CHILDREN'S MEDIA CULTURE IN ENGLISH

1. Why can a 4-year old eco!e "r#$h%ened o" E.T.&

A four year old children can become frightened of E.T. because of his strange physical
appearence. Children bring less real-world knowledge and experience to the media
environment. They have the lack of real-world knowledge and that can make children more
willing to believe the information they receive.
'. Wha% are yo(n$ ch#ldren) older ch#ldren and adole*cen%* "r#$h%ened o" +h#le +a%ch#n$
T,& G#-e e.a!/le* "or each o" %he*e $ro(/*.
A) ounger children!"-# years)- they can be frightened by disorted characters! E.T.) and
animals !$ambi)
$) %lder children- they can be frightened by disorted characters and in&ouries ! all tipes of
horor movies)
C) Adolesens- They can be frightened by in&ouries and blood
0. Ho+ #* %he !ed#a en-#ro!en% %oday d#""eren% "ro! %he one "aced y o(r /aren%* and
$rand/aren%*&
Terms such as digital television, gangsta rap and World Wide Web did not even exist '" or ("
years ago. The advent of cable and satellite television has dramatically increased the number
of channels available in most homes today. )igital cable is multiplying this capacity. *any
homes are e+uiped with C) players, )-) players, modems and digital cameras. The T-
screen once provided a way to watch broadcast television and now is being used for online
shopping, video-on demand...
)igital technology today gives more realistic images and sounds and media is used far more
than in the past.
4. Wha% #* a 1%h#rd-/er*on-e"ec%2&
*ost adults believe that they personally are not affected much by the mass media. .n a well-
documented phenomenon called the /third-person-efect0 people routinely report that others
are more strongly influenced by the mass media than they themselves are. Adults percieve
that the younger the person is, the stronger the effect of media will be. .nterestingly, even
children endorse a kind of third-person effect, claiming that only /little kids0 imitate what
they see on T-.
3. Wha% are 4!ed#a /an#c*5& E.a!/le6
1anics that gain steam any time a public crisis occurs such as the massacre at Columbine 2igh
3chool or any time a new and unknown form of media technology is developed. *edia
features material that children are simply not yet ready to confront.
7. Wha% #* a 4!a$#c-+#ndo+ /er*/ec%#-e5 and +ho doe* #% a""ec%&
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.t is literal interpretation which reflects the idea that young children naively assume that
television provides a view of the real world. $y around age 4, the young child begins to
appreciate the representational nature of television but still tends to assume that anything that
looks real is real.
8. Who are hea-y %ele-#*#on -#e+er*&
Those who watch T- for more than 5 and a half hours a day.
9. Wha% do hea-y %ele-#*#on -#e+er* /erce#-e ao(% %he#r chance* o" e#n$ #n-ol-ed #n
-#olence and ao(% %r(*%#n$ o%her*& Why&
The research of 6erbner and his associates has shown that heavy television viewers perceive
the chances of being involved in violence as greater than light viewers do. They are also more
prone to believe that others cannot be trusted.
:. Wha% *y!/%o!* doe* %oo !(ch %ele-#*#on +a%ch#n$ /ro-o;e&
As the number of hours of television viewing per day increased, so did the prevalence of
symptoms of psychological trauma such as anxiety, depression and posttraumatic stress.
3imilarly, the amount of children7s television viewing !especially television viewing at
bedtime) and having a television in their own bedroom were significantly related to sleep
disturbances. Although these survey data cannot rule out the alternative explanation that
children experiencing trauma or sleep difficulties are more likely to turn to television for
distraction , they are consistent with the conclusion that the exposure to frightening and
disturbing images on television contributes to a child7s level of stress and anxiety.
1<. E.a!/le* o" %he #!/ac% o" +#%ne**#n$ *cary !ed#a e-en%.
An experimental study explored the impact of witnessing scary media events on the
subse+uent behavioral choices of children in kindergarten through fifth grade. .n this
experiment, exposure to dramati8ed depiction of a deadly house fire or a drowning increased
children7s self own lives. *ore important, these fictional depictions affected the children7s
preferences for normal, everyday activities that were related to the tragedies they had &ust
witnessed9 children who had seen a movie depicting a drowning expressed less willingness to
go canoeing than other children did: those who had seen the program about a house fire were
less eager to build a fire in a fireplace. Although the duration of such effects was not
measured, the effects were undoubtedly short-lived, especially because debriefings were
employed and safety guidelines were taught so that no child would experience long-term
distress.
11. Are %ho*e "ear* *hor% or lon$-la*%#n$& = E./la#n.
- anxiety, depression and posttraumatic stress, sleep disturbances - if T- is in children;s
bedrooms
-exposure to frightening and disturbing images on tv contributes to a child;s level of stress and
anxiety.
An experimental study explored the impact of witnessing scary media events on the
subse+uent behavioral choices of children in kindergarten through fifth grade. .n this
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experiment, exposure to dramati8ed depictions of a deadly house fire or a drowning increased
children;s fear. !self < own lives=)*ore important, these fictional deciption affected the
children;s preferences for normal, everyday activities that were related to the tragedies that
had &ust witnessed9 children who had seen a movie depicting a drowning expressed less
willingness to go canoeing that other children did: those who had seen the program about the
house fire were less eager to build a fire in a fireplace. Although the duration of such effects
was not measured, the effects were undoubtly *hor%-l#-ed, especially because debriefings
were employed and safety guidelines were taught so that no child would experience long-term
distress !Cantor and %mdahl, >???)
There is growing evidence, in fact that the fear induced by mass media exposure is often
intense a long- lasting, with something debilitating effects.
Adults < motion picture
4@A of the respondents !>?A of the total sample) had experience for a% lea*% %+o day*, a
;;significant stress reaction;; as a result of watching a movie. As for the effects reported, both
studies revealed variety of intense reactions. .n study, B>A reported a generalised fear of fire
floating anxiety after viewing, 4BA reported what they called ;;wild imagination;;, '?A
reported a specific fear !sharks, power tools, spiders) and more than '"A reported a variety of
sleep disturbances, including fear of sleeping alone, nightmares, insomnia, or needing to sleep
with the lights on.
*oreover, the third of those who reported having been frightened said that the fear effects had
lasted !ore %han a year.
3ome people who felt acute and disabling anxiety states enduring several days to several
weeks or more !some neccessitating hospitali8ation) are said to have been precipitated by the
viewing of horror movies such as The Exorcist, .nvasion of the $ody 3natchers and
6hostwatch.
1'. Wha% #* +#ld #!a$#na%#on&
Chen person is afraid of monster under the bad, or someone sneaking up on you.
10. Wha% #* %he ene"#% o" r#*;-%a;#n$ and *ee#n$ *cary #!a$e*&
There have been some arguments, particularly in the psychoanalitic literature that scary
images in the media reduce rather than increase anxieties by allowing children to confront
their real fears in a safe content. There are some limited cicumstances, however, when a
frightening media depiction might be effective in alleviating anxiety. This anxiety reducing
effect appears to occur only when the story induces no more than a mild level of fear and
when the outcome of the story reveals that the danger can be effectively counteracted.
14. Do ch#ldren eco!e le** a"ra#d o" *ee#n$ *cary #!a$e* +#%h a$e& E./la#n.
As children mature cognitively, some things become less likely to disturb them, whereas other
things become more upsetting. This generali8ation is consistent with developmental
differences in children;s fears in general. Children from approximately ( to @ years of age are
frightened primarly by animals, the dark, supernatural beingsand anything that looks strange
and moves suddenly. The fears of ? to >' years old;s are more often related to personal in&ury
and physical destruction and the in&ury and death of family members. Adolescent continue
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having these fears but they also have social fears.. A random survey of parents of children in
kindergarten, second, fourth and sixth grade showed that fear produced by fantasy programs
decreased as the child;s grade increased. -alkenburg also found a decrese in fright responses
to fantasy content between the ages of # and >'. As children mature they become frightened
by media depictions involving increasingly abstract concepts.
13. E./la#n "an%a*y -* real#%y a* "ear #nd(cer*>.
As children mature they become more responsive to realistic dangers and less responsive to
fantastic dangers depicted in the media. -ery young children are more likely to fear things
that are not real !such as monsters).
- Dear produced by fantasy programs decreased as the child7s grade increased whereas
fear induced by news stories increased with age.
17. E./la#n 5re*/on*e* %o a*%rac% %hrea%*>.
As children mature they become frightened by media depictions involving increasingly
abstract concepts. Children7s response to the television movie EThe )ay AfterF led to the
prediction that the youngest children would be the least affected by it. .n a random telephone
survey of parents conducted the night after the broadcast of this movie, children under >'
were reportedly much less disturbed by the film then were teenagers, and parents were the
most disturbed. As they mature children are increasingly responsive to abstract as opposed to
concrete aspects of frightening media. As the child7s age increased, the more abstract,
conceptual aspects of the coverage !e.g. the possibility of the conflict spreading) were cited by
parents as the most disturbing.
18. Wha% are no% co$n#%#-e and co$n#%#-e *%ra%e$#e* o" deal#n$ +#%h "ear& E.a!/le*6
G%T-C%6G.T.-E 3THATE6.E3- are those that do not involve the proccesing of verbal
information and appear to be relativetly automatic. The pprocess of visual desensiti8ation or
gradual exposure to threatening images in a non-threatining context.
EIA*1JE3-Kholding into a blanket or a toyK-Kgeting something to eat or drinkK !during
movie)
C%6G.T.-E 3THATE6.E3- involve verbal information that is used to cast the threat in a
different light. EIA*1JE-Ktell yourself it;s not realK -Kthis probable will not happen to youK
19.Who $e% !ore "r#$h%ened re$ard#n$ %he $ender&
This is a common stereotype that girl are more easly frightened than boys, and indeed females
in general are more emotional than males. the observed general difference seem to be partially
attributable to sociali8ation pressures on girls to express their fears and on boys to inhabit
them.
1:. Wha% can /aren%* do %o red(ce ch#ldren?* "ear /ro-o;ed y !ed#a&
>) The amount of time children spend watching television should be limited.
') 1arents should be especially concerned about childrenLs viewing before bedtime and
should not allow children to have a television in their bedroom.
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() 1arents sholud become aware of the content of the television programs and movies their
children see, by watching programs and movies beforehand, by ac+uiring whatever
information is available from television and movie ratings, by reading reviews and
program descriptions, and by watching programs with their children.
4) 1arents should monitor their own television viewing and reali8e that children may be
affected by programming that their parents watch even if they do not seem to be paying
attention.
5) 1arents should consider various available blocking technologies, such as the --chip,
which is now re+uired in all new television with a diagonal screen si8e of >( inches or
larger.
B) An awareness of the developmental trends in the stimuli that frighten children can help
parents make wiser choices about programming thet their children may safely view.
#) An understanding of the types of coping strategies for dealing with media-induced fears
can help parents reduce their childrenLs fears once they have been aroused.
'<. Wha% %y/e* o" *e.(al con%en% e.#*%&
Types of sexual content9
a) at scene level9 the type of sexual behavior !e.g., physical flirting, passionate kissing), the
type of talk about sex !e.g., comment about own or otherLs sexual actions or desires, talk
about previous sex, talk about sex crimes, talk toward sex): the degree of explicitness
!provokative dress, disrobing, discreet nudity, nudity): the age and relationship of the
characters involved in intercourse: and the presence or absence of alcohol andMor drugs.
b) at the pogram level9 sexual patience !i.e., abstaining from or waiting to have sex for moral,
emotional, or health-related reasons), sexual precaution !i.e., the use of or talk about
preventive measures to reduce the risk of sexulally transmitted diseases-3T)s), and sexual
risks andMor negative conse+uences !i.e., unwanted pregnancy, 3T)s, A.)3).
'1. De*cr#e %he a!o(n% and na%(re o" *e.(al con%en% #n /r#!e %#!e.
>) The amount of general sexual content in prime time has increased dramatically over time.
Dor example, 4(A of all shows aired during the Kfamily hourK in >?#B contained some form
of sexual content.
') Talk about sex is much more fre+uent in prime time than is sexual behavior !verbal
references to sex occurred twice as fre+uently in prime time as sexual behavior did).
() The physical act of intercourse is rarely portrayed explicitly on prime time. Chen it
appears, it is more verbally reffered to or implied than depicted !prikazan) on-screen.
4) Sexual behaviors usually occur between characters who are not married. 2eterosexual
intercourse !verbal, implied, physical) and erotic touching were more likely to be shown
between unmarried characters than married ones.
5) The possible life-threatening !2.-MA.)3) or life-altering !pregnancy) consequences of
sexual intercourses are seldom discussed or presented.
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''. De*cr#e %he a!o(n% and na%(re o" *e.(al con%en% #n *oa/ o/era*) !(*#c -#deo* an
!o-#e*.
SO! O!"#S
.n terms of sheer prevalence, soaps are filled with sexual content. @5A of soap operas on T-
featured some form of sexual content and almost half showed sexual behavior. The most
fre+uent types of sexual acts in soap operas are depictions !prikazi) involving unmarried
couples and long kisses. $ehaviors involving prostitution, petting and homosexuality are
depicted infre+uently in this genre. The amount of sexual acts per hour increased (5A
between >?@5 and >??4. 3exual behaviors were almost three times as likely.
$%S&' (&)"OS
3tudies reveal that music videos feature some form of sexual content. Dor exapmle, $axter
found that B"A of the music videos in their sample featured sexual content. 3herman and
)ominick found that #BA of >BB concept videos analy8ed featured some form of sexual
content, at a rate of 4.#@ sex acts per video. Context or way in which sexual content is
featured in music videos may contribute to negative effects. *ore than ( fourths !@>A) of
music videos featuring violence also contain sexual content, which heightens the risk of
desensiti8ation !desenzibilizaci*a). Comen are more likely to be shown wearing provocative
clothing, engaging in implicitly sexual behavior, and being targets of aggressive, explicit or
implicit sexual acts.
$O(&"S
%ne content analysis of popular H-rated films found an average og >#.5 sex acts and ?.@
instances of nudity per film. Demales were 4 times more likely to be shown nude than were
males. The most fre+uent type of sexual activity in H-rated films was intercourse among
unmarried characters. %f particular concern is adolescents; exposure to films featuring the
mixture of sex and violence.
'0. Doe* -e+#n$ *e.(al con%en% ha-e an #!/ac%&E./la#n.
( conclusions from researches9
teenagers are learning facts about sex from television and other media. These findings
suggest that many teenagers may be turning to the mass media because they do not get
enough information about seks at home or in school.
teenagersLattitudes toward coital behavior are influenced by exposure to sexual
content on television. -iewing scenes of pre- or extra-marital sex may be having a
negative effect on young viewersLattitudes and beliefs about early initiation of
intercourse.
Exposure to the mixture of seks and violence may be desensiti8ing young viewers.
3uch depictions may also be teaching male adolescents myths about rape and about
the victimes of sexual assault.
.t is also possible that exposure to seks on T- leads to increased acceptance of and
desire to engage in premarital intercourse
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'4.Wha% are concern* ao(% %he ne% re$ard#n$ *e.(al con%en%&
%f greatest concern is sexual content or exploitation targeting children. 3uch material ranges
from photographs to the Get e+uvalent of /phone sex0 . Adult websites that feature /hard
core0 sexual depictions are also of e+ual concern.
2ighly sophisticated search engines will allow acces to almost any sexual content to almost
everyone who knows how to use it.
3imilarity of web address codes also may lead to unwanted content. Dor example
www.whitehouse.com instead www.whitehouse.gov.
There are still no finished researches about this area but it is believed that informaton about
this will soon be available.
'3. Wha% *ho(ld %he /aren%* do %o con"ron% %he e""ec%* o" *e.(al con%en% #n %he !ed#a&
Dor parents is recommended the following9 $e aware of the potential risks associated with
viewing televised portrays of sex ! e.g. learning, cultivation). Consider the context of sexual
depictions in making viewing decisions for children. Consider a child;s developmental level
when making viewing decisions.
'7. Wha% #* %he !a@or d#""erence %oday co!/ared %o %ho*e concern* #n %he /a*% re$ard#n$
%echnolo$y&
The ma&or difference today, compared with those concerns in the past, is a technology that
children and adolescents are often more sophisticated in and knowledgeable about than their
parents. such resistance to the technology, combined with a limited knowledge base, will
make solutions to potential problems like easy access to sexual images even more difficult.
'8. Wha% are %he co!/onen%* o" %he In%erne%& E./la#n %he!.
.nternet is simply a vast group of computer networks linked around the world and it has a
number of various components familiar to most of us that have the ability to deliver sexual
massages9
E-mail for electronic communication in which phone numbers and photography can be
exchanged
$ulletin board system for posting the information
Chat rooms that can be used for real-time posting and conversation !ability to change
personal information)
The Corld Cide Ceb, which combines visual, sounds and text together in a manner
that allows linkages across many sites that are related to particular topics !can be
related to sex, pornographyN)
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'9. Wha% are %he !a@or concern* ao(% %he (*e o" In%erne%& Elaora%e.
The greatest concern is sexual content or exploitation targeting children. 3uch material ranges
from photos to the net e+uivalent of Ophone sex7 sometimes with a live video connection.
3ending sexual information over e-mail or posting on bulletin boards by those targeting
children has been a long time issue. E+ual concerns are adult web sites that feature Ohard core7
sexual depictions. Another concern is adolescents or children who simply click their mouse
and indicate they are of age and enter the adult site. There is a strong need for research this
area-usage , content and effects of .nternet access among children.

':. Wha% are *o!e o" %he *ol(%#on* %o In%erne% concern*&
There are three ma&or approaches. The first is government regulation restricting the content.
Cithin the Pnited 3tates, the Dirst Amendment protects offensive speech from censorship,
including sexually explicit materials. The P.3. courts have struck down most content
restrictions on books, maga8ines and films. There are exceptions such as QobscenityE, child
pornography and certain types of indecent material depending on time, place and manner of
the presentation.
The second is blocking technology, including blocking software and some form of rating
system. The development of software that is designed to block unwanted sites. This blocking
software can block known adult sites, for isntance, or any site containing predetermined
words such as sex, gambling and other unwanted content. $ut none of these blocking systems
are completely effective. The Ceb changges +uite rapidly, and software designed for today
may not be entirely appropriate tomorrow.
The third !and the most important) is media literacy for both parents and their children as to
the benefits and sometimes problems of the .nternet. The role of parents in working with their
children and becoming familiar with this technology is critical. Children can be taught
Qcritical viewing skillsE in their schools so that they learn to better interpret what they
encounter on the Ceb . Rparents should begin to monitor, supervise and participate in their
children s .nternet activities.
0<. Wha% are %he /o*#%#-e *#de* o" In%erne% (*e&
The .nternet is perhaps the greatest teaching tool we have ever encountered. There are
numerous Ceb sites that allow children and teens to explore the world and create art and
literature: there are Ceb sites that foster creativity: the .nternet can also be an effective
learning tool that can facililtate academic achievement: learning through group participation,
learning through fre+uent interaction and feedback: .nternet can be a positive component in
children s lives by enabling them to keep in touch with friends, family and others to form
communities with common interests.
01. De*cr#e %he de-elo/!en% o" elec%ron#c $a!e*.
The first electronic game was introduced about (" years ago. .n the early >?#"s adult
consumers became fascinated with the first arcade version of !ong, which was basically a
simple visual < motor exercise. 3oon home systems and cartridge games became available,
and electronic games became popular across all age groups. .n the early >?@"s consumers
became disenchanted with copycat games and sales dropped. The industry recovered in the
8
second half of >?@"s when special effects were improved, new game accessories were
available, and games with violent content were promoted. .n addition, the industry introduced
cross < media marketing, with game characters featured as action figures and in the movies.
At the same time, the children became targeted consumers. $eginning with $ortal +ombat,
violent games with ever more realistic graphics became an industry staple. .n recent years,
sales of electronic games have exceeded several billion dollars annually worldwide.
0'. Who /lay* !ore& Aoy* or $#rl*&
$oys play more than girls at all ages. !>???.)
00. Ho+ are $a!e* cla**#"#ed&
Cright et al. !'"">) designed a game-coding system for use in their national survey conducted
in >??#. Their categories were designed to reflect the types of mental and sensorimotor
activities re+uired of the player and include the following9
- educationalMinformative
- sports
- sensorimotor !including actionMarcade, fightingMshooting, drivingM racing)
- other vehicular simulations
- startegy ! including adventureMrole playing, war, strategic simulations, pu88leMgames)
- unknown !other content, unspecified games, platform only).
04. Who are 4h#$h-r#*;5 /layer* &
Any child, boy or girl, who typically plays more than ' hours each day and who demonstrates
an extreme negative reaction if play is limited should be considered at risk for negative impact
simply due to time displacement from other developmentally appropriate activities. 2igh risk
players are children who are considered at risk for negative impact. Another indicator of high-
risk status is a strong preference for violent games. Children with lower frustration tolerance
and high general irritability appear to be at above-average risk for at least short-term negative
impact, including unpleasant and uncooperative behavior, particularly after a prolonged
period of play. These children;s electronic game play should be limited to shorter intervals, no
more than (" to B" min wihout a significant break.
03. Wha% ha//en* d(r#n$ $a!e /lay#n$&
.t has been proposed that immersion in electric games may precipipate an AJTEHE) 3TATE
%D C%G3C.%P3GE33.
Chen positive this may be an example of the QflowE. DJ%C is a term used to describe the
intense feelings of en&oyment that occur when a balance between skill and challenge is
attained in an activity that is intrinsically rewarding.
13C2%J%6.CAJ A$3%H1T.%G is altered state of conscious when one becomes totally
immersed in the present experience. This experience includes daydreaming and fantasi8ing.
2.62CA 21G%3.3-phenomenon for adults-the state in which a driver may travel for
some distance and then suddenly becomes aware that heMshe has not been paying any attention
to the typical demands of driving.
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Chen an individual becomes psychologicaly absorbed the logical integration of thoughts,
feelings and experiences is suspended.
6ame playing may produce either a flow state or psychological absorption.
07. Why #* -#olence a//eal#n$&
.ndustry spokesman often cite catharsis or tension release as a benefit of exposure to many
forms of violent media, but this claim has been disproven in a si8able body of research.
%thers suggest that rating actually enhance the appeal of violent media !Qforbidden fruit,
explanation).
Dor childern it is more likely that violence is more appealing for different reasons. 1ersonal
history seems to be a key variable with callous children who have been over exposed to
violence looking for continuing arousal, whereas anxious and emotionally reactive children
are trying to master anxiety-provoking experiences.
At this point pessonal history of exposure to violence and the abilitiy to become absorbed and
achieve a flow state seem to be promising variables for future study.
08. Wha% are *hor%-%er!ed e""ec%* and +ha% are lon$-%er!ed e""ec%* o" /lay#n$ -#olen%
elec%ron#c $a!e*. E./la#n.
3hort-term effects are the immediate results of a specific game-playing experience,either
observable behavioral change or change in some specific aspect of thinking.
Jong-term effects are determined by examining relationships between certain behaviors,
personality characteristics or cognitions, and game-playing habits, such as a preference for
violent games.
Short-termed effects are9 more aggression toward ob&ects, imitation of the moves of game
characters. 1laying a violent electronic game caused an immediate increase in aggressive
behavior in younger children and they are more likely to attribute negative intent to the
actions of others. .t can also lead to the development of a hostile attribution bias, which could
lead to aggressive behavior. Dor example, when a child with a hostile attribution bias is
pushed accidentally on the playground, that child is more likely to push back because he will
view the accidental push as an intentionally negative action. Heslults of recent research on the
short-term effects of playing a violent e. game on children and adolescents are mixed. .n some
cases, short-term negative impact is clearly identified. .n other cases, there is a complex
relationship between preexisting characteristics and response to the game. Although causal
relationships can be studied in the laboratory, this setting cannot take into consideration all the
potential mediating and moderating variables that may be active in the real world.
-ong-term effects. Children with a strong preference for violent games rated themselves lower
in one or more of the following areas9 academic competence, behavioral conduct, social
acceptance, athletic competence and self.esteem. Also those adolescents whose favorite game
was violent had lower scores on a measure of trust empathy. 1laying violent games is likely to
increase aggressive behavior,thoughts,and feelings and decrease prosocial behavior. 3ome
authors consider that high fre+uency video game players are at increased risk for the
development of pathological gambling habits and other addictions.
09. Wha% are heal%h r#*;* o" /lay#n$ elec%ron#c $a!e*&
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3ince electronic games first became popular, there have been various case reports of minor
negative health impact,primarily temporary musculoskeletal in&ury. There is one report of a
possible syndrome associated with playing computer games for long periods of time ! '-5
hours per day). This syndrome consists of headache, abdominal pain, tiredness, poor eating,
weight loss, nausea, low-grade fever, chest pain, and sweating of unknown origin. According
to the authors, all >? patients; symptoms completely disappeared within > week on
discontinuation of game play. Dor a small group of players, an increased risk of sei8ures has
been identified. .n a larger group, health risks associated with cardiovascular reactivity and
sedentary behavior have been proposed.
0:. Wha% #* "ree read#n$&
Dree reading after educator 3tephen Srashen;s definition9 when children choose their own
reading for the purpose of pleasure rather than to produce a book report or to answer specific
+uestions.
4<. Wha% do ch#ldren l#;e %o read %he !o*%&
The most preferred materials were scary stories and books, comics, maga8ines about popular
culture, and books and maga8ines about sports.
3econdary preferences included books about animals, drawing books, and, for boys, books
about cars.
The most fre+uent source for books and maga8ines was bookstores, rather than school
libraries.
As children mature into &unior high school years, both boys and girls begin to read mysteries,
and girls become increasingly attracted to preadolescent romance novels.
41. Wha% %y/e o" !a$aB#ne* do $#rl* l#;e %o read and +ha% %y/e do oy* l#;e&
Top five maga8ines for boys are .amepro, /intendo !o0er, "lectronic .aming $onthly, and
Sports &llustrated for +inds, and Sport1
.n a category of boy7s reading there is a utilitarian dimension of free reading. All of the first
three titles are designed to make the reader a better player and the last two offer advice in
sports.Dor girls the best sellers are Teen 2eat, Super Teen, Teen, ll bout 3ou and T0ist.
6irls7 maga8ines are more homogenous in that they offer about teenage celebrities, makeup
and dating tips and advice from the perspective of popular psychology.
4'. Wha% are Man$a and An#!e& G#-e e.a!/le*.
Man$a - contemporary Tapanese comics
An#!e - animated versions of manga stories
*anga portray a more complex and realistic view of life. .n manga, the death of a ma&or
character is fre+uently portrayed. *anga portray adults at work, using high-tech computer and
communication technologies. Characters have a Esecret lifeF where friend and foes help them
to defeat foes. Pnlike American superheroes, manga characters make errors and learn from
their mistakes: they grow morally and intellectually as stories develop. They are designed to
finish with character get married, going off to college or dying.
Examples9 !okemon, )igimon, 3u-.i-Oh, Transformers, Speed #acerN
11
40. Wha% #* %he d#""erence e%+een A!er#can and Ca/ane*e co!#c*&
The ma&or difference between Tapanese and American comics is that manga portray a more
complex and realistic view of life. .n manga, the death of a ma&or character is fre+uently
portrayed, whereas in American comics the topic is typically avoided.
*anga often portray adults at work, using high-tech computers and communication
technologies, an area of life that is nearly invisible in American comics. The people !generally
not superheroes) who populate manga work, go to school and interact with their parents.
Characters also have a Esecret lifeF where friends and robots help them to defeat foes. Does
are not necessarily depicted as the embodiment of evil: enemies of manga characters have
complex motives pursuing rational goals. Pnlike American superheroes manga characters
make errors and learn from their mistakes: they grow morally and intellectually as stories
develop. .8awa believes that the EeverydaynessF of manga may be a liberating factor in
readers7 identification with characters and events. Dinally, unlike American superhero comics,
manga stories deliberately end. They are designed to finish with a character getting married,
going off to college or even dying.
44. Wha% are %he ;ey ele!en%* o" !y%h#c or hero#c *%ory&
*ythic heroes must respond to a call to adventure and cross thresholds, often overcoming a
guardian. Cith the help of assistants, they overcome a series of tests leading to the supreme
ordeal to achieve a reward. Then they make a return &ourney and a reemergence in their now
peaceful everyday world. !There are signs of this mythic pattern in a comic series like
3uperman)
43. Ho+ doe* %ele-#*#on -#e+#n$ Dhea-y -#e+er*E a""ec% ch#ldren'* read#n$ *;#ll*&
Early investigations, when television was new, indicated little or no relationship between the
two activities. Contemporary critics point out the fallacy of inffernig the behavior of modern
children from early correlational research. Chen chlidren;s television is removed or
decreased, reading increases, so it is tempting to extend the conclusion to a T--detracts.form-
reading hypothesis. %ne investigation of students in grades ( to 5 found a relationship
between T- viewing and reading9 Time spent reading was inversely correlated with the
viewing of aggresive Tv programs, and the number of books read was inversely correlated
with viewing of game shows. The authors interpret their results as evidence for television;s
displacing some of the exciting and amusing aspects of books. .n more recent research there si
accumulating evidence for the decline of reading ability as a function of T- viewing. .n the
only published meta-analysis television viewing was negatively correlated with reading
ability and other dimensions of academic achievement, and the magnitude of the correlation
rises sharply after '" hours per week of viewing. A review of more than ( decades of research
also found a consistent negative relationship and concludes that viewing more than ( hours
per day may be the critical peak in the decline of reading ability. .n a longitudinal study of
parent-child communication and its implications for media use, preschool children who were
heavy viewers of television were less capable readers than lighter viewers by first grade.
Television may nfluence the kind of reading that children prefer, not only the amount.
*organ found that young adolescents who are heavy viewers of television prefer reading that
12
resembles television content !i.e. stories about love and romance, with teenage themes,...).
Jighter viewers chose fiction and poetry for free reading, and they selected more overall
categories of reading that did their heavy-viewing counterparts.
47. Wha% are %he %y/e* o" #!a$#na%#on&
1E I!a$#na%#-e /lay !fantasy play, pretend play) can be defined as play in which children
transcend the constraints of reality by acting Eas ifE. .n it, children pretend that they are
someone else, that an ob&ect represents something else or that the participants are in a
different place and time. Children who exhibit a great deal of imagination in their play are
better able to concentrate, develop greater empathic ability, and are better able to consider a
sub&ect form different angles. They are happier, more selfassured and more flexible in
unfamiliar situations. There are indications that a high level of imagination in childhood is
positively related to creativity in adulthood. Children;s imaginative play is ibfluenced by
environmental and developmental factors. .t has been suggested that the Eas ifE nature of
imaginative play helps the child in breaking free of established associations or meanings and
thereby encourages children;s creativity in the long term.
'E Daydrea!#n$ !or fantasi8ing) refers to mental processes such as musing, mind wandering,
internal monologue, and being lost in thought. )aydreaming is a state of consciousness
characteri8ed by a shift of attention. .nstead of focusing on external stimulation or on a
physical or mental task, the child;s attention turns to thoughts and images that are based in
memory.
0E Crea%#-#%y !or creative imagination) is defined as the capacity to generate many different
novel unusual ideas. Creativity seems to start around 5 or B years of age. 3ome researches
believe that younger children cannot be cretaive because they ae unable to differentiate outer
stiumuli from the internal experience of the stimuli. )aydreaming and creativity overlap to
some extent. $oth types of imagination re+uire the generation of ideas, and, in both activities,
associative thinking plays a role.
48. Ho+ doe* %ele-#*#on -#e+#n$ e""ec% ch#ld'* #!a$#na%#on& E./la#n o%h $ood and ad
*#de*.
Television viewing is believed to produce a passive intellect and to reduce imaginative
capacities. %n the other hand, there has been enthusiasm about educational television viewing
fostering children;s crreative thinking skills. Children use television content in their
imaginative play and creative products. Children who exhibit a great deal of imagination in
their play are better able to concentrate and are better able to consider a sub&ect from different
angles. They are happier and more flexible in unfamiliar situations. 2igh level of imagination
play in childhood is positively related to creativity in adulthood. Television viewing also has
bad effect on child;s imagionation because of presence of violence in many programs,
moviesN
49. Wha% #* %he e*% +ay %o learn a lan$(a$e& In +ha% +ay doe* T, hel/ ch#ldren %o
learn a lan$(a$e&
Janguage is best learned through conversations carried out between interacting people, one of
whom is the language learned himself or herself. oung children fre+uently are active
13
participants as they watch television < and those studed rarely watch alone.T- influences on
grammatical development and lexical development !children can learn about words and their
meanings). This is considered when we are talking about effects of educational Tv programs.
4:. Wha% #* -#$#lance& Wha% are %he "ac%or* #n-ol-ed #n -#$#lance&
,#$#lan% !n) - argus-eyed9 carefully observant or attentive: on the lookout for possible danger:
factors involved in vigilance9
viewer related factors9 gender, temperament and personality, intelligence, age:
programing-related factors9 content features of programming, emotionally negative
and positive content:
situational factors9
3<. Wha% #* a ,-ch#/&
,-ch#/ is a generic term used for television receivers allowing the blocking of programs
based on their ratings category
31. Wha% #* %he 0-ho(r r(le&
A second regulation re+uries commercial broadcasters to Qserve the educational and
informational needs of childrenE by offering a minimum of ( hours a week of educational
television and identifying educational programs on the air. To count toward the ( hour,
programs must air between the hours of #9"" A.*. and >"9oo 1.*., must have Qeducational as
a significant purposeE, and must be specifically designed for children. $roadcast may air
somewhat less than ( hours a week, but they must then submit to a full licence review and
provide evidence that they are serving the child audience in other ways. 1rogrammers began
airing ( hours a week of educational and informational programming beginning in the >??#-
>??@ season.
3'. Wha% are *o!e o" %he /ro*oc#al e""ec%* o" %ele-#*#on&
%ver the years, public and scholary attention has focused on the accumulation of evidence
that television contributes to violence and hostility. The possibility that television viewing
may also foster friendly, prosocial interactions has recived less attention. As we have ar+ued
elsewhere there is no unherent reason why television viewing should have only negative
effects. After all, most negative effects of viewing are explained by two basic mechanisms.
%ne is that we leran by observation how to do things and whether it is appropriate to do them.
The second is that we have emotional responses while watching television that effect our
responses to similar real-world events. As Hushton !>?#?) pointed out, both of these
mechanisms are relevant to the viewing of prosocial material as well. .n fact, Hushton
suggested that prosocial content could potentially have stronger effects on viewers than
antisocial content because prosocial behaviors are more in accord with established social
norms. .ndividuals who respond with aggression to friendly overtures or to re+uests for help
14
are less likely to be rewarded by others members of society than are those who respond more
positively.
30. Wha% are 0 !ayor e.a!/le* o" /ro*oc#al /ro$ra!!#n$& E./la#n #n +ha% +ay do
%he*e /ro$ra!* hel/ ch#ldren&
>. 3esame 3treet - .n its original conception, the program emphasi8ed certain cognitive
skills that would provide the basis for school curriculum such as knowledge of letters and
numbers. $ankart and Anderson also studied children7s aggression levels during free play and
reported that four episodes of 3esame 3treet shown over a 4-day period significantly reduced
boys7 and girls7 aggression.
'. *ister Hogers7 Geighborhood
3ocial and affective messages are the primary focus of *ister Hogers7 Geighborhood.
Children who watched that showed several positive changes. they persisted longer on tasks,
were more likely to obey rules and were more likely to delay gratification without protest. .n
all ( of these studies *r. Hogers did have some positive effects but the effects were much
stronger when viewing was accompanied by activities designed to explicitly teach the types of
behaviors modeled in the program.
(. $arney U Driends
$arney is a purple dinosaur who comes to the aid of a sprightly set of multicultural children.
.t is most notable for the absence of conflict, the emphasis on cooperation and the expression
of positive affect. Children showed the strongest gains when viewing was combined with
follow-up lessons, moderate gains from viewing without the lessons and negligible gains &ust
from the lessons. $arney U Driends emphasi8es positive affect and positive interaction.
2appy children hug and sway on-screen, singing the E. Jove ou, ou Jove *eF song.
34. Fo( ha-e %o do #% y yo(r*el"6
33. Wha% #* %he !o*% *#$n#"#can% chan$e #n "a!#ly l#"e re$ard#n$ %ele-#*#on -#e+#n$ #n %he
ho(*e&
%bservations in the early >?5";s held that the television set fro8e the natural order of family
interaction < talking, &oking, arguing, catching up on the disparate experiences of each family
member. Chen the T- is on, there is Emore privati8ation of experience: the family may
gather around the set but they remain isolated in their attention to it.E The sociali8ing role of
the family had been supplanted by the mass media, advertisers and celebrities. Chen
2olmanUTac+uart indicated tham marriages might stay stronger if spouses were involved in
lisure-time activities, thereby increasing interpersonal communication rather than +uickly
watching T-, the popular press +uickly declared that less television was a key to improved
marriages and stable families.
37. Wha% are ar$(!en%* %ha% *ho+ %ha% %ele-#*#on -#e+#n$ r#n$* "a!#ly !e!er*
%o$e%her and +ha% are ar$(!en%* a$a#n*% #%&
Television also brings families together. Television;s unifying effect on the family was
observed as early as >?4?: the medium acted as a catalyst in bridging generational gaps.
Among those who wished to increase contact with the family, television use of other media.
15
%ther schools who have pointed out that greater family solidarity may be achieved via
television-induced interaction and conversation include $rady, 3toneman U 3auders. As
Coffin argued in >?55, television viewing can often do both. Television can be Ecredited with
increasing the family;s fund of common experience and shared interests and blamed for
decreasing conversation and face-to-face interaction. .ndeed Hosenblatt and Cunningham
suggested that television viewing can also serve as a means to avoiding tense interaction in
crowded homes where conflict avoidance through spatial separation is imposible. %ne cannot
really separate the chicken from the egg, and the assumptions of clean cause-effect
relationships are &ust that, assumptions. Television brings family members together as there is
that it reads them apart. *ore time spent viewing is correlated with more time spent viewing
with the family. As a result a lot of content particularly through the first two decades of the
medium;s history in the P3, is articulated particularly well with conversational family
interestd and values. Adolescents who watch more television report feeling better during time
spent with the family and better with friends.
38. Wha% e-en%* and /er*on* !ade %he !o*% no%ale *h#"%* #n %he 1:3<'* and 1:7<'*
!ed#a& Ho+ d#d %he !ed#a ca/#%al#Be on %ha%&
Drom a family perspective, the most notable shifts in the >?5"s and >?B"s media were the rise
of rock ;n; roll < still the art form of choice for adolescents as they begin to rebel and make
their break from identifying with the family to the peer group < and youth culture movie stars
as *arlon $rando and Tames )ean, whose films chronicled youth angst, delin+uency, and,
notably, significant problems of the family unit. .n >?5"s America, the film industry, even in
the wake of 3enator *cCarthy;s attacks, no longer needed to churn out only optimistic visions
of the American way of life, as they had done in a time of war.
39. Wha% #* %he d#""erence #n *ho+#n$ a %y/#cal "a!#ly #n T- *ho+* #n %he 1:3<'* and
%oday&
.n the >?5"s, T- showed an ideal world to which, it was incorrectly assumed, everyone
inspired. Damilies were together !almost exclusively white), they loved each other, they lived
in safe neighborhoods, and kids, and kids could count on adults to help them through trials
and tribulations of adolescence. $ut not only were those images something very difficult to
live up to, they were also often unrealistic and overly sentimental. Television producers
increasingly dispel the myths of middle.American perfection, as well asthe myth of a singular
desirable way of life. .n the postmodern television landscape, the chaos of the world is
depicted more fre+uently in the medium;s fictional offerings. The once-sacred nuclear family;s
role as a haven against the threats and disorder of the world is +uestioned and alternatives are
sometimes considered.
Although the image of the family has changed on T- the industry;s reliance on the family in
programs and plots and on family viewership and patronage of advertised goods has not. Got
all T- genres can easily accomodate families or family themes. 1olice or action-adventure
shows, for example, glorify single males and bachelorhood. .n police dramas, single life is
preferred, with fewer than one out of five ma&or characters being married. Jiving the single
life in this genre has the advantage over marriage and domesticity. 3ingle men on television
16
are more effective and powerful. 3ituations comedies and soap operas are the perfect vehicles
to deal with the family, and it is hard to imagine these genres without family life in the center.
3:. !('@.str)
a.E Wha% are *#%co!* "a!#ly *ho+*&
A situation comedy, usually referred to as a *#%co!, is a genre of comedy programs which
originated in radio. Today, sitcoms are found almost exclusively on television as one of its
dominant narrative forms.
3itcoms usually consist of recurring characters in a common environment such as a home,
living room and kitchen or workplace and generally include laugh tracks or studio audiences.
The sitcome world is one in which the most disturbing behaviors of contemporary society,
and the rest of T- world- murder, rape, domestic violence and child abuse < )% G%T TASE
1JACE. The internal world of a family sitcome is one of the most desirable places one could
hope to inhabit.
.E Wha% are %y/e* o" *#%co!*& D0':. *%r.E
3pecific categories by Chesebro and 3teendlan)9
>.) The childless couples4
communal families
geriatric families
unmarried men
and woman
'.) s parents4
aggregate and EblendedF families
7<. Wh#ch %+o %y/e* o" !(*#c are !o*% %he /role!a%#c "or /aren%* & Why&
%f all types of music that teenagers listen to, heavy metal and rap music have elicited the
greatest concern: they seem to pride themselves in explicit and sexually violent themes. %ne
study showed that heavy metal fans had more thoughts of suicide. Hap music- At times, it7s
angry and violent, hard <core rap music is now driven almost exclusively by sex, violence and
materialism.
71. Wh#ch $ro(/ l#*%en* %o !(*#c !ore %han +a%che* T,& Wha% are *o!e o" %he !o%#-e*
"or l#*%en#n$ %o !(*#c&
Adolescents during mid-to-late adolescence.
Koung peopleK use music to resist authority at all levels, assert their personalities, develop
peer relationship and romantic entanglements, and learn about things that their parents and
schools are not telling them.
Adolescents like rock music because relaxation and mood regulation, social!partying, talking
to friends, playing), silence filling!background noise, relief from boredom),
expressive!identification with a particular sound, lyrics or musical group), sociali8ation.
7'. De*cr#e an a-era$e MT, !(*#c -#deo ne+ day*.
17
*usic videos now days contain more violence, guns, sex, alcohol, drugs, cigarettes and
profanity. The main issue of a lot videos are sex and sexuality.
18