 0, the
two stationary points coalesce and the stationary-phase ap-
proximation cannot be used in this limit. In order to handle
this case, we further divide region I into two subregions
labeled Ia and 'b with an intermediate boundary at r = ra.
Region Ia is 0 S r S ra, and region Ib is ra < r < B-XI. The
exact specification of ra will not be needed; however, we
require that ra << d and also that the stationary points have
enough separation that the stationary-phase approximation
can be used in region 'b* (A useful working assumption that
meets these requirements is ra 3 and d 2 15.)
In region Ia (0 S r S ra), use the binomial expansion of the
square root in Eq. (19) along with rid << 1 to obtain the
approximate formula
z(r, 0) = d - r cos 0.
(24)
In addition, use the asymptotic formula for the Bessel func-
B. R. Johnson
Vol. 4, No. 8/August 1987/J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 1379
tion
9
in Eq. (8) to obtain the following approximation to the
Airy diffraction function for a circular aperture:
(p) ne 2 ( 2 sin(p - r/4). (25)
Substitute expressions (24) and (25) into Eq. (22). The
resulting expression can be evaluated by using the integral
representation of the Bessel function.
9
The result is
F(r) = ( 2 )1/2 sin(d - 7r/4)J
0
(r). (26)
Using the asymptotic formula for the Bessel function, we can
also write Eq. (26) in the form
F(r) = d Jj(d)J
0
(r). (27)
In region Ib we use the stationary-phase approximation to
compute F(r). The details of this calculation are given in
Appendix A. The result is
F(r) = 4 [sin(d - r) cos(d + r)
(dr1/
2
) L d-r d+r J
(28)
where the first term is the contribution of the stationary
point at 0 = 0 and the second term comes from the point at 0
=7r.
Two formulas have been derived for the function F(r).
The expression given by Eq. (27) is valid in the region 0 < r '
ra, while Eq. (28) is valid in the region ra < r < B - X1. In
Appendix B we show that these two formulas agree with each
other at the boundary point r = r. -
Rather than working directly with Eqs. (27) and (28), it
will be more convenient to define a new function G(r) by the
relation
F(r) = 4d Jj(d)J
0
(r) + G(r). (29)
On comparing this expression with Eqs. (27) and (28), it is
evident that in region Ia
G(r) = 0, (30)
while in region Ib
G(r) = 4 rsin(d - r) cos (d + r) - 4r J(d)J
0
(r). (31)
(dr)"'
12
dLrd-rd
Replace the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (31)
by its asymptotic form, given by expression (B5) of Appen-
dix B, and simplify. The resulting expression, valid in re-
gion Ib, is
G(r) = 4 (d)1[sin(d-r) + cos(d + r) (32)
G dr) d (r12 nd - + d +rJ
The function H(r) in region II is defined by Eq. (23). This
expression is identical to Eq. (22) except for a change in the
lower integration limit. This lower limit varies monotoni-
cally from ,u(r) = 0 to ,u(r) = ir as r varies from B - X, to B +
X1. The integral in Eq. (23) is evaluated, as in the previous
case, by the stationary-phase method. Over most of the r
interval, the lower limit of integration, 0 = ,u(r), is large
enough to eliminate the stationary point at 0 = 0 but not so
large as to affect the stationary point at 0 = 7r. Thus, in this
region, the integral is given by Eq. (A13) of Appendix A, i.e.,
H(r) =- 4 cos(d + r)
H~)- (rd)1'
1
(d + r)
(33)
If r is close to the lower boundary, B - XI, then the effect of
the stationary point at 0 = 0 cannot be ignored, and if r is
close to the upper boundary, B + xl, then the stationary
phase approximation is no longer valid. The two regions
near the boundaries for which this is true are small, and we
have verified by exact numerical calculation tests that only a
small error is made by simply ignoring the errors in these
regions. Thus our approximation is to assume that the
function given by Eq. (33) is valid over the entire region II,
i.e., B - X, r < B + X1.
B. Radial Integration
The integration over the radial coordinate is given by Eq.
(21), which can be transformed with the aid of expressions
(8), (25), (29), (30), (32), and (33) into the following form:
2U
0
c
2
U(X,, 0) = ad U1 +I2),
where I, and I2 are the following radial integrals:
B-X,
11 = 7rJ,(d) J Jj(ar)J
0
(r)dr
and
I2 = (rad) hr sin(ar - 7r/4)
X [sin(d- r) + cos(d+ r) dr
-B+X, sin(ar - 7r/4)cos(d + r) 1
JB-Xl r(d + r) J
(34)
(35)
(36)
The integral I, has the same form that appears in Eq. (13)
of Noll's paper.3 He evaluated this integral by a procedure
that made use of an infinite series expansion of the function
Jj(ar). In this paper, the integral is evaluated by a different
method. The details are given in Appendix C, where we also
compare our results with Noll's. Our result is
I, = 12d) sin(d - 7r/4)
X {- Si [(1 - )(B - Xj)] - Ci[(1 + a)(B - X
1
)]} (37)
where Si(z) and Ci(z) are the sine integral and the cosine
integral functions,
9
respectively. (This expression is valid
for parameter values in the ranges 0 < a < 1 and X, < B.)
The integral I2, given by Eq. (36), can be transformed by
simple algebra into the form
12 (2 )l1/2 [B-X, sin(ar - in(d-r) dr
road L r"' d- r
B+Xj sin(ar - 7r/4)cos(d + r)
Jr d +r
(38)
JB+X sin(ar - r/4)cos(d + 4)
E rdr
The above integrals can be evaluated by using standard
B. R. Johnson
1380 J. Opt. Soc.-Am. A/Vol. 4, No. 8/August 1987
integral formulas.
9
"1
0
The result for I2 is an expression con-
taining sine and cosine integral functions, similar in form to
Eq. (37). The final result of combining the expressions for
I, and I2 and simplifying and then substituting into Eq. (34)
is the following somewhat lengthy analytic expression for
the amplitude on the detector:
UOC
2
( 2\ 1/2
U(Xj,0) = Xf _d ( ad) [sin(d - 7r/4)rl
+ cos(d - 7r/4)r
2
+ sin(ad - 7r/4)r3
+ cos(ad - 7r/4)r4], (39)
where
r, = 7r- Ci[(1 + a)(B + Xl)] - Ci[(1 + a)(B - X,)]
- Si[(1 - a)(B + X,)] - Si[(1 - a)(B -X)],
r
2
= Ci[(l -a)(B + X,)] -Ci[(1 -a)(B -X,)]
- Si[(1 + a)(B + X,)] + Si[(1 + a)(B -X)],
r
3
= Si[(1 - a)(X
0
+ B)] - Si[(1 - a)(d + ra)]
- Si[(1 + a)(X
0
+ B)] + Si[(1 + a)(d + ra)]
- Si[(1 - a)(X0 - B)] + Si[(1 - a)(d - ra)]
- Si[(1 + a)(X0 - B)] + Si[(1 + ca)(d -ra)],
and
r
4
= Ci[(1 - a)(X
0
- B)] - Ci[(1 - c)(d - ra)]
- Ci[(1 + a)(X
0
- B)] + Ci[(1 + a)(d - ra)]
- Ci[(1 - a)(X
0
+ B)] + Ci[(1 - a)(d + ra)]
- Ci[(1 + a)(X
0
+ B)] + Ci[(1 + a)(d + ra)].
(40a)
(40b)
In addition, we will be interested only in cases in which a is
close to 1, typically 0.95 < a < 1. Therefore, the quantities
(1 + a) 2 and (1 - a) < 0.05. Based on this and also on the
asymptotic formulas for the sine and cosine integral func-
tions, it is obvious that, to a good approximation, all the
terms can be eliminated that contain (1 + a) in their argu-
ments. Thus
r cos[(1 - a)(B + X,)] cos[(1 - a)(B - X,)]
(1- a)(B + XI) (1- a)(B-XI)
(42a)
sin[(1 - a)(B + XI)] sin[(1 - a)(B - X,)]
(1-ac)(B + X,) (1- a)(B-XI) ,4
cos[(1 - a)(X
0
- B)] cos[(1 - a)(X
0
+ B)] + 3
(1-ac) (X
0
-B) (1- a)(X
0
+ B) 3'
(42c)
sin(1 - a)(X
0
- B)] sin[(1 - a)(X
0
+ B)] + 4
(1-a)(X
0
-B) - (1- a)(X
0
+ B) '
(42d)
where
cos[(1 - a)(d + ra)] cos[(1 - a)(d - ra)]
V
3
=
(40c)
d + ra d - ra
(43a)
and
v
4
=
(40d)
The analysis leading to the above formulas is based on the
assumption that X, is a positive quantity. A similar analy-
sis can be carried out for negative X,. Although many of the
intermediate steps are somewhat altered in form, the final
result of this new derivation is the same analytic expressions
given by Eqs. (39) and (40) with the exception that X, is now
a negative quantity. Thus we can show that Eqs. (39) and
(40) are valid in the range -B < X, < B.
We have compared results calculated from the above ana-
lytic formula with exact results obtained by a direct numeri-
cal integration of Eqs. (21)-(23) and found them to be accu-
rate. This formula can be easily and efficiently evaluated on
a computer; however, it is still much too complicated, in its
present form, to be generally useful for analytic work.
Equations (40) can be greatly simplified by using the as-
ymptotically correct formulas
9
Si(x) - ir/2 - cos(x)/x and
Ci(x) sin(x)/x. These asymptotic formulas are accurate
for large values of the argument x but break down complete-
ly as x - 0. For the present application these asymptotic
formulas are sufficiently accurate when the argument is in
the range x > 2. This places the following restrictions on the
range of X
0
and X
1
:
1-B 2 a (41a)
IX11 <B - (41b)
1-a
sin[(1 - a)(d + ra)] sin[(1 - a)(d - ra)]
d + ra d - ra
(43b)
Based on our previous assumptions, i.e., that ra 3, d > 15,
and (1 - a) S 0.05, we see that, to a good approximation, v
3
' v4 O 0 and can be dropped from Eqs. (42c) and (42d).
Substitute Eqs. (42) into Eq. (39) and simplify. The final
result is
U c
2
( 2 ( 1/2
U(X,, 0) = Xfa _ ca) AQ + Q
2
)1 44
where
=sin([l + 02) X
0
-X 1
1- a (B + X)(X
0
+ B)'
sin(ol - 0
2
) XO-X 1
1-a L(B-XO)(X
0
-B)_
01 = X- 7r/4 - aXj,
(45a)
(45b)
(46a)
and
02 = (1 - a)B.
(46b)
The radiant intensity on the detector is obtained by squar-
ing this amplitude. The equations predict a highly oscilla-
tory intensity, but the oscillations will be averaged out in a
real system because the radiation will not be coherent and
monochromatic as we assumed in the derivation. In addi-
tion, the phase difference, 202, between the terms Q, and Q2
in Eqs. (45), will vary by many radians over the bandwidth of
the nonmonochromatic radiation. Therefore the two indi-
vidual contributions, Q, and Q2, can be added incoherently
(i.e., we can add the individual intensities). Thus the aver-
aged intensity at the point (X,, 0) on the detector is
B. R. Johnson
(44)
Vol. 4, No. 8/August 1987/J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 1381
2U
0
2
c
4
I(Xj, 0) = 1 2 Ud3 ((Q,
2
) + (Q
2
2
)), (47)
X
2
f
2
a 3d37r
where the angle brackets ( ... ) signify that this is an average
value.
4. DIFFRACTION-REDUCTION RATIO
In order to determine the effectiveness of the Lyot stop in
reducing the amount of diffracted radiation that reaches the
detector, we must compare the intensity predicted by Eq.
(47) with the intensity that would be obtained in the absence
of the Lyot stop or equivalently in the limit that the radius of
the Lyot stop c - a. In this limit, there will be no diffrac-
tion in the reimaging stage, and therefore the amplitude on
the detector will be the geometric image given by Eq. (10).
Rewriting this formula in terms of the reduced units defined
by Eqs. (14)-(16) and for the case Y, = 0 and IXI S B gives
The formula for the radiant intensity on the detector can
also be conveniently reformulated in terms of the variables
y, (, 6, and R. Making use of Eqs. (49) and (50), we obtain
E
1(6, 0) = R flir
2
ka(y - )I
(55)
where
E = U
0
2
ira
2
(56)
is the total flux that comes through the front aperture.
The conditions imposed to ensure the validity of Eqs. (42)
[see Eqs. (41a) and (41b)] impose the following conditions on
the range of the variables a, 6, and -y:
(57a) 0.95 < a < 1,
161 (1- '
(1 -e) k a
and
(57b)
Ug(XO) =Uira 2J,(X
0
- XX
1
)
U9X1 0 =Xf X - Xi
(48)
Then replace the Bessel function by its asymptotic form,
square the result, and average over the oscillations. The
resulting formula,
4U
0
2
ira
4
Ig(Xi, 0) =xf2
2
(x - X )
3 (49)
gives the radiant intensity on the detector that would be
obtained in the absence of the Lyot stop.
A quantitative measure of the effectiveness of the Lyot
stop is provided by the dimensionless quantity
R = I(Xj, 0)/Ig(Xi, 0),
+ (1 - a)ha k
(57c)
It is of some interest to compare our formula, Eq. (54), for
the diffraction reduction ratio with Noll's formula [Eq. (18)
of Ref. 3]:
(58)
R r
2
(hal2 )
2
(l - a
2
)
2
Noll's result pertains only to the center of the detector, i.e.,
to 6 = 0. In addition, he assumed a large source angle, i.e., y
>> (. If we put both these conditions into Eq. (54), we obtain
2a
47r
2
(hkaf)
2
(j - a)
2
I
(50)
(59)
which Noll has called the "diffraction reduction ratio."
Making use of Eqs. (45), (47), and (49) and also the defini-
tions of a and d, Eqs. (16c) and (20), we obtain
a(X
0
-X)
2
r
1
47 2(1 - a)2 L(B - X,)
2
(Xo - B)
2
+
(B + X
1
)
(51)
(XO+ B)2]
The dimensionless variables X
0
, Xl, and B were useful in
the derivation phase of our work. However, we find that it is
more convenient to express our final working formulas in
terms of a more physical set of angle variables, (, 6, and -y,
where a is the angular radius of the field stop (in radians)
3 = b/f = B/(ka), (52)
6 is the angular measure of position along the x-axis on the
detector
6 = xi/f = X/ka), (53)
and -y is the angle of the incoming rays.
Rewriting Eq. (51) for the diffraction reduction ratio in
terms of these angle variables gives
R= (,_6)
2
[ 1 + 1 1.
4ir
2
(ka)
2
(1 - a)2 [(( - 6)
2
(Qy - #)2 (( + 6)2( + pi)
2
(54)
which does not appear at first sight to agree with Noll's
result. However, both formulas were derived under the
assumption that a does not differ significantly from 1 [see
expression (57a)]. It is easy to verify that in the limit a - 1,
both formulas approach the same limit, i.e.,
27r
2
(ka3)
2
(1 - a)
2
(60)
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
81(3
Fig. 3. Diffraction-reduction ratio as a function of position on the
detector. The curves are calculated using Eq. (54) in the text and
are labeled by the parameter a. The other parameters used in this
example problem are given in the text.
B. R. Johnson
1.0-5 L
1382 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A/Vol. 4, No. 8/August 1987
1o-2
10-3
- 10-4
10-5
1-6 1
10
-Y/3
Fig. 4. Diffraction-reduction ratio at the center of the detector as a
function of the source angle. The curves are calculated by using Eq.
(54) and are labeled by the parameter a. The dots are calculated by
using Noll's formula given by Eq. (58). The dashed line is drawn at
the source angle -y = 1.9, which pertains to the results shown in Fig.
3.
As an example problem we have calculated the diffrac-
tion-reduction ratio for a system for which the following
parameters pertain: a = 20 cm (radius of the entrance
aperture); (3 = 1.5 (field-stop radius); y = 1.9 (off-axis
angle of the source); X = 11 ,um (wavelength), and a = 0.995,
0.99, 0.98, and 0.96. The results are shown graphically in
Fig. 3, where they are plotted as a function of the 6/A(. The
limits on the range of 6/:( for each curve are determined by
using expression (57b). In addition, we have also calculated
the diffraction-reduction ratio at the center of the detector,
i.e., 6 = 0, as a function of the source angle y. These results
are shown in Fig. 4, where they are plotted as a function of y/
(3. The lower limit of 'y/( for each curve was determined
from expression (57c). Diffraction reduction ratios were
also computed using Noll's formula, Eq. (58). These results,
which should be correct in the limit y/( >> 1, are shown
plotted as dots on the right-hand side of the graph, where
they agree quite nicely with our results.
5. COMPARISON WITH THE GEOMETRIC
THEORY OF DIFFRACTION
The Lyot-stop problem, treated in this paper by the Huy-
gens-Fresnel principle, may also be treated by using the
geometric theory of diffraction (GTD). This analysis has
been carried out by Kleinhans and by Kreuzer. Kleinhans
considered the general problem of diffraction by a sequence
of apertures and disks.
4
The present Lyot-stop problem is a
special case of his general analysis. Kreuzer's work is pre-
sented in the Guerap II User's Guide.
5
Both authors de-
rived expressions that can be shown to give identical results
for the diffracted energy that reaches the detector from an
out-of-field-of-view source. Unfortunately, these closed-
form expressions could be obtained only for the special case
in which the detector lies at the center of the focal plane. In
our notation, this corresponds to 6 = 0. Kleinhans's results
are expressed as differential cross sections, while Kreuzer's
are expressed as a bidirectional reflectance distribution
function. In order to compare them with our work we reex-
press their formulas to obtain a diffraction-reduction ratio.
The result is
RGTD F(a)F((3/y), (61)
where
2 [( ) 1+ U)2](2
Our formula for the diffraction-reduction ratio is given by
Eq. (54). For the case in which 6 = 0, this can be rewritten in
the form
(7rka= ) [2(1 _ F )2] (63)
A comparison shows that Eq. (63) can be obtained from Eq.
(61) by replacing the function F(a) by the approximation
F(a) - 1 2 (64)
2(1 - a)
2
i.e., by neglecting the term 0.5/(1 + a)
2
. This is an excellent
approximation when a is in the range 0.95 < a < 1 [see
expression (57a)]. It should be recalled [see the text be-
tween Eqs. (41) and (42)] that we deliberately discarded all
terms containing (1 + a) in order to simplify the analysis.
The relative magnitudes of R and RGTD can be compared by
calculating the ratio of these two quantities:
RGTD 1 + (1 -a)2. (65)
For a = 0.95 this ratio is 1.00066, and so, for all practical
applications, R and RGTD agree.
6. SUMMARY
In this paper we have quantitatively analyzed the effective-
ness of a Lyot stop in reducing the transmission of diffracted
radiation from an out-of-field-of-view source to the detector
of a simple optical system. The main result is the formula
for the diffraction reduction ratio given by Eq. (54). This
formula is more general than previously published formulas,
which apply only to center of the detector plane. Equation
(54) applies also to points that are not at the center (i.e., to
points on a diameter line spanning the detector) and is
shown to be in agreement with the other formulas at the
center point.
APPENDIX A: STATIONARY PHASE
CALCULATION OF F(r)
The function F(r) is defined by Eq. (22) in the text. The
Airy diffraction function, A(z), in this equation is replaced
by the asymptotic form given by expression (25). The re-
sulting expression is
F(r) = 2wr fo [ .Z(r 0)1 cos[z(r, 0) - 37r/4)dO, (Al)
where z(r, 0) is given by Eq. (19). The integrand in Eq. (Al)
oscillates rapidly, except at the points 0 = 0 and 0 = wr where
dz/dO = 0. Most of the contribution to the integral comes
B. R. Johnson
Vol. 4, No. 8/August 1987/J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 1383
from the region near these points. A good approximation to
the integral can be obtained by replacing z(r, 0) by its Taylor
series expansions at these two points. At the point 0 = 0 this
expansion is
z(r, 0) = a + b0
2
, (A2)
Finally, the function F(r) is obtained by adding the contri-
butions from both stationary points at 0 = 0 and 0 = 7r:
4 [sin(d - r) cos(d + r)1
(rd)1/
2
[ (d-r) (d + r) I
A(14)
(A3)
APPENDIX ]i: COMPATIBILITY OF TWO
FORMULAS FOR F(r)
In this appendix we prove that the two formulas for F(r)
given by Eqs. (27) and (28) are compatible with each other at
(A4) the boundary point r = ra-
Equation (28) can be rewritten in the form
and where d is defined by Eq. (20) in the text.
Replace z((r, 0) in Eq. (Al) by its Taylor series [Eq. (A2)].
The result is
/ 2 \3/2 3r ex[.1 32-\11
F
0
(r) = 2ir(_ I Re exp[i(a- exp(40%d0,
where
co= 3 b + ib
2 a
and where Re means the real part and the subscript on
indicates that this represents only the contribution fror
stationary point 0 = 0. The upper limit of integration c~
replaced by -. Also, in any problem that we consider
quantity a = d-r >> 1; therefore, to a good approxima
c - ib.
(AS)
(Bi)
F(r) = 4 [sin(d-r) cos(d + r
d
312
r1/
2
[ 1-rid 1 + rid I
From the condition ra << d it follows that rid << 1 at r =ra,
and therefore, to a good approximation,
F(r) = 3 4 1/2 [sin(d - r) - cos(d + r)].
(A6) This is trigonometrically identical to
4
Fo(r) F(r) = sin(d - 7r/4)cos(r - 7r/4).
4-L- d /21/
(B3)
Substitute the asymptotic formulas for the Bessel functions
9
into Eq. (B3) to obtain
F(r) = d7r J
1
(d)J
0
(r).
(A7)
The integration of Eq. (AS) can now be carried out analyti-
cally. The result is
F
0
(r) = 4 sin(d - r) (A8)
(rd)"'
2
(d - r)
The contribution from the stationary point at 0 = 7r is calcu-
lated in a similar manner. The Taylor series expansion of
z(r, 0) around the point 0 = ir is
z(r, 0) = a + b(O -7r)2
where
a = d + r
(B4)
This final form is identical to the expression given by Eq.
(27), thus proving the equivalence of the formulas (27) and
(28) at the boundary r = ra,
By equating Eqs. (B2) and (B4) we obtain an asymptotic
formula that is used in the text to derive Eq. (32):
4ir 4 [sin(d-r) cos(d + r)1
d Jl(d)Jo(r) (dr)1
2
. d d I
(B5)
(A9)
(A10)
and
(All)
rd
2(d + r)
Substitute Eq. (A9) into Eq. (Al) and change the variable of
integration by the transformation 4, = 0-0. The result is
F,(r) = 27r(-) j Relexp[i(a - 37r/4)]exp( 4
2
)1do,
(A12)
where co is defined by expression (A7). This integral is
identical to Eq. (AS). The only differences are the defini-
tion of the parameters a and b and the fact that b is a
negative quantity. The integration can be carried out with
the result that
(A13) F,(r) = - 4 cos(d + r)
(rd)'
1
/
2
(d + r)
APPENDIX C: EVALUATION OF THE
INTEGRAL IN EQ. (35)
In this appendix we evaluate the integral
F(alz) =fJ J
0
(x)J
1
(ax)dx, (Cl)
which appears in Eq. (35) in the text. This is also the same
integral that Noll evaluated by a different procedure in Ref.
3.
Rewrite Eq. (Cl) in the form
F(alz) = J J
0
(x)J,(ax)dx -J J
0
(x)Jj(ax)dx. (C2)
From standard integral formulas we obtain'
0
J J
0
(x)J
1
(ax)dx = a-i when a > i
= 0.5 when a = 1
= 0 whena<l1.
where
a = d-r
and
rd
2(d - r)
(B2)
(C3)
B. R. Johnson
1384 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A/Vol. 4, No. 8/August 1987
In this paper we are interested only in the case a < 1; thus
Falz) = - L J
0
(x)Jj(ax)dx. (C4)
The value of z is assumed to be of such a magnitude that az
>> 1 (it follows that z >> 1, also). Therefore the Bessel
functions can be replaced by their asymptotic formulas.
9
Thus
F(alz) = - ~2 J cos(x - r/4)sin(ax - r/4) dx,
which can easily be integrated. The final result is
F(aoz) = ___" - Si[(l - a)z] - Ci[(l + c,)z]}
r~a 12
(C5)
(C6)
which is the formula that we used to obtain Eq. (37) in the
text.
We have compared results obtained using Eq. (C6) with
results obtained by a direct numerical integration of Eq.
(Cl). Excellent agreement was obtained, verifying the use-
fulness of this approximate formula. If we assume the
somewhat more stringent restriction that (1 - a)z >> 1, then
we can replace the sine and cosine integral functions in Eq.
(C6) by their asymptotic formulas. The result is
F(a~z) = 1 {fcos[(l - a)z] sin[(1 + a)z1
7rc (1l-a)z (1+ a)z J
(C7)
It is of some interest to compare our Eq. (C7) with Noll's
expression for this integral, which he obtained by an entirely
different procedure. Noll's formula
3
is
F(alz) = _ cos
2
(z - r/4) cos[(1 - a
2
)z/2]
ae~rz ra(I - a
2
)z/2
(C8)
which at first sight seems to be entirely different from our
formula (C7). We can see, however, that this formula ap-
proaches the negative of our formula asymptotically in the
limit a - 1. Since our formula agrees with numerically
integrated results, we must assume that there is a sign error
in Noll's formula.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was supported by the U.S. Air Force Space
Division under contract number F04701-85-C-0086-P00016.
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eclipses," Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 99, 580-594 (1939).
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New York, 1975), Sec. 8.9.
3. R. J. Noll, "Reduction of diffraction of use of a Lyot stop," J.
Opt. Soc. Am. 63, 1399-1402 (1973).
4. W. A. Kleinhans, "Diffraction from a sequence of apertures and
disks," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 65, 1451-1456 (1975).
5. Guerap II Users Guide, SAMSO Rep. TR-73-309 (Perkin-
Elmer Corporation, Norwalk, Conn., February 1974); pp. 56-71.
6. J. W. Goodman, Introduction to Fourier Optics (McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1968).
7. Ref. 6, Chaps. 4 and 5.
8. Ref. 6, Chap. 5, Sec. 5.3.
9. M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical
Functions, Natl. Bur. Stand. (US) Appl. Math. Ser. 55 (U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1964; Dover,
New York, 1965).
10. I. S. Gradshteyn and I. M. Ryzhik, Table of Integrals, Series
and Products (Academic, New York, 1965).
B. R. Johnson