Institutionen för systemteknik

Department of Electrical Engineering

Examensarbete

Development and Evaluation of an Inertial Sensor

for Gait Analysis

Examensarbete utfört i Elektroniksystem

vid Tekniska högskolan i Linköping
av

Björn Nutti

LITH-ISY-EX--06/3940--SE
Linköping 2006

Department of Electrical Engineering Linköpings tekniska högskola

Linköpings universitet Linköpings universitet
SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden 581 83 Linköping
Development and Evaluation of an Inertial Sensor
for Gait Analysis

Examensarbete utfört i Elektroniksystem

vid Tekniska högskolan i Linköping
av

Björn Nutti

LITH-ISY-EX--06/3940--SE

Handledare: Mark Vesterbacka

isy, Linköpings universitet, Linköping, Sverige
Wolfgang Liedecke
Hasomed GmbH, Magdeburg, Tyskland
Examinator: Mark Vesterbacka
isy, Linköpings universitet, Linköping, Sverige

Linköping, 20 September, 2006

 Avdelning, Institution Datum
Division, Department Date
Division of Electronics System
Department of Electrical Engineering
Linköpings universitet 2006-09-20
SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden

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¤ Svenska/Swedish ¤ Licentiatavhandling ISRN
¤ Engelska/English
£ ¤ Examensarbete
£ LITH-ISY-EX--06/3940--SE
¤ C-uppsats
Serietitel och serienummer ISSN
¤ D-uppsats Title of series, numbering 
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URL för elektronisk version

http://www.es.isy.liu.se
http://www.ep.liu.se/2006/3940

Titel Utveckling och utvärdering av en intertial sensor för gånganalys

Title Development and Evaluation of an Inertial Sensor for Gait Analysis

Författare Björn Nutti

Author

Sammanfattning
Abstract
Hasomed GmbH, a German company in the eld of medicine technology, intends
to introduce a gait analysis system on the market. The system includes an inertial
sensor which collects data used for generating movement patterns of the feet. This
thesis describes the development and evaluation of a new version of the sensor,
aimed at minimizing costs, maximizing performance and facilitating production.
Algorithms used in the gait analysis system are sensitive to noise. Noise sources
and precautions taken in order to minimize noise levels are described and discussed.
By minimizing the physical size of analogue electronics blocks, static noise and
occasional high frequency components were substantially reduced.
New features including internal temperature sensors, rmware update via serial
interface, self-test functions and a wireless link were implemented. Additional
improvements are e.g. lower power consumption and an extension of the interface
from 2 to 256 (theoretical limit) attached devices. By reducing the number of
included components and PCB (Printed Circuit Board) layers, together with use of
components that do not require advanced soldering techniques, easier and cheaper
production was obtained.
Research and development presented in this thesis resulted in a sensor with overall
good performance and new features.

Nyckelord
Keywords Inertial Sensor, Inertial Measurement Unit, MEMS, Motion Capture
Abstract
Hasomed GmbH, a German company in the eld of medicine technology, intends
to introduce a gait analysis system on the market. The system includes an inertial
sensor which collects data used for generating movement patterns of the feet. This
thesis describes the development and evaluation of a new version of the sensor,
aimed at minimizing costs, maximizing performance and facilitating production.
Algorithms used in the gait analysis system are sensitive to noise. Noise sources
and precautions taken in order to minimize noise levels are described and discussed.
By minimizing the physical size of analogue electronics blocks, static noise and
occasional high frequency components were substantially reduced.
New features including internal temperature sensors, rmware update via serial
interface, self-test functions and a wireless link were implemented. Additional
improvements are e.g. lower power consumption and an extension of the interface
from 2 to 256 (theoretical limit) attached devices. By reducing the number of
included components and PCB (Printed Circuit Board) layers, together with use of
components that do not require advanced soldering techniques, easier and cheaper
production was obtained.
Research and development presented in this thesis resulted in a sensor with overall
good performance and new features.

v
Acknowledgments
I am very grateful that I was given the opportunity to do my master's thesis at
Hasomed GmbH. I had a great time and met many inspiring, enthusiastic and
competent persons. The atmosphere at Hasomed GmbH is fantastic and all of the
co-workers have a nature of being friendly and helpful.
Special thanks to Dr. Peter Weber and Dr. Wolfgang Liedecke for giving me the
opportunity to work in an interesting project such as this.
I am also grateful to my supervisor, Prof. Mark Vesterbacka, for support when
needed.
Thanks to Josef Halfpapp, Matthias Weber, Dr. Ralf Kauert, and Dr.-Ing. Carsten
Behling for fruitful discussions during my work at Hasomed GmbH.
I would also like to thank Johannes Hallqvist for establishing my contact with Ha-
somed GmbH, Marcus Hennix for interesting discussions regarding my work and
Erik Nyberg White and Josephine Speziali for proof-reading.
Finally, I would like to thank Josephine and my family for believing in and sup-
porting me during my work.

vii
Contents

1 Introduction 3
1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Research Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Thesis Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Background 5
2.1 Inertial Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2 Gyroscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Noise Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.1 Mechanical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.2 Electrical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.3 Quantization Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Designing a New Sensor 11

3.1 Analysis of the Existing Inertial Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Specication of Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.1 Signal Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.2 Quantization Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.3 Temperature Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.4 Range of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.5 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.6 Sample Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Evaluation of Available Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4 Status Seminar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Sensor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4 Quantization Precision 15
4.1 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.1 Old Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.2 New Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2 Signal Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2.1 X - Source Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.2 M - Mechanical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

ix
 4.2.3 I - Internal Electrical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.4 W - External Electrical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.5 QN - Quantization Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3 Simulation of 12- and 16-bit Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3.1 Simulation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3.2 Quantized Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3.3 Introduced Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3.4 Signal-To-Noise Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3.5 Quantization Noise - Simulation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3.6 Quantization Noise - Simulation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3.7 Results from Noise Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

5 Results 23
5.1 Quantization Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.1.1 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.1.2 Data Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.1.3 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.1.4 Simulations of 12- and 16-bit Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.2 Static Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.2.1 Gyroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3 Compliance with the Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3.1 Signal Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3.2 Quantization Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3.3 Temperature Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3.4 Range of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3.5 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.3.6 Sample Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4 Additional Features and Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4.1 Reduced Power Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4.2 Internal Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.4.3 PCB with Fewer Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.4.4 Firmware Update via Serial Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.4.5 Bus System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.4.6 Wireless Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6 Conclusion 31
6.1 Enhanced Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.2 Easier Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.3 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.4 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Bibliography 33
A Simulations 35
A.1 Simulation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
A.2 Simulation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
A.3 Simulation 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Abbreviations
6DOF 6 Degrees Of Freedom
ADC Analogue-to-Digital Converter
DC Direct Current
DOF Degree Of Freedom
IFF Fraunhofer-Institut für Fabrikbetrieb und -Automatisierung
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
MEMS Microelectromechanical Systems
MST Micro Systems Technology
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PSD Power Spectral Density
SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio

1
2 Contents
Chapter 1

Introduction
In the eld of rehabilitation, an accurate diagnosis is of great importance. New
technology makes way for new, more accurate analysis methods. Hasomed GmbH,
located in Magdeburg Germany, is one of the leading companies in the area of gait
analysis systems.
A gait analysis system records a subject's walk, divides it into steps and step
phases. An inertial sensor integrated in the gait analysis system is used to record
the walk. Hasomed GmbH developed their rst gait analysis system and inertial
sensor in cooperation with Fraunhofer-Institut für Fabrikbetrieb (IFF). Introduc-
ing this system on the market requires a more accurate, and cheaper, inertial
sensor. To meet these requirements a second inertial sensor was developed by the
author of this thesis.

1.1 Scope
This thesis aims at describing the development and evaluation of a new inertial
sensor, which is going to be a part of the gait analysis system. The thesis starts
with an evaluation of the existing sensor and ends in a nal comparison between
the existing and the developed sensor. The existing is currently in use at Hasomed
GmbH, the new one is developed by the author.
Components, design, implementation and sensitive data are excluded from this
thesis since they are considered to be condential.

1.2 Research Approach

The following research approach was taken during the work with this thesis.

• Evaluating the existing sensor.

• Designing a new sensor.

3
4 Introduction

• Assembly of the new sensor's hardware.

• Developing rmware.
• Evaluating the new sensor.

1.3 Thesis Outline

The thesis is outlined as follows; Chapter 2 gives the reader useful background in-
formation, including expressions such as inertial sensor, MEMS and noise sources.
A reader familiar with these concepts can skip this chapter. An overview of how
the new sensor was developed is given in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 gives a theoret-
ical discussion covering quantization resolution as a design parameter. Chapter
5 compares theory presented in Chapter 4 with actual tests. Static noise from
the old and the new sensor are also compared. A presentation of how the new
sensor complies with the specication of requirements as well as new features and
improvements are also presented. Chapter 6 summarizes the dierence between
the old and the new sensor. A presentation of possible further development is also
presented.
Chapter 2

Background
In this chapter, background theory and commonly used concepts are explained.
First, the characteristics of an inertial sensor are described. This is followed by a
presentation of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors. Finally, dier-
ent noise sources are discussed.

2.1 Inertial Sensor

An Inertial Sensor, also known as Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), is a closed
system used to detect motion and location. The expression Inertial Sensor is
widely used to refer to a device, containing three accelerometers and three gyro-
scopes. Accelerometers and gyroscopes are placed such that their measuring axes
are mutually orthogonal. This arrangement makes it possible to measure full six-
degree-of-freedom (6DOF).
Inertial sensors are used in many dierent elds, e.g. airbag deployment systems,
autopilot systems and motion capture for virtual character generation in game
development and lm industry.
Hasomed GmbH uses one inertial sensor for each foot in their gait analysis system.
Data recorded by the sensors is used to analyze the movement pattern for each
foot.

2.2 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)

MEMS, also known as Micro Systems Technology (MST), is a technology allowing
construction of very small sensing elements. MEMS technology combines mechan-
ical and electrical blocks on the same chip and can be realized using a number of
dierent implementations and materials. These materials include silicon, polymers
and metals [7].
A popular implementation is based on mass-supporting springs [6]. When the sen-
sor is exposed to a force this results in a capacitive change which can be converted

5
6 Background

to a voltage level that can easily be converted into digital data.

Another implementation is based on heat transfer by means of natural convection
[7]. This means that an applied force results in changes in heat transfer. The
convected heat can be converted to a voltage level.

2.2.1 Accelerometer
An accelerometer is used to detect acceleration which is obtained by measuring
physical quantities proportional to the acceleration. The accelerometers treated
in this thesis are based on an implementation of mass-supporting springs. When
the accelerometer is exposed to a force, an internal mass is displaced. This dis-
placement is detected by small capacitive elements as a change in capacitance. An
outline of a MEMS Accelerometer is shown in Figure 2.1a.

(a)

ǻx
(b)
Figure 2.1. Outline of a resting MEMS accelerometer (a); MEMS accelerometer exposed
to an acceleration (b).
2.2 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) 7

When the accelerometer is exposed to acceleration a displacement of the mass

occurs, see Figure 2.1b. This displacement can be converted to acceleration by
using established physical formulas.
Newton's 2nd Law [9] gives the relation between acceleration and applied force:

F = m · a. (2.1)

Hooke's Law [11] gives the relation between applied force and displacement:

F = −k · ∆x. (2.2)

By combining Newton's 2nd (Eq. 2.1) with Hooke's Law (Eq. 2.2) the following
relation between acceleration and displacement is obtained:
k
a=− · ∆x. (2.3)
m
The displacement ∆x in Figure 2.1b is obtained by measuring a proportional
capacitance. This capacitance is converted to a voltage level by a capacitance-to-
voltage converter based on the switched capacitor technique [3].

ǻx

Figure 2.2. Capacitance-to-voltage converter.

A capacitance-to-voltage converter is a linear amplier where the output voltage

is proportional to the input capacitance [3], see Figure 2.2. The function of this
converter is beyond the scope of this document.

2.2.2 Gyroscope
A MEMS gyroscope measures angular velocity. The angular velocity is obtained
by measuring physical quantities proportional to the angular velocity. MEMS
gyroscopes are similar to the MEMS accelerometers in the way that the output
signal is generated by a displaced mass. However, MEMS gyroscopes employ the
8 Background

Fc

v
M

Direction of Rotation Ȧ
ǻx

Figure 2.3. Outline of a MEMS gyroscope.

Coriolis force to convert angular velocity to displacement [7]. An outline of a

MEMS gyroscope is shown in Figure 2.3.
The Coriolis force ensue when a mass, M, rotates around an axis, ω̄ , while moving
in radial direction with velocity v̄ . The velocity v̄ is caused by a forced oscillation.
The resulting Coriolis force [11] is dened by

FC = −2m(ω × v). (2.4)

By combining Eq. 2.2 and Eq. 2.4 the following mathematical relation between
displacement and angular velocity is obtained:

2m(ω × v)
∆x = . (2.5)
k
The displacement ∆x is detected in the same way as described in Section 2.2.1.
Hence the output voltage is proportional to measured angular velocity.
A common way to remove eects from linear acceleration, such as gravitation, is to
use two sensing mechanisms. One with the internal mass oscillating in-phase and
the other out-of-phase. The dierence between the two output signals corresponds
to the angular velocity [7] [6].

2.3 Noise Sources

When designing a system it is important to be aware of relevant noise sources.
Relevant noise sources for the inertial sensors are presented and discussed in this
section.
2.3 Noise Sources 9

2.3.1 Mechanical Noise

Each way of implementing MEMS technology has its benets and drawbacks. The
MEMS sensors described in this thesis are based on an implementation based on
mass-supporting springs. In such a system, the mass-supporting silicon springs are
the weak point [7]. The characteristics of the springs vary with temperature which
results in bias and sensitivity changes. Other sources of inaccuracy are hysteresis
and mechanical ringing.
Hysteresis means that springs have memory. A spring in the process of being con-
tracted does not have the same characteristics as a spring which is being stretched
[3].
Mechanical ringing may arise when a moving frame holding a spring-supported
mass suddenly stops [6]. The springs allow the mass to swing for a short period
of time. This eect introduces a small error in the signal.

2.3.2 Electrical Noise

Analogue blocks are exposed to dierent noise sources. The most relevant ones
are crosstalk from digital lines [1] and thermal noise [8] [5].
Crosstalk is a common unwanted side eect that often occurs when mixing blocks
of analogue and digital electronics. On Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) with high
utilization it is not always possible to keep sucient distance between analogue
and digital signal lines. Two adjacent signal lines result in a capacitive connection
[5]. For Direct Current (DC) or low frequency components, a capacitive connec-
tion is interpreted as high impedance [8]. Digital signals contain high frequency
components which interpret a capacitive connection as low impedance [8]. Hence,
it is possible for digital signals to travel between adjacent signal lines, see Figure
2.4.

DC

Pulse

Figure 2.4. Crosstalk between two adjacent signal lines: The DC is blocked by the
capacitive connection while the pulse travels across.

A good way to avoid noise of this type is to keep analogue lines as short as possible
while trying to separate routing of digital and analogue lines. A common way to
remove high frequency components from DC lines is to use decoupling capacitors.
10 Background

These capacitors block the DC signal while conducting high frequency components
to ground. This technique is not possible to use on other signals since a decou-
pling capacitor might remove important information [1]. Another way of reducing
crosstalk is to separate lines by a shield connected to ground, but in this case this
is not feasible due to limited physical space.
Thermal noise arises when electrons collide and is more often observable in long
signal lines [5]. Therefore, a good way of minimizing thermal noise is to keep the
signal lines as short as possible. Digital signals are not sensitive to small noise
components since digital information uses magnitude variations much greater than
the noise magnitude.

2.3.3 Quantization Noise

When designing a system is it optimal to quantize such that no error is introduced
while at the same time a negligible amount of bits is used. Since this is not possible
in real applications, a practically feasible aim is to introduce a very small error
while using few bits [4].
Introducing only a small error is good for the accuracy while using few bits means
that there are few bits to transfer, which in turn saves energy. Low energy con-
sumption is of the essence, especially in battery powered equipment.
In the domain of quantization, precision refers to the amount of bits used to
describe the signal. However, the signal quality can not be increased when quan-
tizing, at best kept at the same level. When quantizing a noisy signal fewer bits
are needed than when quantizing a signal with very low noise. This is due to that
the quantization noise drowns in a noisy signal.
Chapter 3

Designing a New Sensor

This chapter describes the development process of the new inertial sensor and can
be divided into two phases.
The rst phase describes the collection and compilation of information covering
the old sensor. This information was used to develop designs for the new sensor.
The following sections were treated.
• Analyzing weaknesses of the existing inertial sensor.
• Dening a specication of requirements for a new inertial sensor.
• Evaluating global development on new sensors and their potential use in this
application.
This phase was completed by a status seminar where three dierent designs were
presented. At the seminar, developers from both Hasomed GmbH and IFF were
present. Feedback from this seminar was compiled and a nal design based on this
information was developed.
The second phase, sensor development, can be divided into three sections.
• Designing a circuit diagram.
• Assembly of the new sensor.
• Developing a rst rmware version.

3.1 Analysis of the Existing Inertial Sensor

In order to know what to improve in the new design an analysis of the existing
sensor was performed.
The rst step was to discuss the weaknesses and features of the existing sensor
with developers at Hasomed GmbH and IFF. The developers had three years of
experience with the existing sensor and possessed a signicant amount of relevant
information.
The second step was to study the existing sensor's test data and PCB layout.

11
12 Designing a New Sensor

3.2 Specication of Requirements

Based on the collected information, a specication of requirements was developed.
This was done in cooperation with the sta at Hasomed GmbH. The following
sections contain the specied requirements. Each section states the requirement
in italics followed by an explanation.

3.2.1 Signal Quality

Occasional high frequency components must be removed.
The signal from the old sensor suers from occasional high frequency components.
An example of this is shown in Figure 3.1. Such components are critical since

−0.85

−0.9

−0.95
[g]

−1

−1.05

−1.1

680 700 720 740 760 780 800 820 840 860 880 900
Sample no.

Figure 3.1. High frequency noise.

they make the algorithms used by the gait analysis system accumulate a large bias
error.

3.2.2 Quantization Resolution

The signal on all six channels should be quantized with a resolution of minimum
16-bit.
This was based on the fact that the existing sensor used 16-bit quantization reso-
lution.

3.2.3 Temperature Drift

It must be possible to compensate for drift caused by temperature variations.
3.3 Evaluation of Available Technology 13

The characteristics of a MEMS sensor vary with temperature (Section 2.3.1 of

Chapter 2). As the gait analysis system is switched on, all elements starts to heat
up until they reach working temperature. During this period the characteristics
vary, which makes output unpredictable. Therapists and patients should not need
to wait several minutes while the system heats up.

3.2.4 Range of Measurement

The sensor should handle the following physical ranges:
• acceleration of ±4g
• angular speed of ±600◦ /s
These physical ranges were established by the developers at Hasomed GmbH after
evaluating tests on regular walk performed with the old sensor. Both ranges are
optimized for regular walk.

3.2.5 Bandwidth
The sensor should have a bandwidth of 100Hz on all channels.
This value was established by the developers at Hasomed GmbH after evaluating
tests on regular walk performed with the old sensor. A slower system might not
be able to detect short acceleration peaks. Such peaks are common when the foot
bumps into the ground during regular walk.

3.2.6 Sample Frequency

The sensor should handle a sample frequency of minimum 500Hz.
This value fulls the Nyquist requirement [10] since the sample frequency is more
than two times the bandwidth.

3.3 Evaluation of Available Technology

After completing the specication of requirements market research was performed
in order to nd new devices suitable to the new sensor. Apart from the require-
ments presented in Section 3.2, important characteristics for new devices were:
• low price
• small size
• low power consumption
• good noise performance
• good accessibility
Devices matching these characteristics were compiled in a table. Three designs
were developed based on devices selected from this table.
14 Designing a New Sensor

3.4 Status Seminar

The status seminar aimed at compiling feedback and experience from available
experts. Three dierent design proposals were presented, each with characterizing
benets and drawbacks.
The main topic for discussion during the seminar ended up to be whether or not
12-bit quantization precision is enough. The old sensor uses 16-bit precision but
contains blocks introducing noise which might lower the quality to less than 12-bit
precision. In this case, an improvement would be to use a design that guarantees
12-bit precision. This decision aected which devices should be used in the nal
design.
To clarify this issue a document describing present signal conditions and noise
sources was composed. Results from this document are presented in Chapter 4
and Section 5.1 of Chapter 5. Based on the results, Section 3.2.2 of the specica-
tion of requirement was revised to:

In order to not lose any information the signal should be quantized

with a resolution of minimum 12-bit on all six channels.

3.5 Sensor Development

Based on the nal design developed in the previous phase, a circuit diagram was
produced. A board layout was developed based on the circuit diagram. After
retrieving the new PCB and all belonging devices the sensor was assembled. Nec-
essary software and rmware were developed for the new sensor. Due to the
condential nature of these parts, they will not be further explained in this thesis
(Section 1.1 of Chapter 1).
Chapter 4

Quantization Precision
In this chapter the theoretical dierences between 12- and 16-bit quantization
are described. First, each sensor is described by a mathematical model. This is
followed by a description of the included signal sources, and nally, results from
the theoretical comparison are presented.

4.1 System Description

The inertial sensor can be described with a model containing relevant signals and
noise sources. Each degree of freedom (DOF) is referred to as a channel. A channel
can be divided into blocks representing dierent parts. For each model, the output
signal from the MEMS device is known. This signal, approximated to be the same
in both the old and the new sensor, is the sum of M and I.

4.1.1 Old Sensor

This section describes the existing sensor, which uses 16-bit quantization. One
channel can be represented by the model shown in Figure 4.1.

Mechanical Int. Electronics Ext. Electronics Quantization

M I W QN

Mass / X +
S Y
+ + +
Spring

Figure 4.1. A model of the old sensor.

The mechanical block illustrates the mechanical sensing mechanism. Signal X is

15
16 Quantization Precision

the source signal. Since there is mechanical noise (Section 2.3.1 of Chapter 2), a
noise source M is added to the model.
The Internal Electronics (Int. Electronics) block describes the internal conversion
from capacitance to voltage level (Section 2.2.1 of Chapter 2) and additional am-
plication (Section 2.3.2 of Chapter 2). This noise is represented by signal I.
The External Electronics (Ext. Electronics) block is situated between the MEMS
sensor and the analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). It consists of dierent ampli-
cation and ltering units. These are exposed to dierent noise sources such as
crosstalk and thermal noise (Section 2.3.2 of Chapter 2). This noise is represented
by signal W.
The quantization block is where the signal is converted to digital data. Since
the quantization is not optimal [4] some noise will be introduced (Section 2.3.3
of Chapter 2). This noise is represented by signal QN , where N is number of
quantization bits used.

4.1.2 New Sensor

This section describes the new sensor, which uses only 12-bit precision. One
channel can be represented by the model displayed in Figure 4.2.

Mechanical Int. Electronics Quantization

M I QN

S Y
Mass / X
+ + +
Spring

Figure 4.2. A model of the new sensor.

The block denitions in Figure 4.2 are equal to those described in Section 4.1.1 of
this chapter. To illustrate the main dierence between the old and new sensor, the
block of external electronics (Ext. Electronics) has been removed in this gure.
This is due to the fact that amplication and ltering is carried out internally.
When this is done internally, it is possible to keep all analogue wires very short.
Short wires are subject to a lesser degree of crosstalk and thermal noise (Section
2.3.2 of Chapter 2). As mentioned above, the sum of I and M is known.

4.2 Signal Characteristics

To be able to simulate the models presented in Section 4.1.1-4.1.2 of this chapter,
each signal was assigned a distribution. This was done by running the simula-
tions with both uniformly and normally distributed random seeds. The dierence
4.2 Signal Characteristics 17

between these results was negligible. Noise can be considered as many small and
independent signal sources. A sum of such signals results in a normal distribution.
Hence, all signals in this simulation were modeled in this way.

4.2.1 X - Source Signal

X is dened as an ideal source signal, which means that X is free from noise. X
is a signal corresponding to acceleration or angular velocity. When no accelera-
tion or angular velocity is presented, the signal takes on its mean value. When
exposed to a force or angular velocity, the signal varies around this mean value.
Such characteristics are typical for a normally distributed signal, strengthening
the assumption that a normal distribution is a good approximation. X is dened
as
X ∈ N (mX , σX ). (4.1)

4.2.2 M - Mechanical Noise

Both sensors are using the same type of MEMS implementation. This makes it
possible to assume that the mechanical noise (Section 2.3.1 of Chapter 2) magni-
tudes are within the same range. The distribution of M is, as previously mentioned
(Section 4.2 of this chapter), assumed to be normally distributed. M is dened as

M ∈ N (mM , σM ). (4.2)

4.2.3 I - Internal Electrical Noise

This signal represents noise which arises in the sensor's internal electronics (Section
2.3.2 of Chapter 2). The variance of I is, as previously mentioned (Section 4.2 of
this chapter), assumed to be normally distributed. I is dened as

I ∈ N (mI , σI ). (4.3)

4.2.4 W - External Electrical Noise

This signal represents noise from electronics that are not included in the sensor
(Section 2.3.2 of Chapter 2).
The distribution and variance of this noise source is unknown. Since the block
of external electronics is exposed to more electrical disturbance (Section 2.3.2 of
Chapter 2) it is feasible to assume that W has greater variance than I.
To be able to include this noise source in the calculations it is assumed that W
and the sum of M and I, at worst, have the same variance. The purpose of this
assumption is to keep the variance in a decent range and to display how any noise
from external electronics will aect the result.
When W is used in the model, it is dened as the sum of I and W :
q
W ∈ N (mM + mI , σM 2 + σ 2 ).
I (4.4)
18 Quantization Precision

4.2.5 QN - Quantization Noise

Quantization noise is considered to be uniformly distributed in the interval limited
by the size of the quantization levels [4]. This is written as

∆ ∆
QN ∈ U N IF ORM (− , ). (4.5)
2 2
For linear quantization the variation of the quantization noise can be described by
[4]
2 ∆2
σQ = . (4.6)
12
For N bits and a peak-to-peak power of VP P this gives [4]

VP P
∆= (4.7)
2N
which inserted in 4.6 gives
2 ( V2PNP )2
σQ = . (4.8)
12

4.3 Simulation of 12- and 16-bit Quantization

In this section, the dierence between 12-bit quantization without external elec-
tronics and 16-bit quantization with external electronics is simulated.
The rst part describes how the simulations were performed, which is later followed
by results from the simulations.

4.3.1 Simulation Procedure

Two dierent comparisons were carried out. In order to be able to see how the
external noise source W aected the result, it was not included in the rst com-
parison.
In the second comparison W was included to achieve a more realistic result. The
magnitude of W was dened as in Section 4.2.4 of this chapter.
A real test was also performed by running algorithms from the gait analysis system
on a data stream re-quantized from 16-bit to 12-bit. These results were compared
with the results generated by algorithms applied to the original 16-bit data. Re-
sults from the comparison are presented in Section 5.1 of Chapter 5.

4.3.2 Quantized Signal

S is the signal to be quantized, see Figure 4.1 and 4.2. S is the sum of the source
signal X, mechanical noise M and electrical noise I & W. All signals are assumed
to be normally distributed (Section 4.2 of this chapter). A sum of independent
normally distributed signals results in a normally distributed signal [2].
4.3 Simulation of 12- and 16-bit Quantization 19

In the rst comparison, no noise from external electronics is included and S is

dened as q
S ∈ N (mX + mM + mI , σX 2 + σ 2 + σ 2 ).
M I (4.9)

In the second comparison, W is included and S is dened as

q
S ∈ N (mX + mM + mI + mW , σX 2 + σ 2 + σ 2 + σ 2 ).
M I W (4.10)

4.3.3 Introduced Error

The stochastic characteristics of signal S are known. Using the mathematical
expressions presented in Chapter 4.2.5 it is possible to simulate noise added by
the quantization.

Quantization

QN

S YN EN
+ +

Figure 4.3. Signal error.

The variance of signal EN can be calculated as

2
σE = E{(X − Y )2 }E{(X − YN )2 } = E{X 2 } − 2 · E{X · YN } + E{YN2 }. (4.11)

The terms 2 · E{X · YN } and E{YN2 } cannot be calculated theoretically. Instead,

they were approximated by conducting a computer simulation.

4.3.4 Signal-To-Noise Ratio

Dierent resolutions were evaluated by relating the size of the source signal to
the signal error. This type of comparison is often performed by calculating the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) dened as [4]

σY2
SN R = 10 · log 2 . (4.12)
σE

4.3.5 Quantization Noise - Simulation 1

This simulation was performed without noise from external electronics, W. Results
from simulation 1 are shown in Figure 4.4.
20 Quantization Precision

60

50

40

SNR [dB]
30

20

10

12−bit SNR:55.14
14−bit SNR:55.22
16−bit SNR:55.23
0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
N−bit

Figure 4.4. Quantization SNR for N-bit in simulation 1.

Figure 4.4 shows resulting SNR for N bits used in the quantization. The results
reveal that the dierence between 16-bit and 12-bit quantization is only 0.08 dB.

4.3.6 Quantization Noise - Simulation 2

The second simulation was performed with the external noise source, W. As ex-
plained in Section 4.2.4, the variance of W is assigned a value in order to show how
this parameter aects the result. Results from simulation 2 are shown in Figure
4.5.

60

50

40
SNR [dB]

30

20

10

12−bit SNR:52.19
14−bit SNR:52.23
16−bit SNR:52.24
0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
N−bit

Figure 4.5. Quantization SNR for N-bit in simulation 2.

4.3 Simulation of 12- and 16-bit Quantization 21

The dierence between 16-bit and 12-bit quantization is only 0.04 dB.

4.3.7 Results from Noise Simulations

Simulation 1 shows that 12-bit quantization introduces 0.08 dB of noise, a level
which is negligible. When including noise from external electronics, the inuence
of quantization noise is even smaller. Both levels are acceptable, which implies
that 12-bit quantization precision is sucient.
22 Quantization Precision
Chapter 5

Results
This chapter presents results from tests performed on both the old and the new
sensor, as well as specications and new features of the new sensor.
The rst section describes how quantization precision aects the results from al-
gorithms used by the gait analysis system. In the second section, static noise from
both sensors is analyzed. The third and nal section describes how the new sensor
complies with the specication of requirements. New features of the new sensor
are also presented.

5.1 Quantization Noise

Theory indicating that 12-bit quantization is enough for this application was pre-
sented in Chapter 4. To verify this, three simulations comparing 12- and 16-bit
quantization precision were performed.

5.1.1 Test Procedure

To be able to easily verify test results, algorithms for calculating distance were
used. The distance used in the test was established by using measuring-tape. The
following step was letting a subject walk a given distance with one inertial sensor
attached to each foot. The subject started and nished with parallel feet. Data
collected during this procedure was saved to a le.

5.1.2 Data Conversion

16-bit data collected during the test procedure was converted to 12-bit and saved
to a separate le.

5.1.3 Algorithms
The nal step was performed by running selected algorithms on collected data.
The algorithms calculated covered distance for both 12- and 16-bit precision for

23
24 Results

each foot. An average covered distance by the right and the left foot was also
calculated. These results are presented in the following sections.

5.1.4 Simulations of 12- and 16-bit Precision

This section summarizes results from the performed simulations. Detailed infor-
mation regarding data used in this section can be found in Appendix A.

2.8 3.5

2.7
3

2.6

2.5
2.5
Error [%]

Error [%]
2.4 2

2.3
1.5

2.2

1
2.1
16−bit 16−bit
12−bit 12−bit
2 0.5
1 2 3 1 2 3
Simulation no. Simulation no.

(a) (b)
3

2.8

2.6
Error [%]

2.4

2.2

1.8
16−bit
12−bit
1.6
1 2 3
Simulation no.

(c)
Figure 5.1. Error in the calculated distance for the left (a) and the right (b) foot.
Average error is given in (c).

The resulting error of the calculated distance is shown in Figure 5.1. The dierence
between using 12- and 16-bit quantization is in the range of 0.1 percentage units,
which vindicates that 12-bit precision is sucient.

5.2 Static Noise

In this section, data generated by the old and new sensors is compared. Data was
collected while both sensors were exposed to the same reference force. A good
5.2 Static Noise 25

reference, which is constant for a specic location, is gravitation. The inuence

of the earth's rotation is considered small and is therefore neglected. Hence, a
resting sensor should give an acceleration component of 1 g and 0 ◦ /s around all
axes. With these reference points, it is possible to measure the deviation from the
correct values, referred to as Static Noise.
Due to hardware issues with the accelerometers, only test data from the gyroscopes
is presented.
Sometimes there are small dierences in performance between devices from the
same series. Therefore, data from two gyroscopes per sensor is presented.

5.2.1 Gyroscopes
Figure 5.2 shows output signals from two gyroscopes from the old sensor and two
from the new sensor .

10 10
ωx ωx
8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2
[°/s]

[°/s]

0 0

−2 −2

−4 −4

−6 −6

−8 −8

−10 −10
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Sample No Sample no.

(a) (b)
10 10
ωy ωy
8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2
[°/s]

[°/s]

0 0

−2 −2

−4 −4

−6 −6

−8 −8

−10 −10
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Sample No Sample no.

(c) (d)
Figure 5.2. Gyroscope representing ωx in the old sensor (a) and the new (b). Gyroscope
representing ωy in the old sensor (c) and the new (d).

The small peaks which appear in Figures 5.2a and 5.2c are not present in Figures
5.2b and 5.2d, because the new sensor was designed to minimize this undesired
characteristic.
26 Results

The static noise level in the new sensor, for the ωx axis , is approximately 1.149
dB lower than in the old sensor. For the ωy axis, the dierence is 4.2978 dB. This
corresponds to a reduction of approximately 30% and 50% respectively.
By studying the power spectral density (PSD) in Figures 5.3a and 5.3b, it is
conrmed that high frequency components are reduced in the new sensor.

2
Old Sensor
New Sensor

−2
Power Spectrum Magnitude (dB)

−4

−6

−8

−10

−12
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Frequency

(a)
5
Old Sensor
New Sensor

0
Power Spectrum Magnitude (dB)

−5

−10

−15

−20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Frequency

(b)
Figure 5.3. Power spectral density for ωx (a) and ωy (b).
5.3 Compliance with the Requirements 27

As shown in Figure 5.3a, the power of non DC components is approximately 2 to

6 dB lower in the new sensor. The PSD in Figure 5.3b shows that the level of high
frequency components in the new sensor are about 5 to 10 dB lower than in the
old.

5.3 Compliance with the Requirements

The new sensor complies with all the requirements described in the specication
of requirements (Section 3.2 of Chapter 3).
A description of how the new sensor fulls each requirement is provided in the
following sections. Each section begins with a résumé of the requirement in italics.

5.3.1 Signal Quality

Occasional high frequency components must be removed.
This problem was solved by rst selecting devices such that problems which occur
when mixing analogue and digital electronics (Section 2.3.2 of Chapter 2) could be
minimized. Extra precaution was then taken when routing the PCB, e.g. by sepa-
rating digital from analogue signal lines, using decoupling capacitors and applying
a solid ground plane.

5.3.2 Quantization Resolution

The signal on all six channels should be quantized with a resolution of minimum
12-bit.
This was done by selecting devices supporting 12-bit ADC.

5.3.3 Temperature Drift

It must be possible to compensate for drift caused by temperature variations.
This was solved by selecting devices with integrated temperature sensors. The
internal temperature for each device can be used to compensate for bias and sen-
sitivity variations.

5.3.4 Range of Measurement

The sensor should handle the following physical ranges:

• Acceleration of ±4g

• Angular speed of ±600◦ /s

Devices were selected and tuned such that the sensor was able to handle following
physical ranges:

• Acceleration of ±5g
28 Results

• Angular speed of ±600◦ /s

These ranges can be modied in a convenient way, either by changing the value of
a few passive components or by replacing the sensing devices with available pin-
out compatible devices. This would be useful in the event that future applications
have other requirements.

5.3.5 Bandwidth
The sensor should have a bandwidth of 100Hz on all channels.
Devices were selected and tuned to comply with this requirement. By replacing a
few passive components, it is possible to change the bandwidth.

5.3.6 Sample Frequency

The sensor should handle a sample frequency of minimum 500Hz.
The sample frequency is preset via software, available frequencies are in the range
of 60-512Hz.

5.4 Additional Features and Improvements

This section presents improvements and additional features, not presented in the
specication of requirements. The new features were implemented during the de-
velopment process after consultation with the sta at Hasomed GmbH. Improve-
ments were often desired side eects of dierent design decisions. The following is
a summary of improvements and new features:
• reduced power consumption
• integrated self-test
• PCB with fewer layers
• better sensor positioning
• rmware update via serial interface
• bus system
• wireless link
These are described in more detail below.

5.4.1 Reduced Power Consumption

Minimizing power consumption is very important since the gait analysis system
uses batteries as power supply. One of the measures taken to lower the power
consumption was to select a low-power micro controller. Furthermore, the quan-
tization precision was changed from 12- to 16-bit. How this aects the noise is
presented in Chapter 4.
5.4 Additional Features and Improvements 29

5.4.2 Internal Self-Test

After manufacturing a sensor it is useful to be able to test whether or not all MEMS
devices are ok. This can be done by using the self-test feature, implemented in
each selected MEMS device.

5.4.3 PCB with Fewer Layers

The new sensor consists of fewer components. This made it possible to reduce
the number of layers used by the PCB from four to two, the main benet being
cheaper production.

5.4.4 Firmware Update via Serial Interface

In order to update the rmware of the old sensor an extra cable needs to be
attached to the PCB. This method requires that the box containing the sensor is
opened. To avoid this, a feature allowing rmware to be updated via the serial
interface was implemented.
This feature enables update of the rmware after the gait analysis system has been
shipped to the customer. A complete rmware update of both the gait analysis
system and the inertial sensors is performed simply by connecting a memory device
to the gait analysis system.

5.4.5 Bus System

The old sensor use an interface which allows the gait analysis system to use a
maximum of two sensors at a time. To make the new interface more dynamic
a bus system was implemented. This system has a theoretical limitation of 256
units, however, the real limit is available bandwidth.

5.4.6 Wireless Link

Due to the compact PCB layout there was enough space to include a radio
transceiver with a small on-board antenna. This feature, which has the poten-
tial of replacing the cable connection, is very convenient since dealing with cables
is often time consuming. This was not fully implemented since a real wireless
connection requires an internal power cell as power supply.
30 Results
Chapter 6

Conclusion
Research and development presented in this thesis resulted in a sensor with good
performance and convenient features. In the following sections, the main dier-
ences between the old and new sensor are described.

6.1 Enhanced Performance

One of the main benets with the new sensor is the enhanced performance in
terms of noise reduction and quantization precision. The old sensor suers from a
relatively high static noise oor with occasional high frequency components. In the
new sensor, this noise is reduced by replacing external electronics with internal.
Quantization precision was changed from 16-bit to 12-bit. This does not introduce
additional noise, but lowers energy and bandwidth consumption.

6.2 Easier Manufacturing

Another major benet concerns the manufacturing procedure. By reducing the
number of passive components by approximately ten times, the time for soldering
and positioning is reduced. All devices used in the new sensor are possible to solder
with conventional methods. This means that advanced techniques for positioning
and distribution of soldering paste are not required. The number of PCB layers is
reduced to 2 compared with the old sensor's 4, which results in cheaper production.

6.3 New Features

A number of new features were implemented in the new sensor, including inte-
grated temperature sensors in all MEMS devices, self test feature in all MEMS
devices, a wireless link and rmware update via serial interface.

31
32 Conclusion

6.4 Future Work

There are many interesting areas that need further work.
• In order to lower the noise levels further, one possibility is to study required
bandwidth for each channel. By decreasing the bandwidth, unwanted noise
can be rejected.
• Calibration routines which take temperature data into account. By doing
this, noise and bias levels can be subjected to further trimming.
• Using the wireless feature of the inertial sensor requires an accumulator as
power supply. There are many interesting alternatives, such as supercaps,
goldcaps and regular high performance accumulators.
Bibliography
[1] Sten Benda. Interference-free electronics. Studentlitteratur, 1st edition, 1997.
ISBN 0-471-14448-7.
[2] Gunnar Blom. Sannolikhetsteori med tillämpningar. Studentlitteratur, 1st
edition, 1970.
[3] Jacob Fraden. Handbook of Modern Sensors. Springer Science, 3rd edition,
2004. ISBN 0-387-00750-4.
[4] Ulf Henriksson and Anders Lindman. Signalteori. Linus & Linnea AB, 1999.
[5] David Johns and Kan Martin. Analog Integrated Circuit Design. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., 1st edition, 1997. ISBN 0-471-14447-7.
[6] Jan G. Kornvik and Oliver Paul. MEMS: A practical guide to design, analysis
and applications. William Andrew Publishing, 1st edition, 2006. ISBN 0-8155-
1497-2.

[7] Nadim Maluf. An Introduction to Microelectromechanical Systems Engineer-

ing. Artech House, 1st edition, 2000. ISBN 0-89006-581-0.
[8] Bengt Molin. Analog Elektronik. Förlag Studentlitteratur AB, 1st edition,
2001. ISBN 91-44-01435-X.
[9] Carl Nordling and Jonny Österman. Physics Handbook for science and engi-
neering. Studentlitteratur, 6th edition, 1999. ISBN 91-44-00823-6.

[10] Sune Söderkvist and L.E Ahnell. Tidsdiskreta Signaler och System. Tryckeriet
Erik Larsson AB, 1994.
[11] Richard Wolfson and Jay M. Pasacho. Physics with modern physics. Harper-
CollinsCollegePublishers, 2nd edition, 1995. ISBN 0-06-501015-7.

33
34 Bibliography
Appendix A

Simulations
Results from each simulation are divided into three tables. The rst table, Table
A.Xa, holds the name and date of the measurement, used sample frequency and
distance measured with the measuring-tape. In the second table, Table A.Xb,
calculated distance as well as dierence between measured and calculated distance
for each foot is shown. The third and last table, Table A.Xc, shows an average of
both calculated distance and dierence between measured and calculated distance
for both feet.

A.1 Simulation 1
16-bit 12-bit
Measurement Anonymous1 Anonymous1_12bit
Date 2005-12-05 2005-12-05
Sample Frequency [Hz] 500 500
Length [m] 20 20
(a)
Left Right
16-bit 12-bit 16-bit 12-bit
Length [m] 20.5348 20.5211 20.2053 20.1646
Length Error [%] 2.6739 2.6057 1.0265 0.82292
(b)
16-bit 12-bit
Average Length [m] 20.37 20.3429
Error [%] 1.8502 1.7143
(c)
Table A.1. Simulation info (a); Error for each foot (b); Average error of both feet (c)

35
36 Simulations

A.2 Simulation 2
16-bit 12-bit
Measurement Anonymous2 Anonymous2_12bit
Date 2005-01-09 2005-01-09
Sample Frequency 500Hz 500Hz
Length 20.08m 20.08m
(a)
Left Right
16-bit 12-bit 16-bit 12-bit
Length [m] 20.5118 20.4949 20.7221 20.662
Length Error [%] 2.1506 2.066 3.1979 2.8984
(b)
16-bit 12-bit
Average Length 20.617 20.5784
Error [%] 2.6743 2.4822
(c)
Table A.2. Simulation info (a); Error for each foot (b); Average error of both feet (c)

A.3 Simulation 3
16-bit 12-bit
Measurement Anonymous1 Anonymous1_12bit
Date 2005-12-05 2005-12-05
Sample Frequency [Hz] 500 500
Length [m] 20 20
(a)
Left Right
16-bit 12-bit 16-bit 12-bit
Length [m] 20.5348 20.5211 20.2053 20.1646
Length Error [%] 2.6739 2.6057 1.0265 0.82292
(b)
16-bit 12-bit
Average Length [m] 20.37 20.3429
Error [%] 1.8502 1.7143
(c)
Table A.3. Simulation info (a); Error for each foot (b); Average error of both feet (c)
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