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PROFESSOR: Thermodynamics,
all right, let's start.
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Thermodynamics is the science
of the flow of heat.
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So, thermo is heat, and
dynamics is the motion of heat.
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Thermodynamics was developed
largely beginning in the

13
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1800's, at the time of the
Industrial Revolution.
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So, taming of steel.
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The beginning of generating
power by burning fossil fuels.
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The beginning of the problems
with CO2 and [NOISE OBSCURES]
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global warming.
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In fact, it's interesting to
note that the first calculation
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on the impact of CO2 on climate
was done in the late
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1800's by Arrhenius.
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Beginning of a generation of
power moving heat from fossil
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fuels to generating energy,
locomotives, etcetera.
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So, he calculated what would
happen to this burning of
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fossil fuels, and he decided in
his calculation, he basically

25
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got the calculation right, by
the way, but he came out that
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in 2,000 years from the time
that he did the calculations,
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humans would be in trouble.
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Well, since his calculation,
we've had an exponential growth
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in the amount of CO2, and if
you go through the calculations
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of -- people have done these
calculations throughout times
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since Arrhenius, the time that
we're in trouble, 2,000 years
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and the calculation, has
gone like this, and so now
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we're really in trouble.
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That's for a different lecture.
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So, anyway, thermodynamics
dates from the same period
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as getting fossil fuels
out of the ground.

37
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It's universal.
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It turns out everything around
us moves energy around
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in one way or the other.
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If you're a biological
system, you're burning
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calories, burning ATP.
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You're creating heat.
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If you're a
warm-blooded animal.
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You need energy to move your
arms around and move around -45
00:02:37 --> 00:02:41
mechanical systems, obviously,
cars, boats, etcetera.
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And even in astrophysics, when
you talk about stars, black
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holes, etcetera, you're
moving energy around.
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You're moving heat around
when you're changing matter

49
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through thermodynamics.
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And the cause of some
thermodynamics have even been
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applied to economics, systems
out of equilibrium, like big
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companies like Enron, you
know, completely out of
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equilibrium, crash and burn.
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You can apply non-equilibrium
thermodynamics to economics.
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It was developed before people
knew about atoms and molecules.
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So it's a science that's
based on macroscopic
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properties of matter.
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Since then, since we know about
atoms and molecules now, we
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can rationalize the concepts
of thermodynmamics using
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microscopic properties, and if
you are going to take 5.62,

61
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that's what you'd learn about.
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You'd learn about statistical
mechanics, and how the
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atomistic concepts
rationalize thermodynamics.
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It doesn't prove it, but it
helps to getting more intuition
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about the consequences
of thermodynamics.
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So it applies to macroscopic
systems that are in
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equilibrium, and how to go from
one equilibrium state to
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another equilibrium state, and
it's entirely empirical
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in its foundation.
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People have done experiments
through the ages, and they've
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accumulated the knowledge from
these experiments, and they've
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synthesized these experiments
into a few basic empirical

73
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rules, empirical laws, which
are the laws of thermodynamics.
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And then they've taken these
laws and added a structure of
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math upon it, to build this
edifice, which is a very solid
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edifice of thermodynamics as a
science of equilibrium systems.
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So these empirical observations
then are summarized
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into four laws.
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So, these laws are,
they're really depillars.
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They're not proven, but
they're not wrong.
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They're very unlikely
to be wrong.
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Let's just go through these
laws, OK, very quickly.
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There's a zeroth law The zeroth
law every one of these laws
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basically defines the quantity
in thermodynamics and then

85
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defines the concept.
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The zeroth law
defines temperature.
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That's a fairly common-sense
idea, but it's important to
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define it, and I call that
the common-sense law.
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So this is the
common-sense law.
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The first law ends up defining
energy, which we're going to
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call u, and the concept of
energy conservation, energy
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can't be lost or gained.
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And I'm going to call this
the you can break even law;
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you can break even law.
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You don't lose energy,
you can't gain energy.
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You break even.

97
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The second law is going to
define entropy, and is going to
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tell us about the direction
of time, something that
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conceptually we, clearly,
understand, but is going to put
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a mathematical foundation
on which way does time go.
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Clearly, if I take a chalk like
this one here, and I throw it
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on the ground, and it breaks
in little pieces, if I run
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the movie backwards, that
doesn't make sense, right?
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We have a concept of time going
forward in a particular way.
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How does entropy play into
that concept of time?
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And I'm going to call this
the you can break even at
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zero degrees Kelvin law.
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You can only do it at
zero degrees Kelvin.

109
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The third law is going to give
a numerical value to the
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entropy, and the third law is
going to be the depressing one,
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and it's going to say, you
can't get to zero degrees.
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These laws are
universally valid.
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They cannot be circumvented.
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Certainly people have tried to
do that, and every year there's
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a newspaper story, Wall Street
Journal, or New York Times
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about somebody that has
invented the device that
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00:07:42 --> 00:07:46
somehow goes around the second
law and makes more energy than
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it creates, and this is going
to be -- well, first of all,
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for the investors this is going
to make them very, very rich,
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and for the rest of us, it's
going to be wonderful.

121
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And they go through these
arguments, and they find
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venture money to fund the
company, and they get
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very famous people to
endorse them, etcetera.
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But you guys know, because you
have MIT degrees, and you've,
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later, and you've taken 5.60,
that can't be the case, and
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you're not going to get
fooled into investing money
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into these companies.
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But it's amazing, that every
year you find somebody coming
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up with a way of going around
the second law and somehow
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convincing people who are very
smart that this will work.
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00:08:36 --> 00:08:39
So, thermo is also a big
tease, as you can see
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from my descriptions
of these laws here.

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It makes you believe,
initially, in the feasibility
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of perfect efficiency.
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The first law is very upbeat.
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It talks about the
conservation of energy.
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Energy is conserved
in all of its forms.
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You can take heat energy and
convert it to work energy and
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vice versa, and it doesn't say
anything about that you have
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00:09:08 --> 00:09:11
to waste heat if you're going
to transform heat into work.
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It just says it's energy.
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It's all the same thing, right?
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So, you could break even if you
were very clever about it,
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and that's pretty neat.

145
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So, in a sense, it says, you
know, if you wanted to build a
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boat that took energy out of
the warmth of the air, to sail
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around the world,
you can do that.
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And then the second law
comes in and says well,
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that's not quite right.
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The second law says, yes,
energy is pretty much the same
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in all this form, but if you
want to convert one form of
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energy into another, if you
want to convert work, heat into
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work, with 100% efficiency,
you've got to go down to zero
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degrees Kelvin, to absolute
zero if you want to do that.
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Otherwise you're going to waste
some of that heat somewhere
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00:10:01 --> 00:10:04
along the way, some
of that energy.

157
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All right, so you can't get
perfect efficiency, but at
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00:10:06 --> 00:10:09
least if you were able to go
to zero degrees Kelvin,
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00:10:09 --> 00:10:11
then you'd be all set.
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You just got to find a good
refrigerator on your boat,
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and then you can still
go around the world.
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And then the third law
comes in, and that's the
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depressing part here.
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It says, well, it's true.
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If you could get to zero
degrees Kelvin, you'd get
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perfect efficiency, but you
can't get to zero degrees
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Kelvin, you can't.
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Even if you have an infinite
amount of resources,

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you can't get there.
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Any questions so far?
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So thermodynamics, based on
these four laws now, requires
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an edifice, and it's a very
mature science, and it
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requires that we define
things carefully.
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So we're going to spend a
little bit of time making sure
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we define our concepts and our
words, and what you'll find
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that when you do problem sets,
especially at the beginning,
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understanding the words and the
conditions of the problem sets
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is most of the way into
solving the problem.
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So we're going to talk
about things like systems.
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The system, it's that part
of the universe that

181
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we're studying.
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These are going to be fairly
common-sense definitions, but
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they're important, and when you
get to a problem set, really
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nailing down what the system
is, not more, nor less, in
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terms of the amount of stuff,
that's part of the system, it's
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going to be often very crucial.
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So you've got the system.
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For instance, it
could be a person.
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I am the system.
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I could be a system.
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It could be a hot
coffee in a thermos.
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So the coffee and the milk and
whatever else you like in your

193
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coffee would be the system.
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It could be a glass of
water with ice in it.
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That's a fine system.
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Volume of air in a
part of a room.
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Take four liters on this
corner of the room.
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That's my system.
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Then, after you define what
your system is, whatever is
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left over of the universe
is the surroundings.
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So, if I'm the system,
then everything else
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is the surroundings.
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You are my surroundings.
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Saturn is my surroundings.

205
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As far as you can go in
the universe, that's part
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of the surroundings.
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And then between the system
and the surroundings
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is the boundary.
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And the boundary is a surface
that's real, like the outsides
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of my skin, or the inner wall
of the thermos that has the
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coffee in it, or it could
be an imaginary boundary.
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00:13:06 --> 00:13:09
For instance, I can imagine
that there is a boundary that
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00:13:09 --> 00:13:12
surrounds the four liters of
air that's sitting in
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the corner there.
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It doesn't have to be a real
container to contain it.
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It's just an imaginary
boundary there.

217
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And where you place that
boundary becomes important.
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So, for instance, for the
thermos with the coffee in it,
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if you place the boundary in
the inside wall of the glass or
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the outside wall of the glass
and the inside of the thermos,
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that makes a difference;
different heat
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capacity, etcetera.
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So this becomes where
defining the system and the
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boundaries, and everything
becomes important.
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You've got to place the
boundary at exactly the right
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place, otherwise you've got a
bit too much in your system
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or a bit too little.
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More definitions.

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The system can be an open
system, or it can be a closed
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system, or it can be isolated.
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The definitions are
also important here.
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An open system, as the name
describes, allows mass and
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energy to freely flow
through the boundary.
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Mass and energy flow
through boundary.
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Mass and energy -- I'm
an open system, right?
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Water vapor goes
through my skin.
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I'm hot, compared to the air
of the room, or cold if
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I'm somewhere that's warm.
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So energy can go
back and forth.
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The thermos, with the lid on
top, is not an open system.

241
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Hopefully, your coffee is
going to stay warm or
242
00:15:04 --> 00:15:05
hot in the thermos.
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It's not going to get out.
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00:15:07 --> 00:15:09
So the thermos is
not an open system.
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In fact, the thermos is
an isolated system.
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00:15:13 --> 00:15:17
The isolated system is the
opposite of the open system,
247
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no mass and no energy can
flow through the boundary.
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The closed system allows energy
to transfer through the
249
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boundary but not mass.
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So a closed system would be,
for instance, a glass of ice
251
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water with an ice cube in
it, with the lid on top.
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The glass is not
very insulating.

253
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Energy can flow across the
glass, but I put a lid on top,
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and so the water can't get out.
255
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And that's the closed system.
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Energy goes through the
boundaries but nothing else.
257
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Important definitions, even
though they may sound really
258
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kind of dumb, but they are
really important, because when
259
00:15:55 --> 00:15:59
you get the problem, figuring
out whether you have an open,
260
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closed, or isolated system,
what are the surroundings?
261
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What's the boundary?
262
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What is the system?
263
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That's the first thing to
make sure that is clear.
264
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If it's not clear, the
problem is going to be

265
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impossible to solve.
266
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And that's also how people find
ways to break the second law,
267
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because somehow they've messed
up on what their system is.
268
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And they've included too much
or too little in the system,
269
00:16:27 --> 00:16:30
and it looks to them that the
second law is broken and
270
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they've created more energy
than is being brought in.
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That's usually the case.
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Questions?
273
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Let's keep going.
274
00:16:44 --> 00:16:48
So, now that we've got
a system, we've got
275
00:16:48 --> 00:16:49
to describe it.
276
00:16:49 --> 00:16:57
So, let's describe
the system now.

277
00:16:57 --> 00:17:02
It turns out that when you're
talking about macroscopic
278
00:17:02 --> 00:17:06
properties of matter, you don't
need very many variables to
279
00:17:06 --> 00:17:11
describe the system completely
thermodynamically.
280
00:17:11 --> 00:17:14
You just need a few macroscopic
variables that are very
281
00:17:14 --> 00:17:18
familiar to you, like the
pressure, the temperature, the
282
00:17:18 --> 00:17:22
volume, the number of moles of
each component, the
283
00:17:22 --> 00:17:25
mass of the system.
284
00:17:25 --> 00:17:27
You've got a magnetic field,
maybe even magnetic
285
00:17:27 --> 00:17:30
susceptibility, the
electric field.
286
00:17:30 --> 00:17:32
We're not going to worry about
these magnetic fields or
287
00:17:32 --> 00:17:34
electric fields in this class.
288
00:17:34 --> 00:17:37
So, pretty much we're going
to focus on this set

289
00:17:37 --> 00:17:40
of variables here.
290
00:17:40 --> 00:17:42
You're going to have to know
when you describe the system,
291
00:17:42 --> 00:17:48
if your system is homogeneous,
like your coffee with milk in
292
00:17:48 --> 00:17:52
it, or heterogeneous, like
water with an ice cube in it.
293
00:17:52 --> 00:17:55
So heterogeneous means
that you've got different
294
00:17:55 --> 00:17:56
phases in your system.
295
00:17:56 --> 00:17:59
I'm the heterogeneous
system, soft stuff, hard
296
00:17:59 --> 00:18:02
stuff, liquid stuff.
297
00:18:02 --> 00:18:04
Coffee is homogeneous,
even though it's made
298
00:18:04 --> 00:18:06
up of many components.
299
00:18:06 --> 00:18:08
Many different kinds of
molecules make up your coffee.
300
00:18:08 --> 00:18:11
There are the water molecules,
the flavor molecules, the

301
00:18:11 --> 00:18:12
milk proteins, etcetera.
302
00:18:12 --> 00:18:14
But it's all mixed up
together in a homogeneous,
303
00:18:14 --> 00:18:17
macroscopic fashion.
304
00:18:17 --> 00:18:20
If you drill down at the level
of molecules you see that
305
00:18:20 --> 00:18:22
it's not homogeneous.
306
00:18:22 --> 00:18:25
But thermodynamics takes
a bird's eye view.
307
00:18:25 --> 00:18:27
It looks pretty, beautiful.
308
00:18:27 --> 00:18:32
So, that's a homogeneous
system, one phase.
309
00:18:32 --> 00:18:35
You have to know if your
system is an equilibrium
310
00:18:35 --> 00:18:38
system or not.
311
00:18:38 --> 00:18:40
If it's an equilibrium
system, then thermodynamics
312
00:18:40 --> 00:18:41
can describe it.

313
00:18:41 --> 00:18:44
If it's not, then you're going
to have trouble describing it
314
00:18:44 --> 00:18:46
using thermodynamic properties.
315
00:18:46 --> 00:18:51
Thermodynamics talks about
equilibrium systems and how
316
00:18:51 --> 00:18:53
to go from one state of
equilibrium to another
317
00:18:53 --> 00:18:55
state of equilibrium.
318
00:18:55 --> 00:18:56
What does equilibrium mean?
319
00:18:56 --> 00:18:59
It means that the properties of
the system, the properties that
320
00:18:59 --> 00:19:06
describe the system, don't
change in time or in space.
321
00:19:06 --> 00:19:10
If I've got a gas in a
container, the pressure of the
322
00:19:10 --> 00:19:12
gas has to be the same
everywhere in the container,
323
00:19:12 --> 00:19:14
otherwise it's not equilibrium.
324
00:19:14 --> 00:19:17
If I place my container of gas
on the table here, and I come

325
00:19:17 --> 00:19:20
back an hour later, the
pressure needs to be the
326
00:19:20 --> 00:19:22
same when I come back.
327
00:19:22 --> 00:19:25
Otherwise it's not equilibrium.
328
00:19:25 --> 00:19:29
So it only talks about
equilibrium systems.
329
00:19:29 --> 00:19:30
What else do you need to know?
330
00:19:30 --> 00:19:32
So, you need to know
the variables.
331
00:19:32 --> 00:19:36
You need to know it's
heterogeneous or homogeneous.
332
00:19:36 --> 00:19:39
You need to know if it's an
equilibrium, and you also need
333
00:19:39 --> 00:19:47
to know how many components
you have in your system.
334
00:19:47 --> 00:19:52
So, a glass of ice water with
an ice cube in it, which is a
335
00:19:52 --> 00:19:54
heterogeneous system, has only
one component, which
336
00:19:54 --> 00:19:57
is water, H2O.

337
00:19:57 --> 00:20:00
Two phases, but one component.
338
00:20:00 --> 00:20:04
Latte, which is a homogeneous
system, has a very, very large
339
00:20:04 --> 00:20:07
number of components to it.
340
00:20:07 --> 00:20:09
All the components that
make up the milk.
341
00:20:09 --> 00:20:12
All the components that make
up the coffee, and all the
342
00:20:12 --> 00:20:15
impurities, etcetera. cadmium,
heavy metals, arsenic,
343
00:20:15 --> 00:20:22
whatever is in your coffee.
344
00:20:22 --> 00:20:26
OK, any questions?
345
00:20:26 --> 00:20:29
All right, so we've
described the system
346
00:20:29 --> 00:20:31
with these properties.
347
00:20:31 --> 00:20:33
Now these properties
come in two flavors.
348
00:20:33 --> 00:20:37
You have extensive properties
and intensive properties.

349
00:20:37 --> 00:20:43
The extensive properties are
the ones that scale with
350
00:20:43 --> 00:20:44
the size of the system.
351
00:20:44 --> 00:20:47
If you double the system,
they double in there
352
00:20:47 --> 00:20:48
numerical number.
353
00:20:48 --> 00:20:51
For instance, the volume.
354
00:20:51 --> 00:20:54
If you double the
volume, the v doubles.
355
00:20:54 --> 00:20:55
I mean that's obvious.
356
00:20:55 --> 00:20:58
The mass, if you double
the amount of stuff
357
00:20:58 --> 00:21:02
the mass will double.
358
00:21:02 --> 00:21:06
Intensive properties don't care
about the scale of your system.
359
00:21:06 --> 00:21:10
If you double everything in the
system, the temperature is not
360
00:21:10 --> 00:21:12
going to change, it's
not going to double.

361
00:21:12 --> 00:21:14
The temperature stays the same.
362
00:21:14 --> 00:21:16
So the temperature is
intensive, and you can make
363
00:21:16 --> 00:21:19
intensive properties out of
the extensive properties by
364
00:21:19 --> 00:21:24
dividing by the number
of moles in the system.
365
00:21:24 --> 00:21:27
So I can make a quantity that
I'll call V bar, which is the
366
00:21:27 --> 00:21:32
molar volume, the volume of one
mole of a component in my
367
00:21:32 --> 00:21:37
system, and that becomes
an intensive quantity.
368
00:21:37 --> 00:21:41
A volume which is an
intensive volume.
369
00:21:41 --> 00:21:51
The volumes per mole
of that stuff.
370
00:21:51 --> 00:21:54
So, as I mentioned,
thermodynamics is the science
371
00:21:54 --> 00:22:05
of equilibrium systems, and it
also describes the evolution
372
00:22:05 --> 00:22:07
of one equilibrium to
another equilibrium.

373
00:22:07 --> 00:22:09
How do you go from
one to the other?
374
00:22:09 --> 00:22:13
And so the set of properties
that describes the system -375
00:22:13 --> 00:22:16
the equilibrium doesn't change.
376
00:22:16 --> 00:22:20
So, these on-changing
properties that describe the
377
00:22:20 --> 00:22:23
state of the equilibrium
state of the system are
378
00:22:23 --> 00:22:24
called state variables.
379
00:22:24 --> 00:22:37
So the state variables describe
the equilibrium's state, and
380
00:22:37 --> 00:22:41
they don't care about how this
state got to where it is.
381
00:22:41 --> 00:22:44
They don't care about the
history of the state.
382
00:22:44 --> 00:22:48
They just know that's if you
have water at zero degrees
383
00:22:48 --> 00:22:53
Celsius with it ice in, that
you can define it as a
384
00:22:53 --> 00:22:58
heterogeneous system with a
certain density for the water

385
00:22:58 --> 00:23:01
or certain density for the
ice, etcetera, etcetera.
386
00:23:01 --> 00:23:04
It doesn't care how
you got there.
387
00:23:04 --> 00:23:06
We're going to find other
properties that do care about
388
00:23:06 --> 00:23:09
the history of the system, like
work, that you put in the
389
00:23:09 --> 00:23:11
system, or heat that you put in
the system, or some
390
00:23:11 --> 00:23:13
other variables.
391
00:23:13 --> 00:23:18
But you can't use those to
define the equilibrium state.
392
00:23:18 --> 00:23:20
You can only use the state
variables, independent
393
00:23:20 --> 00:23:22
of history.
394
00:23:22 --> 00:23:25
And it turns out that for a one
component system, one component
395
00:23:25 --> 00:23:30
meaning one kind of molecule in
the system, all that you need
396
00:23:30 --> 00:23:37
to know to describe the system
is the number of moles for a

397
00:23:37 --> 00:23:43
one component system, and to
describe one phase in that
398
00:23:43 --> 00:23:46
system, one component,
homogeneous system, you
399
00:23:46 --> 00:23:53
need n and two variables.
400
00:23:53 --> 00:23:58
For instance, the pressure
and the temperature, or the
401
00:23:58 --> 00:24:00
volume and the pressure.
402
00:24:00 --> 00:24:05
If you have the number of moles
and two intensive variables,
403
00:24:05 --> 00:24:07
then you know everything there
is to know about the system.
404
00:24:07 --> 00:24:11
About the equilibrium
state of that system.
405
00:24:11 --> 00:24:17
There are hundreds of
quantities that you can
406
00:24:17 --> 00:24:19
calculate and measure that are
interesting and important
407
00:24:19 --> 00:24:23
properties, and all you need is
just a few variables to get
408
00:24:23 --> 00:24:26
everything out, and that's
really the power of

409
00:24:26 --> 00:24:29
thermodynamics, is that it
takes so little information to
410
00:24:29 --> 00:24:32
get so much information out.
411
00:24:32 --> 00:24:42
So little data to get a lot of
predictive information out.
412
00:24:42 --> 00:24:51
As we're going on with our
definitions, we can summarize a
413
00:24:51 --> 00:24:56
lot of these definitions into a
notation, a chemical notation
414
00:24:56 --> 00:25:00
that that will be
very important.
415
00:25:00 --> 00:25:04
So, for instance, if I'm
talking about three moles
416
00:25:04 --> 00:25:08
of hydrogen, at one bar
100 degrees Celsius.
417
00:25:08 --> 00:25:12
I'm not going to write, given
three moles of hydrogen at one
418
00:25:12 --> 00:25:14
bar and three degrees,
blah, blah, blah.
419
00:25:14 --> 00:25:17
I'm going to write it
in a compact notation.
420
00:25:17 --> 00:25:21
I'm going to write it like
this: three moles of hydrogen

421
00:25:21 --> 00:25:28
which is a gas, one bar
100 degrees Celsius.
422
00:25:28 --> 00:25:30
This notation gives you
everything you need to
423
00:25:30 --> 00:25:31
know about the system.
424
00:25:31 --> 00:25:33
It tells you the
number of moles.
425
00:25:33 --> 00:25:34
It tells you the phase.
426
00:25:34 --> 00:25:37
It tells you what kind of
molecule it is, and gives
427
00:25:37 --> 00:25:41
you two variables that
are state variables.
428
00:25:41 --> 00:25:44
You could have the volume
and the temperature.
429
00:25:44 --> 00:25:47
You could have the volume
and the pressure.
430
00:25:47 --> 00:25:48
But this tells you everything.
431
00:25:48 --> 00:25:51
I don't need to write
it down in words.
432
00:25:51 --> 00:25:55
And then if I want to tell you
about a change of state, or

433
00:25:55 --> 00:25:57
let's first start
with a mixture.
434
00:25:57 --> 00:26:02
Suppose that I give to a
mixture like, this is a
435
00:26:02 --> 00:26:06
homogeneous system with two
components, like five moles of
436
00:26:06 --> 00:26:13
H2O, which is a liquid, at one
bar 25 degrees Celsius, plus
437
00:26:13 --> 00:26:21
five moles of CH3, CH2, OH,
which is a liquid, and one
438
00:26:21 --> 00:26:26
bar at 25 degrees Celsius.
439
00:26:26 --> 00:26:30
This describes roughly
something that is fairly
440
00:26:30 --> 00:26:36
commonplace, it's 100-proof
vodka 1/2 water, 1/2 ethanol
441
00:26:36 --> 00:26:41
-- that describes that
macroscopic system.
442
00:26:41 --> 00:26:43
You're missing all the
impurities, all the little the
443
00:26:43 --> 00:26:47
flavor molecules that go into
it, but basically, that's the
444
00:26:47 --> 00:26:50
homogeneous system we were
describing, two component

445
00:26:50 --> 00:26:53
homogeneous systems.
446
00:26:53 --> 00:26:56
Then you can do all sorts
of predictive stuff
447
00:26:56 --> 00:26:59
with that system.
448
00:26:59 --> 00:27:01
All right, that's the
equilibrium system.
449
00:27:01 --> 00:27:04
Now we want to show a notation,
how do we go from one
450
00:27:04 --> 00:27:07
equilibrium state like this
describes to another
451
00:27:07 --> 00:27:16
equilibrium state?
452
00:27:16 --> 00:27:18
So, we take our two equilibrium
states, and you just put an
453
00:27:18 --> 00:27:24
equal sign between them, and
the equal sign means go
454
00:27:24 --> 00:27:25
from one to the other.
455
00:27:25 --> 00:27:31
So, if we took our three moles
of hydrogen, which is a gas at
456
00:27:31 --> 00:27:38
five bar and 100 degrees
Celsius, and, which is a nice

457
00:27:38 --> 00:27:40
equilibrium state here, and we
say now we're going to change
458
00:27:40 --> 00:27:43
the equilibrium state to
something new, we're going to
459
00:27:43 --> 00:27:48
do an expansion, let's say.
460
00:27:48 --> 00:27:50
We're going to drop the
pressure, the volume
461
00:27:50 --> 00:27:51
is going to go up.
462
00:27:51 --> 00:27:53
I don't need to tell you the
volume here, because you've
463
00:27:53 --> 00:27:56
got enough information
to calculate the volume.
464
00:27:56 --> 00:28:01
The number of moles stays
the same, a closed systems,
465
00:28:01 --> 00:28:03
gas doesn't come out.
466
00:28:03 --> 00:28:05
Stays a gas, but now the
pressure is less, the
467
00:28:05 --> 00:28:06
temperature is less.
468
00:28:06 --> 00:28:10
I've done some sort of
expansion on this.

469
00:28:10 --> 00:28:12
I've gone from 1 equilibrium
state to another equilibrium
470
00:28:12 --> 00:28:15
state, and the equal sign
means you go from this
471
00:28:15 --> 00:28:16
state to that state.
472
00:28:16 --> 00:28:17
It's not a chemical reaction.
473
00:28:17 --> 00:28:20
That's why we don't have an
arrow here, because we could
474
00:28:20 --> 00:28:22
go back, this way too.
475
00:28:22 --> 00:28:24
We can go back and forth
between these two
476
00:28:24 --> 00:28:25
equilibrium states.
477
00:28:25 --> 00:28:25
They're connected.
478
00:28:25 --> 00:28:27
This means they're connected.
479
00:28:27 --> 00:28:30
And when I put this, I
have to tell you how
480
00:28:30 --> 00:28:31
they are connected.

481
00:28:31 --> 00:28:33
I have to tell you the
path, if you're going
482
00:28:33 --> 00:28:34
to solve a problem.
483
00:28:34 --> 00:28:36
For instance, you want to know
how much energy you're going to
484
00:28:36 --> 00:28:39
get out from doing
this expansion.
485
00:28:39 --> 00:28:42
How much energy are you going
to get out, and how far are you
486
00:28:42 --> 00:28:44
going to be able to drive a car
with this expansion, let's
487
00:28:44 --> 00:28:46
say, so that's the problem.
488
00:28:46 --> 00:28:49
So, I need to tell you how
you're doing the expansion,
489
00:28:49 --> 00:28:51
because that's going to tell
you how much energy you're
490
00:28:51 --> 00:28:53
wasting during that expansion.
491
00:28:53 --> 00:28:56
It goes back to the second law.
492
00:28:56 --> 00:28:57
Nothing is efficient.

493
00:28:57 --> 00:28:59
You're always wasting energy
into heat somewhere when you
494
00:28:59 --> 00:29:03
do a change that involves
a mechanical change.
495
00:29:03 --> 00:29:07
All right, so I need to tell
you the path, when I go from
496
00:29:07 --> 00:29:09
one state to the other.
497
00:29:09 --> 00:29:12
And the path is going to be the
sequence, intermediate states
498
00:29:12 --> 00:29:15
going from the initial
state the final state.
499
00:29:15 --> 00:29:22
So, for instance, if I draw a
graph of pressure on one axis
500
00:29:22 --> 00:29:27
and temperature on the other
axis, my initial state is at a
501
00:29:27 --> 00:29:34
temperature of 100 degrees
Celsius and five bar.
502
00:29:34 --> 00:29:42
My final stage is 50 degrees
Celsius and one bar.
503
00:29:42 --> 00:29:46
So, I could have two
steps in my path.
504
00:29:46 --> 00:29:49
I could decide first of all to
keep the pressure constant

505
00:29:49 --> 00:29:53
and lower the pressure.
506
00:29:53 --> 00:29:55
When I get to 50 degrees
Celsius, I could choose to
507
00:29:55 --> 00:29:59
keep the temperature constant
and lower the pressure.
508
00:29:59 --> 00:30:01
I'm sorry, my first step would
be to keep the pressure
509
00:30:01 --> 00:30:04
constant and lower the
temperature, then I lower the
510
00:30:04 --> 00:30:07
pressure, keeping the
temperature constant.
511
00:30:07 --> 00:30:08
So there's my intermediate
state there.
512
00:30:08 --> 00:30:12
This is one of many paths.
513
00:30:12 --> 00:30:15
There's an infinite number
of paths you could take.
514
00:30:15 --> 00:30:19
You could take a continuous
path, where you have an
515
00:30:19 --> 00:30:24
infinite number of equilibrium
points in between the two, a
516
00:30:24 --> 00:30:28
smooth path, where you drop the
pressure and the temperature

517
00:30:28 --> 00:30:30
simultaneously in
little increments.
518
00:30:30 --> 00:30:35
All right, so when you do
a problem, the path is
519
00:30:35 --> 00:30:38
going to turn out to be
extremely important.
520
00:30:38 --> 00:30:43
How do you get from the initial
state to the final state?
521
00:30:43 --> 00:30:44
Define the initial state.
522
00:30:44 --> 00:30:45
Define the final state.
523
00:30:45 --> 00:30:47
Define the path.
524
00:30:47 --> 00:30:50
Get all of these really
clear, and you've basically
525
00:30:50 --> 00:30:51
solved the problem.
526
00:30:51 --> 00:30:56
You've got to spend the time to
make sure that everything is
527
00:30:56 --> 00:30:58
well defined before you start
trying to work out
528
00:30:58 --> 00:31:02
these problem.

529
00:31:02 --> 00:31:04
More about the path.
530
00:31:04 --> 00:31:08
There are a couple ways you
could go through that path.
531
00:31:08 --> 00:31:10
If I look at this
smooth path here.
532
00:31:10 --> 00:31:14
I could have that path be very
slow and steady, so that at
533
00:31:14 --> 00:31:18
every point along the way,
my gas is an equilibrium.
534
00:31:18 --> 00:31:21
So I've got, this piston here
is compressed, and I slowly,
535
00:31:21 --> 00:31:25
slowly increase the volume,
drop the temperature.
536
00:31:25 --> 00:31:29
Then I can go back, the
gas is included at
537
00:31:29 --> 00:31:33
every point of the way.
538
00:31:33 --> 00:31:35
That's a reversible path.
539
00:31:35 --> 00:31:36
That can reverse the process.
540
00:31:36 --> 00:31:39
I expand it, and reverse
it, no problem.

541
00:31:39 --> 00:31:49
So, I could have a reversible
path, or I take my gas, and
542
00:31:49 --> 00:31:53
instead of slowly, slowly
raising it, dropping the
543
00:31:53 --> 00:32:00
pressure, I go from five bar
to one bar extremely fast.
544
00:32:00 --> 00:32:01
What happens to my gas inside?
545
00:32:01 --> 00:32:04
Well, my gas inside is
going to be very unhappy.
546
00:32:04 --> 00:32:06
It's not going stay
in equilibrium.
547
00:32:06 --> 00:32:08
Parts of the system are
going to be at five bar.
548
00:32:08 --> 00:32:10
Parts of it at one bar.
549
00:32:10 --> 00:32:14
Parts of it may be even at zero
bar, if I go really fast.
550
00:32:14 --> 00:32:15
I'm going to create a vacuum.
551
00:32:15 --> 00:32:21
So the system will not be
described by a single state
552
00:32:21 --> 00:32:23
variable during the path.

553
00:32:23 --> 00:32:27
If I look at different points
in my container during that
554
00:32:27 --> 00:32:31
path, I'm going to have to use
a different value of pressure
555
00:32:31 --> 00:32:32
or different value of
temperature at different
556
00:32:32 --> 00:32:35
points of the container.
557
00:32:35 --> 00:32:38
That's not an equilibrium
state, and that process
558
00:32:38 --> 00:32:42
turns out then to be in
irreversible process.
559
00:32:42 --> 00:32:43
Do it very quickly.
560
00:32:43 --> 00:32:46
Now to reverse it and get back
to the initial point is going
561
00:32:46 --> 00:32:50
to require some input from
outside, like heat or extra
562
00:32:50 --> 00:32:53
work or extra heat or
something, because you've done
563
00:32:53 --> 00:32:54
an irreversible process.
564
00:32:54 --> 00:33:04
You've wasted a lot of energy
in doing that process.

565
00:33:04 --> 00:33:09
I have to tell you whether the
path is reversible or
566
00:33:09 --> 00:33:13
irreversible, and the
irreversible path also defines
567
00:33:13 --> 00:33:15
the direction of time.
568
00:33:15 --> 00:33:19
You can only have an
irreversible path go one way
569
00:33:19 --> 00:33:20
in time, not the other way.
570
00:33:20 --> 00:33:24
Chalk breaks irreversibly
and you can't put it
571
00:33:24 --> 00:33:25
back together so easily.
572
00:33:25 --> 00:33:29
You've got to pretty much take
that chalk, and make a slurry
573
00:33:29 --> 00:33:32
out of it, put water, and dry
it back up, put in a mold, and
574
00:33:32 --> 00:33:34
then you can have the chalk
again, but you can't just
575
00:33:34 --> 00:33:35
glue it back together.
576
00:33:35 --> 00:33:36
That would not be the
same state as what

577
00:33:36 --> 00:33:40
you started out with.
578
00:33:40 --> 00:33:42
And then there are a
bunch of words that
579
00:33:42 --> 00:33:43
describe these paths.
580
00:33:43 --> 00:33:47
Words like adiabatic, which
we'll be very familiar with.
581
00:33:47 --> 00:33:50
Adiabatic means that there's no
heat transferred between the
582
00:33:50 --> 00:33:51
system and the surrounding.
583
00:33:51 --> 00:33:55
The boundary is impervious
to transfer of heat,
584
00:33:55 --> 00:33:56
like a thermos.
585
00:33:56 --> 00:33:59
Anything that happens inside of
the thermos is an adiabatic
586
00:33:59 --> 00:34:03
change because the thermos has
no connection in terms of
587
00:34:03 --> 00:34:04
energy to the outside world.
588
00:34:04 --> 00:34:06
There's no heat that can
go through the walls

589
00:34:06 --> 00:34:07
of the thermos.
590
00:34:07 --> 00:34:10
Whereas, like isobaric
means constant pressure.
591
00:34:10 --> 00:34:15
So, this path right here
from this top red path
592
00:34:15 --> 00:34:18
is an isobaric process.
593
00:34:18 --> 00:34:21
Constant temperature means
isothermal, so this part
594
00:34:21 --> 00:34:23
means an isothermal process.
595
00:34:23 --> 00:34:28
So then, going from the initial
to final states with a red
596
00:34:28 --> 00:34:32
path, you start with an
isobaric process and then you
597
00:34:32 --> 00:34:34
end with an isothermal process.
598
00:34:34 --> 00:34:36
And these are words that are
very meaningful when you read
599
00:34:36 --> 00:34:42
the text of a problem
or of a process.
600
00:34:42 --> 00:34:44
Any questions before we
got to the zeroth law?

601
00:34:44 --> 00:34:49
We're pretty much done with
our definitions here.
602
00:34:49 --> 00:34:49
Yes.
603
00:34:49 --> 00:34:53
STUDENT: Was adiabatic
reversible?
604
00:34:53 --> 00:34:56
PROFESSOR: Adiabatic can be
either reversible or not, and
605
00:34:56 --> 00:35:01
we're going to do that probably
next time or two times.
606
00:35:01 --> 00:35:02
Any other questions?
607
00:35:02 --> 00:35:06
Yes.
608
00:35:06 --> 00:35:07
STUDENT: Is there a boundary
between reversible
609
00:35:07 --> 00:35:08
and irreversible?
610
00:35:08 --> 00:35:12
PROFESSOR: A boundary between
reversible and irreversible?
611
00:35:12 --> 00:35:14
Like something is
almost reversible and
612
00:35:14 --> 00:35:15
almost irreversible.

613
00:35:15 --> 00:35:16
No, pretty much things
are either reversible
614
00:35:16 --> 00:35:19
or irreversible.
615
00:35:19 --> 00:35:28
Now, in practice, it depends on
how good your measurement is.
616
00:35:28 --> 00:35:35
And probably also in practice,
nothing is truly reversible.
617
00:35:35 --> 00:35:43
So, it depends on your
error bar in a sense.
618
00:35:43 --> 00:35:45
It depends on what what you
define, exactly what you
619
00:35:45 --> 00:35:46
define in your system.
620
00:35:46 --> 00:35:50
It becomes a gray area, but
it should be pretty clear if
621
00:35:50 --> 00:35:57
you can treat something is
reversible are irreversible.
622
00:35:57 --> 00:36:03
Other questions, It's
a good question.
623
00:36:03 --> 00:36:06
So the zeroth law we're going
to go through the laws now.
624
00:36:06 --> 00:36:10
The zeroth law talks about
defining temperature and

625
00:36:10 --> 00:36:12
it's the common-sense law.
626
00:36:12 --> 00:36:14
You all know how.
627
00:36:14 --> 00:36:16
When something hot, it's got
a higher temperature than
628
00:36:16 --> 00:36:18
when something is cold.
629
00:36:18 --> 00:36:21
But it's important to define
that, and define something
630
00:36:21 --> 00:36:23
that's a thermometer.
631
00:36:23 --> 00:36:26
So what do you know?
632
00:36:26 --> 00:36:28
What's the empirical
information that
633
00:36:28 --> 00:36:29
everybody knows?
634
00:36:29 --> 00:36:34
Everybody knows that if you
take something which is hot and
635
00:36:34 --> 00:36:40
something which is cold, and
you bring them together, make
636
00:36:40 --> 00:36:48
them touch, that heat is going
to flow from the hot to the

637
00:36:48 --> 00:36:56
cold, and make them touch, and
heat flows from hot to cold.
638
00:36:56 --> 00:36:57
That's common sense.
639
00:36:57 --> 00:37:03
This is part of your DNA, And
then their final product is an
640
00:37:03 --> 00:37:11
object, a b which ends up at a
temperature or a warmness which
641
00:37:11 --> 00:37:13
is in between the
hot and the cold.
642
00:37:13 --> 00:37:16
So, this turns out to be warm.
643
00:37:16 --> 00:37:19
You get your new equilibrium
state, which is in between
644
00:37:19 --> 00:37:28
what this was, and
what a and b were.
645
00:37:28 --> 00:37:34
Then how do you know that it's
changed temperature, or that
646
00:37:34 --> 00:37:37
heat has flowed from a to b?
647
00:37:37 --> 00:37:41
Practically speaking, you need
some sort of property that's
648
00:37:41 --> 00:37:43
changing as heat is flowing.

649
00:37:43 --> 00:37:50
For instance, if a were
metallic, you could measure
650
00:37:50 --> 00:37:54
the connectivity of a or
resistivity, and as heat
651
00:37:54 --> 00:38:01
flows out of a into b, the
resistivity of a would change.
652
00:38:01 --> 00:38:04
Or you could have something
that's color metric that
653
00:38:04 --> 00:38:09
changes color when it's colder,
so you could see the heat
654
00:38:09 --> 00:38:13
flowing as a changes color or
b changes color as
655
00:38:13 --> 00:38:15
heat flows into b.
656
00:38:15 --> 00:38:17
So, you need some sort of
property, something you can
657
00:38:17 --> 00:38:20
see, something you can
measure, that tells you
658
00:38:20 --> 00:38:21
that heat has flowed.
659
00:38:21 --> 00:38:26
Now, if you have three objects,
if you have a, b, and c, and
660
00:38:26 --> 00:38:37
you bring them together, and a
is the hottest, b is the medium

661
00:38:37 --> 00:38:41
one, and c is the coldest, so
from hottest to coldest a,
662
00:38:41 --> 00:38:49
b, c, -- if you bring them
together and make them touch,
663
00:38:49 --> 00:38:57
you know, intuitively, that
heat will not flow like this.
664
00:38:57 --> 00:38:59
You know that's not
going to happen.
665
00:38:59 --> 00:39:03
You know that what will happen
is that heat will flow from a
666
00:39:03 --> 00:39:07
to b from b to c
and from a to c.
667
00:39:07 --> 00:39:08
That's common-sense.
668
00:39:08 --> 00:39:11
You know that.
669
00:39:11 --> 00:39:13
And the other way in the
circle will never happen.
670
00:39:13 --> 00:39:17
That would that would give rise
to a perpetual motion machine,
671
00:39:17 --> 00:39:18
breaking of the second law.
672
00:39:18 --> 00:39:22
It can't happen.

673
00:39:22 --> 00:39:24
But that's an empirical
observation, that heat
674
00:39:24 --> 00:39:27
flows in this direction.
675
00:39:27 --> 00:39:29
And that's the zeroth
law thermodynamic.
676
00:39:29 --> 00:39:32
It's pretty simple.
677
00:39:32 --> 00:39:39
The zeroth law says that if a
and b -- it doesn't exactly say
678
00:39:39 --> 00:39:41
that, but it implies this.
679
00:39:41 --> 00:39:45
It says that if a and b are in
thermal equilibrium, if these
680
00:39:45 --> 00:39:48
two are in thermal equilibrium,
meaning that there's no heat
681
00:39:48 --> 00:39:51
flows between them, so that's
the definition of thermal
682
00:39:51 --> 00:39:54
equilibrium, that no heat flows
between them, and these two are
683
00:39:54 --> 00:39:57
in thermal equilibrium, and
these two are in thermal
684
00:39:57 --> 00:40:02
equilibrium, then a and c will
be also be in thermal

685
00:40:02 --> 00:40:04
equilibrium.
686
00:40:04 --> 00:40:07
But if there's no heat flowing
between these two, and no heat
687
00:40:07 --> 00:40:09
flowing between these two,
then you can't have heat
688
00:40:09 --> 00:40:13
flowing between these two.
689
00:40:13 --> 00:40:16
So if I get rid of these
arrows, there's no heat flowing
690
00:40:16 --> 00:40:18
because they're in thermal
equilibrium, then I can't
691
00:40:18 --> 00:40:20
have an arrow here.
692
00:40:20 --> 00:40:22
That's what the
zeroth law says.
693
00:40:22 --> 00:40:24
They're all the
same temperature.
694
00:40:24 --> 00:40:25
That's what it says.
695
00:40:25 --> 00:40:28
If two object are in the same
temperature, and two other
696
00:40:28 --> 00:40:30
object are in the same
temperature, then all three

697
00:40:30 --> 00:40:34
must have the same temperature.
698
00:40:34 --> 00:40:37
It sounds pretty silly, but
it's really important because
699
00:40:37 --> 00:40:44
it allows you to define a
thermometer and temperature.
700
00:40:44 --> 00:40:48
Because now you can say,
all right, well, now b
701
00:40:48 --> 00:40:49
can be my thermometer.
702
00:40:49 --> 00:40:54
I have two objects, I have an
object which is in Madagascar
703
00:40:54 --> 00:40:59
and an object which is in
Boston, and I want to know, are
704
00:40:59 --> 00:41:01
they the same temperature?
705
00:41:01 --> 00:41:05
So I come out with a third
object, b, I go to Madagascar,
706
00:41:05 --> 00:41:06
and put b in contact with a.
707
00:41:06 --> 00:41:11
Then I insulate everything, you
know, take it away and see
708
00:41:11 --> 00:41:12
if there's any heat flow.

709
00:41:12 --> 00:41:15
Let's say there's no heat flow.
710
00:41:15 --> 00:41:18
Then I insulate it, get back on
the plane to Boston, and go
711
00:41:18 --> 00:41:20
back and touch b with c.
712
00:41:20 --> 00:41:23
If there's no heat flow between
the b and c, then I can say
713
00:41:23 --> 00:41:27
all right, a and c were
the same temperature.
714
00:41:27 --> 00:41:29
B is my thermometer that
tells me that a and c are
715
00:41:29 --> 00:41:30
in the same temperature.
716
00:41:30 --> 00:41:33
And there's a certain property
associated with heat flow with
717
00:41:33 --> 00:41:35
b, and it didn't change.
718
00:41:35 --> 00:41:37
And that property
could be color.
719
00:41:37 --> 00:41:38
It could be resistivity.
720
00:41:38 --> 00:41:39
It could be a lot of
different things.

721
00:41:39 --> 00:41:41
It could be volume.
722
00:41:41 --> 00:41:44
And the temperature then is
associated with that property.
723
00:41:44 --> 00:41:47
And if it had changed, then the
temperature between those two
724
00:41:47 --> 00:41:50
would have changed in a
very particular way.
725
00:41:50 --> 00:41:57
So, zeroth law, then, allows
you to define the concept of
726
00:41:57 --> 00:42:05
temperature and the measurement
of temperature through
727
00:42:05 --> 00:42:09
a thermometer.
728
00:42:09 --> 00:42:12
Let's very briefly go
through stuff that
729
00:42:12 --> 00:42:13
you've learned before.
730
00:42:13 --> 00:42:16
So, now you have this object
which is going to tell you
731
00:42:16 --> 00:42:19
whether other things are in
thermal equilibrium now.
732
00:42:19 --> 00:42:21
What do you need
for that object?

733
00:42:21 --> 00:42:27
You need that object to be a
substance, to be something.
734
00:42:27 --> 00:42:31
So, the active part of the
thermometer could be water.
735
00:42:31 --> 00:42:35
It could be alcohol, mercury,
it could be a piece of metal.
736
00:42:35 --> 00:42:39
You need a substance, and then
that substance has to have a
737
00:42:39 --> 00:42:41
property that changes depending
on the heat flow, i.e.,
738
00:42:41 --> 00:42:45
depending on whether it's
sensing that it's the same
739
00:42:45 --> 00:42:46
temperature or different
temperature than
740
00:42:46 --> 00:42:46
something else.
741
00:42:46 --> 00:42:51
And that property could be the
volume, like if you have a
742
00:42:51 --> 00:42:54
mercury thermometer, the
volume of the mercury.
743
00:42:54 --> 00:42:55
It could be temperature.
744
00:42:55 --> 00:42:58
It could be resistivity, if
you have a thermocouple.

745
00:42:58 --> 00:43:02
It could be the pressure.
746
00:43:02 --> 00:43:04
All right, so now
you have an object.
747
00:43:04 --> 00:43:06
You've got a property
that changes, depending
748
00:43:06 --> 00:43:07
on the heat flow.
749
00:43:07 --> 00:43:09
It's going to tell you
about the temperature.
750
00:43:09 --> 00:43:11
Now you need to define
the temperature scales.
751
00:43:11 --> 00:43:16
So, you need some reference
points to be able to tell you,
752
00:43:16 --> 00:43:22
OK, this temperature is 550
degrees Smith, whatever.
753
00:43:22 --> 00:43:27
So, you assign values to very
specific states of matter and
754
00:43:27 --> 00:43:29
call those the reference
points for your temperature.
755
00:43:29 --> 00:43:32
For instance, freezing
of water or boiling of
756
00:43:32 --> 00:43:34
water, the standard ones.

757
00:43:34 --> 00:43:36
And then an
interpolation scheme.
758
00:43:36 --> 00:43:41
You need a functional form that
connects the value at one state
759
00:43:41 --> 00:43:45
of matter, the freezing point
of water, to another phase
760
00:43:45 --> 00:43:47
change, the boiling
point of water.
761
00:43:47 --> 00:43:51
You can choose a linear
interpolation or quadratic,
762
00:43:51 --> 00:43:54
but you've got to choose it.
763
00:43:54 --> 00:43:56
And it turns out
not to be so easy.
764
00:43:56 --> 00:43:58
And if you go back into the
1800's when thermodynamics was
765
00:43:58 --> 00:44:02
starting, there were a zillion
different temperatures scales.
766
00:44:02 --> 00:44:06
Everybody had their own
favorite temperature scales.
767
00:44:06 --> 00:44:09
The one that we're most
familiar with is the centigrade
768
00:44:09 --> 00:44:12
or Celsius scale where mercury
was the substance, and the

769
00:44:12 --> 00:44:13
volume of mercury
is the property.
770
00:44:13 --> 00:44:16
The reference points are water,
freezing or boiling, and the
771
00:44:16 --> 00:44:19
interpolation is linear, and
then that morphed into the
772
00:44:19 --> 00:44:21
Kelvin scale, as we're
going to see later.
773
00:44:21 --> 00:44:24
The Fahrenheit scale is
an interesting scale.
774
00:44:24 --> 00:44:26
It turns out the U.S. and
Jamaica are the only two
775
00:44:26 --> 00:44:28
places on Earth now that
use the Fahrenheit scale.
776
00:44:28 --> 00:44:33
Mr. Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit was a German
777
00:44:33 --> 00:44:37
instrument maker.
778
00:44:37 --> 00:44:41
The way he came up with his
scale was actually he borrowed
779
00:44:41 --> 00:44:43
the Romer scale, which
came beforehand.
780
00:44:43 --> 00:44:48
The Romer scale was, Romer was
a Dane, and he defined freezing

781
00:44:48 --> 00:44:54
of water at 7.5 degrees
Roemer, and 22.5 degrees
782
00:44:54 --> 00:44:56
Romer as blood-warm.
783
00:44:56 --> 00:45:00
That was his definition.
784
00:45:00 --> 00:45:03
Two substances,
blood and water.
785
00:45:03 --> 00:45:05
Two reference points,
freezing and blood-warm,
786
00:45:05 --> 00:45:07
you know, the human body.
787
00:45:07 --> 00:45:09
A linear interpolation between
the two, and then some numbers
788
00:45:09 --> 00:45:12
associated with them,
7-1/2 and 22-1/2.
789
00:45:12 --> 00:45:15
Why does he choose 7-1/2 as
the freezing point of water?
790
00:45:15 --> 00:45:18
Because he thought that
would be big enough that in
791
00:45:18 --> 00:45:22
Denmark, the temperature
wouldn't go below zero.
792
00:45:22 --> 00:45:24
That's how he picked 7-1/2.

793
00:45:24 --> 00:45:25
Why not?
794
00:45:25 --> 00:45:28
He didn't want to use negative
numbers to measure temperature
795
00:45:28 --> 00:45:31
in Denmark outside.
796
00:45:31 --> 00:45:33
Well, Fahrenheit came along and
thought, well, you know, 7-1/2,
797
00:45:33 --> 00:45:36
that's kind of silly; 22-1/2
that's, kind of silly.
798
00:45:36 --> 00:45:40
So let's multiply
everything by four.
799
00:45:40 --> 00:45:46
I think it becomes 30 degrees
for the freezing of water and
800
00:45:46 --> 00:45:49
22.5 x 4, which I don't know
what it is, 100 or something
801
00:45:49 --> 00:45:55
-- no, it's 90 I think.
802
00:45:55 --> 00:45:58
And then for some reason, that
nobody understands, he decided
803
00:45:58 --> 00:46:04
to multiply again by 16/15, and
that's how we get 32 for
804
00:46:04 --> 00:46:08
freezing of water and 96 in his
words for the temperature in

805
00:46:08 --> 00:46:10
the mouth or underneath
the armpit of a living
806
00:46:10 --> 00:46:12
man in good health.
807
00:46:12 --> 00:46:14
What a great temperature scale.
808
00:46:14 --> 00:46:16
It turns out that 96
wasn't quite right.
809
00:46:16 --> 00:46:21
Then he interpolated and found
out water boils at 212.
810
00:46:21 --> 00:46:24
But, you know, his experiment
wasn't so great, and, you know,
811
00:46:24 --> 00:46:26
maybe had a fever when he did
the reference point
812
00:46:26 --> 00:46:28
with 96, whatever.
813
00:46:28 --> 00:46:31
It turns out that it's not
96 to be in good health,
814
00:46:31 --> 00:46:34
it's 98.6 -- whatever.
815
00:46:34 --> 00:46:37
That's how we got to
the Fahrenheit scale.
816
00:46:37 --> 00:46:40
All right, next time we're
going to talk about a much

817
00:46:40 --> 00:46:43
better scale, which is the
ideal gas thermometer and how
818
00:46:43 --> 00:46:45
we get to the Kelvin scale.
819
00:46:45 --> 00:46:45